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Informática Teórica

Andrés A. Aristizábal P.
aaaristizabal@icesi.edu.co

Departamento de Matemáticas y Estadística

2019-1

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Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Presentación Información del curso

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Presentación Información del curso

Información del curso

Código asignatura: 08289


Prerequisito: Matemática Discreta
Programas: Ingeniería de sistemas
Intensidad semanal: 4 horas
Créditos: 3
Días de clase: Martes y Jueves 7:00 AM - 9:00 AM
Salón: 205E
Monitor: Samuel Abonía
Horario: Jueves 6:00PM-7:00PM

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Presentación Objetivos

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Presentación Objetivos

Objetivo General

Objetivo General
Al finalizar exitosamente este curso el estudiante será competente en
el empleo de los conceptos y técnicas propias de los lenguajes
formales y de los autómatas que los reconocen, y de algunas de sus
aplicaciones fundamentales.

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Presentación Objetivos

Objetivos terminales

Probar que una relación dada es una relación de equivalencia, y


determinar sus clases de equivalencia y el conjunto cociente
correspondiente.
Calcular el autómata reducido y conexo equivalente a uno dado.
Establecer si dos autómatas dados son o no equivalentes, como
aplicación del algoritmo del punto anterior.
Enunciar y explicar los conceptos fundamentales de gramáticas
formales y su relación con los lenguajes que ellas generan.

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Presentación Objetivos

Objetivos terminales

Relacionar los lenguajes formales con autómatas abstractos, y


utilizar la estructura de los autómatas para estudiar la estructura
de los lenguajes.
Caracterizar los autómatas de estados finitos, los autómatas de
pila y las máquinas de Turing como modelos de computación con
características propias, que determinan su aplicabilidad como
herramientas para el modelado de problemas en informática.
Describir los límites computacionales de las máquinas abstractas
y de los computadores.
Programar alguno o algunos de los algoritmos estudiados en
desarrollo del curso.

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Presentación Estrategias Pedagógicas

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Presentación Estrategias Pedagógicas

Estrategias Pedagógicas

Enfoque
En concordancia con la misión de la Universidad, el aprendizaje de los
temas de este curso será el resultado del proceso de construcción del
conocimiento, adelantado por el estudiante y guiado por el profesor.
Parte fundamental de este proceso es el aprovechamiento del estudio
previo hecho por los estudiantes, como elemento generador de
preguntas, discusiones y conclusiones.

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Presentación Estrategias Pedagógicas

Estrategias Pedagógicas

Discusión
La discusión, orientada por el profesor es el elemento central en
la metodología del curso. Se fundamenta en el estudio preliminar
de las secciones asignadas, en las preguntas de los estudiantes y
en sus respuestas a sus preguntas y a las del profesor, que
alimenten el proceso de aprendizaje activo.
El profesor interviene esencialmente como guía y moderador de
las discusiones, y se encarga de hacer la síntesis final para
socializar el conocimiento consolidado en clase y de indicar al
estudiante la labor que debe realizar como preparación para la
clase siguiente.

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Presentación Estrategias Pedagógicas

Estrategias Pedagógicas

Momentos de la clase
Recordar los objetivos de la sesión de clase.
Presentación y evaluación de la actividad de preparación
desarrollada por el estudiante.
Resolución de diversos ejercicios y problemas de aplicación que
permiten consolidar el tema asignado.
Presentación del tema para la clase siguiente.

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Presentación Estrategias Pedagógicas

Estrategias Pedagógicas

Actividades del estudiante

Antes de clase
Preparar, antes de la clase, los temas que asigne el profesor. Es
decir hacer una lectura crítica (análisis y síntesis en forma de
mapa conceptual y llevarlo a clase en forma digital) del tema
asignado.
Indagar sobre los aspectos desconocidos, resolver las preguntas
y los ejercicios planteados.

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Presentación Estrategias Pedagógicas

Estrategias Pedagógicas

Actividades del estudiante

Durante la clase
Participar activamente en las discusiones del tema y en la formulación de
preguntas orientadas a resolver las dudas que hayan surgido al realizar las
lecturas previas; para esto, el estudiante deberá llevar a clase, en formato
digital, los mapas conceptuales de las lecturas asignadas.

Después de clase
Consolidar el nuevo conocimiento resolviendo ejercicios y problemas que en la
fase de preparación no haya podido resolver, o que revisten mayor complejidad,
relacionándolo con conocimientos previamente adquiridos.

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Presentación Estrategias Pedagógicas

Estrategias Pedagógicas

Internacionalización
Con el propósito de incentivar el manejo del inglés en el aula de clase, este curso
será utilizado como piloto de clase en inglés, por lo tanto los dos primeros temas
serán en este idioma.

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Presentación Reglas de juego

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Presentación Reglas de juego

Reglas de juego
Normas esperadas de comportamiento y conducta en la relación profesor-estudiante

Valores de la formación de la Universidad ICESI


Invitación para asumir y mantener la actitud activa del estudiante
y su responsabilidad y compromiso con su propio proceso de
aprendizaje.
Inculcar la preocupación permanente de su compromiso con el
bienestar de la sociedad, de su responsabilidad social en el
ejercicio de su profesión.
El papel del profesor es ser un guía para que el estudiante
construya su conocimiento, y no el responsable del aprendizaje
del estudiante.

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Presentación Reglas de juego

Reglas de juego
Normas esperadas de comportamiento y conducta en la relación profesor-estudiante

Motivación
Se espera que el factor de automotivación sea intrínseco a la condición de
estudiante. Una persona convencida de que el estudio y la formación es la base
de su realización no requiere que lo estén motivando, o dando razones para
estar motivado o para aprender.

Respeto
Respeto por la persona, sus opiniones, creencias y posturas en la vida. Esto
implica un uso adecuado del lenguaje y un trato respetuoso con los demás.
Cada estudiante es libre de preguntar lo que considere pertinente preguntar,
independientemente de los comentarios o burlas de sus compañeros.

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Presentación Reglas de juego

Reglas de juego
Normas esperadas de comportamiento y conducta en la relación profesor-estudiante

Capacidades y valores
Ejercicio y formación del análisis crítico y autocrítico frente a lo
que dicen los libros, internet, el profesor, sus compañeros, sus
amigos, y sobre todo, frente a lo que piensa y dice uno mismo.
Curiosidad intelectual y por la solución de problemas.
Planeación y perseverancia, relativas ambas a aquello que dé
valor y contribuya eficazmente al objetivo que se persiga.

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Presentación Reglas de juego

Reglas de juego
Normas esperadas de comportamiento y conducta en la relación profesor-estudiante

Asistencia
La lista de asistencia se utilizará como mecanismo de familiarización con los
nombres de los estudiantes.
La asistencia al curso se deja al criterio del estudiante, por lo que no se llevará
control de asistencia con fines de pérdida del curso por esta causa.
Todo estudiante que opte por no asistir a una o más sesiones de clase es
responsable de ponerse al día en los temas programados y de cumplir con
cualquier tipo de trabajo o tarea que se asigne.
Las pruebas de cualquier tipo que se realicen en dichas sesiones de clase no se
repetirán, y la nota respectiva para los estudiantes que no hayan asistido a las
mismas, será de 0.0

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Presentación Reglas de juego

Reglas de juego
Normas esperadas de comportamiento y conducta en la relación profesor-estudiante

Exámenes
Durante la presentación de un examen no está permitido atender llamadas ni
enviar o recibir mensajes de ningún tipo a través del celular o de otros aparatos.
Durante la presentación de un examen no está permitido ausentarse del salón.
Las pruebas y exámenes son individuales. Se considera una falta grave el
fraude o el intento de fraude. Copiar de internet o de trabajos de otros
compañeros para presentarlos como propios es fraude, así sea con el permiso
de los autores originales.
Las pruebas supletorias (que corresponden únicamente a EXAMENES
PARCIALES según el reglamento estudiantil) se realizarán únicamente previa
aprobación del Director de la Carrera o Programa.

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Presentación Reglas de juego

Reglas de juego
Normas esperadas de comportamiento y conducta en la relación profesor-estudiante

Otras
El uso de celulares y aparatos de funciones similares interactivas
como localizadores están permitidos en clase, siempre y cuando
permanezcan en modo discreto y cuando se conteste para hablar,
se haga por fuera del salón.
Sólo pueden asistir a clase y presentar pruebas y exámenes
quienes estén en las listas oficiales de curso, sin excepción.
El principal medio de comunicación (fuera de las sesiones de
clase) es el correo electrónico.

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Presentación Reglas de juego

Reglas de juego
Normas esperadas de comportamiento y conducta en la relación profesor-estudiante

Otras
El resultado del desarrollo de las asignaciones de trabajo que se tengan como
preparación para clase, deben traerse a clase en medio digital, para exponer en
el video-beam.
La forma de evaluación del curso es la presentada en el primer día de clases y
no es modificable.
Además de lo expuesto en este documento, se deberá tener en cuenta lo
establecido en el documento del Proyecto Educativo Institucional y del
Reglamento Estudiantil.
Las notas se entregan con una sola cifra decimal. Las definitivas estarán entre
1.0 y 5.0 a no ser que se presenten casos de fraude u otras eventualidades.

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Presentación Contenido tematico

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Presentación Contenido tematico

Contenido (Sujeto a cambios) I

1 Repaso [4 sesiones]
Métodos de demostración
Relaciones de equivalencia
Conjuntos numerables y no numerables
2 Autómatas de estado finito [2 sesiones]
Propiedades
Secuencias de Estados
Equivalencia entre Autómatas
Equivalencia de Estados
Minimización de Estados
Pruebas de equivalencia
3 Lenguajes regulares y autómatas finitos [8 sesiones]
Conceptos Básicos
Lenguajes regulares

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Presentación Contenido tematico

Contenido (Sujeto a cambios) II

Autómatas Finitos Deterministas


Diagrama de Transiciones
Diseño de Autómatas
Autómatas Finitos no Deterministas
Equivalencia Computacional entre AFD y AFN
Autómatas con Transiciones λ
Equivalencia Computacional AFD-λ y AFN-λ
Teorema de Kleene
Lema de Arden
Lema de Bombeo
Propiedades de Clausura
Propiedades de Clausura para Autómatas
Homomorfismos
Imagen Inversa de Homomorfismo
Algoritmos de Decisión

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Presentación Contenido tematico

Contenido (Sujeto a cambios) III

4 Gramáticas y lenguajes independientes de contexto, y


autómatas de pila [8 sesiones]
Gramáticas Generativas
Gramáticas Independientes de Contexto
Árbol de Derivación
Gramáticas Ambiguas
Gramáticas para Lenguajes de Programación
Gramáticas para Lenguajes Naturales
Gramáticas Regulares
Eliminación de las Variables Inútiles
Eliminación de las Producciones λ
Eliminación de las Producciones Unitarias
Forma Normal de Chomsky
Forma Normal de Greibach
Lema de Bombeo para LIC
Propiedades de Clausura de los LIC

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Presentación Contenido tematico

Contenido (Sujeto a cambios) IV

Algoritmos de Decisión para GIC


Autómatas de Pila Deterministas
Autómatas de Pila no Deterministas
Aceptación por Pila Vacía
Autómatas de Pila y LIC
5 Máquinas de Turing [6 sesiones]
Máquinas de Turing como aceptadoras de Lenguajes
Subrutinas o Macros
Máquinas de Turing como Calculadoras de Funciones
Máquinas de Turing como Generadoras de Lenguaje
Variaciones del Modelo Estándar

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Presentación Contenido tematico

Contenido (Sujeto a cambios) V

Simulación de Autómatas por Máquinas de Turing


Autómatas de 2 Pilas
Propiedades de Clausura de Lenguajes RE y de Lenguajes
Recursivos
Máquinas de Turing, Computadoras, Algoritmos y Tesis
Church-Turing

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Presentación Contenido tematico

Contenido (Sujeto a cambios) VI

6 Decidibilidad [2 sesiones]
Codificación y Enumeración de Máquinas de Turing
Máquina de Turing Universal
Algoritmos de Aceptación para Lenguajes RE
Lenguajes que no son RE
Lenguajes RE que no son Recursivos
Problemas Indecidibles o Irresolubles

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Presentación Evaluación

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Presentación Evaluación

Evaluación

Control de Estudio Previo (CEP) 10 %


Pruebas cortas (3) 20 %
Tareas 10 %
Primer examen parcial 20 %
Segundo examen parcial 20 %
Tercer examen parcial 20 %

A tener en cuenta
Los CEP pueden ser orales o escritos, individuales o en parejas.
La evaluación de las presentaciones de mapas conceptuales y
participación durante las discusiones y resolución de ejercicios en
el tablero se incluirán en el el ítem CEP.

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Presentación Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Presentación Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica

Informática Teórica y su relación con otros cursos

Matemática Discreta → Informática Teórica


Métodos de demostración → verificar propiedades y teoremas en
informática teórica.
Relaciones de equivalencia → autómatas.
Teoría de conjuntos → alfabetos, cadenas y lenguajes.
Teoría de conjuntos → autómatas.
Teoría de conjuntos → Lenguajes y gramáticas independientes de
contexto.
Teoría de grafos → Autómatas, máquinas de Turing.

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Presentación Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica

Informática Teórica en la actividad profesional

Análisis y diseño de algoritmos


Investigación científica
Teoría de lenguajes de programación
Academia
Diseño e implementación de software
entre otros ...

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Proofs Aims

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Proofs Aims

Aims

Understand what are


Inference rules
Fallacies
Tautologies
Invalid arguments
Proofs

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Proofs Concept map

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Proofs Concept map

Concept map
What is a proof? (Section 1.5 pages 52-58)

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Proofs Concept map

Inference rules

Inference rules
Inference rule Tautology Name
p
p → (p ∨ q) Addition
∴p ∨ q
p ∧ q
(p ∧ q) → p Simplification
∴p
p
q ((p) ∧ (q)) → (p ∧ q) Conjunction
∴p ∧ q
p
p → q [p ∧ (p → q)] → q Modus ponens
∴q

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Proofs Concept map

Inference rules

Inference rules
Inference rule Tautology Name
¬q
p → q [¬q ∧ (p → q)] → ¬p Modus tollens
∴ ¬p
p → q
q → r [(p → q) ∧ (q → r )] → (p → r ) Hypothetical syllogism
∴p → r
p ∨ q
¬p [(p ∨ q) ∧ ¬p] → q Disjunctive syllogism
∴q
p ∨ q
¬p ∨ r [(p ∨ q) ∧ (¬p ∨ r )] → (q ∨ r ) Resolution
∴q ∨ r

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Proofs Concept map

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements


Inference rule Name
∀x P(x)
Universal instantiation
∴ P(c)
P(c) for an arbitrary c
Universal generalization
∴ ∀x P(x)
∃x P(x)
Existential instantiation
∴ P(c) for some element c
P(c) for some element c
Existential generalization
∴ ∃x P(x)

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Proofs Exercises

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
a) Alice is a mathematics major. Therefore, Alice is either a mathematics
major or a computer science major

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
a) Alice is a mathematics major. Therefore, Alice is either a mathematics
major or a computer science major

R:/ p = Alice is a mathematics major,


q = Alice is a computer science major

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
a) Alice is a mathematics major. Therefore, Alice is either a mathematics
major or a computer science major

R:/ p = Alice is a mathematics major,


q = Alice is a computer science major
We have p as premise p ∨ q as conclusion, therefore

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
a) Alice is a mathematics major. Therefore, Alice is either a mathematics
major or a computer science major

R:/ p = Alice is a mathematics major,


q = Alice is a computer science major
We have p as premise p ∨ q as conclusion, therefore
p
(addition)
∴ p ∨q

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
b) Jerry is a mathematics major and a computer science major. Therefore,
Jerry is a mathematics major.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
b) Jerry is a mathematics major and a computer science major. Therefore,
Jerry is a mathematics major.

R:/ p = Jerry is a mathematics major,


q = Jerry is a computer science major.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
b) Jerry is a mathematics major and a computer science major. Therefore,
Jerry is a mathematics major.

R:/ p = Jerry is a mathematics major,


q = Jerry is a computer science major.
We have p ∧ q as premise and p as conclusion, therefore

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
b) Jerry is a mathematics major and a computer science major. Therefore,
Jerry is a mathematics major.

R:/ p = Jerry is a mathematics major,


q = Jerry is a computer science major.
We have p ∧ q as premise and p as conclusion, therefore
p ∧q
(simplification)
∴p

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
c) If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy. Therefore, the pool is
closed.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
c) If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy. Therefore, the pool is
closed.

R:/ p = It is rainy,
q = the pool will be closed

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
c) If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy. Therefore, the pool is
closed.

R:/ p = It is rainy,
q = the pool will be closed
We have p → q and p as premises and q as conclusion,
therefore

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
c) If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy. Therefore, the pool is
closed.

R:/ p = It is rainy,
q = the pool will be closed
We have p → q and p as premises and q as conclusion,
therefore
p → q
p (modus ponens)
∴q

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
d) If it snows today, the university will close. The university is not closed
today. Therefore, it did not snow today.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
d) If it snows today, the university will close. The university is not closed
today. Therefore, it did not snow today.

R:/ p = It snows today,


q = The university is closed today

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
d) If it snows today, the university will close. The university is not closed
today. Therefore, it did not snow today.

R:/ p = It snows today,


q = The university is closed today
We have p → q and ¬q as premises and ¬p as conclusion,
therefore

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
d) If it snows today, the university will close. The university is not closed
today. Therefore, it did not snow today.

R:/ p = It snows today,


q = The university is closed today
We have p → q and ¬q as premises and ¬p as conclusion,
therefore
p → q
¬q (modus tollens)
∴ ¬p

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
e) If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If I stay in the sun too
long, then I will sunburn. Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will sunburn.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
e) If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If I stay in the sun too
long, then I will sunburn. Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will sunburn.

R:/ p = I go swimming,
q = I will stay in the sun too long,
r = I will sunburn

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
e) If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If I stay in the sun too
long, then I will sunburn. Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will sunburn.

R:/ p = I go swimming,
q = I will stay in the sun too long,
r = I will sunburn
We have p → q and q → r as premises and p → r
as conclusion, therefore

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
e) If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If I stay in the sun too
long, then I will sunburn. Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will sunburn.

R:/ p = I go swimming,
q = I will stay in the sun too long,
r = I will sunburn
We have p → q and q → r as premises and p → r
as conclusion, therefore
p → q
q → r (hypothetical syllogism)
∴p → r

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “If it does not rain
or if it is not foggy, then the sailing race will be held and the lifesaving
demonstration will go on,” “If the sailing race is held, then the trophy
will be awarded,” and “The trophy was not awarded” imply the
conclusion “It rained.”

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “If it does not rain
or if it is not foggy, then the sailing race will be held and the lifesaving
demonstration will go on,” “If the sailing race is held, then the trophy
will be awarded,” and “The trophy was not awarded” imply the
conclusion “It rained.”

R:/ p = it rains, q = it is foggy, r = the sailing race is held,


s = the lifesaving demonstration goes on,
t = the trophy is awarded

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “If it does not rain
or if it is not foggy, then the sailing race will be held and the lifesaving
demonstration will go on,” “If the sailing race is held, then the trophy
will be awarded,” and “The trophy was not awarded” imply the
conclusion “It rained.”

R:/ p = it rains, q = it is foggy, r = the sailing race is held,


s = the lifesaving demonstration goes on,
t = the trophy is awarded
We have (¬p ∨ ¬q) → (r ∧ s), r → t, ¬t

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Step Reasoning
1. ¬t Hypothesis

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Step Reasoning
1. ¬t Hypothesis
2. r → t Hypothesis

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Step Reasoning
1. ¬t Hypothesis
2. r → t Hypothesis
3. ¬r Modus tollens using step 1 and 2

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Step Reasoning
1. ¬t Hypothesis
2. r → t Hypothesis
3. ¬r Modus tollens using step 1 and 2
4. ¬r ∨ ¬s Addition using step 3

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Step Reasoning
1. ¬t Hypothesis
2. r → t Hypothesis
3. ¬r Modus tollens using step 1 and 2
4. ¬r ∨ ¬s Addition using step 3
5. ¬(r ∧ s) De Morgan’s law using step 4

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Step Reasoning
1. ¬t Hypothesis
2. r → t Hypothesis
3. ¬r Modus tollens using step 1 and 2
4. ¬r ∨ ¬s Addition using step 3
5. ¬(r ∧ s) De Morgan’s law using step 4
6. ¬p ∨ ¬q → r ∧ s Hypothesis

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Step Reasoning
1. ¬t Hypothesis
2. r → t Hypothesis
3. ¬r Modus tollens using step 1 and 2
4. ¬r ∨ ¬s Addition using step 3
5. ¬(r ∧ s) De Morgan’s law using step 4
6. ¬p ∨ ¬q → r ∧ s Hypothesis
7. ¬(¬p ∨ ¬q) Modus tollens using steps 5 and 6

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Step Reasoning
1. ¬t Hypothesis
2. r → t Hypothesis
3. ¬r Modus tollens using step 1 and 2
4. ¬r ∨ ¬s Addition using step 3
5. ¬(r ∧ s) De Morgan’s law using step 4
6. ¬p ∨ ¬q → r ∧ s Hypothesis
7. ¬(¬p ∨ ¬q) Modus tollens using steps 5 and 6
8. p ∧ q De Morgan’s law using step 7

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Step Reasoning
1. ¬t Hypothesis
2. r → t Hypothesis
3. ¬r Modus tollens using step 1 and 2
4. ¬r ∨ ¬s Addition using step 3
5. ¬(r ∧ s) De Morgan’s law using step 4
6. ¬p ∨ ¬q → r ∧ s Hypothesis
7. ¬(¬p ∨ ¬q) Modus tollens using steps 5 and 6
8. p ∧ q De Morgan’s law using step 7
9. p Simplification using step 8

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “No man is an island,”
“Manhattan is an island” imply the conclusion “Manhattan is not a man.”

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “No man is an island,”
“Manhattan is an island” imply the conclusion “Manhattan is not a man.”

R:/ P(x) = x is a man, Q(x) = x is an island


We have as premises ∀x P(x) → ¬Q(x), Q(Manhattan)
ans as conclusion ¬P(Manhattan)

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “No man is an island,”
“Manhattan is an island” imply the conclusion “Manhattan is not a man.”

R:/ P(x) = x is a man, Q(x) = x is an island


We have as premises ∀x P(x) → ¬Q(x), Q(Manhattan)
ans as conclusion ¬P(Manhattan)
Step Reasoning
1. Q(Manhattan) Hypothesis

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “No man is an island,”
“Manhattan is an island” imply the conclusion “Manhattan is not a man.”

R:/ P(x) = x is a man, Q(x) = x is an island


We have as premises ∀x P(x) → ¬Q(x), Q(Manhattan)
ans as conclusion ¬P(Manhattan)
Step Reasoning
1. Q(Manhattan) Hypothesis
2. ¬¬Q(Manhattan) Double negation with step 1

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “No man is an island,”
“Manhattan is an island” imply the conclusion “Manhattan is not a man.”

R:/ P(x) = x is a man, Q(x) = x is an island


We have as premises ∀x P(x) → ¬Q(x), Q(Manhattan)
ans as conclusion ¬P(Manhattan)
Step Reasoning
1. Q(Manhattan) Hypothesis
2. ¬¬Q(Manhattan) Double negation with step 1
3. ∀x P(x) → ¬Q(x) Hypothesis

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “No man is an island,”
“Manhattan is an island” imply the conclusion “Manhattan is not a man.”

R:/ P(x) = x is a man, Q(x) = x is an island


We have as premises ∀x P(x) → ¬Q(x), Q(Manhattan)
ans as conclusion ¬P(Manhattan)
Step Reasoning
1. Q(Manhattan) Hypothesis
2. ¬¬Q(Manhattan) Double negation with step 1
3. ∀x P(x) → ¬Q(x) Hypothesis
4. P(Manhattan) → ¬Q(Manhattan) Universal instantiation using step 3

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “No man is an island,”
“Manhattan is an island” imply the conclusion “Manhattan is not a man.”

R:/ P(x) = x is a man, Q(x) = x is an island


We have as premises ∀x P(x) → ¬Q(x), Q(Manhattan)
ans as conclusion ¬P(Manhattan)
Step Reasoning
1. Q(Manhattan) Hypothesis
2. ¬¬Q(Manhattan) Double negation with step 1
3. ∀x P(x) → ¬Q(x) Hypothesis
4. P(Manhattan) → ¬Q(Manhattan) Universal instantiation using step 3
5. ¬P(Manhattan) Modus tollens using 2 and 4

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
a) Kangaroos live in Australia and are marsupials.Therefore, kangaroos are
marsupials.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
b) It is either hotter than 40 degrees today or the pollution is dangerous. It is
less than 40 degrees outside today. Therefore, the pollution is dangerous.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
c) Linda is an excellent swimmer. If Linda is an excellent swimmer, then she
can work as a lifeguard. Therefore, Linda can work as a lifeguard.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
d) Steve will work at a computer company this summer. Therefore, this
summer Steve will work at a computer company or he will be a beach bum.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
e) If I work all night on this homework, then I can answer all the exercises. If I
answer all the exercises, I will understand the material. Therefore, if I work
all night on this homework, then I will understand the material.

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “Randy works
hard,” “If Randy works hard, then he is a dull boy,” and “If Randy is a
dull boy, then he will not get the job” imply the conclusion “Randy will
not get the job.”

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Proofs Exercises

Exercises

Exercise
Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “All men are
mortal,” “Socrates is a man” imply “Socrates is mortal.”

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Agenda del día

1 Presentación
Información del curso
Objetivos
Estrategias Pedagógicas
Reglas de juego
Contenido tematico
Evaluación
Aplicaciones y relaciones de la Informática Teórica
2 Proofs
Aims
Concept map
Exercises
Presentation of next topic

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

About proofs

Some interesting questions


1 What is a proof?

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

About proofs

Some interesting questions


1 What is a proof? It is a valid argument that establishes the truth of
a theorem.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

About proofs

Some interesting questions


1 What is a proof? It is a valid argument that establishes the truth of
a theorem.
2 When is an argument valid?

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

About proofs

Some interesting questions


1 What is a proof? It is a valid argument that establishes the truth of
a theorem.
2 When is an argument valid? An argument is valid if the truth of all
its premises implies that the conclusion is true.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

About proofs

Some interesting questions


1 What is a proof? It is a valid argument that establishes the truth of
a theorem.
2 When is an argument valid? An argument is valid if the truth of all
its premises implies that the conclusion is true.
3 How are theorems usually stated?

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

About proofs

Some interesting questions


1 What is a proof? It is a valid argument that establishes the truth of
a theorem.
2 When is an argument valid? An argument is valid if the truth of all
its premises implies that the conclusion is true.
3 How are theorems usually stated? p → q

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

About proofs

Some interesting questions


1 What is a proof? It is a valid argument that establishes the truth of
a theorem.
2 When is an argument valid? An argument is valid if the truth of all
its premises implies that the conclusion is true.
3 How are theorems usually stated? p → q
4 Which kind of proofs can there be?

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

About proofs

Some interesting questions


1 What is a proof? It is a valid argument that establishes the truth of
a theorem.
2 When is an argument valid? An argument is valid if the truth of all
its premises implies that the conclusion is true.
3 How are theorems usually stated? p → q
4 Which kind of proofs can there be? Direct, indirect ...

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Direct proofs

We assume that the premise is true and use axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, to show
that the conclusion must also be true.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Direct proofs

We assume that the premise is true and use axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, to show
that the conclusion must also be true.

Example
The sum of two even integers is an even integer.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Direct proofs

We assume that the premise is true and use axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, to show
that the conclusion must also be true.

Example
The sum of two even integers is an even integer. We write down the
statement in the following way p → q

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Direct proofs

We assume that the premise is true and use axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, to show
that the conclusion must also be true.

Example
The sum of two even integers is an even integer. We write down the
statement in the following way p → q
If n is even and m is even, then n + m is even.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Direct proofs

We assume that the premise is true and use axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, to show
that the conclusion must also be true.

Example
The sum of two even integers is an even integer. We write down the
statement in the following way p → q
If n is even and m is even, then n + m is even.
We assume that the hypothesis in this implication is true, i.e., n = 2k
and m = 2l where k and l are integers.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Direct proofs

We assume that the premise is true and use axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, to show
that the conclusion must also be true.

Example
The sum of two even integers is an even integer. We write down the
statement in the following way p → q
If n is even and m is even, then n + m is even.
We assume that the hypothesis in this implication is true, i.e., n = 2k
and m = 2l where k and l are integers. We follow that
n + m = 2k + 2l = 2(k + l) and since we know that k + l is an integer,

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Direct proofs

We assume that the premise is true and use axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, to show
that the conclusion must also be true.

Example
The sum of two even integers is an even integer. We write down the
statement in the following way p → q
If n is even and m is even, then n + m is even.
We assume that the hypothesis in this implication is true, i.e., n = 2k
and m = 2l where k and l are integers. We follow that
n + m = 2k + 2l = 2(k + l) and since we know that k + l is an integer,
therefore n + m is even.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

To prove p → q we proof ¬q → ¬p.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

To prove p → q we proof ¬q → ¬p.

Why is the contraposition proof valid?

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

To prove p → q we proof ¬q → ¬p.

Why is the contraposition proof valid?


p → q is equivalent to (¬q → ¬p).

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

To prove p → q we proof ¬q → ¬p.

Why is the contraposition proof valid?


p → q is equivalent to (¬q → ¬p).
What does it mean if two formulas are equivalent?

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

To prove p → q we proof ¬q → ¬p.

Why is the contraposition proof valid?


p → q is equivalent to (¬q → ¬p).
What does it mean if two formulas are equivalent?
The truth values of both formulas are always the same.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

To prove p → q we proof ¬q → ¬p.

Why is the contraposition proof valid?


p → q is equivalent to (¬q → ¬p).
What does it mean if two formulas are equivalent?
The truth values of both formulas are always the same.
Sometimes is easier to prove the contraposition rather than the
initial statement.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

Example
For all integers n, if n2 is odd then n is odd.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

Example
For all integers n, if n2 is odd then n is odd.
Since p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p the previous statement is equivalent as
saying that for all integers n, if n is even, n2 is even.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

Example
For all integers n, if n2 is odd then n is odd.
Since p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p the previous statement is equivalent as
saying that for all integers n, if n is even, n2 is even.
We assume the hypothesis of this statement as true, i.e., n = 2k where
k is an integer.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

Example
For all integers n, if n2 is odd then n is odd.
Since p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p the previous statement is equivalent as
saying that for all integers n, if n is even, n2 is even.
We assume the hypothesis of this statement as true, i.e., n = 2k where
k is an integer. It follows that n2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ).

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

Example
For all integers n, if n2 is odd then n is odd.
Since p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p the previous statement is equivalent as
saying that for all integers n, if n is even, n2 is even.
We assume the hypothesis of this statement as true, i.e., n = 2k where
k is an integer. It follows that n2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ). Therefore n2 can be
represented as 2m where m = 2k and we conclude that n2 is even.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

Example
For all integers n, if n2 is odd then n is odd.
Since p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p the previous statement is equivalent as
saying that for all integers n, if n is even, n2 is even.
We assume the hypothesis of this statement as true, i.e., n = 2k where
k is an integer. It follows that n2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ). Therefore n2 can be
represented as 2m where m = 2k and we conclude that n2 is even.

Why do we need the contraposition to prove this property or


statement?

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

Example
For all integers n, if n2 is odd then n is odd.
Since p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p the previous statement is equivalent as
saying that for all integers n, if n is even, n2 is even.
We assume the hypothesis of this statement as true, i.e., n = 2k where
k is an integer. It follows that n2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ). Therefore n2 can be
represented as 2m where m = 2k and we conclude that n2 is even.

Why do we need the contraposition to prove this property or


statement? In this case the direct proof approach does not take us
through a quite obvious path

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by Contraposition

Example
For all integers n, if n2 is odd then n is odd.
Since p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p the previous statement is equivalent as
saying that for all integers n, if n is even, n2 is even.
We assume the hypothesis of this statement as true, i.e., n = 2k where
k is an integer. It follows that n2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ). Therefore n2 can be
represented as 2m where m = 2k and we conclude that n2 is even.

Why do we need the contraposition to prove this property or


statement? In this case the direct proof approach does not take us
through a quite obvious path √
If we assume that n2 = 2k + 1 we have that n = ± 2k + 1 something
not that useful for the success of our proof.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

To prove that p is true,

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

To prove that p is true,


We assume that we are able to find a contradiction q such that
¬p → q is true.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

To prove that p is true,


We assume that we are able to find a contradiction q such that
¬p → q is true.
Since ¬p → q ≡ ¬p → F , ¬p must be false and so p must be
true.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

To prove that p is true,


We assume that we are able to find a contradiction q such that
¬p → q is true.
Since ¬p → q ≡ ¬p → F , ¬p must be false and so p must be
true.
This technique is useful when we are able to find a contradiction.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

To prove that p is true,


We assume that we are able to find a contradiction q such that
¬p → q is true.
Since ¬p → q ≡ ¬p → F , ¬p must be false and so p must be
true.
This technique is useful when we are able to find a contradiction.
Thus, to prove p → q we must prove (p ∧ ¬q) → C, such that C
is a contradiction.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

Example
If n2 is even, then n is even (p → q)

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

Example
If n2 is even, then n is even (p → q)
We assume that n2 is even and n is odd (p ∧ ¬q) .

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

Example
If n2 is even, then n is even (p → q)
We assume that n2 is even and n is odd (p ∧ ¬q) . Therefore, there
exists an integer k such that n = 2k + 1

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

Example
If n2 is even, then n is even (p → q)
We assume that n2 is even and n is odd (p ∧ ¬q) . Therefore, there
exists an integer k such that n = 2k + 1 now,
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k ) + 1

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

Example
If n2 is even, then n is even (p → q)
We assume that n2 is even and n is odd (p ∧ ¬q) . Therefore, there
exists an integer k such that n = 2k + 1 now,
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k ) + 1 hence n2 = 2l + 1
where l = 2k 2 + 2k

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

Example
If n2 is even, then n is even (p → q)
We assume that n2 is even and n is odd (p ∧ ¬q) . Therefore, there
exists an integer k such that n = 2k + 1 now,
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k ) + 1 hence n2 = 2l + 1
where l = 2k 2 + 2k therefore n2 is odd.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs by contradiction

Example
If n2 is even, then n is even (p → q)
We assume that n2 is even and n is odd (p ∧ ¬q) . Therefore, there
exists an integer k such that n = 2k + 1 now,
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k ) + 1 hence n2 = 2l + 1
where l = 2k 2 + 2k therefore n2 is odd. We have found a contradiccion
since n2 is even and n2 is odd.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Case disjunction

To prove a statement of the form, p = p1 ∨ p2 ∨ . . . ∨ pn → q.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Case disjunction

To prove a statement of the form, p = p1 ∨ p2 ∨ . . . ∨ pn → q.


We prove p1 → q ∧ p2 → q ∧ p3 → q ∧ . . . ∧ pn → q

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Case disjunction

Example
∀x, y ∈ R, |xy | = |x||y |, where x and y are real numbers

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Case disjunction

Example
∀x, y ∈ R, |xy | = |x||y |, where x and y are real numbers
We have that p = x and y are real numbers, q = |xy | = |x||y |

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Case disjunction

Example
∀x, y ∈ R, |xy | = |x||y |, where x and y are real numbers
We have that p = x and y are real numbers, q = |xy | = |x||y |
We know that p ≡ p1 ∨ p2 ∨ p3 ∨ p4 where p1 = x ≥ 0 ∧ y ≥ 0,
p2 = x ≥ 0 ∧ y < 0, p3 = x < 0 ∧ y ≥ 0, p4 = x < 0 ∧ y < 0

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Case disjunction

Example
∀x, y ∈ R, |xy | = |x||y |, where x and y are real numbers
We have that p = x and y are real numbers, q = |xy | = |x||y |
We know that p ≡ p1 ∨ p2 ∨ p3 ∨ p4 where p1 = x ≥ 0 ∧ y ≥ 0,
p2 = x ≥ 0 ∧ y < 0, p3 = x < 0 ∧ y ≥ 0, p4 = x < 0 ∧ y < 0
Thus, to prove p1 ∨ p2 ∨ p3 ∨ p4 → q we prove
p1 → q ∧ p2 → q ∧ p3 → q ∧ p4 → q

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Case disjunction

Example
p1 → q : we assume p1 , which tells us that x ≥ 0 ∧ y ≥ 0, then
xy ≥ 0 so |xy | = xy = |x||y |

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Case disjunction

Example
p1 → q : we assume p1 , which tells us that x ≥ 0 ∧ y ≥ 0, then
xy ≥ 0 so |xy | = xy = |x||y |
p2 → q : we assume p2 , which take us to x ≥ 0 ∧ y < 0, therefore
xy ≤ 0 so |xy | = −xy = x(−y ) = |x||y |

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Case disjunction

Example
p1 → q : we assume p1 , which tells us that x ≥ 0 ∧ y ≥ 0, then
xy ≥ 0 so |xy | = xy = |x||y |
p2 → q : we assume p2 , which take us to x ≥ 0 ∧ y < 0, therefore
xy ≤ 0 so |xy | = −xy = x(−y ) = |x||y |
p3 → q : we assume p3 , which indicates that x < 0 ∧ y ≥ 0, then
xy ≤ 0 so |xy | = −xy = (−x)y = |x||y |

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Case disjunction

Example
p1 → q : we assume p1 , which tells us that x ≥ 0 ∧ y ≥ 0, then
xy ≥ 0 so |xy | = xy = |x||y |
p2 → q : we assume p2 , which take us to x ≥ 0 ∧ y < 0, therefore
xy ≤ 0 so |xy | = −xy = x(−y ) = |x||y |
p3 → q : we assume p3 , which indicates that x < 0 ∧ y ≥ 0, then
xy ≤ 0 so |xy | = −xy = (−x)y = |x||y |
p4 → q : we assume p4 , which tells us that x < 0 ∧ y < 0, therefore
xy > 0 so |xy | = (−x)(−y ) = |x||y |
And we have finished our proof

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Counterexamples

When presented with a statement of the form ∀xP(x), which we


believe to be false or which has resisted all proof attempt, we need
only find a counterexample, that is, an x in which P(x) is false.

Example
“Every prime number is odd”

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Counterexamples

When presented with a statement of the form ∀xP(x), which we


believe to be false or which has resisted all proof attempt, we need
only find a counterexample, that is, an x in which P(x) is false.

Example
“Every prime number is odd”
We can prove that this sentence is false if we can find a
counterexample. That is, if we can find an even prime number.

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Counterexamples

When presented with a statement of the form ∀xP(x), which we


believe to be false or which has resisted all proof attempt, we need
only find a counterexample, that is, an x in which P(x) is false.

Example
“Every prime number is odd”
We can prove that this sentence is false if we can find a
counterexample. That is, if we can find an even prime number.
2 is an even number and is also a prime number. Hence, we have
proven that the statement “Every prime number is odd” is false.

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Proofs of equivalence

To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement, that is, a statement of


the form p ↔ q, where p, q are propositions, we show that p → q and q → p
are both true. he validity of this approach is based on the tautology
(p ↔ q) ⇔ ((p → q) ∧ (q → p)). Each implication can be proven in an
independent way, using different methods if necessary.

Example
Let p1 = n be an even integer and p2 = n + 1 an odd integer, p1 ≡ p2

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs of equivalence

To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement, that is, a statement of


the form p ↔ q, where p, q are propositions, we show that p → q and q → p
are both true. he validity of this approach is based on the tautology
(p ↔ q) ⇔ ((p → q) ∧ (q → p)). Each implication can be proven in an
independent way, using different methods if necessary.

Example
Let p1 = n be an even integer and p2 = n + 1 an odd integer, p1 ≡ p2
We must prove that p1 ↔ p2

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs of equivalence

To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement, that is, a statement of


the form p ↔ q, where p, q are propositions, we show that p → q and q → p
are both true. he validity of this approach is based on the tautology
(p ↔ q) ⇔ ((p → q) ∧ (q → p)). Each implication can be proven in an
independent way, using different methods if necessary.

Example
Let p1 = n be an even integer and p2 = n + 1 an odd integer, p1 ≡ p2
We must prove that p1 ↔ p2
p1 → p2 : We assume p1 which tells us that n = 2k where k is an integer.

70 / 71
Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs of equivalence

To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement, that is, a statement of


the form p ↔ q, where p, q are propositions, we show that p → q and q → p
are both true. he validity of this approach is based on the tautology
(p ↔ q) ⇔ ((p → q) ∧ (q → p)). Each implication can be proven in an
independent way, using different methods if necessary.

Example
Let p1 = n be an even integer and p2 = n + 1 an odd integer, p1 ≡ p2
We must prove that p1 ↔ p2
p1 → p2 : We assume p1 which tells us that n = 2k where k is an integer.
It follows that n + 1 = 2k + 1 then n + 1 is an odd integer.

70 / 71
Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs of equivalence

To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement, that is, a statement of


the form p ↔ q, where p, q are propositions, we show that p → q and q → p
are both true. he validity of this approach is based on the tautology
(p ↔ q) ⇔ ((p → q) ∧ (q → p)). Each implication can be proven in an
independent way, using different methods if necessary.

Example
Let p1 = n be an even integer and p2 = n + 1 an odd integer, p1 ≡ p2
We must prove that p1 ↔ p2
p1 → p2 : We assume p1 which tells us that n = 2k where k is an integer.
It follows that n + 1 = 2k + 1 then n + 1 is an odd integer.
p2 → p1 : We assume p2 . That takes us to n + 1 = 2k + 1 where k is an
integer.

70 / 71
Proofs Presentation of next topic

Proofs of equivalence

To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement, that is, a statement of


the form p ↔ q, where p, q are propositions, we show that p → q and q → p
are both true. he validity of this approach is based on the tautology
(p ↔ q) ⇔ ((p → q) ∧ (q → p)). Each implication can be proven in an
independent way, using different methods if necessary.

Example
Let p1 = n be an even integer and p2 = n + 1 an odd integer, p1 ≡ p2
We must prove that p1 ↔ p2
p1 → p2 : We assume p1 which tells us that n = 2k where k is an integer.
It follows that n + 1 = 2k + 1 then n + 1 is an odd integer.
p2 → p1 : We assume p2 . That takes us to n + 1 = 2k + 1 where k is an
integer.
It follows that n = 2k therefore n is an even integer.

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Proofs Presentation of next topic

Next class

Exercises and section


Section 1.5 (in Moodle)
Exercises: 21,22,24,26,29,33,35,39,43,44,46,54

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