ZGNSJ\YNFAF VÎIGNIA JYVAVAH FJ QZJSJFB

CAIZHVAF FJ INJGINAY FJ HA NGKJGNJ\ÍA
IA\\J\A NGKJGNJ\ÍA MJIÁGNIA
P\BIJYBY FJ IBGSJIINÙG J NGVJ\IAMLNAFB\JY
FJ IAHB\

P\B^JIVB FJ NGSJYVNKAINÙG

VJMA?
FNYJÑB FJ ZG NGVJ\IAMLNAFB\ FJ IAHB\ FJ VZLB ^ IB\A_A PA\A
JH JGC\NAMNJGVB FJH MBYVB FJ HA IJ\SJ_A

AZVB\JY?
_umla Iakua Idarhjs Ahjxagfjr

FBIJGVJ?
Ngk. Fnjkb Pugnga MYi.

IZ\YB?
SNNN YJMJYV\J ‘A” 

IBB\FNGAFB\ FJ HA IA\\J\A?
Ngk. Patrninb Ahibijr.

YJKZGFB INIHB
<0<0 - <0<1

QZJSJFB - HBY \ÍBY - JIZAFB\

 

ÍGFN J
NGV\BFZIINÙG ......................................................................................................................<
1.1.  Hbiahnzainùg fj ha ngvjstnkainùg.................................................................................9
1.<.  Blojtnvbs.  ....................................................................................................................9
1.<.1.  Blojtnvb kjgjrah. .................................................................................................9

1.<.<.  Blojtnvbs jspjiícnibs.  ..........................................................................................9

IAPNVZHB NN  ............................................................................................................................<
MA\IB VJÙ\NIB  ..................................................................................................................<
<.1.  Ijrvjza.  .......................................................................................................................:
<.1.1.  Prbijsb fj jhalbrainùg fj ha ijrvjza.   ...............................................................:
<.1.<.  Fjcngninùg fjh mbstb.  ..........................................................................................:
<.<.  Ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr.  ........................................................................................;
<.<.1.  Vnpbs lásnibs fj ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr.   ....................................................;
<.9.  Gbrmas jstalhjinfas para jh fnmjgsnbgamnjgtb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr.  ....1<
<.9.1.  Parámjtrbs fj fnsjñb para has partjs fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj tulb y
ibraza sjkÿg has Gbrmas VJMA y AYMJ. .....................................................................16
<.9.<.  Ybhfafura fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj tulb y ibraza.   ...........................................1>
<.6.  Agáhnsns fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr.  ..............................................................<0
<.6.1.  Ibjcninjgtj tbtah fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr.  ....................................................
......................... ............................<0
.<0
<.6.<.  Caitbr fj ngirustainùg. .....................................................................................<<
<.6.9.  Ngtjriamlnb fj iahbr jg jh snstjma.  .................................................................<<
<.6.6.  Ngtjriamlnafbrjss fj iahbr a ibgtrachuob . ........................................................
Ngtjriamlnafbrj ............................ ............................<6
<6
<.6.:.  Mîtbfb para jh fnmjgsnbgamnjgtb
fnmjgsnbgamnjgtb tîrmnib fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr. ....<:
IAPNVZHB NNN  ...........................................................................................................................:
IÁHIZHB FJH NGVJ\IAMLNAFB\   ..................................................................................:
6.1.1.  Iáhiuhb para jh chuob másnib fjh akua.  ........................................................
............................ .................................<;
.....<;
6.1.<.  Iáhiuhb para jh chuob másnib fjh mbstb. ......................................................
.......................... .................................<4
.....<4
6.1.9.  Iapainfaf iahbrícnia fjh chunfb iahnjgtj y crnb.  ...............................................<4
6.1.6.  Iáhiuhb para dahhar ha tjmpjratura fj sahnfa fjh akua. .................................<>
............................ .....<>
6.1.:.  Iáhiuhb para jgibgtrar ha hbgkntuf fj hbs tulbs mjfnagtj jh mîtbfb GVZ.  .<>
6.1.3.  Ibjcninjgtj fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr tbtah.  ....................................................
......................... ............................9<
.9<
6.1.;.  Iáhiuhb fjh árja supjrcninah fj hbs tulbs. ........... ¡Jrrbr! Mariafbr gb fjcngnfb. 
6.1.4.  Bltjginùg fj ha hbgkntuf fj tulb. ....................... ¡Jrrbr! Mariafbr gb fjcngnfb. 
IBGIHZYNBGJY.   ...................................................................................................................96

LNLHNBK\ACÍA   ......................................................................................................................9:

n
 

Ígfnij fj cnkuras
Cnkura 1. Casjs fj prbfuiinùg fj ha ijrvjza. U<]
U <] .........................................................................:
Cnkura <.Iahfjra fj rjiupjrainùg fj iahbr quj sj utnhnza jg uga ijgtrah fj inihb ibmlngafb. U;]
  .....................................................................................................................................................4
Cnkura 9. a) \jkjgjrafbr b snstjma fj hjidb fblhj cnob. l) \jkjgjrafbr rbtatbrnb. U3] ...............>
Cnkura 6. Ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr snmphj a ibgtrachuob fj tulb fjgtrb fj tulb. U3] ....................>
Cnkura :. Ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj ibraza y tulb ibg fncusbrjs sjkmjgtafbs? fj fbs pasbs
 pbr hbs tulbs y ug pasb pbr ha ibraza. U3]  ...................................................................................10
Cnkura 3. Ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj ibraza y tulbs ibg ialjzah chbtagtj. U3]  ..........................11
Cnkura ;. Ibgcnkurainbgjs fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr fj ibraza y tulb. U4] ....................19
Cnkura 4. Arrjkhbs fj hbs tulbs? (a) 90°5 (l) 30°5( i) >0°5 (f) 6:°5 (j) árja fj chuob para pasb
iuafrafb5 y (c) árja fj chuob para pasb trnagkuhar.  ......................................................................13
Cnkura >. Ibrtjs y sjkmjgtafb fj hbs lachjs b fjsvnafbrjs. ......................................................1;
Cnkura 10. Irntjrnbs para jsibkjr ha brnjgtainùg fjh ibrtj fjh fjchjitbr.  ....................................14
.......................... ..........14
Cnkura 11. \jf fj rjsnstjginas tîrmnias asbinafa ibg ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr jg ug
ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj fblhj chuob. U6].................................................................................<0

≄
Cnkura 1<. Has fbs árjas supjrcninahjs fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr asbinafas ibg ug
ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj fblhj tulb (para tulbs fjhkafbs, F n   FB y, ibmb ibgsjiujg ≄ ibgsjiujgina, ina, A n 
 Ab). U6]  ...................................................................................................................................<1
Cnkura 19. Fbs chuobs fj chunfbs quj tnjgjg has ha s mnsmas razbgjs fj iapainfaf iahbrícnia

jxpjrnmjgtag jh mnsmb iamlnb fj tjmpjratura jg ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr lnjg anshafb. U6]

  ...................................................................................................................................................<6
Cnkura 16. Sarnainùg fj has tjmpjraturas fj hbs fbs chunfbs jg ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj
fblhj tulb, a ibgtrachuob. U6]  ......................................................................................................<6
Cnkura 1:. \jhainbgjs GVZ para hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr.  ...............................................90
............................ ...................90

Ígfnij fj talhas
Valha 1. Prbpnjfafjs kjgjrahjs fj hbs chunfbs.  ..........................................................................<;

nn
 

IAPÍVZHB N

 
 

NGV\BFZIINÙG
Ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr alaria cjgùmjgbs císnibs ibmb ha ibgfuiinùg y ibgvjiinùg,
quj sj fjljg ibmprjgfjr agtjs fj prbijfjr a fjsarrbhhar mjtbfbhbkías quj ibgfuziag ah
fnsjñb tîrmnib fj hbs snstjmas ibrrjspbgfnjgtjs ibmb pbr jojmphb hbs quj nmphniag
 prbijsbs fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr
iahbr fj ug chunfb a btrb.

Jxnstjg varnbs tnpbs fj ngtjriamlnafbr

n gtjriamlnafbrjs
js fj iahbr y aituahmjgtj ahrjfjfbr fjh mugfb sj
bcrjijg jg jh mjriafb muhtntuf fj fnsjñbs fncjrjgtjs fj îstbs. Js gjijsarnb prjinsar quj
jg iuahqunjr tnpb fj ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr sj tragscnjrj jg uga sbha fnrjiinùg? fjh chunfb
ibg maybr tjmpjratura daina jh chunfb fj mjgbr tjmpjratura.

Jg jstj iasb sj tralaoará ibg jh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj iariaza y tulbs pbrquj js jh

más ibmÿg jg has aphniainbgjs ngfustrnahjs jg has
h as quj sj fjmagfa fj magjra snkgncniatnva
 pbr jxnstnr ahtas tjmpjraturas y prjsnbgjs, utnhnzágfbsj para aqujhhbs prbijsbs quj
rjqunjrag jgcrnamnjgtb, iahjgtamnjgtb b iamlnb fj jstafb jgtrj híqunfb y kasjs, snjgfb

jqunpbs prjparafbs para has más jxnkjgtjs ibgfninbgjs fj tralaob y bpjrainùg.

Yj fjljg tbmar jg iujgta varnbs parámjtrbs jg jh fnsjñb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr y
ibraza tahjs ibmb jh fnámjtrb fjh tulb, fnspbsninùg fj hbs tulbs, sjparainùg fj hbs
fjchjitbrjs, ha jcninjgina y jh ibstb para su ibgstruiinùg. Afjmás, jh fnsjñb sj lasù jg
gbrmatnvas ngtjrgainbgahjs ibmb AYMJ (Amjrniag Ybinjty bc Mjidagniah Jgkngjjrs) y
VJMA (Vuluhar Jxidagkjr Magucaiturjr Assbinatnbg).

<
 

1.1. Hbiahnzainùg fj ha ngvjstnkainùg.

Jg has jmprjsas quj sj fjfniag a prbfuinr ha ijrvjza, gjijsntag jgcrnar jh mbstb fj ha

 prjsjgtj ngvjstnkainùg
°
ijlafa oustb fjspuîs fj ha jluhhninùg (fj ugbs >: I a ugbs 1< I). °
I). Pbr hb tagtb, ha
ngvjstnkainùg fjh fnsjñb fj ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr para jgcrnar jh mbstb fj
ha ijrvjza sj ijgtra jg iuahqunjr jmprjsa ijrvjijra quj gjijsntaría jstj jstufnb.

1.<.  Blojtnvbs.
1.<.1.  Blojtnvb kjgjrah.

Fnsjñar ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj tulb y ibraza mjfnagtj hbs fncjrjgtjs mîtbfbs

jxnstjgtjs (GVZ y fncjrjgina fj tjmpjratura mjfna hbkarítmnia), usafb para jgcrnar jh
mbstb fj ha ijlafa jg has jmprjsas ijrvji
ijrvjijras.
jras.

1.<.<.  Blojtnvbs jspjiícnibs.

  Ngvjstnkar has prbpnjfafjs fj hbs chunfbs quj ngtjraitÿag jg jh ngtjrnbr y jxtjrnbr fj

hbs tulbs fjh ngtjriamlnafbr
n gtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr.
  Yjhjiinbgar jh tnpb fj ngtjriamlnafbr, sjkÿg gbrma VJMA, quj iumpha ibg ha
cngahnfaf fj jgcrnar jh mbstb fj ha ijlafa.
  Iahiuhar mjfnagtj hbs mîtbfbs GVZ y HMVF (fncjrjgina fj tjmpjratura mjfna
hbkarítmnia) hbs ibrrjspbgfnjgtjs fatbs fjh fnsjñb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr.

9
 

IAPNVZHB NN
MA\IB VJÙ\NIB

 
 

<.1.  Ijrvjza.
Ha ijrvjza js uga ljlnfa ahibdùhnia fj laoa krafuainùg fj 9° a ;.:° fj ibgtjgnfb fj
ahibdbh, quj rjsuhta fj ha cjrmjgtainùg fjh mbstb quj prbvnjgj fj ha mah
mahta
ta fj ijlafa. Jg
ha iuah sj utnhnzag hjvafuras sjhjiinbgafas, quj js arbmatnzafa ibg hÿpuhb quj hj fa ug
salbr amarkb típnib a ha ijrvjza, ha daij más hnkjra
hn kjra fj fnkjrnr y snrvj ibmb ibgsjrvagtj
gaturah. U1]

<.1.1.  Prbijsb fj jhalbrainùg fj ha ijrvjza. 

Jh prbijsb fj Jhalbrainùg fj Ijrvjza ibgsta fj trjs jtapas iharamjgtj fjcngnfas, quj sbg
Ibinmnjgtb, Cjrmjgtainùg y \jpbsb, has iuahjs fjpjgfjg jxihusnvamjgtj fjh tnpb fj
ijrvjza quj sj pnjgsa jhalbrar, fjlnfb a quj sjkÿg ha ihasj fj ijrvjza varna ha iagtnfaf y
tnpb fj matjrna prnma. Jsta js uga fj has iausas prnginpahjs pbr has iuahjs jxnstjg tagtas
varnjfafjs fj ijrvjza. U<]

C nk ura 1. Casjs fj prbfuiinùg fj ha ijrvjza. U<] 

nkura
<.1.<.  Fjcngninùg fjh mbstb.

Jh mbstb js jh híqunfb fjh iuah sj va a bltjgjr ha ijrvjza hujkb fjh prbijsb fj

cjrmjgtainùg y btras jtapas suijsnvas. Jh mbstb rjsuhta fj ha mjziha fj hbs ngkrjfnjgtjs
fj jhalbrainùg fj ha ijrvjza (mahta, akua, hÿpuhb, hjvafura y afntnvbs). U9]

:
 

<.1.<.1.  Bltjginùg fjh mbstb.

Jg ha bhha fj irufbs sj vnjrtj ha tbtahnfaf

tbt ahnfaf fj ijrjahjs,
ijrjahjs, más ug 1:% fj mahta ibg rjhainùg
r jhainùg
a hbs ijrjahjs, sj ibhbia ug vbhumjg fj akua afjiuafb dasta bltjgjr uga masa ugncbrmj
 pbr mjfnb fj akntainùg ibgstagtj. Ha masa sj daijr djrvnr furagtj ugbs mngutbs ibg jh
cng fj jgfurjijr jh ahmnfùg para cainhntar jh ataquj fj has jgznmas. U<]

Ah mnsmb tnjmpb quj sj dnjrvj ha masa fj irufbs, jh rjstb fj darngas fj mahta jstá jg ha
bhha fj mjzihas, a uga tjmpjratura fj :0 a :: °I, ibg uga iagtnfaf tamlnîg afjiuafa fj
akua, sbhulnhnzagfb sus ibmpbgjgtjs vahnbsbs
vahnbsbs (maijrainùg). Ah cngah sj bltnjgj fj ha bhha
fj irufbs, uga masa djrvnfa y apta para
pa ra sjr ataiafa pbr has jgznma
jgznmass y jg ha bhha fj mjzihas
uga masa fj mahta iuyas jgznmas jstág hnstas para aituar sblrj jh matjrnah irufb. Jsta
sbhuinùg bltjgnfa tnjgj muidas partíiuhas jg suspjgsnùg hb iuah gbs blhnka a cnhtrarha. U<]

Fj ha bhha fj mjziha pasa ha masa a ha bhha fj cnhtrainùg, fj ha iuah sj bltnjgj, ug híqunfb

iharb y azuiarafb hhamafb mbstb5 jsta bpjrainùg sj ibgbij ibmb prnmjra cnhtrainùg.
cnht rainùg. U<]

Jstj mbstb, sj ahmaijga jg ha bhha fj ibiinùg, y furagtj ug pjríbfb harkb fj jluhhninùg,

sj hbkra ha fjstruiinùg fj mnirbbrkagnsmbs.
mnirbbrkagnsmbs. Furagtj jstj prbijsb fj ibiinùg, sj akrjka
jh hÿpuhb ibg jh prbpùsntb fj sumngnstrar has sustaginas amarkas y arbmátnias quj fag jh
salbr iaraitjrístnib a ha ijrvjza5 a más fj jstb, jh prbijsb lusia ha ngaitnvainùg fj
jgznmas para jvntar fjkrafainbgjs y ha ibakuhainùg fj injrtas sustaginas gntrbkjgafas quj
 pujfjg iausar
iausar turlnfjz sn gb sj tbmag jg iujgta. U<]

<.1.<.<.  Jgcrnamnjgtb.
Jh mbstb sahnjgtj fj ha bhha fj ibiinùg sj jgvía ah tagquj fj sjfnmjgtainùg. Jg jstj sj
rjtnjgjg hbs matjrnahjs sùhnfbs prjsjgtjs jg jh mbstb. Jh mbstb hnlrj fj partíiuhas jg
suspjgsnùg sj lbmlja fjh tagquj fj sjfnmjgtainùg ah tagquj fj cjrmjgtainùg. Jg jstj
trayjitb sj jgcría jh mbstb, jmphjagfb ug jqunpb fj rjcrnkjranùg, a uga tjmpjratura jgtrj
: y <: °I quj js ha afjiuafa para ha cjrmjgtainùg ahibdùhnia5 tamlnîg sj prbijfj a anrjar
jh mbstb agtjs fj akrjkar ha hjvafura, pjrb sng fjoar sulnr ha
h a tjmpjratura para nmpjfnr jh
fjsarrbhhb fj akjgtjs ibgtamngagtjs. U9]

Fjlnfb a ha ibiinùg, sj tnjgj ug híqunfb (mbstb) a 100 °I quj fjlj sjr hhjvafb a has
tjmpjraturas agtjs mjginbgafas, ya quj, fj has tjmpjraturas bltjgnfas sj prbijfjrá a
ibhbiar ha hjvafura para su rjspjitnva cjrmjgtainùg5 ha tjmpjratura fj jgcrnamnjgtb

fjpjgfjrá fjh tnpb fj hjvafura quj sj utnhnij para ha cjrmjgtainùg.

3
 

Jh jgcrnamnjgtb fjlj sjr rápnfb para gb far tnjmpb ah fjsarrbhhb fj mnirbbrkagnsmbs

ibgtamngagtjs y pjrmntnr uga mjobr ibakuhainùg fj has prbtjígas quj pujfjg iausar
turlnfjz. U9]

<.<.  Ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr.

Hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr sbg aparatbs quj cainhntag jh ngtjriamlnb fj iahbr jgtrj fbs
chunfbs quj sj jgiujgtrag a tjmpjraturas fncjrjgtjs y jvntag ah mnsmb tnjmpb quj sj
mjzihjg jgtrj sí. U6]

Ha aphniainùg fjh prnginpnb fj ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr ah fnsjñb fj ug jqunpb fjstngafb

a iulrnr ug blojtnvb fjtjrmngafb jg ngkjgnjría, js fj iapntah nmpbrtagina, pbrquj ah aphniar
hbs prnginpnbs ah fnsjñb, jh ngfnvnfub jstá tralaoagfb jg ha ibgsjiuinùg fjh nmpbrtagtj
hbkrb quj supbgj jh fjsarrbhhb fj ug prbfuitb para bltjgjr prbvjidb jibgùmnib. U:]

Jg ha práitnia, hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr sbg fj usb ibmÿg jg uga amphna varnjfaf
fj aphniainbgjs, fjsfj hbs snstjmas fbmîstnibs fj iahjcaiinùg y aibgfninbgamnjgtb fjh
anrj dasta hbs prbijsbs químnibs y ha prbfuiinùg fj jgjrkía jg has phagtas kragfjs. U6]
Iuagfb sj ngstaha ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr jg ug snstjma fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr, sj
gjijsnta uga iaífa fj tjmpjratura para tragscjrnr jh iahbr. Ha makgntuf fj jsta iaífa fj
tjmpjratura sj pujfj fnsmngunr utnhnzagfb ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr más kragfj, pjrb
jstb aumjgtará jh ibstb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr. U3]

Ha cuginùg fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr da afqunrnfb más nmpbrtagina rjinjgtjmjgtj

ya quj hbs ngkjgnjrbs tnjgjg más ngtjrîs jg hbs aspjitbs jgjrkîtnibs y qunjrjg bptnmnzar
sus fnsjñbs gb sùhb jg tîrmngbs fj ug agáhnsns tîrmnib y fj ha rjgtalnhnfaf jibgùmnia fj

ha ngvjrsnùg, sngb tamlnîg jg tîrmngbs

tîr mngbs fjh rjtbrgb fj jgjrkía fj ug snstjma. Así pujs, sj
fjlj ibgsnfjrar ha jibgbmía, así ibmb has ibgsnfjrainbgjs ibmb ha fnspbgnlnhnfaf,
iagtnfaf fj jgjrkía y fj matjrna prnma gjijsarnbs para jcjituar uga tarja fafa. U3]

<.<.1. Vnpbs lásnibs fj ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr.

Has fnstngtas aphniainbgjs fj ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr rjqunjrjg fncjrjgtjs tnpbs fj
ibmpbgjgtjs y ibgcnkurainbgjs fjh jqunpb para fnida tragscjrjgina. Jh ngtjgtb fj aibphar
hbs aiijsbrnbs para ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr a iafa tnpb fj gjijsnfafjs, fjgtrb fj has
rjstrniinbgjs jspjiícnias, da ibgfuinfb a gumjrbsbs tnpbs fj fnsjñbs nggbvafbrjs fj
ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr. U6]

Jxnstjg trjs tnpbs lásnibs fj ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr? U3]

;
 

<.<.1.1.  \jiupjrafbrjs.

Jg jstj tnpb fj ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr hbs chunfbs iahnjgtj y críb jstág sjparafbs pbr uga
 parjf y jh iahbr sj tragscnjrj pbr uga ibmlngainùg fj ibgvjiinùg daina y fjsfj
fjsfj ha parjf
y ibgvjiinùg a travîs fj ha parjf. Ha parjf pujfj ngihunr supjrcninjs jxtjgfnfas, ibmb
ahjtas, u btrbs fnspbsntnvbs fj bptnmnzainùg fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr. U3]

Hbs rjiupjrafbrjs aprbvjidag ha jgjrkía tîrmnia ibgtjgnfa jg hbs kasjs fj jsiapj,

 prbfuitb fj ha ibmlustnùg jg iuahqunjr prbijsb
prbijsb ngfustrnah. Pbr jojmphb, jg has ijgtrahjs
fj inihb ibmlngafb hbs kasjs fj jsiapj fj ha turlnga fj kas sj utnhnzag para kjgjrar vapbr
jg has iahfjras fj rjiupjrainùg fj iahbr ibmb sj mujstra jg ha
ha   Cnkura
Cnkura 1. U;]

C nk ura <.Iahfjra fj rjiupjrainùg fj iahbr quj sj utnhnza

nkura utn hnza jg uga ijgtrah fj inihb
ibmlngafb. U;]
<.<.1.<.  \jkjgjrafbrjs.

Jg ug rjkjgjrafbr hbs chunfbs iahnjgtjs y crnb biupag ahtjrgafamjgtj jh mnsmb jspainb

jg jh gÿihjb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr. Jh gÿihjb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr b ‘matrnz” snrvj ibmb ug
fnspbsntnvb fj ahmaijgamnjgtb fj iahbr quj pjrnùfniamjgtj sj iahnjgta pbr jh más
iagfjgtj fj hbs fbs chunfbs y fjspuîs tragscnjrj
tragscnjrj jh iahbr ah chunfb más crnb. U3]

4
 

Jg uga ibgcnkurainùg fj matrnz cnoa, jh chunfb iahnjgtj y crnb pasag ahtjrgafamjgtj a ttravîs
ravîs
fj ug ngtjriamlnafbr jstainbgarnb y para uga bpjrainùg ibgtngua sj gjijsntag fbs b m
más
ás
matrnijs, ibmb sj mujstrag jg ha 
ha  Cnkura
Cnkura 9 a). Zga ibgcnkurainùg fj usb ibmÿg para ha
matrnz js jh ‘hjidb jmpaiafb”. Btrb jgcbquj js jh rjkjgjrafbr rbtatbrnb jg jh quj uga
matrnz inriuhar knra y ahtjrgafamjgtj jxpbgj uga partj fj su supjrcninj ah chunfb iahnjgtj

ha  Cnkura
y fjspuîs ah chunfb críb, ibmb sj mujstra jg ha  Cnkura 9 l). U3] 

C nk ura 9. a) \jkjgjrafbr b snstjma fj hjidb fblhj cnob. l) \jkjgjrafbr rbtatbrnb. U3]

nkura
<.<.1.9 Ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr fj ibgtaitb fnrjitb.
Jstj tnpb fj ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr hbs chunfbs iahnjgtj y críb jgtrag jg ibgtaitb ugb ibg
btrb fj magjra fnrjita. Zg jojmphb fj jstj fnspbsntnvb js uga tbrrj fj jgcrnamnjgtb jg ha
quj ug rbiíb fj akua quj iaj fjsfj ha partj supjrnbr fj ha tbrrj jgtra jg ibgtaitb fnrjitb
y sj jgcría pbr uga ibrrnjgtj fj anrj quj chuyj daina arrnla. Jg btrbs snstjmas fj ibgtaitb
fnrjitb sj utnhnzag híqunfbs ngmnsinlhjs b ug ngtjriamlnb
n gtjriamlnb fj ug sùhnfb a ug kas. Jh jgcbquj
fj ibgtaitb fnrjitb aÿg jstá jg ha jtapa fj ngvjstnkainùg y fjsarrbhhb. U3]

C nk ura 6. Ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr snmphj a ibgtrachuob fj tulb fjgtrb fj tulb. U3]

nkura
>
 

C nk ura :. Ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj ibraza y tulb ibg fncusbrjs sjkmjgtafbs? fj fbs

nkura
 pasbs pbr hbs tulbs y ug pasb pbr ha ibraza.
ibraza. U3]
Ha ibgcnkurainùg más ibmÿg snmphj fj jstj tnpb j ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr ibgsnstj jg ug
tulb fjgtrb fj ug tulb, ibmb sj mujstra jg ha 
ha   Cnkura
Cnkura 6. Jsta ibgcnkurainùg pujfj bpjrar
ya sja jg ibgtra chuob b lnjg jg chuob parahjhb, ibg jh chunfb iahnjgtj b jh crnb pasagfb a
travîs fjh jspainb aguhar y jh btrb chunfb pasagfb fjgtrb fjh tulb ngtjrnbr. U3]

Zg tnpb fj ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr más ibmÿg amphnamjgtj utnhnzafb jg ha ngfustrna

químnia y fj prbijsb js jh fj ibgcnkurainùg fj ibraza y tulbs quj sj mujstrag jg ha
 Cnkura :. Jg jstj tnpb fj ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr ug chunfb inriuha fjgtrb fj hbs tulbs jg
tagtb quj jh btrb chunfb sj blhnka a pasar a travîs fj ha ibraza y sblrj jh jxtjrnbr fj hbs
tulbs. Jh chunfb sj blhnka a inriuhar sblrj hbs tulbs jg hukar fj a hb harkb fj hbs tulbs
fjlnfb a quj sj pujfj bltjgjr ug ibjcninjgtj fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr maybr jg chuob
tragsvjrsah quj jg chuob parahjhb ibg rjspjitb a hbs tulbs. U3]

ha  Cnkura
Jh ngtjriamlnafbr fj ibraza y tulbs quj sj nhustra jg ha  Cnkura :  tnjgj phaias tuluharjs
cnoas jg iafa jxtrjmb y hbs tulbs jstág sbhfafbs b sj jxpagfjg jg has phaias. Jstj tnpb fj
ibgstruiinùg tnjgj jh ibstb ngninah más laob, pjrb sùhb sj pujfj utnhnzar para fncjrjginas
fj tjmpjraturas pjqujñas jgtrj hbs chunfbs iahnjgtj y críb fjlnfb a quj gb sj ibgsnfjra
jvntar hbs jscujrzbs tîrmnibs fjlnfbs a ha fnhatainùg
fnhata inùg fncjrjginah jgtrj hbs tulbs y ha ibraza.
Btra fjsvjgtaoa js quj jh paqujtj fj tulbs gb sj pujfj fjsmbgtar para su hnmpnjza. Jstas
fjsvjgtaoas sj pujfjg supjrar mbfncniagfb jh fnsjñb lásnib, ibmb sj mujstra jg ha
 Cnkura 3 . Jg jsta ibgcnkurainùg uga phaia tuluhar jsta cnoa, pjrb ha btra jstá atbrgnhhafa a
uga iulnjrta fj ialjzah chbtagtj quj pjrmntj quj jh paqujtj fj tulbs sj mujva rjhatnvb a

ha ibraza. Ha phaia tuluhar chbtagtj jstá suojta jgtrj jh ialjzah chbtagtj y uga lrnfa fj
magjra quj js pbsnlhj fjsmbgtar jh paqujtj fj tulbs para su hnmpnjza. U3]
10
 

C nk ura 3. Ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj ibraza y tulbs ibg ialjzah chbtagtj. U3]

nkura
 Cujgtj? Ibrtjsía fj ha Vuluhar Jxidagkjr
Jxidagkjr Magucaiturjrs Assbinatnbg.
Ibg ha krag varnjfaf fj aphniainbgjs y ibgcnkurainbgjs jstruiturahjs pbsnlhjs fj
ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr, agtjs agahnzafas, js nmpbrtagtj prbpbrinbgar ug jsqujma fj
ihasncniainùg para snmphncniar su prbijsb fj sjhjiinùg. Augquj sj dag prbpujstb varnbs
jsqujmas, quj fj ahkuga magjra rjchjoag ha fncniuhtaf ngdjrjgtj ah tratar fj iatjkbrnzar
jqunpb quj vnjgj jg matjrnahjs, cbrmas y tamañbs
t amañbs fncjrjgtjs para usbs fnvjrsbs, qunzá hbs
snkunjgtjs rjprjsjgtag hbs irntjrnbs más snmphjs quj sj pujfjg afbptar? U3]

  J h tn
tnppb f
fj
j n gtj
gtjrr ia
iam
mln afb
fbrr fj iiahb
ahbrr ? a) r jiupj
iupjrr afb
fbrr y l) r jkjgj
kjgjrr afbr .  Zg
afb
rjiupjrafbr, ibmb sj jxphniù agtjs, js ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr ibgvjginbgah jg jh
quj jh iahbr sj rjiupjra b rjiblra pbr ha ibrrnjgtj fj chunfb críb fj ha ibrrnjgtj fj
chunfb iahnjgtj. Has fbs ibrrnjgtjs inriuhag fj magjra snmuhtágja, pbsnlhjmjgtj jg
uga varnjfaf fj ibgcnkurainbgjs fj chuob, a travîs fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr. Jg ug
rjkjgjrafbr, hbs chunfbs iahnjgtjs y críb chuyjg ahtjrgafamjgtj a travîs fjh

ngtjriamlnafbr, hb quj jsjginahmjgtj aitÿa ibmb uga ugnfaf fj ahmaijgamnjgtb y

fnsnpainùg fj jgjrkía tragsntbrna. U3]
11
 

  J h tnpb
tn pb fj prbijsb fj n gtjriam
gtjriaml
ln b f
fj
j iahb
iahbrr jgtrj hbs ch
chun
unfb
fbs?
s? a) ibgtait
ibgtaitb
b n gfn
gfnrr jitb
itb,,
b tragsmurah y l) ibgtaitb fnrjitb.  Jg ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr tragsmurah, hbs
chunfbs iahnjgtj y críb jstág sjparafbs pbr ug matjrnah sùhnfb, quj jg kjgjrah sujhj sjr
fj kjbmjtría tuluhar b fj phaia. Jg ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj ibgtaitb fnrjitb,
ibmb su gbmlrj hb suknjrj, hbs fbs chunfbs iahnjgtj
iah njgtj y críb chuyjg jg jh mnsmb jspainb

sng uga parjf fnvnsbra. U3]

  C asj tjr
tjr mb
mbf
fn gám
gámnn ia bjst
jstaf
afb
b fjhbs cchu
hunn fb
fbs?
s? a) u
uga
ga casj, l) jva
jvapb
pbrr ain
ainùg
ùg b jluhhn inùg
in ùg
 y i) iib
bgf
gfj
jgsa
gsainùg. Jstj irntjrnb sj rjcnjrj ah jstafb fj ha casj fj hbs chunfbs iahnjgtj
inùg.
y crnb y has trjs iatjkbrías sj rjcnjrjg a iasbs jg hbs quj hbs fbs chunfbs magtnjgjg ug
chuob fj uga casj y ugb fj hbs fbs chunfbs jxpjrnmjgta jvapbrainùg b ibgfjgsainùg
fjh chuob. U3]
  J h tnpb
tn pb fj ib
ibgstr
gstruiin
uiinù
ùg b kjb
kjbm
mjtr
tríí a? a) tul
tuluhar
uhar,, l) phaia y i) supj
supjrr cn inj
in j jxtj
xtjgfnfa
gfnfa b
ibg ahjtas. Zg jojmphb ibmÿg fj iafa uga fj has prnmjras fbs iatjkbrías,
rjspjitnvamjgtj, js jh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj ibraza y tulbs y jh ngtjriamlnafbr

fj iahbr fj phaias y marib. Zg ngtjriamlnafbr fj supjrcninj jxtjgfnfa b ibg ahjtas

 pbfría tjgjr uga kjbmjtría tuluhar (tulb-ahjtas) b ibg phaias (phaias-ahjtas). Ibg
crjiujgina sj hj rjcnjrj ibmb jh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr ibmpaitb, jg jspjinah iuagfb
tnjgj uga fjgsnfaf fj árja supjrcninah kragfj, js fjinr, uga rjhainùg fjh árja ah
vbhumjg fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr rjhatnvamjgtj kragfj. U3]

Yj fjlj tjgjr jg iujgta quj hbs jsqujmas fj ihasncniainùg sùhb snrvjg ibmb fnrjitrnijs y
quj jh fnsjñb rjah y ha sjhjiinùg fj ngtjriamlnafbrjs
n gtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr pujfjg ibmprjgfjr varnbs
btrbs caitbrjs. U3]

 
<.9. Gbrmas jstalhjinfas para jh fnmjgsnbgamnjgtb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr
fj iahbr.
Hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj tulb y iariaza (b tulb y ibraza) sj fnsjñag fj aiujrfb a hbs
jstágfarjs pulhniafbs pbr ha Asbinainùg fj Calrniagtjs fj Ngtjriamlnafbrjs Vuluharjs,
ibgbinfa ibmb VJMA (Vuluhar Jxidagkjr Magucaiturjrs Assbinatnbg). Jsta gbrma
ihasncnia a hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr fj tulb y ibraza jg trjs ihasjs, fj aiujrfb ah
 prbijsb y a has ibgfninbgjs fj bpjrainbgjs.
bpjrainbgjs. Has iuahjs
iuahjs sj mjginbgag
mjginbgag a ibgtnguainùg?
ibgtnguainùg? U4]

b   Ihasj \? Jspjincniag jh fnsjñb y ha calrniainùg fj ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr fj tulbs

y iariasas para hbs rjqunsntbs kjgjrahmjgtj sjvjrbs fj pjtrùhjb y aphniainbgjs fj
 prbijsamnjgtb rjhainbgafas.
rjhainbgafas. U4]

1<
 

b   Ihasj I? Jspjincniag jh fnsjñb

fns jñb y ha calrniainùg fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr para
hbs rjqunsntbs kjgjrahmjgtj mbfjrafbs fj has aphniainbgjs ibmjrinahjs y fj prbijsbs
kjgjrahjs. U4]
b   Ihasj L? ngihuyjg hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr quj sbg utnhnzafbs jg sjrvninb fj
 prbijsbs químnibs.
químnibs. U4]

Has trjs ihasjs fj ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr prjsjgtag has snkunjgtjs hnmntainbgjs? jh

fnámjtrb fj ngtjrnbr fj ha ibraza gb fjlj jxijfjr fj 100ng (<:60 mm) y ha prjsnùg fj
fnsjñb gb fjlj jxijfjr fj 9000 psn (<0346 EPa). Jstb parámjtrbs sj tbmag jg iujgta
ibg ha cngahnfaf fj hnmntar jh krbsbr máxnmb fj ha parjf fj ha iariasa a aprbxnmafamjgtj
9 ng (;3 mm) y jh fnámjtrb máxnmb fjh pjrgb a aprbxnmafamjgtj 6 ng (10< mm). U4]

VJMA tamlnîg mujstra has fncjrjgtjs ibgcnkurainbgjs fj ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj

tulb y ibraza, ha iuah sj fnvnfj jg trjs ibhumgas quj sbg? ha prnmjra ibhumga fjcngj jh
ialjzah fj jgtrafa ibg has hjtras A, L, I, G, y F5 ha sjkugfa ibhumga mujstra ha ibraza
ibg has hjtras J, C, K, D, O, E, y T5 y ha tjrijra ibhumga nhustra ah ialjzah fj sahnfa ibg
has hjtras H, M, G, P, Y, V, Z, y [. U;] Jstas ibgcnkurainbgjs sj pujfjg blsjrvar jg ha
cnkura 1. Pbr jojmphb, ha ibgcnkurainùg LJM gbs ngfnia quj jh ialjzah fj jgtrafa js fj
tnpb lbgjtj ibg jspjob cnob, ibg uga ibraza fj ug sbhb pasb y ug ialjzah fj sahnfa fjh tnpb
 lbgjtj. U4]

C nk ura ;. Ibgcnkurainbgjs fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr fj ibraza y tulb. U4]

nkura
 Cujgtj? Vuluhar Jxidagkjr Magucaiturjrs
Magucaiturjrs Assbinatnbg.

19
 

Jg ha gbrma VJMA sj pujfjg blsjrvar tamlnîg has tbhjraginas jxtjrgas pjrmntnfas pa

para
ra
ha calrniainùg fj hbs ibmpbgjgtjs fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr, tahjs ibmb? jspjobs,
 lrnfas, lbqunhhas, tapas, jti. Vamlnîg fjsirnlj has prujlas fj cuka quj sj tnjgjg quj
rjahnzar a hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs, fjspuîs fj su calrniainùg j ngstahainùg5 jg jsta mnsma
gbrma sj rjibmnjgfa jh tnpb fj matjrnah quj pujfjg jstar ibgstrunfbs hbs ibmpbgjgtjs

fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr, mnsmbs quj pujfjg sjr, fj aijrb ah iarlbgb, ahjainbgjs
fj aijrb, iblrj, ahumngnb, gíqujh, tntagnb y znribgnb. U>]

<.9.1. Parámjtrbs fj fnsjñb para has partjs fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr

fj tulb y ibraza sjkÿg has Gbrmas VJMA y AYMJ.
<.9.1.1.  Vulbs.  
Vulbs.
Hbs tulbs fj sjiinùg inriuhar sj utnhnzag
utnhn zag jxihusnvamjgtj jg ngtjriamlnafbrjs. Fafb quj
ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr fjsjafa jg jh ngtjriamlnafbr tnjgj hukar a travîs fj ha supjrcninj
fjh tulb, ha sjhjiinùg fj has varnalhjs kjbmîtrnias fjh tulb js nmpbrtagtj fjsfj jh pugtb
fj vnsta fjh rjgfnmnjgtb. Has varnalhjs kjbmîtrnias nmpbrtagtjs fjh tulb ngihuyjg jh
fnámjtrb jxtjrnbr fjh tulb, jh jspjsbr fj ha parjf fjh tulb, jh pasb fjh tulb y hbs patrbgjs
fj fnstrnluinùg fjh tulb. U10]
U 10]

<.9.1.1.1. Fnámjtrb fj hbs tulbs.

Jh tamañb fjh tulb sj jspjincnia pbr jh fnámjtrb jxtjrnbr y jh jspjsbr fj ha parjf. Fjsfj
jh pugtb fj vnsta fj ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr, hbs tulbs fj mjgbr fnámjtrb prbfuijg
maybrjs ibjcninjgtjs fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr y fag ibmb rjsuhtafb ug ngtjriamlnafbr
ibmpaitb. Yng jmlarkb, hbs tulbs fj maybr fnámjtrb sbg más cáinhjs fj hnmpnar, más
rjsnstjgtjs y sbg gjijsarnbs iuagfb ha iaífa fj prjsnùg pjrmntnfa jg jh hafb fjh tulb js
 pjqujña. U11]

Hbs tulbs fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr jstág fjgtrb fjh ragkb fj ¸ ng (3.9: mm) a < ng
(:0.4 mm) fj fnámjtrb jxtjrnbr. Hbs tamañbs fj hbs tulbs fj VJMA jg tîrmngbs fj
fnámjtrb jxtjrnbr sbg 1/6, 9/4, 1/<, :/4, 9/6, ;/>, 1, 1.<:, 1.: y < ng (3.9:, >.:9, 1<.;0,
1:.44, 1>.0:, <<.<9, <:.60, 91.;:, 94.10, y :0.40 mm). Jstbs tamañbs bcrjijg jh mjobr
rjgfnmnjgtb y sbg más jibgùmnibs jg muidas aphniainbgjs. Hbs más pbpuharjs sbg hbs
9/4 y 9/6 ng. tamañbs, y jstbs tamañbs bcrjijg jh mjobr rjgfnmnjgtb kjgjrah y sbg más
jibgùmnibs jg ha maybría fj has aphniainbgjs. Zsj tulbs fj 1/6 ng (3,9: mm) fj fnámjtrb

 para híqunfbs hnmpnbs. Para ha hnmpnjza m

mjiágnia,
jiágnia, jh tamañb práitnib más pjqujñb js 9/6
ng (1>.0: mm).
16
 

Hbs tulbs fj 1 ng fj fnámjtrb sj usag gbrmahmjgtj iuagfb sj jspjra quj sj jgsuinjg,

 pbrquj hbs más pjqujñbs gb sbg afjiuafbs para ha hnmpnjza mjiágnia, y hbs
ngtjriamlnafbrjs y vapbrnzafbrjs fj pjhíiuha fjsijgfjgtj kjgjrahmjgtj sj sumngnstrag
ibg tulbs fj 1.: y < ng. Yj pujfj blsjrvar has fnmjgsnbgjs fj hbs tulbs ibmjrinahjs,
utnhnzafbs 1< jg hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr. Vamlnîg jg jh agjxb <, sj pujfj blsjrvar

jh gÿmjrb fj pasbs fj hbs tulbs quj vag jg ha ibraza fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr. U11]
U10]

<.9.1.1.<. Hbgkntuf fj tulbs.

VJMA jstalhjij has snkunjgtjs hbgkntufjs fj tulb para ngtjriamlnafbrjs rjitbs y fj tulb
jg Z sj utnhnzag ibmÿgmjgtj? >3 (<694), 1<0 (9064), 166 ((93:4),
93:4), 1>< (64;;) y <60 (30>3)
ng (mm). Yj pujfjg usar btras hbgkntufjs. U>]

<.9.1.1.9. Gÿmjrb fj tulbs.

Jh gÿmjrb fj tulbs fjpjgfj fjh iaufah fj chunfb y ha iaífa fj prjsnùg fnspbgnlhj. Jh
gÿmjrb fj tulbs sj sjhjiinbga fj mbfb quj ha vjhbinfaf fjh hafb fjh tulb para akua y
híqunfbs snmnharjs varíj fj 9 a 4 ct/sk (0.> a <.6 m/s) y ha vjhbinfaf fjh hafb fj iulnjrta
fj < a : ct/sk (0.3 a 1.: m/sk). Jh hímntj fj vjhbinfaf más laob sj fjsja para hnmntar jh
jgsuinamnjgtb5 ha vjhbinfaf más ahta jstá hnmntafa para jvntar ha jrbsnùg-ibrrbsnùg jg jh
tulb, y jh ataquj pbr idbquj y ha vnlrainùg ngfuinfa pbr jh chuob jg jh hafb fj ha iariasa.
Iuagfb day arjga, hnmb y partíiuhas prjsjgtjs, ha vjhbinfaf sj magtnjgj hb
sucninjgtjmjgtj ahta ibmb para jvntar quj sj fjpbsntj. U>]

<.9.1.1.6. Yjparainùg fj hbs tulbs.

Hbs tulbs fjljg jstar sjparafbs a uga fnstagina ibgsnfjralhj y ibg uga afjiuafa
ibgcnkurainùg fj sjparainùg, fj jstb fj pjgfjrá ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr. VJMA
 prbpbrinbga jh pasb fjh tulb fj ijgtrb a ijgtrb quj js fj 1.<: a 1.: vjijs jh fnámjtrb
jxtjrnbr fjh tulb. Hbs tulbs sj jgiujgtrag jg iuatrb fncjrjgtjs patrbgjs b fnspbsninbgjs
fj tulbs quj sbg? trnagkuharjs (90°), knrafbs trnagkuharjs (30°), iuafrafbs (>0°) y
iuafrafbs knrafbs (6:°) jsta fnspbsninùg sj pujfj blsjrvar jg ha Cnkura
ha  Cnkura 4. U11]
4. U11]

<.9.1.1.:. Fnspbsninbg
Fnspbsninbgjs
js trnagkuharjs y trnágkuhbs knrafbs para tulbs.
Hbs fnsjñbs trnagkuharjs y knrafbs a 90° y 30°, prbpbrinbgag mjobrjs ibjcninjgtjs fj
tragscjrjgina fj iahbr jg jh hafb fj ha iariasa y hámngas fj tulbs más cujrtjs. U>]

1:
 

Para uga rjhainùg fj pasb, fafa jgtrj ha ngihngainùg fjh tulb y jh fnámjtrb jxtjrnbr js
aprbxnmafamjgtj
aprbxnmafamjgtj fjh 1:%. U11]

Jstj patrùg fj fnsjñb sj utnhnza jg chuobs fj sjrvninbs hnmpnbs, y tnjgjg ha fjsvjgtaoa fj

quj sbg ngaiijsnlhjs para ha hnmpnjza mjiágnia. Ybhb
Ybhb js pbsnlhj ha hn
hnmpnjza
mpnjza químnia b ha
hnmpnjza ibg idbrrb fj akua. U11]

<.9.1.1.3. Fnspbsnin
Fnspbsninbgjs
bgjs iuafrafas y iuafrafbs knrafbs para hbs tulbs.
Iuagfb js gjijsarnb rjahnzar uga hnmpnjza mjiágnia jg jh hafb fj ha iariasa, fjljg
utnhnzarsj fnspbsninbgjs fj 6:° y >0°ibg ug jspainb mígnmb jgtrj tulbs fj 3.9: mm,
mjfnfa fjsfj jh ijgtrb fjh fnámjtrb jxtjrnbr5 jstb hnmnta a utnhnzar tulbs fj :/4 b 9/6 ng
fjh fnámjtrb jxtjrnbr. Jh pasb fj ha fnspbsninùg iuafrafa
iuafrafa gb sj usa jg fnsjñbs cnobs fj hbs
ngtjriamlnafbrjs. Ha fnspbsninùg fj 6:° sj utnhnza para chuobs hamngarjs mbgbcásnibs.sj
suknjrj ug fnsjñb iuafrafb para has snkunjgtjs aphniainbgjs? U10]

  Yn ha iaífa fj prjsnùg js uga rjstrniinùg jg jh hafb fj ha iariasa, jh fnsjñb fj >0° sj

utnhnza para chuob turluhjgtb, ya quj ibg jstb sj tnjgj uga tasa fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr
supjrnbr y mjgbs iaífa fj prjsnùg. U10] 
  Para hbs djrvnfbrjs, sj prjcjrnrá ug fnsjñb iuafrafb pbr razbgjs fj jstalnhnfaf, ha
fnspbsninùg fj >0° prbpbrinbga vías fj jsiapj fjh vapbr. U10]  

Cnkura 4. Arrjkhbs fj hbs tulbs? (a) 90°5 (l) 30°5( i) >0°5 (f) 6:°5 (j) árja fj chuob para
 pasb iuafrafb5 y (c) árja fj chuob para ppasb
asb trnagkuhar.
 Cujgtj? Djat Jxidagkjr Fjsnkg Dagflbbe
Dagflbbe

13
 

<.9.1.<.  Ibraza b iariaza.

Has iariasas fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr sj calrniag jg uga amphna kama fj tamañbs,
matjrnahjs y krbsbrjs jstágfar. Hbs tamañbs más pjqujñbs sj calrniag kjgjrahmjgtj fj
tulbs fj tamañb jstágfar. Vamañbs más kragfjs sj calrniag a partnr fj phaia pbr
hamngainùg. Jh ibstb fj ha iulnjrta js muidb más quj jh ibstb fj hbs tulbs5 pbr hb tagtb,
ug fnsjñafbr ngtjgta aibmbfar ha supjrcninj fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr rjqujrnfa jg uga
iariasa. Yj jgiujgtra quj ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr más jibgùmnib kjgjrahmjgtj sj
 pujfj fnsjñar utnhnzagfb uga iariasa fj fnámjtrb pjqujñb y ha hbgkntuf máxnma fj ha
iariasa pjrmntnfa pbr caitbrjs práitnibs tahjs ibmb jh fnsjñb fj ha phagta, ha ngstahainùg,
jh sjrvninb, jti. U10] Ha rjfbgfjz y jh fnámjtrb ngtjrnbr fj ha iulnjrta sbg gjijsarnbs para
mngnmnzar jh jspainb jgtrj jh lbrfj fjh fjchjitbr y ha iulnjrta, ya quj jh jspainb jxijsnvb
 pjrmntj ha fjrnvainùg fjh chunfb y rjfuij jh rjgfnmnjgtb. U11]

<.9.1.9.  Vnpbs fj lachjs tragsvjrsbs.

Jh tnpb fj fjchjitbr b phaia fj sbpbrtj sjkmjgtarnb b muhtnsjkmjgtah js jstágfar. Yj

afmntjg btrbs tnpbs fj fjchjitbrjs. Jh ibrtj fjchjitbr sj fjcngj ibmb ha ahtura fj apjrtura
fjh sjkmjgtb jxprjsafa ibmb ug pbrijgtaoj fjh fnámjtrb ngtjrnbr fj ha iulnjrta b ibmb
ug pbrijgtaoj fjh árja hnlrj gjta tbtah fjgtrb fj ha iulnjrta (árja fj ha sjiinùg tragsvjrsah
tragsvjrsah
fj ha iulnjrta mjgbs jh árja tbtah fjh tulb). Jh gÿmjrb fj cnhas fj tulbs quj sj supjrpbgjg
 para hbs fjchjitbrjs muhtnsjkmjgtarnbs sj fjlj aoustar para far aprbxnmafamjgtj
aprbxnmafamjgtj jh
mnsmb chuob gjtb fj árja hnlrj a travîs fj iafa fjchjitbr. Hbs fjchjitbrjs fjljg ibrtarsj
ijria fj ha hígja ijgtrah fj uga cnha fj tulbs, fj ug iarrnh fj pasb, fj ug iarrnh fj tulbs b
cujra fjh patrùg fjh tulb. Hbs fjchjitbrjs tjgfrág ug aia
aialafb
lafb snmnhar ah fj ug tralaoafbr

ha  Cnkura
jg jh fnámjtrb jxtjrnbr. Hbs ibrtjs fj fjchjitbrjs típnibs sj nhustrag jg ha  Cnkura >. Hbs
ibrtjs fjchjitbrjs pujfjg sjr vjrtniahjs, dbrnzbgtahjs b knrafbs. U;]

C nk ura >. Ibrtjs y sjkmjgtafb fj hbs lachjs b fjsvnafbrjs.

nkura
 Cujgtj? Vuluhar Jxidagkjr Magucaiturjrs
Magucaiturjrs Assbinatnbg

1;
 

Jg ngtjriamlnafbrjs dbrnzbgtahjs jh ibrtj fj hbs lachjs pujfj sjr vjrtniah u dbrnzbgtah, hb

quj ibghhjva a fncjrjgtjs patrbgjs fj chuob jg ha iariasa. Ha jsibkjgina fj uga u btra
cbrma sj daij fj aiujrfb ah irntjrnb jxprjsafb jg ha  Cnkura 10.  Jh jspjsbr fj hbs
fjchjitbrjs fjpjgfj fjh fnámjtrb fj ha iariasa y fj ha hbgkntuf gb sbstjgnfa fj tulb,
t ulb, pjrb
usuahmjgtj jstág jg ug ngtjrvahb fj 9,< a 1> mm (1/4 a 9/6 ng). U4] 

C nk
nkura 10.. Irntjrnbs para jsibkjr ha brnjgtainùg fjh ibrtj fjh fjchjitbr. 
ura 10
 Cujgtj? Hnlrb Ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr? Vnpbs
Vnpbs Kjgjrahjs y Aphniainbgjs.

<.9.1.9.1.  Yjparainùg fj hbs fjchjitbrjs.

Hbs fjchjitbrjs sjkmjgtarnbs gbrmahmjgtj gb fjljg jstar sjparafbs más fj 1/: fjh
fnámjtrb ngtjrnbr fj ha ibraza. Yng jmlarkb, has ibgsnfjrainbgjs jspjinahjs fj fnsjñb
 pujfjg fnitar ug jspainb más ijriagb5 augquj jh ùptnmb pbfría sjr fj 60% a :0%. Hbs
fjchjitbrjs jstág kjgjrahmjgtj jspainafbs jgtrj has lbqunhhas. Has sjparainbgjs fjh
fjchjitbr fj jgtrafa y sahnfa sbg jg kjgjrah más kragfjs quj ha sjparainùg fjh fjchjitbr
"ijgtrah" para aibmbfar has lbqunhhas, ya quj has fnmjgsnbgjs fj ha lbqunhha rjqunjrjg
crjiujgtjmjgtj quj ha lbqunhha jstî hb sucninjgtjmjgtj ahjoafa fj has phaias fj hbs tulbs.
U11] U10]

<.9.1.9.<.  Ibrtj fj hbs fjchjitbrjs.

Jh ibrtj fjh jspainb ùptnmb fjh fjchjitbr jstá jg ahkÿg hukar jgtrj 0,6 y 0,3 fjh fnámjtrb
fj ha iariasa y kjgjrahmjgtj sj rjibmnjgfa ug ibrtj fj fjchjitbr fjh <:% ah 9:%. Hbs
fjchjitbrjs sjkmjgtarnbs trnphjs y sng tulbs jg ha vjgtaga sj utnhnzag para aphniainbgjs fj
 laoa iaífa fj prjsnùg, quj sbg aprbxnmafamjgtj
aprbxnmafamjgtj 0,: y 0,9 fjh vahbr sjkmjgtarnb.
sjkmjgtarnb. U11]

<.9.1.6.  Lrnfas.
Para ha sjhjiinùg fj has lrnfas fjh ngtjriamlnafb
n gtjriamlnafbrr fj iahbr, ibg jh usb fj ha Gbrma AYMJ,
sj sjhjiinbga has lrnfas, intagfb ha AYMJ L13.: fj ihasj 1:0 hls, jstalhjij has
fnmjgsnbgjs fj ha lrnfa quj sj ulniarag jg hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr. U1<]

14
 

Jh matjrnah fj ha ougta js fj PVCJ (Vjchùg), jstj js ug jhjmjgtb hnkjramjgtj chjxnlhj ibg

uga jstalnhnfaf tîrmnia jxijhjgtj, fjsfj -<;0¿I dasta 900¿I. Yj utnhnza muidb jg ha
ngfustrna fj ha ahnmjgtainùg y jg halbratbrnbs pbrquj js ngbiub ngihusb ibg tjmpjraturas
fj dasta <<0¿I. Yj pujfj ibgsnfjrar autb-hnmpnagtj y autb-hulrniagtj ya quj su supjrcninj
hnsa rjpjhj tbfb tnpb fj sustaginas, cainhntagfb su hnmpnjza. U19]

<.9.<. Ybhfafura fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj tulb y ibraza.

<.9.<.1.  Kjgjrahnfafjs
Kjgjrahnfafjs fjh matjrnah para ha sbhfafura.
Jh aijrb ngbxnfalhj ANYN 906 y ANYN 913 tnjgjg ibmpbsninbgjs fj Cj-I ibg ahjainbgjs
fj irbmb, mbhnlfjgb, gíqujh ibg ha cngahnfaf fj mjobrar sus prbpnjfafjs mjiágnias, jstb
kjgjra quj jh matjrnah sja rjsnstjgtj a amlnjgtjs ibrrbsnvbs, dainîgfbhbs nfjahjs jg
aphniainbgjs jg ngfustrnas ahnmjgtninas, ijrvjijras, carmaiîutnias, jti. U16]

<.9.<.<.  Vnpb fj prbijsb fj sbhfafura.

Jh prbijfnmnjgtb fj sbhfafura VNK kjgjra ibrfbgjs fj krag iahnfaf, sng jsibrnas (fafb
quj jmphjag jhjitrbfbs gb ibgsumnlhjs sng rjvjstnmnjgtb), gn prbyjiinbgjs, pbr hb quj
sj usa para sbhfafuras fj rjspbgsalnhnfaf jg aijrb ngbxnfalhj. U16]

Js fj vntah nmpbrtagina bltjgjr sbhfafuras fj ha máxnma iahnfaf y iuyb rjsuhtafb gb

mjrmj ha rjsnstjgina a ha ibrrbsnùg b fj sahulrnfaf ngninah fjh aijrb ngbxnfalhj. U16]

9.9.<.<.  Gbrmas fj sbhfafura.

Ha A[Y mjginbga hbs iùfnkbs para ha calrniainùg fj jstruituras, ibgstruiinùg fj pujgtjs
y jfncninbs5 afjmás lrngfa jspjincniainbgjs fj jhjitrbfbs, ahamlrjs y cugfjgtjs para
sbhfafura5 así ibmb hbs fnstngtbs jstágfarjs para iahncniainùg fj sbhfafbrjs y bpjrarnbs,
 prujlas, ngspjiinùg
ngspjiinùg y jg kjgjrah tbfb hb rjhainbgafb
rjhainbgafb ibg sbhfafura. U16]

Ha A[Y F1.3 Ytruiturah [jhfngk Ibfj - Ytanghjss Ytjjh (Iùfnkb fj Ybhfafura

Jstruiturah  ’   Aijrb Ngbxnfalhj), jstalhjij iùfnkbs quj iulrj ha sbhfafura fj aijrbs
ngbxnfalhjs fjgtrb fj hbs snkunjgtjs hímntjs? Iarlbgb (I) nkuah b mjgbr a 0.:%, Irbmb
(Ir) nkuah b maybr a 10.:%, Dnjrrb (Cj) maybr
ma ybr a iuahqunjr btrb jhjmjgtb. U16]

1>
 

<.6.  Agáhnsns fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr.

<.6.1. Ibjcninjgtj tbtah fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr.
Pbr hb ibmÿg ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr jstá rjhainbgafb ibg fbs chunfbs quj chuyjg
sjparafbs pbr uga parjf sùhnfa. Jg prnmjr hukar, jh iahbr sj tragscnjrj fjh chunfb
ch unfb iahnjgtj

daina ha parjf pbr ibgvjiinùg, fjspuîs a travîs fj ha parjf pbr ibgfuiinùg y, pbr ÿhtnmb,
fj ha parjf daina jh chunfb críb fj gujvb pbr ibgvjiinùg.
ibgvjiinùg. U6]

Para ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj fblhj tulb, ha rjsnstjgina tîrmnia fj ha parjf fjh tulb
js? U6]

\arj = hg<πeHFb⁆Fn  

Fbgfj? U6]

  = ibgfuitnvnfaf tîrmnia fjh matjrnah fj ha parjf. U6]

 = js ha hbgkntuf
h bgkntuf fjh tulb. U6]
Jgtbgijs ha rjsnstjgina tîrmnia tbtah qujfa? U6]

\ = \tbta = \n + \b = dn1An + hg<πeHFb⁆Fn + d1Ab  

Fbgfj? U6]

An = árja fj ha supjrcninj ngtjrnbr fj ha parjf quj sjpara hbs fbs chunfbs. U6]

Ab  = árja fj ha supjrcninj jxtjrnbr fj ha parjf quj sjpara hbs fbs chunfbs. U6]

C nk ura 11. \jf fj rjsnstjginas tîrmnias asbinafa

nkura asbinafa ibg ha tragscjrjgina
tr agscjrjgina fj iahbr jg ug
ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj fblhj chuob. U6]
<0
 

Jg btras pahalras An A b
  yy  sbg has árjas supjrcninahjs fj ha parjf fj sjparainùg mboafa pbr
hbs chunfbs ngtjrnbr y jxtjrnbr, rjspjitnvamjgtj. U6]

Jg jh agáhnsns fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr rjsuhta ibgvjgnjgtj ibmlngar tbfas has

rjsnstjginas tîrmnias quj sj jgiujgtrag jg ha trayjitbrna fjh chuob fj iahbr fjh chunfb
iahnjgtj daina jh crnb jg uga sbha rjsnstjgina \ y jxprjsar ha razùg fj ha tragscjrjgina fj
iahbr jgtrj hbs chunfbs ibmb? U6]

Q ̋ = ∃V\ = ZAY∃V = ZnAn∃V = ZBAB∃V  

Z
Jg fbgfj  js jh ibjcninjgtj tbtah fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr, iuya ugnfaf js [/m <.°I, ha
d
iuah js nfîgtnia a ha ugnfaf fj ibjcninjgtj fj ibgvjiinùg ibmÿg, . U6]

Jh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr tnjgj fbs ibjcninjgtjs fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr tbtahjs, Z n  y

Zb, ha razùg js quj tbfb ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr tnjgj fbs árjas supjrcninahjs para ha
tragscjrjgina fj iahbr, An y Ab, has iuahjs, jg kjgjrah, gb sbg nkuahjs jgtrj sí. U6]
U 6]

≠
 Gùtjsj quj ZnAn = ZBAb, pjrb Zn   Zb a mjgbs quj An = Ab. Pbr hb tagtb, jh ibjcninjgtj
fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr gb tnjgj snkgncniafb a mjgbs quj sj jspjincnquj jh árja sblrj jh
iuah sj lasa. U6]

C nk
nkura
ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj fblhj tulb (para
ibgsjiujgina,
ibgsjiujgi ≄ ≄
ura 1<. Has fbs árjas supjrcninahjs fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr asbinafas ibg ug
( para tulbs fjhkafbs, Fn   FB y, ibmb
na, An   Ab). U6]
Jh ibjcninjgtj tbtah fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr ‘Z” sj fjcngj ibmb ha ngtjgsnfaf tbtah fj
tragscjrjgina fj iahbr a travîs fj ug matjrnah y js jh rjinprbib fj has rjsnstjginas tbtahjs
iahiuhafas.. U6]
iahiuhafas

Iuagfb ha parjf fjh tulb js pjqujña y ha ibgfuitnvnfaf tîrmnia fjh matjrnah fjh mnsmb
js ahta, ibmb sujhj sjr jh iasb, ha rjsnstjgina tîrmnia fj fnidb tulb js fjsprjinalhj

≄
(\  parjf   0) y has supjrcninjs ngtjrnbr y jxtjrnbr fjh mnsmb
Jgtbgijs para jh ibjcninjgtj fj tragscjrjgina
mn smb sbg sjmjoagtjs
≄≄
sjmjoagtjs (An   Ab   As).
tragscjrjgina fj iahbr tbtah sj snmphncnia para qujfar? U6]
<1
 

1Z   ≄ d1n + d1  

≄≄
Fbgfj Z  Zn   Zb. U6]

<.6.<.  Caitbr fj ngirustainùg. 

Jh rjgfnmnjgtb fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr sujhj fjtjrnbrarsj ibg jh pasb fjh tnjmpb
ibmb rjsuhtafb fj ha aiumuhainùg fj fjpùsntbs sblrj has supjrcninjs fj tragscjrjgina fj
iahbr. Ha iapa fj fjpùsntbs rjprjsjgta uga rjsnstjgina afninbgah para jsta tra
tragscjrjgina
gscjrjgina y
daij quj fnsmnguya ha razùg fj ha mnsma jg ug ngtjriamlnafbr. Jh jcjitb gjtb fj jstas
aiumuhainbgjs sblrj
sblrj ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr sj rjprjsjgta pbr ug caitbr fj nngirustainùg
girustainùg
\ c c jh
   jh iuah js uga mjfnfa fj ha rjsnstjgina tîrmnia ngtrbfuinfa pbr ha ngirustainùg. U6]

Jg aphniainbgjs fbgfj js prblalhj quj biurra, ha ngirustainùg fjlj ibgsnfjrarsj jg jh

fnsjñb y sjhjiinùg fj ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr. Jg jsas aphniainbgjs pujfj sjr gjijsarnb
sjhjiinbgar ug ngtjriamlnafbr más kragfj y, pbr jgfj, más iarb, para karagtnzar quj
satnscaka hbs rjqunsntbs fj fnsjñb fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr nngihusb
gihusb fjspuîs quj biurra ha
ngirustainùg. U6]

Js blvnb quj jh caitbr fj ngirustainùg js ijrb para ug gujvb ngtjriamlnafbr, y aumjgta

ibg jh tnjmpb a mjfnfa quj sj aiumuhag hbs fjpùsntbs sùhnfbs sblrj ha supjrcninj fjh
mnsmb. U6]

Ha rjhainùg fjh ibjcninjgtj tbtah fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr fafa ibg agtjrnbrnfaf js váhn
váhnfa
fa
 para supjrcninjs hnmpnas y js
js gjijsarnb mbfncniarha
mbfncniarha para tbmar jg iujgta hbs jcjitbs
jcjitbs fj ha
ngirustainùg sblrj has supjrcninjs ngtjrnbr y jxtjrnbr fjh tulb. Para ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj
iahbr fj iasib y tulbs, sng ahjtas,
ah jtas, sj pujfjg jxprjsar ibmb? U6]

1ZA = Z1nAn = Zb1An = \ = dn1An + \Acn,n + hg<πeHFb/Fn + \Acb,b + db1Ab  

Jg fbgfj \ cc,, n y \ cc,, b sbg hbs caitbrjs fj ngirustainùg jg jsas supjrcninjs.

<.6.9.  Ngtjriaml
Ngtjriamlnb
nb fj iahbr jg jh snstjma.
Jg ha práitnia hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr sbg fj usb ibmÿg y ug ngkjgnjrb sj jgiujgtra
a mjgufb jg ha pbsninùg fj sjhjiinbgar ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr quj hbkrj ug iamlnb
fj tjmpjratura jspjiícnia fj uga ibrrnjgtj fj chunfb fj kastb fj masa ibgbinfb, b lnjg,
fj prjfjinr has tjmpjraturas fj sahnfa fj has ibrrnjgtjs fj chunfb iahnjgtj y críb jg ug
ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr jspjiícnib. U6]

<<
 

Ha prnmjra hjy fj ha tjrmbfngámnia rjqunjrj quj ha vjhbinfaf fj ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr

fjsfj jh chunfb iahnjgtj sja nkuah a ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr daina jh crnb5 js fjinr, U6]

Q ̋ = m ̋ I V,a ∜ V,jt  

Q ̋ = m ̋IV,jt ∜ V,a

Jg fbgfj hbs sulígfnijs i y d sj rjcnjrjg a hbs chunfbs críb y iahnjgtj, rjspjitnvamjgtj, y
U6]

m̋, m̋  = kastbs fj masa. U6]

I, I  = iahbrjs jspjiícnibs. U6]

V,a, V,a  = tjmpjraturas fj sahnfa. U6]

 =

,jt ,jt  = tjmpjraturas fj jgtrafa. U6]

 =

V ,V
Jg jh agáhnsns fj hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr a mjgufb rjsuhta ibgvjgnjgtj ibmlngar jh
 prbfuitb fjh kastb fj masa y iahbr jspjincnib fj ug chunfb jg uga sbha iagtnfaf. Îsta sj
hhama razùg fj iapainfaf iahbrícnia y sj fjcngj pbr has ibrrnjgtjs fj hbs chun
chunfbs
fbs iahnjgtj y
críb ibmb U6]

I = m ̋I  y I = m ̋I  

Ha razùg fj iapainfaf iahbrícnia fj uga ibrrnjgtj fj chunfb rjprjsjgta ha vjhbinfaf fj ha

tragscjrjgina fj iahbr gjijsarna para iamlnar ha tjmpjratura fj jsa ibrrnjgtj jg 1 ¿I
ibgcbrmj chuyj pbr jh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr. U6]

Yjkÿg jsta fjcngninùg, has jiuainbgjs sjrág has snkunjgtjs? U6]

Q ̋ = IV,a ∜ V,jt  

Q ̋ = IV,jt ∜ V,a  

Js fjinr, ha razùg fj ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr jg ug ngtjriamlnafbr js nkuah a ha razùg fj

iapainfaf iahbrícnia fj iuahqunjra fj hbs fbs chunfbs muhtnphniafa pbr jh iamlnb fj
tjmpjratura fj jsj chunfb. Ha ÿgnia biasnùg jg quj ha jhjvainùg fj ha tjmpjratura fj ug
chunfb críb js nkuah a ha iaífa fj tjmpjratura fjh chunfb iahnjgtj js iuagfb has razbgjs fj
iapainfaf iahbrícnia fj hbs fbs chunfbs sbg nkuahjs. U6]

<9
 

C nk ura 19. Fbs chuobs fj chunfbs quj tnjgjg has mnsmas

nkura mn smas razbgjs fj iapainfaf iahbrícnia
jxpjrnmjgtag jh mnsmb iamlnb fj tjmpjratura jg ug ngtjriamlnafbr
n gtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr lnjg
anshafb. U6]
<.6.6. Ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr a ibgtrachuob.

Jg jstj iasb jh chunfb iahnjgtj y crnb jgtrag jg jh ngtjriamlnafbr pbr hbs jxtrjmbs bpujstbs
bpujstbs
y, jg jstj iasb, ha tjmpjratura fj sahnfa fjh chunfb crnb js pbsnlhj quj sblrj pasj ha fj
sahnfa fjh chunfb iahnjgtj. Jg jh iasb hímntj, jh chunfb críb sj iahjgtará dasta ha tjmpjratura
fj jgtrafa fjh chunfb iahnjgtj. Yng jmlarkb, ha tjmpjratura fj sahnfa fjh chunfb gugia
 pujfj sjr maybr quj ha fj jgtrafa fjh chunfb iahnjgtj, ya
ya quj jstb sjría uga vnbhainùg fj
ha sjkugfa hjy fj ha tjrmbfngámnia.
t jrmbfngámnia. U6]

C nk
nkura 16.. Sarnainùg fj has
ura 16 h as tjmpjraturas fj hbs fbs chunfbs jg ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj
iahbr fj fblhj tulb, a ibgtrachuob. U6]

<6
 

Jg ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr a ibgtrachuob ha fncjrjgina fj tjmpjratura jgtrj hbs chunfbs

iahnjgtj y críb pjrmagjijrá ibgstagtj a hb harkb fjh mnsmb iuagfb has razbgjs fj

I m ̋I = m ̋I
, b lnjg, ). U6]
∃
iapainfaf iahbrícnia fj hbs fbs chunfbs sjag nkuahjs (js fjinr, V = ibgstagtj iuagfb I =
<.6.:. Mîtbfb para jh fnmjgsnbgamnjgtb tîrmnib fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fj
iahbr.
<.6.:.1.  Mîtbfb GVZ.
Jh GVZ js ug mîtbfb para jh agáhnsns fj ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr. A travîs fjh iuah
 pbfjmbs agahnzar jh ibmpbrtamnjgtb fj ug ngtjriamlnb fj iahbr laob parámjtrbs
fncjrjgtjs fj fnsjñb. Jstj mîtbfb sj usa para iahiuhar ha vjhbinfaf fj tragsmnsnùg fj iahbr
jg ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr iuagfb gb day ngcbrmainùg sucninjgtj para iahiuhar pbr jh
mîtbfb HMVF. U6]

<.6.:.<.  Mîtbfb fj fncjrjgina fj tjmpjratura mjfna hbkarítmnia.

Ibg jh mîtbfb fj ha HMVF rjsuhta muy afjiuafb para ha fjtjrmngainùg fjh tamañb fj
ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr ibg jh cng fj far hukar a has tjmpjraturas prjjsirntas fj sahnfa
iuagfb sj jspjincniag hbs kastbs fj masa y has tjmpjraturas fj jgtrafa y fj sahnfa fj hbs
chunfbs iahnjgtj y críb. U6]

Ibg jh mîtbfb fj ha HVMF, ha tarja js sjhjiinbgar ug ngtjriamlnafbr quj satnscaka hbs

rjqunsntbs prjjsirntas fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr. Jh mîtbfb quj fjlj sjkunrsj jg jh prbijsb
fj sjhjiinùg js? U6]

1.  Yjhjiinbgar jh tnpb fj ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr aprbpnafb para ha aphniainùg. U6]

<.  Fjtjrmngar iuahqunjr tjmpjratura fjsibgbinfa
fjsibgbinfa fj jgtrafa b fj sahnfa y ha razùg fj ha
tragscjrjgina fj iahbr
iahbr mjfnagtj ug lahagij
lahagij fj jgjrkía.
jgjrkía. U6]
9.  Iahiuhar ha fncjrjgina fj tjmpjratura mjfna hbkarítmnia
C sn js gjijsarnb. U6]
∃  y jh caitbr
 y c aitbr fj ibrrjiinùg

6.  Bltjgjr (sjhjiinbgar b iahiuhar) jh vahbr fjh ibjcninjgtj tbtah fj tragscjrjgina

t ragscjrjgina fj iahbr
Z. U6]
:.  Iahiuhar jh árja supjrcninah As fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr. U6]

<:
 

IAPNVZHB NNN

IÁHIZHB FJH NGVJ\IAMLNAFB\

 
 

6.1.  Irntjrnbs fj fnsjñb.

Yj gjijsnta ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj tulb y ibraza para jgcrnar jh mbstb fj ha ijrvjza
quj sj jgiujgtra a uga tjmpjratura fj 100 ¿I y sj jspjra laoar su tjmpjratura dasta ugbs
:0¿I hujkb fj pasar pbr jh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr, jh híqunfb quj sj usará para tragscjrnr
jh iahbr fjh mbstb sjrá jh akua y su tjmpjratura fj ngkrjsb ah ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr sjrá
fj 1: ¿I, jh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr sjrá a ibgtrachuob5 jh mbstb iahnjgtj pasará a travîs
fj hbs tulbs y jh akua pbr ha ibraza. Gbta? Hbs fatbs kjgjrahjs fj has prbpnjfafjs fjh
ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr jstará jg ha Valha
ha  Valha 1. 
1. 

  Agáhnsns?

Para hbs iáhiuhbs usarjmbs jh mîtbfb GVZ, para saljr ahkugbs vahbrjs quj jstág jg jh
ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr.

Para rjsbhvjr jstj jojrininb saiarjmbs hbs fatbs gjijsarnbs y hb mbstrarjmbs jg ha

Valha 1. 
1. 
Valha 1. Prbpnjfafjs kjgjrahjs fj hbs chunfbs.
Prbpnjfafjs
Prbpnjf afjs fj hbs ch
chunfbs
unfbs

 (Fjgsnfaf)
Ip (Iahbr jspjiícnib)
Akua
>>>,1 ek/m9 
6141 O/ek*E
Masa mbhjiuhar 0,01401:<4 ek/mbh
Snsibsnfaf fngámnia 0,001 Pa*s
Ibgfuitnvnfaf tîrmnia 0,:4 [/m*E
Vngkrjsb 1: °I
Vsahnfa 2
Mbstb
 (Fjgsnfaf) >:;,> ek/m9


IpMasa
(Iahbr jspjiícnib)
mbhjiuhar
Snsibsnfaf fngámnia
Ibgfuitnvnfaf tîrmnia
6<1; O/ek°I
0,0<91096 ek/mbh
1,1440 x 10-03 Pa*s
0,3;> [/m*E
Vngkrjsb 100 °I
Vsahnfa :0 °I

6.1.1. Iáhiuhb para jh chuob másnib fjh akua.

FAVBY FJH AKZA
Fnámjtrb fj tuljría ibraza 0,< m
Iaufah 0,01 m9/s
9
Fjgsnfaf
Iahbr fjh akua
jspjincnib fjh(aakua
℉
1: ) >>>,1O/ek°I
6141 ek/m

<;
 

S = πFq⁆6
   Sjhbinfaf fjh akua ah ngkrjsb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr.
n gtjriamlnafbr.
 

S = π0,< m⁆⁆s6
0, 01 m   

   Chuob másnib.
Sm=DB 0,0,̋ 99149=149q ∛m/sm/ρ s
 
 

m ek
mDB ̋ = 0,01 s ∛(>>>,1m)  

 ̋ =,   

6.1.<. Iáhiuhb para jh chuob másnib fjh mbstb.

FAVBY FJH MBYVB
Fnámjtrb
Iaufah fj tuljría ibraza 0,< m
Fjgsnfaf fjh akua (a 1: )
Iahbr jspjincnib fjh akua
℉ 0,00049999
>:;,> ek/m9
6<1; O/ek°I
m9/s

  Sjhbinfaf fjh mbstb.

S = πFq⁆6


S =  ⁆s
0, 0 004999 m   

 
  Chuob másnib fjh mbstb.

S=0,π0<;,< mm/s⁆6
mbt ̋ b = q ∛ρ  

mbt ̋ b = 0,00049999 ms ∛(>:;,>mek)  

 ̋  =,   

6.1.9.  Iapainfaf iahbrícnia fjh chunfb iahnjgtj y crnb. 


  Iapainfaf iahbrícnia fjh chunfb crnb.

<4
 

I = maa ̋ ∛ Ipaa 
I = (>,>> eks) ∛ (6141 ek∛°IO )  

   

I==m,btek ̋ ,b∛Ip°btb  O
  Iapainfaf iahbrícnia fjh chunfb iahnjgtj.


I = (0,;>4< s ) ∛ (6<1; ek∛°I)  

 =. °  

6.1.6. Iáhiuhb para dahhar ha tjmpjratura fj sahnfa fjh akua.

  \azùg fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr.


QQ ̋ == (m0,bt; >4<̋ b ∛Ip)bt∛6<1;b ∛ V∛°

bt  b,jtraa ∜ Vbtb,ana
 ∛ 100 °I ∜ :0 °II
 

 ̋ =  ,,    

  Vjmpjratura fj sahnfa fj ha ibraza.



Vaa,ana = Vaa,jtraa + m̋ aaaa ∛Q ̋ Ipaa  

Vaa,ana = 1:°I + (>,>>> 134 ) ∛900,(61416; [∛°  )  

, = ,,  °  

6.1.:. Iáhiuhb iahiuhar jh markjg fj jrrbr iáhiuhb a magb  ’  snmuhainùg

 snmuhainùg
YBHNF[B\EY.
  \azùg fj ha tragscjrjgina fj iahbr máxnma.


Q ̋ axQ ax̋ axax= =9933,

In ∛ V0bt1[1 °[Ib,jt∛ raa100∜°I°I∜Vaa,∜ 1:jt°I°Iraa 
 

<>
 

Q ̋ axax = <43<43 110,110,4: [  

  \jhainùg fj iapainfafjs i.

i = IIáxí
 

i = 619i=0,933,;;<,009411;[/°I
 
 

  Jcjitnvnfaf.

κ = Q ̋ áxQ ̋áx
 

κ = 134<43 900,110,64;: [[  

  Ibjcninjgtj GVZ. κ = 0,:449  

Ha cùrmuha utnhnzafa para fjtjrmngar jh ibjcninjgtj GVZ sj jgiujgtra jg ha

ha Cnkura
 Cnkura 1:. 
1:. 

C nk ura 1:. \jhainbgjs GVZ para hbs ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr.

nkura
1 <⁆ κ ∜1∜i∜∟ 
∜1∜i∜ 1
∟  +
GVZ= ∜ ∟ 1 + I ∛h g<⁆κ ∜1∜i+ ∟ 1 + i i   

1 ⁆
<0, > 14 ∜1∜0, 0 41∜1+0, 0 41
GVZ = ∜ 1+0,041 ∛h g<0,⁆ >14 ∜1∜0,041+ 1+ 0,041   

 
GVZ = 0,0,6;6 90
 

  Vjmpjraturas fafas jg YBHNF[B\EY.

Has tjmpjraturas prbpbrinbgafas pbr jh prbkrama sbg hbs snkunjgtjs?

Vng, mbstb = 100 ¿I

Vsah, mbstb = :<,6< ¿I

Vng, akua = 1: ¿I
Vsah, akua = 14,40 ¿I

  Vjmpjraturas jgibgtrafas jg iáhiuhbs maguahjs y fatbs kjgjrahjs.

Has tjmpjraturas prbpbrinbgafas pbr jh prbkrama sbg hbs snkunjgtjs?

Vng, mbstb = 100 ¿I

Vsah, mbstb = :0 ¿I

Vng, akua = 1: ¿I

Vsah, akua = 1>,09 ¿I

  Markjg fj jrrbr.

Jh markjg fj jrrbr sj hb iahiuha ibg ha jcjitnvnfaf . 

Hbs iáhiuhbs maguahjs gbs fnjrbg ibmb rjsuhtafb?

κaa = 0,0,:449
:449  

y a travîs fj ha snkunjgtj cbrmuha iahiuharjmbs ha jcjitnvnfaf fafa pbr jh prbkrama?

κYBNκYBNBYBY==V10100nn10100,0,bt0℉∜℉bt℉bb∜∜∜:<,:<Va1:,n6<6,<a℉abt℉b
 

κYBNBY =0,::>4  

Vjgnjgfb amlbs vahbrjs, prbijfjmbs a vjr iuáh js jh markjg fj jrrbr jg ha rjhainùg

iáhiuhb maguah-prbkrama?

% = (1 ∜ κYBNκaaBY ) ∛ 100 % = (1 ∜ 0,0,:::>4449) ∛100%  

% = ,  %
Jh markjg fj jrrbr js aijptalhj ya quj sj aijptag dasta :% ibmb markjg fj jrrbr.
91
 

6.1.3. Ibjcninjgtj fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr tbtah.

Ibgfuitnvnfaf tîrmnia fjh akua ,:4> 1⁆⁆∛
= 0=>>>,  
Fjgsnfaf fjh akua
Snsibsnfaf fngámnia fjh akua
Pr fjh akua
 = 0,001194 ⁆ ∛   
 
 

Ibgfuitnvnfaf tîrmnia fjh mbstb

Snsibsnfaf ingjmátnia fjh mbstb
Pr fjh mbstb  ==0,0=1,
=4,
0,31;1>94;0⁆:>⁆∛∛ 
 
 
 

   Gÿmjrb fj \jygbhfs
 \jygbhfs fjh akua.
akua.

\j = ρSFθ  

 >
>>>,
>>, 1
\j = 0,001194 ⁆
ekm  ⁆⁆ ∛0,< m
0,0,9149ekm∛s
ms  

 (Vurluhjgtb)

   Gÿmjrb fj \jygbhfs


\j =:: 44>,\j >=0SFϊ

\jygbhfs fjh mbstb.

  m⁆s ∛0,<⁆m
\j = 0,00,0,0<;000<906  

\j =<96,94  (Hamngar)

   Gÿmjrb fj Gussjht
 Gussjht fjh akua.

 =0,0<9∛::
 =0,0=999,
44>,<9>,<0:,,,∛4, 0>,,
 
 

   Gÿmjrb fj Gussjht
 Gussjht fjh mbstb.

 =0,0<9,,, , ,  

 =0,0<9∛<96,94 ∛1,;:  

G =<,<3  

9<
 

  Ibjcninjgtj fj ibgvjiinùg fjh mbstb.

dn = Gu∛efn  

n <,<3 ∛ 0,0,3;> [[//m ∛ E  


d =dn = 9,9,;3;0,30[/604mE
  Ibjcninjgtj fj ibgvjiinùg fjh akua.
 

db = Gu∛efb  

dn = 99999,9,<:∛<: 0,∛ 0,0,0:04:4>:4>m[/m

[/m∛∛ E  

dn = 9 439,439,4343 /   

  Ibjcninjgtj khblah fj tragscjrjgina fj iahbr.

Z = 1dn +1 1d  

Z = 1 + 11
9,;3 ∛  9 439,43 ∛ 
=,     

6.1.;. Btras ibgfninbgjs.
Ha gbrma tjma jspjincnia quj jh fnmjgsnbgamnjgtb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr fjpjgfía fj has
gjijsnfafjs para ha iuah sj gjijsnta, snjmprj y iuagfb iumpha ibg hbs rjqunsntbs
gjijsarnbs para sbpbrtar ha prjsnùg fjgtrb fjh ngtjriamlnafbr, para jstb pbfjmbs tjgjr
has snkunjgtjs mjfnfas?

Fnmjgsnbgjs kjgjrahjs fjh ngtjriamlnafbr

Fnmjgsnbgjs
Gÿmjrb fj tulbs 40
Hbgkntuf fj hbs tulbs <,4> m
Fnámjtrb ngkrjsb chunfbs 0,< m
Fnámjtrb fj ha ibraza 1,:0 m

99
 

IBGIHZYNBGJY.
Has prbpnjfafjs fj hbs chunfbs sbg muy nmpbrtagtjs fjgtrb fj ug jstufnb tîrmnib jg ug
ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr, jstbs pjrmntjg quj jh iahbr chuya mjobr a travîs fj hbs híqunfbs,
jstb tamlnîg sj fa jg sùhnfbs.

Jh ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj ibraza y tulbs js jh más usafb jg has fnvjrsas ngfustrnas,

afjmás jstág más gbrmahnzafbs y jxnstjg más fbiumjgtbs para fnmjgsnbgarhbs.

Jh mîtbfb GVZ y fncjrjgina mjfna hbkarítmnia, sbg mîtbfbs fj iáhiuhb quj jxnstjg jg
ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr, ha sjhjiinùg fjh mîtbfb fjpjgfj fj ha ngcbrmainùg quj sj
tjgka fjh ngtjriamlnafbr.

96
 

LNLHNBK\ACÍA

U1] A. F. \bmág
\bmág Kutnîrrjz,
Kutnîrrjz, «Fjtjrmngainùg fj has iaraitjrístnias
iaraitjrístnias fjh mbstb jhalbrafb ibg
mahta iaramjhb para jhalbrar uga ijrvjza artjsagah.,µ ZGNSJ\YNFAF AZVÙGBMA FJH
JYVAFB FJ DNFAHKB, <010. UJg hígja]. Avanhalhj?
dttps?//www.uajd.jfu.mx/ngvjstnkainbg/prbfuitbs/<41</.
dttps?//www.uajd.jfu.mx/ngvj stnkainbg/prbfuitbs/<41</. Ußhtnmb aiijsb? 1< Cjlrjrb
<0<1].
U<] YpangM^YHNFJ, «FNAK\AMA
«FNAK\AMA FJ CHZOB IJ\SJ_A
IJ\SJ_A FZCC,µ YpangM^YHNFJ, 19 Cjlrjrb <01:.
UJg hígja]. Avanhalhj? dttps?//myshnfj.js/fbiumjgts/fnakramafj-chuob-ijrvjza-
dttps?//myshnfj.js/fbiumjgts/fnakramafj-chuob-ijrvjza-
fuccfbi.dtmh.. Ußhtnmb aiijsb? 1< Cjlrjrb <0<1].

U9] N. H. [arf, «SN\VZAH

«SN\VZAH P\B,µ 6 Mayb <00;. UJg hígja]. Avanhalhj?
dttps?//www.rjvnstavnrtuahprb.ibm/rjvnsta/ijrvjza/14..
dttps?//www.rjvnstavnrtuahprb.ibm/rjvnsta/ijrvjza/14.. Ußhtnmb aiijsb? 1< Cjlrjrb
<0<1].

U6] ^. A. IJGKJH y A. O. KDAOA\, Vragscjrjgina

Vragscjrjgina fj iahbr y masa? Cugfamjgtbs y aphniainbgjs,
aphniainbgjs,
Mîxnib, F.C.? MiK\A[-DNHH, <011.

U:] O. P. Dbhmag, V\AGYCJ\JGINA FJ IAHB\,

IAHB\, Bitava jf., Mafrnf? MiK\A[-DNHH, 1>>4.

U3] C. Erjntd, \. M. Magkhnh y M. Y. Lbdg, P\NGINPNBY FJ V\AGYCJ\JGINA FJ IAHB\, Yîptnma

jf., Mîxnib, F. C., <01<.

U;] ^. Pysmjggyy, K. Pbhupag, N. Iarvaoah Marnsiah y C. Yágidjz Ynhva, Maguah para jh iáhiuhb
fj ngtjriamlnafbrjs fj iahbr y lagibs fj tulbs ahjtafbs, Larijhbga? \JSJ\VÎ, <00;.

U4] F. Kaffns, Vuluhar Jxidagkjr Magucaiturjrs

Magucaiturjrs Assbinatnbg, Vuluhar Jxidagkjr
Magucaiturjrs Assbinatnbg, NGI, Gjw ^bre? Jf., 1>44.

U>] N. \. C. Kbgzahjs, Calrniainùg y vahnfainùg jxpjrnmjgtah

jxpjrnmjgtah fj ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj iahbr fj
tulb y ibraza, Mjxnib, <01>.

U10] N. \. C. Kbgzahjs, Calrniainùg y vahnfainùg

vahn fainùg jxpjrnmjgtah fj ug ngtjriamlnafbr fj tulb y
ibraza, Mîxnib, <01>.
U11] E. Vduhueeagam, Djat Jxidagkjr Fjsnkg Dagflbbe, Gjw ^bre? Vayhbr & Cragins Krbup,
<019.

U1<] Ehngkjr, Iatahbkb fj prbfuitbs fj lrnfas y aiijsbrnbs, Mjxnib, <013.

U19] Mjtahchjx, Ougtas Mjtáhnias, Lrasnh? VJAFNV OZGVAY, <013.

<01 3.

U16] A. [. YBINJV^, Ytruiturah [jhfngk Ibfj-Ytanghjss Ytjjh, Chbrnfa? A. [. Ybinjty, <00;.

9: