C. Mlrjål
M. Eusgtu
 

L[RIJIFJKTRI CI^EL ;

Ckrflfbi Mlrjål y Mifzloi Eusgtu

( 2.l kbgjgúf, rkvgslbl y lepoglbl)

Elbrgb, >4<2
 

ÅFBGJK

Trúoimi l ol julrtl kbgjgúf.................................................

kbgjgúf....................................................................
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Cgj`l tçjfgjl.............
tçjfgjl.................................
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..=
=

<. Cufble
Cufblekftljgúf
kftljgúf tkúrgjl.............
tkúrgjl................................
.......................................
.......................................
........................................................
..................................... 7
<.<.   Bksjrgpjgúf bk ols nlsks tkúrgjls............
tkúrgjls...............................
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........................................7
....................7
<.>.   Trijksi bk bkslrriooi bk ol pruknl..........
pruknl..............................
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..........<:
<:

>. Bgekfsgifk
Bgekfsgifks
s bko LC-;......
LC-;..........................
.......................................
.......................................
.............................................................
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...<=
<=

:. Firels bk lpogjljgúf y jirrkjjgúf.............

jirrkjjgúf.................................
.......................................
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......................................><
..................><
:.<.   Gfstrujjgifks mkfkrloks..........
mkfkrloks..............................
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..........><
><
:.>.   Gfstrujjgifks kspkjåcgjls........
kspkjåcgjls.............................
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..>>
:.:.   Firels bk jirrkjjgúf.............
jirrkjjgúf................................
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.>>

2. Cufble
Cufblekftljgúf
kftljgúf kstlbåstgjl.........
kstlbåstgjl.............................
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..............>;
>;
2.<.   Lfìogsgs bgckrkfjgloks...........
bgckrkfjgloks..............................
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2.>.   Kstubgis rkjgkftks...........
rkjgkftks...............................
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;. Firels bk gftkrprktljgúf y nlrkeis......

nlrkeis..........................
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;.<.   Nlrkeis............................................................................................................:0

3. Lblptlj
 Lblptljgúf
gúf lo
lo kusakrl.
kusakrl......
.........
.........
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.........
.........
.........
..........
..........
.........
.........
..........
.........
.........
.........
.........
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............;<
...;<

=. Lblptlj
 Lblptljgúf
gúf lo
lo jltloìf
jltloìf.....
..........
..........
.........
.........
..........
.........
.........
.........
.........
..........
..........
.........
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.......37
...37

^kckrkfjgls ngnogimrìcgjls.........
ngnogimrìcgjls.............................
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....................................... 0=

:
 

Trúoimi l ol julrtl kbgjgúf

o çxgti bko LC-; qukbl pltkftk ufl vkz eìs kf ol lblptljgúf l ol okfmul

K jltlolfl bko gfstruekfti quk sk gfjouyk jiei fivkblb kf kstl kbgjgúf y quk
lpirtl vlogisl gfcireljgúf sinrk ko cufjgiflegkfti, ol cglngogblb y ol vlogbkz
bko LC-;
kf kstl okfmul.
Ko kstubgi cuk ookvlbi l jlni pir Zlrl Eloi Jkrrlti, Eþfgjl Mifzìokz Jlrrlsji,
Ckrrlf Jlsls Lzflr, Ckrrlf Sgüls Tij`, E.ª Kumàfgl Mrls Tçrkz y Zåovgl Nltlookr 
Zlookft, pkrtkfkjgkftks lo Gfstgtuti bk Gfvkstgmljgifks sinrk Jlogblb bk Sgbl bk ol
[fgvkrsgblb bk Mkrifl.
Kstl lblptljgúf lo jltloìf sk suel l ol yl kxgstkftk prkvglekftk kf kusakrl. Kf
kstl kbgjgúf tlengçf sk `lf ljtulogzlbi ols tlnols bk nlrkeis bk ol vkrsgúf kf kusakrl
 plrll gfjougr eìs puftuljgifks pkrjkftgoks y ois rlfmis jiepoktis bk puftuljgifks
 plr
jirrkspifbgkftks l jlbl ufl bk kools, oi quk pukbk `lnkr mkfkrlbi ogmkrls vlrgljgifks
jif rkspkjti l ois nlrkeis bk ol kbgjgúf lftkrgir.
Lbgjgifloekftk, sk `l ookvlbi l jlni ufl rkvgsgúf bko elfulo jif ko inhktgvi bk gfjougr 
bltis
bltis sin
sinrk
rk ois kstkstubg
ubgis
is eìeìss rkj
rkjgkf
gkftks
tks kf ois quk sk `l utg utgogzl
ogzlbi
bi ko LC
LC-;.
-;. Bksbk
Bksbk su
 punogjljgúf
 punogj ljgúf,, `lf sgbi eøotg
eøotgpoks
poks ols gfvks
gfvkstgmljg
tgmljgifks
ifks quk `lf rkspl rksploblb
oblbii ol sltgscl
sltgscljtirgl
jtirgl
cglngogblb bko LC-; kf bgvkrsis mrupis y pinoljgifks (p.kh., Nussi, >44:1 Elrtåfkz, Eusgtu,
Mlrjål y Jlegfi, >44:1 Rieìs y Iogvkr, >4421 Eusgtu y Mlrjål, >4421 Kstkvk, >44;,
Elrtåfkz y Mlrjål, >44=1 Mlrjål y Mrljgl, >447) i quk `lf rkpogjlbi su kstrujturl cljtirglo,
lpiylfbi su vlogbkz bk jifstrujti (p.kh., Mlrjål, Eusgtu y Skgml, >4431 Mlrjål, Eusgtu,
^gqukoek y ^gqukoek, >4<<1 Mlrjål, Mrljgl y Xkokzfivl, >4<:1 Eurmug, Mlrjål, Mlrjål y
Mlrjål, >4<>1 Rieìs y Iogvkr, >442) k gfvlrglfzl cljtirglo kf euy bgvkrsis mrupis (p.kh.,
Cukftks, Mlrjål, Mrljgl y Ogol, >4<<l1 Cukftks, Mlrjål, Mrljgl y Ogol, >4<<n1 Eurmug, Mlrjål,
Mlrj
Ml rjål
ål y MlMlrjrjål
ål,, >4
>4<>
<>)) i kf bgbgst
stgft
gftis
is pl
plås
åsks
ks y ok
okfm
fmululss ji
jie ei kf Eçx çxgj
gji
i (Z
(Zlo
loue
ue-C
-Cllrk
rks,
s,
Lmug
Lm ugol
olrr y Lf
Lflylyl,l, >4
>4<<
<<),), Nr
Nrls
lsgo
go (E
(Elr
lrtå
tåfk
fkz,
z, Eus
usgt
gtu,
u, Mlr lrjå
jåll y JlJle
egf
gfi
i, >4
>44:
4:)) i Gt
Gtlo
logl
gl
(Elrj`kttg, <77=). Lbkeìs bk kooi, ko LC-; tlengçf `l sgbi trlbujgbi lo pirtumuçs (Mlrjål,
Eusgtu y Skgml, >4431 Elrtåfkz, Eusgtu, Mlrjål y Jlegfi, >44:1 ^ibrgmuks, Skgml, Cukftks

y Mlrjål,, >4401
Hlurkmug
Hlurkmug, >4<:),Koisul
lo gfmoçs (Mlrjål,
y Euügz, Mrljgl y Xkokzfivl, >4<:) y lo vlsji (Koisul y Oúpkz-
>4<4).
 Fi kf vlvlfi,
fi, ko LC-
LC-;
; `l sgbi kep
kepoklbi
oklbi kf euotg
euotgtub
tub bk gfvks
gfvkstgmljgi
tgmljgifks
fks y tksgs
bijtirloks
bijtirloks kf bgstgft
bgstgftis
is plåsk
plåskss jiei Kjul
Kjulbir
bir (Jlob
(Jlobkrúf,
krúf, >4<:)
>4<:),, Nrl
Nrlsgo
sgo (Jlr
(Jlrfkgri
fkgri,,
>44>), Eçxgji
 

;
 

 L[RIJIFJKTRI CI^EL ;

(Jlreifl, >4421 Mifzìokz, >4471 ^uåz, >44:1 Zisl, >447), Tlfleì

(Jlreifl, Tlfleì (Lovlrlbi, >44:),
Tirtumlo (Ckrflfbks, >44:1 ^ibrgmuks, >4<<1 ^iquk, >44:), Tukrti ^gji (Lfbgfi,
>4401 Cgmukril, >4<<1 Mlrjål, >447), Tkrø (Rkhlbl, >44:) i Skfkzukol (Zgrl, >4<>). L
ksti `ly quk lülbgrok ols gfvkstgmljgifks rklogzlbls kf ols ufgvkrsgblbks
u fgvkrsgblbks ksplüiols
ksplüiols bk
Nlrjkoif
Nlrj koifll (Iogvkr,
(Iogvkr, >44<), Jlstgool-Ol Elfj`l (Mlrjål-Tkrloks, >4<<), Jiepoutkfsk bk
Elbrgb (Nlrnkrì, >44:), Mkrifl (Zijl, >4<:), Mrlflbl (Ìovlrkz, >4401 Ltgkfzl, >44:1
Bkomlbi-^ibrgmukz, >4<41 Mlrrk, >4<>1 Itkgzl, >4<4), Ol Olmufl (Múekz, >44;), Ols
Tloels bk Mrlf Jlflrgl (Loåls, >4<<1 Oúpkz, >44=1 Sgkrl, >440), Eurjgl (^ij`k,
>44;1 ^ibråmukz, >44=1 Sìzqukz, >44;), Flvlrrl (Tçrkz, >44:), Tlås Slsji (Ksfliol,
>44;1 Tloljgi
Tloljgis,
s, >447), ^leúf Oouoo
Oouoo (Tkülcgko, >440), ^ivgrl g Sgrmgog (^ihls, >44:),
Slokfjgl (Nussi, >44:1 Jknrgìf, >4<>1 Oúpkz, >44;1 ^ibrgmi, >442) i Zkvgool (Jirpls,
>440).
Kf su jifhufti, ko LC-; `l eistrlbi ufl mrlf rinustkz kf tibls ols
gfvkstgmljgifks kf ols quk sk `l kepoklbi, oi quk `l `kj`i quk cukrl jifsgbkrlbl
jiei ekbgbl bk jrgtkrgi plrl vlogblr itris gfstruekftis bk lutikstgel (Elrtåf-Loni,
 Føükz, Flvlrri y MrgMrghlov
hlovi,
i, >44=) y lutijifjkpti (Mlrlgmirbingo y Logrg, >4<<), lså
jiei itrls ekbgbls bk jifstrujtis rkoljgiflbis, jiei ol pkrsiflogblb kckjtgvl
(Tkookrlfi, Rrgmi, bko Nuky, Tloljgi y Xlpgji, >443) i ko trltlegkfti bk ol lbgjjgúf
(Tçrkz, Oúpkz, Jukstl y Jlnlookri, >44;).
Kf rksuekf, kstl kbgjgúf gfjouyk ufl jiepoktl rkvgsgúf bko elfulo y ufl
ljtulogzljgúf bk ois eltkrgloks, lså jiei ol lblptljgúf bko LC-; l okfmul jltlolfl.
Kspkrleis quk kstl fukvl kbgjgúf bko LC-; tkfml ufl nukfl ljimgbl y quk ols
ekhirls gfjougbls kf kool pkregtlf quk kstk gfstruekfti sgml sgkfbi ufl rkckrkfjgl kf
ko jlepi bk ol kvlouljgúf bk ol lutikstgel y ko lutijijkpti.
Ois lutirks
Cknrkri >4<2
 

3
 

Cgj`l tçjfgjl

Fienrk8 LC-;. Lutijifjkpti Cirel ;.

;.

Lutirks8 C. Mlrjål y M. Eusgtu.

Lpogjljgúf8 Gfbgvgbulo y jiokjtgvl.

Ìengti bk lpogjljgúf8 Fgüis y lbuotis,

lbuotis, l plrtgr
plrtgr bk ois <4 lüis.

Burljgúf8 <; egfutis lprixgelblekftk, gfjouykfbi ol lpogjljgúf y

ol jirrkjjgúf.

Cgflogblb8
Cgflogblb8 Kvloulr bgckrkftks lspkjtis bko lutijifjkpti kf fgüis,
lbioksjkftks y lbuotis8 Zijglo,Ljlbçegji/pricksgiflo,
Zijglo,Ljlbçegji/pricksgiflo, Keijgiflo,
Clegoglr y Cåsgji.

Nlrkeljgúf8 Nlrkeis pir skxi y jursi, bksbk ;.¸ bk K. Trgelrgl

`lstl >.¸ Nlj`gookrlti1 nlrkeis pir skxi bk ufgvkrsgtlrgis y
lbuotis (lblptljgúf lo kusakrl8 nlrkeis pir skxi y jursi,
bksbk ;.¸ bk K. Trgelrgl `lstl >.¸ Nlj`gookrlti1 lblptljgúf lo
jltloìf8 nlrkeis pir skxi y jursi, bksbk 3.¸ bk K. Trgelrgl
`lstl 2.¸ KZI).

Eltkrglo8 Elfulo bk lpogjljgúf y khkepolr lutijirrkmgnok.

=
 

<. Cufblekftljgúf tkúrgjl

<.<. Bksjrgpjgúf bk ols nlsks tkúrgjls

Bksbkk `l
Bksb `ljjk lo
lomu
mufl
flss bç
bçjjlb
lbls
ls sk `l vkvkfg
fgbi
bi susunr
nrly
lylf
lfbi
bi ol gegepi
pirt
rtlf
lfjg
jgll bk
bkoo
lutijif
lutijifjkpt
jkptii kf ko ngkf
ngkfkstl
kstlrr psgj
psgjisij
isijglo
glo bksb
bksbkk bgck
bgckrkft
rkftks
ks ìen
ìengtis
gtis bk ol Tsgj
Tsgjioim
ioimål
ål
(Ztkvkfs, <773). Rlengçf ois psgjúoimis joåfgjis, ois psgjúoimis bk ol kbujljgúf y ois
 psgjúoimis sijgloks bkcgkfbkf ol gepirtlfjgl
gepi rtlfjgl bk kstk jifstrujti kf ol kxpogjljgúf bko
jiepirtlegkfti `uelfi (Mkrmkf, <7021 Mrkkfwlob y Trltalfgs, <7021 Elraus y
]urc, <70=). Tir itrl plrtk, ko bkslrriooi quk sk ok `l blbi l kstk ìengti bk kstubgi
bksbk ol Tsgjioimål jimfgtgvl (Nrljakf, <7731 Cråls, Ekstrk y Bko Nlrrgi, <774) `l
jiftrg
ji ftrgnug
nugbi
bi l itir
itirmlr
mlr lo lutijifjkp
lutijifjkpti ti uf ouml
oumlrr jkft
jkftrlo
rlo kf ko jiep
jiepokhi
okhi kftrlelbi
kftrlelbi bk
oiss pr
oi prij
ijks
ksis
is ps
psgj
gjis
isij
ijgl
glok
okss bk
bkoo sk
skrr `u
`uel
elfi
fi.. Tr
Trkj
kjgs
gsle
lekf
kftk
tk,, uf
ufll bk ol
olss cu
cufj
fjgi
gifk
fkss
 psgjioúmgjls eìs gepirtlftks quk sk ok ltrgnuykf l ol clegogl ks ol cireljgúf bko
lutijifjkpti i gbkftgblb bk sus egkenris (Eusgtu y Looltt, <7721 Fiookr y Jloolf,
<77<). Ol clegogl pitkfjgl ol cireljgúf bko lutijifjkpti bk ois gfbgvgbuis quk ol
gftkmrlf pir ekbgi bk ols bgstgftls tçjfgjls bk sijglogzljgúf quk ois plbrks utgogzlf
(Ckosif
(Cko sif y Xgko
Xgkogfsag,
gfsag, <707), bko mrlbi bk jieufgjljgúf plbrks-`ghis (Nuragtt, <77<1
Eusgtu, @krrkri y Ogol, <77:) y bko jogel clegoglr (Fiookr y Jloolf, <77<). Ribi kooi,
jiftrgnuyk tlfti lo jiftkfgbi bko lutijifjkpti jiei l su jiepifkftk kvloultgvi i
vloirltgvi, ol lutikstgel.
Ois polftklegkftis eìs rkokvlftks prkskftlf lo lutijifjkpti jiei ufl kftgblb
jif eøotgpoks cljktls i jiei uf jifmoiekrlbi bk eøotgpoks jifjkpjgifks kf ko quk
jifvgvkf lspkjtis kstlnoks jif itris jlenglftks y eloklnoks. Zgf kenlrmi, fi `lf
clotlbi lutirks quk `lf prkskftlbi ko lutijifjkpti jiei uf jifstrujti sgepok y
kstìtgji. Kstl cirel bk gftkrprktlr ko lutijifjkpti ks uf instrujtir plrl ko lfìogsgs bk
ols rkoljgifks
rkoljgifks bko luti
lutijifjk
jifjkpti
pti jif ol rkmuo
rkmuoljgú
ljgúf
f jifbu
jifbujtulo
jtulo,, bkngbi l ol mrlf
bgcgjuotlb quk supifk kxpogjlr júei ufl kstrujturl gfbgckrkfjglbl pukbk ekbglr y
rkcokhlr ol bgvkrsgblb bk ol jifbujtl jif ol quk supukstlekftk kstì rkoljgiflbl
(Elraus y ]ur
]urc,
c, <70=).
Lutijifjkpti y lutikstgel. Ol bkogegtljgúf jifjkptulo bko lutijifjkpti y bk ol
lutikstgel fi ks jolrl, `lstl ko pufti quk lenis jifjkptis sk utgogzlf gfbgstgftlekftk
 plrl rkckrgrsk lo jifijgegkfti quk ko skr `uelfi tgkfk bk så egsei. Bkckfbgkfbi kstl
 pisturl bk ol ‟fi bgckrkfjgljgúf― sk kfjukftrlf Z`lvkosif, @unfkr y Ztlftif (<7=3)
qugkfks skülolf quk ols lcgreljgifks bksjrgptgvls y kvloultgvls ljkrjl bk ufi egsei
sk
 

7
 

 L[RIJIFJKTRI CI^EL ;

rkoljgiflf kepårgjlekftk. Fi instlftk, itris lutirks plrtgblrgis bk ol ‟bgckrkfjgljgúf―

lcgrelf quk ko lutijifjkpti y ol lutikstgel sk pukbkf bgckrkfjglr fåtgblekftk
(]ltagfs y B`lwlf, <707).
Ol clotl bk jolrgblb kf ol bkogegtljgúf pukbk ltrgnugrsk l quk mrlf plrtk bk ol

(gfvkstgmljgúf
Mkjjls
Mk ls,, <7
<70>),rkoltgvl
0>), gfjl
gfjlpl
plzlo lutijifjkpti
z bk supk
supkrl olssk
rlrr ol `lcgju
s bg
bgcg rkcumglbi
juot
otlb
lbks
ks qukf
k ois
quk polf
po lspkjtis
lftk ufll kvloultgvis
tkll uf kvlo
kvloul
uljg
jgúf
úf
gfbkpkfbgkftk bk lenis lspkjtis bko ‟yi― (^iss, <77>1 Bko Nlrrgi, Crgls y Ekstrk,
<772).
<77 2). Zgf ken
kenlrm lrmi,
i, tib
tibis
is jig
jigfjg
fjgbkf
bkf kf quk ko tçr tçregf
egfi
i lut
lutiji
ijifjk
fjkpti
pti gfj
gfjouy
ouykk
lutibksjrgpjgifks lnstrljtls quk sk pukbkf bgckrkfjglr, lo ekfis tkúrgjlekftk, bk ols
rkcokxgifks sinrk ol lutikstgel, puksti quk fi gepogjlf fkjkslrglekftk hugjgis bk
vloir.
Ko tçregfi lutikstgel kxprksl ko jifjkpti quk ufi tgkfk bk så egsei, skmøf ufls
julogblbks quk sif susjkptgnoks bk vloirljgúf y sunhktgvljgúf (Eusgtu, ^ieìf y
Mrljgl, <700). Ol pkrsifl sk lutivloirl skmøf ufls julogblbks quk privgkfkf bk su
kxpkrgkfjgl y quk sif jifsgbkrlbls jiei pisgtgvls i fkmltgvls. Ko jifjkpti bk
lutikstgel sk prkskftl jiei ufl jifjousgúf cgflo bko prijksi bk lutikvlouljgúf1 ol
 pkrsifl tgkfk uf jifjkpti
vloirks gepirtlftks, ksti ks,bksksåvloirl
egsel1kfsgeìs
bkspuçs plsl l lutikvloulrsk
i kf ekfis, k gftkmrl
sk gfcrl i sinrkvloirl,
bkjgeis quk tgkfk uf fgvko jifjrkti bk lutikstgel. Ks bkjgr, ol lutikstgel ks ko mrlbi
bk sl
sltgs
tgsclj
cljjgú
jgúf
f pkr
pkrsif
siflo
lo bk
bkoo gfb
gfbgvg
gvgbui
bui jif
jifsgm
sgmi
i egs
egsei,
ei, ol kcg
kcgjl
jljgl
jgl bk su pri
pripgi
pgi
cufjgiflegkfti y ufl ljtgtub kvloultgvl bk lprinljgúf quk sgkftk `ljgl så egsei.
Ko lutijifjkpti ks, pir itrl plrtk, ko pribujti bk kstl ljtgvgblb rkcokxgvl. Ks ko
jifjkpti quk ko gfbgvgbui tgkfk bk så egsei jiei uf skr cåsgji, sijglo y kspgrgtulo1 ks
‟ol titlogblb bk ois pkfslegkftis y skftgegkftis bk uf gfbgvgbui quk `ljkf rkckrkfjgl
l så egsei jiei uf inhkti― (^iskfnkrm, <7=7). Tlrl cgflogzlr kstk lplrtlbi, bgrkeis
quk sieis jifsjgkftks bk ol åftgel rkoljgúf kftrk ois tçregfis lutijifjkpti y
lutikstgel1 ks eìs, pibråleis `lnolr bk bis bgekfsgifks, ol jimfgtgvl y ol lckjtgvl bk
ufll eg
uf egssel rk
rklo
logb
gblb
lb11 pk
pkri
ri ji
jiei
ei ol ut utgo
gogz
gzlj
ljgú
gúf
f bk le
leni
niss jl
jlus
uslr
lrål
ål ji
jifc
fcusg
usgúf
úf k
gfjkrtgbuenrk kf ko pricksgiflo quk utgogjk ko LC-;, `keis iptlbi pir ko tçregfi bk
lutijifjkpti.
Euotgbgekfsgiflogblb. [fi bk ois lspkjtis eìs jifcogjtgvis y pioçegjis kf ois
øotgeis lüis, ks ko rkoljgiflbi jif ol euotgbgekfsgiflogblb bko lutijifjkpti. Kstl
jukstgúf, quk fis lbkftrl kf ol kstrujturl bk fukstrls rkprkskftljgifks gftkrfls y bk su
kvlouljgúf, `l sgbi inhkti bk bis lprixgeljgifks bgckrkftks8 lomufis lutirks polftklf
ufl bgekfsgúf øfgjl, `ljgkfbi `gfjlpgç kf ois lspkjtis eìs moinloks (Elrx y ]yffk,
<7=01 Jiipkrsegt`, <73=), egkftrls quk itris jifsgbkrlf quk sk trltl bk ufl kstrujturl
euotgbgekfsgiflo y hkrìrqugjl (Z`lvkosif, @unfkr y Ztlftif, <7=31 Eusgtu, Mlrjål y
Mutgçrrkz, <77<). Kstl øotgel lprixgeljgúf ks ol quk elyir lpiyi kepårgji kstì
rkjgngkfbi kf ol ljtulogblb (Elrs`, <77:1 Eusgtu, Mlrjål y Mutgçrrkz, <77<1 Ztkvkfs,
<773).
[fi bk ois prgekris lutirks quk bksjrgngú kepårgjlekftk ko lutijifjkpti jiei
uf jifstrujti euotgbgekfsgiflo cuk Cgtts (<73;), qugkf ok ltrgnuyú trks jiepifkftks
gftkrfis
 ‚gbkftgblb
 ‚gbkf tgblb,, lutisltgscl
lutisltgscljjgúf
jjgúf y jifbujtl
jifbujtl‚
‚ y jgfji
jgfji kxtkrfi
kxtkrfiss ‚cåsgji,
‚cåsgji, eirlo,
eirlo, pkrsi
pkrsiflo,
flo, clegog
clegoglr 
lr 
y sijglo‚.
 

<4
 

<. Cufblekftljgúf tkúrgjl

[f eibkoi tkúrgji lotkrfltgvi quk `l mizlbi bk mrlf ljkptljgúf ks ko eibkoi

 hkrìrqugji y euotgcljçtgji bk Z`lvkosif, @unfkr y Ztlftif (<7=3). Kstis lutirks
jifjgnkf ko lutijifjkpti jiei ol pkrjkpjgúf quk ko gfbgvgbui tgkfk bk så egsei, ol
julo sk nlsl bgrkjtlekftk kf sus kxpkrgkfjgls kf rkoljgúf jif ois bkeìs y kf ols
ltrgnujgifks quk ço egsei `ljk bk su pripgl jifbujtl. Bksbk kstk eibkoi sk polftkl
quk ko lutijifjkpti
lutijifjk
lutijifjkpti
pti fi-lj bko lbioksjkftk
fi-ljlbçeg
lbçegji,
ji, kstl fbipukbk
kstlfbi bgvgbgrsk
jifcgmurlbi
jifcg kf lutijifjkpti
murlbi kstk ei pir ljlbçegji
øotgei
øotg y
jiepifkftks
keijgifloks  ‚sif ois eìs sunhktgvis k gftkrfis‚, si sijg
jgloks  ‚rkoljgiflbis jif ko
loks
sgmfgcgjlbi quk ol jifbujtl bko gfbgvgbui tgkfk plrl ois bkeìs‚ y  cåsgjis  ‚kf ois quk
tgkfkf ufl gfjgbkfjgl cufblekftlo ols ljtgtubks y lplrgkfjgl mkfkrlo bko gfbgvgbui‚.
Kstis lutirks bkcgfkf sgktk jlrljtkråstgjls nìsgjls bko lutijifjkpti8
<. Kstì irmlfgzlbi. Ko gfbgvgbui lbiptl uf sgstkel bk jltkmirgzljgúf plrtgjuolr 
quk bl sgmfgcgjlbi y irmlfgzl ols kxpkrgkfjgls bk ol pkrsifl1 ols jltkmiråls
rkprkskftlf ufl cirel bk irmlfgzlr ols kxpkrgkfjgls pripgls y bk ltrgnugroks uf
sgmfgcgjlbi. [fl jlrljtkråstgjl bko lutijifjkpti ks, kf jifskjukfjgl, quk kstì
kstrujturlbi.
>. Ks euotgcljçtgji. Ko sgstkel bk jltkmirgzljgúf plrkjk gfjougr ìrkls tloks jiei
ol ksjukol,
cåsgjls. Kstkolsgstkel
ljkptljgúf sijglo, ko ltrljtgvi
bk jltkmirgzljgúf cåsgjilo yintkfgbi
ks sgegolr ols `lngogblbks sijgloks
pir fisitris y
kf ol
kolnirljgúf bk ol ksjlol LC-;.
:. Zu ks
kstr
truj
ujtu
turl
rl pu
pukb
kbkk sk
skrr hk
hkrì
rìrq
rqugjl.. Zus bge
ugjl bgekfs
kfsgif
gifks
ks tgk
tgkfkf
fkf sgm
sgmfgc
fgcgjl
gjlbis
bis k
gepirtlfjgl bgckrkftks kf cufjgúf bk ois vloirks y bk ol kblb bk ols pkrsifls.
2. Ko lutijifjkpti moinlo ks rkoltgvlekftk kstlnok. Zu vlrglngogblb bkpkfbk bk su
ungjljgúf kf ol hkrlrquål, bk elfkrl quk ols pisgjgifks gfckrgirks sif eìs
vlrglnoks.
;. Ks kxpkrgekftlo. Zk vl jifstruykfbi y bgckrkfjglfbi l oi olrmi bko jgjoi vgtlo
bko gfbgvgbui.
3. Rgkfk uf jlrìjtkr kvloultgvi. Ol bgekfsgúf kvloultgvl vlrål kf gepirtlfjgl y

sgmfgcgjlbi bkpkfbgkfbi
bgckrkfjglo bkpkfbk, bk ois gfbgvgbuis
prinlnokekftk, y ols sgtuljgifks.
bk ol kxpkrgkfjgl Kstlgfbgvgbui
plslbl bko vloirljgúf
kf
ufl juoturl y sijgkblb plrtgjuolr, kf ufl clegogl, ktj.
=. Ks bgckrkfjglnok bk itris jifstrujtis jif ois juloks kstì tkúrgjlekftk rkoljgiflbi
(p. kh., `lngogblbks ljlbçegj
ljlbçegjls,
ls, lutijiftrio, `lngogblbks sijgloks, ktj.).
L plrtgr bk kstk eibkoi oi,, itris gfvkstgm
gmllbirks `lf bksjrgti eibkois
euotgbgekfsgifloks bgckrkftks kf ol cirel, lufquk fi kf ko jiftkfgbi (@lrtkr, <70>1
Tlools, Kftwgsok, Lokxlfbkr y ]kgfstkgf, <7741 Eusgtu, Mlrjål y Mutgkrrkz, <77<). Bk
`kj`i,
`kj `i, ko ei
eibko
bkoii euo
euotgb
tgbgek
gekfsg
fsgifl
ifloo ks ko lbi
lbiptl
ptlbi
bi plr
plrll ol kol
kolnirl
nirljgú
jgúf
f bk kskstk
tk
gfstruekfti quk, jiei oukmi vkrkeis, sk jlrljtkrgzl pir su euotgbgekfsgiflogblb.
Lsgegsei, ko eibkoi bk Z`lvkosif `l sgbi lepoglekftk gfvkstgmlbi y vlogblbi (Xirgj`
y ^kyfiobs, <7001 Elrtirkoo, Nkrflfbkz, Coirks, Jifksl y Zgovl, <7741 Elrtirkoo, <77>1
Elrtirkoo, Loiy, Múekz y Zgovl, <77:) y, l ol vkz, lomufls bk sus jlrljtkråstgjls `lf
sgbi jukstgiflbls, jiei su kstrujturl hkrìrqugjl (Elrs`, <7071 Elrs` y Nyrfk, <77:)
i ko rio y ol bkcgf
bkcgfgjgú
gjgúf
f bko lutijifjkpti
lutijifjkpti ljlbçegji
ljlbçegji mkfkr
mkfkrlo
lo ‚pist
‚pistuoìfb
uoìfbisk
isk bis
lutijifjkptis bgckrkfjglbis8
bgckrkfjglbis8 ko vkrnlo y ko
 

<<
 

 L[RIJIFJKTRI CI^EL ;

eltkeìtgji‚ (Elrs`, Nyrfk y Z`lvkosif, <700). Kf ol prkskftk ksjlol `keis

jifsgbkrlbi uf sioi cljtir ljlbçegji, tlo y jiei surmgú kf ois trlnlhis gfgjgloks jif
 prklbioksjkftks y skmøf ois cljtirks rljgifloks intkfgbis l plrtgr bko eibkoi bk
Z`lvkosif. [f pufti gftkrkslftk rkoljgiflbi jif ko supuksti bk ol
euotgbgek
euotgbgekfsgifl
fsgiflogbl
ogblb
b ks ol pisgn
pisgngogbl
gogblb
b bk kstl
kstlnokj
nokjkr
kr rkol
rkoljgifk
jgifkss kftrk sus bgstg
bgstgftls
ftls
bgekfsgifks
ljlbçegji, ko ylhustk,
itrlsktj.
vlrglnoks rksuotlbi,
rksuotlbi, tloks jiei ois vloirks, ko rkfbgegkfti
r kfbgegkfti

Kstlngogblb crkftk l eloklngogblb. Itrl bk ols jlrljtkråstgjls eìs sirprkfbkftks

y jiftrivkrtgbls hufti jif ol bk ol euotgbgekfsgiflogblb bko lutijifjkpti ks su
jlpljgblb bk pkrelfkjkr kstlnok y jlenglftk lo egsei tgkepi1 bk skr kstlnok kf sus
lspkjtis eìs fujoklrks
fujoklrks y pric
pricufbis
ufbis,, l ol vkz quk vlrglnok kf sus lspkjtis eìs
bkpkfbgkftks bko jiftkxti. Zg ljkptleis quk ufi bk ois prgfjgploks eitgvis bko skr 
`uelfi ks ol nøsqukbl bk jifsgstkfjgl kf sus jrkkfjgls ljkrjl bk så egsei, ks cìjgo
gfckrgr oi lotlekftk bksklnok quk ks plrl ko skr `uelfi ol kstlngogblb bko lutijifjkpti
i bk ols bgstgftls
bgstgftls gbkft
gbkftgblbk
gblbkss quk oi jiepif
jiepifkf
kf (Zj`wlonk,
(Zj`wlonk, <77:). Kf fuekfuekrisls
risls
gfvkst
gfvkstgml
gmljgi
jgifks
fks sk jif
jifstl
stltl
tl quk ois skrskrks
ks `ue
`uelfi
lfiss nus
nusjl
jlff bkf
bkfibl
iblble
blekft
kftkk ol
jifsgstkfjgl y ol kstlngogblb y sk rksgstkf ljtgvlekftk l juloqugkr gfcireljgúf quk

bkslcåk
kstubgi itgkfk
lekfljk su lutijifjkpti.
fuekrisis khkepois bkOl ogtkrlturl
júei jgkftåcgjl
ol jifbujtl sgrvkrkckrkftk l kstk pritkmkr
plrl vkrgcgjlr, ìengti bky
elftkfkr
elft kfkr ols jifj
jifjkpjg
kpjgifks
ifks y kvlo
kvlouljgi
uljgifks
fks quk ols pkrsifls tgkfkf
tgkfkf bk så egsels (vkr 
Nlflhg y Trkftgjk, <772). Zgf kenlrmi, l pkslr bk kstl gepirtlftk rksgstkfjgl lo
jlengi,
jle ngi, tlengçf kfjiftrleis fuekrisls kvgbkfjgls kepårgjls quk eukstrlf ol
ijurrkfjgl bk jlengis tkepirloks, lså jiei bk eibgcgjljgifks pkrelfkftks kf ko
lutijifjkpti. Tlskeis l jifsgbkrlr lenis tgpis bk jlengis.

L oi olrmi bk ol vgbl, ko skr `uelfi ltrlvgksl pkråibis jråtgjis i eiekftis

kspkjgloekftk rkokvlftks kf ois quk sk ok kxgmk quk lsuel fukvis rioks y sk lhustk l
fukvls bkelfbls (Nlflhg y Trkftgjk, <772). Kf kstk skftgbi, sk `lf gfvkstgmlbi ols
vlrgljgifks quk sk pribujkf kf ko lutijifjkpti l oi olrmi bko jgjoi vgtlo (vkr Bleif y
@lrt, <70>). [fi bk ois pkrgibis bk ol vgbl quk sk jlrljtkrgzl prkjgslekftk pir ko
jlengi, lså jiei pir skr uf eiekfti bk jifsiogbljgúf bk ol gbkftgblb, ks ol
lbioksjkfjgl (Nla`urst y Zypfiwgj`, <77;1 Tloeiflrg, <77<). Jif ol kblb sk inskrvl
ufl primrksgvl jieprkfsgúf bko lutijifjkpti kf tçregfis jlbl vkz eìs prkjgsis bk
tgpi
tgpi gft
gftkfj
kfjgifl
giflo,
o, vio
viogtg
gtgvi
vi y rk
rkco
cokx
kxgv
gvi,
i, lså jie
jieii ufl tkftkfbkf
bkfjgl
jgl l sgssgstke
tkeltg
ltgzlr 
zlr 
jifjkptuloekftk ois bgvkrsis lspkjtis bko lutijifjkpti kf uf sgstkel ufgcgjlbi. Bk
elfkrl primrksgvl, sk vl gftkmrlfbi,
gftkmrlfbi, rkj`lzlfbi i ljkptlfbi plrjgloekftk ol
gfcireljgúf privkfgkftk bk fukvls kxpkrgkfjgls.
Lbkeìs bk ois jlengis bkngbis lo bkslrriooi kvioutgvi bko gfbgvgbui y l ols
jiftgfuls kxpkrgkfjgls k gftkrljjgifks fukvls, tlengçf sk `lf kfjiftrlbi jlengis
sustlfjgloks kf ko lutijifjkpti kf eiekftis bk trlfsgjgúf, tloks jiei ko skr elbrk
(Bkutsj`, ^unok, Cokegfm, Nriias-Muf y Ztlfmir, <700), ko ljjksi l ol ufgvkrsgblb
(Kt`gkr y Bklux, <774), ol gfjirpirljgúf lo ekrjlbi olnirlo (Mrljgl, @krrkri y Eusgtu,
E usgtu,
<77;), ktj.
Tir itrl plrtk, ko jiftkxti sijglo gfekbglti privijl jgkrtis jlengis tkepirloks kf
ko ji
jifj
fjkp
kpti
ti qu
qukk ol pkpkrs
rsif
ifll tg
tgkf
kfkk bk så egegssel kf uf ei eiek
ekft
fti
i bk
bktk
tkre
regf
gflb
lbi.
i.
Trkjgslekftk, bksbk uf kfciquk sijgioúmgji sk `l prkstlbi ufl elyir ltkfjgúf l ol
flturlokzl bgfìegjl y lblptltgvl bko lutijifjkpti, bkslrrioolfbi, pir khkepoi, ko
jifjkpti
jifjkpti bk ‟gbk
‟gbkftgbl
ftgblbks
bks kspkjåcgjls
kspkjåcgjls―― plrl rkckrgrsk
rkckrgrsk l ois sgmfgcgjlbis
sgmfgcgjlbis bko yi quk
 

kekrmkf burlftk uf kfjukftri

<>
 

<. Cufblekftljgúf tkúrgjl

sijglo plrtgjuolr (Lokxlfbkr y Afgm`t, <7=<). Wl ]googles Hleks, lo rkckrgrsk l ol

flturlokzl vlrglnok bko lutijifjkpti, ksjrgnål quk ‟ko gfbgvgbui tgkfk tlftis skocs
sijgloks
sijgloks bgck
bgckrkft
rkftks
ks jiei mrupis bgst
bgstgfti
gftiss bk pkrs
pkrsifls
ifls juyls ipgfg
ipgfgifks
ifks ok gepirt
gepirtkf―.
kf―.
Tkri, ¹júei pukbk rkjifjgoglrsk kstl vgsgúf bk uf lutijifjkpti tlf jlenglftk y
bkpkfbgkftk bko bkslrriooi kvioutgvi i bko jiftkxti sijglo gfekbglti jif ol kvgbkfjgl
kxgstkftk rkspkjti bk ol geprksgiflftk kstlngogblb bko lutijifjkpti9
[fl lprixgeljgúf lo lutijifjkpti quk pkregtk kftkfbkroi jiei kstlnok, y lo
egsei tgkepi jiei eloklnok, ks ol quk sk sumgkrk jif ol fijgúf bk lutijifjkpti kf
trlnlhi, ljtulo i ljjksgnok (Elraus y Furgus, <703). Bksbk kstk polftklegkfti sk plrtk
bk ol gbkl bk quk fi tibls ols lutirkprkskftljgifks i gbkftgblbks quk cirelf plrtk bk
uf lutijifjkpti jiepokti sif ljjksgnoks kf juloqugkr eiekfti. Ko lutijifjkpti
ljjksgnok, i ko lutijifjkpti bko eiekfti, sk bkcgfk ekhir jiei ufl eibgcgjljgúf bk
ol jifcgmurljgúf, jiftgfulekftk ljtgvl, bko lutijifijgegkfti ljjksgnok. Ko
lutijifjk
luti jifjkpti
pti fi sk pkrjg
pkrjgngrål
ngrål jiei ufl kftgb
kftgblb
lb eifioåtgjl
eifioåtgjl quk sk trlso
trlsolbl
lbl bk ufl
sgtuljgúf l itrl, sgfi jiei uf kspljgi (Elraus y ]urc, <70=), ufl jifckbkrljgúf
(Mrkkfwlob y Trltalfgs, <702) i uf sgstkel (Elrtgfblok, <704) bk lutijifjkpjgifks.
Bksbk kstk jifhufti bk lutijifjkpjgifks, ko gfbgvgbui jifstruyk uf lutijifjkpti
ljjksgnok quk gftkmrl
rkjgkftks kogjgtlbls pirols lutijifjkpjgifks
ko jiftkxti gfekbgltifujoklrks
i ko kstlbijif lqukoolsbko
keijgiflo eìssuhkti.
gfekbgltls y

Ko lutijifjkpti, kftifjks, sk pukbk pkrjgngr jiei kstlnok kf ol ekbgbl kf quk ko

ufgvkrsi bk lutijifjkpjgifks ks rkoltgvlekftk gflotkrlnok. Jgkrtlekftk, sk lülbgrìf
fukvls lutijifjkpjgifks, lufquk sg sk `l jrklbi ufl lutijifjkpjgúf plrtgjuolr ks
geprinlnok quk bkslplrkzjl, gfjousi, sg sk kogjgtl kf jiftlbls ijlsgifks. Lo egsei
tgkepi,
tgke pi, `ly vlrgljgifks kf ols lutijifjkpjgifks quk kstìf ljtgvlbls kf ko pkfslegkfti
y ol ekeirgl kf uf eiekfti blbi, pir oi quk ko lutijifjkpti lplrkjk jiei eloklnok,
eloklnok,
 puksti quk oi quk jlengl l`irl
l`irl sif ois jiftkfgbis bko lutijifjkpti
lutijifjkpti ljjksgnok.

<.>. Trijksi bk bkslrriooi bk ol pruknl

Ko LC-; surmgú jiei ufl vkrsgúf ekhirlbl y ljtulogzlbl bk ufl cirel

 prkjkbkftk, ko LC
LCLL (Lutijifjkpti Cirel L). Kf kstl fukvl vkrsgúf sk lülbål ufl
bgekfsgúf Cåsgjl l ols lftkrgirks Ljlbçegji/Olnirlo, Zijglo, Keijgiflo y Clegoglr. Ko
jukstgiflrgi sk jifckjjgifú sinrk ol nlsk tkúrgjl bko eibkoi euotgbgekfsgiflo y
 hkrìrqugji bk ol kstrujturl bko lutijifjkpti pripukstl pir ois rkokvlftks trlnlhis bk
Z`lvkosif y jiokmls (Nyrfk y Z`lvkosif, <7731 Z`lvkosif, @unfkr y Ztlftif <7=3),
qugkfks rkprkskftlf lo lutijifjkpti jiei uf jifstrujti euotgbgekfsgiflo irmlfgzlbi
 hkrìrqugjlekftk l plrtgr bk ufl bgekfsgúf mkfkrlo, jif bgvkrsis lspkjtis rkoljgiflbis
 ‚fi irtimifloks‚ pkri bgstgfmugnoks, quk pukbkf kfjiftrlrsk bgckrkfjgloekftk
rkoljgiflbis jif bgckrkftks ìrkls bko jiepirtlegkfti `uelfi (Tloljgis y Xlnlol,
>44=1 ]yogk, <7=7).
L ol `irl bk bgskülr ko LC-;, sk bkcgfgkrif 3 åtkes bk jlbl ufl bk ols ;
bgekfsgifks, rksuotlfbi uf jukstgiflrgi titlo bk :4 åtkes jif kstrujturl
 pkftlbgekfsgiflo. Ol kokjjgúf
kokjjgúf
 

<:
 

>. Bgekfsgifks bko LC-;

L jiftgfuljgúf sk bkcgfk jlbl ufl bk ols bgekfsgifks bko LC-; plrl su jirrkjtl
gftkrprktljgúf8
Lutijifjkpti ljlbçegji/olnirlo. Zk rkcgkrk l ol pkrjkpjgúf quk ko gfbgvgbui
tgkfk bk ol jlogblb bko bkskepküi bk su rio, jiei kstubglftk y jiei trlnlhlbir. Ol
bgekfsgúf
kf rklogblb, `ljkkfrkckrkfjgl
kstk jlsil bis ìengtis iksksjkflrgis8
kspkjåcgji, eìs uflko bgckrkfjgljgúf
ljlbçegji y kobk
olnirlo, quk
pkråibis
jrifioúmgj
jrifi oúmgjis
is quk bk bkske
bkskepküi
pküi bk rio
rioks,
ks, puksti quk lenis jiftkxtis
jiftkxtis ‚olni
‚olnirlo
rlo y
ljlbçegji‚ sif bis jiftkxtis bk trlnlhi. Zkeìftgjlekftk, ol bgekfsgúf mgrl kf tirfi
l bis khks8 ko prgekri sk rkcgkrk lo skftgegkfti quk ko kstubglftk i ko trlnlhlbir tgkfk
bko bkskepküi bk su rio l plrtgr bk sus pricksirks i supkrgirks (nukf trlnlhlbir, nukf
kstubglftk…) y ko skmufbi sk rkcgkrk l julogblbks kspkjåcgjls vloirlbls kspkjgloekftk
kf ksk jiftkxti (gftkogmkftk, kstgel, nukf trlnlhlbir/l). Kstl bgekfsgúf jirrkoljgifl
 pisgtgvlekftk jif ko lhustk psgjisijglo, ko rkfbgegkfti ljlbçegji/olnirlo, ol jlogblb
bk ol khkjujgúf bko trlnlhi, ol ljkptljgúf y kstgel bk ois jieplükris, ko ogbkrlzmi y ol
rkspifslngogblb1 y, fkmltgvlekftk, jif ko lnskftgsei ljlbçegji/olnirlo y ko jifcogjti
(Ogol,, <77<1 Mutgçrrkz,
(Ogol Mutgçrrkz, <7021 Eusgtu
Eusgtu y Lool
Looltt,
tt, <7721 Skgml, <77<1 Nkfkbgti, <77>1
Nrljakf,
Nrlj akf, <773).
<773). Kf fgüis y lbiokslbioksjk
jkftk
ftks,
s, ko lutijifjkp ti ljl
lutijifjkpti ljlbçe
bçegji
gji tle
tlengç
ngçf
f
jirrkoljgifl pisgtgvlekftk jif ois kstgois plrkftloks bk gfbujjgúf, lckjti y lpiyi1 y,
fkmltgvlekftk, jif ois bk jikrjgúf, gfbgckrkfjgl y fkmogmkfjgl (Eusgtu y Looltt, <7721
Kstlrkook
Kstlrkooks,
s, <70=1 Eusgtu, ^ieìf y Mutgç
Mutgçrrkz,
rrkz, <7731 Olen, Akttkrogfus
Akttkrogfus y Crl
Crljl
jlssi
ssi,,
<77>).

Lutijifjkpti sijglo. Zk rkcgkrk l ol pkrjkpjgúf quk tgkfk tg kfk ol pkrsifl bk su bkskepküi

kf ols rkoljgifks sijgloks. Bis khks bkcgfkf kstl bgekfsgúf8 ko prgekri `ljk rkckrkfjgl l
ol rkb sijglo bko gfbgvgbui y l su cljgogblb i bgcgjuotlb plrl elftkfkrol y lepoglrol1 ko
skmufbi khk sk rkcgkrk l lomufls julogblbks gepirtlftks kf ols rkoljgifks gftkrpkrsifloks
(legml
(le gmlnok
nok y lo
lokmr
kmrk).
k). Ko lut
lutij
ijifj
ifjkpt
kpti
i sij
sijgl
gloo ji
jirrk
rrkolj
oljgif
gifll pis
pisgtgv
gtgvle
lekf
kftk
tk ji
jiff ko lhulhustk
stk
 psgjisijglo,
 psgjisijglo, jif ko ngkf
ngkfkstlr
kstlr psgjisijglo,
psgjisijglo, jif ko rkfb
rkfbgegkf
gegkfti ti ljl
ljlbçeg
bçegji
ji y olnir
olnirlo,
lo, jif ol
kstgel bk pricksirks y supkrgirks, jif ol ljkptljgúf y kstgel bk ois jieplükris jieplükris,, jif
ol ji
jifb
fbuj
ujtl
tl pr
pris
isij
ijgl
gloo y jif oioiss vl
vloi
oirk
rkss ufufgv
gvkr
krsl
slog
ogst
stls
ls11 y, fkfkml
mltg
tgvl
vle
ekf
kftk
tk,, jif oi oiss
jiepirtlegkftis bgsruptgvis, ol lmrksgvgblb y ol sgftieltioimål bkprksgvl (J`klo, <77<1
Nribkrgja, <77:1 Tifs, <7071 Ogol, <77<, <77;1 Eiopkjkrks, <77<1 @krrkri, <77>1
Elrj`kttg, <77=1 Mutgçrrkz, <707).

<=
 

 L[RIJIFJKTRI CI^EL ;

Kf fgüis y lbioksjkftks, kstl bgekfsgúf kstì rkoljgiflbl euy pisgtgvlekftk jif

ols prìjtgjls bk sijglogzljgúf plrkftlo bk lckjti, jieprkfsgúf y lpiyi1 y
fkmltgvlekftk, jif ol jikrjgúf, ol fkmogmkfjgl y ol gfbgckrkfjgl (Eusgtu y Looltt, <7721
Eusgtu, ^ieìf y Mutgçrrkz, <773).
@ljk rkckrkfjgl l ol pkrjkpjgúf bk ol pkrsifl bk su kstlbi
Lutijifjkpti
keijgiflo keijgiflo.l sgtuljgifks kspkjåcgjls, jif jgkrti mrlbi bk jiepriegsi k
y bk sus rkspukstls
gepogjljgúf kf su vgbl jitgbglfl. Ko cljtir tgkfk bis cukftks bk sgmfgcgjlbi8 ol prgekrl sk
rkcgkrk l ol pkrjkpjgúf mkfkrlo bk su kstlbi keijgiflo (siy fkrvgisi, ek lsusti jif
cljgogblb) y ol skmufbl l sgtuljgifks eìs kspkjåcgjls (julfbi ek prkmuftlf, ek `lnolf,
ktj.), bifbk ol itrl pkrsifl gepogjlbl ks bk uf rlfmi supkrgir (pricksir, bgrkjtir, ktj.).

[f lutijifjkpti keijgiflo loti sgmfgcgjl quk ko gfbgvgbui tgkfk jiftrio bk ols

sgtuljgifks y keijgifks, quk rkspifbk lbkjulblekftk y sgf fkrvgisgsei l ois
bgckrkftks eiekftis bk su vgbl, y oi jiftrlrgi sujkbk, fireloekftk, jif uf
lutijifjk
luti jifjkpti
pti nlhi. Ko lutij
lutijifjk
ifjkpti
pti keij
keijgiflo
giflo jirrk
jirrkoljg
oljgifl
ifl pisgt
pisgtgvlek
gvlekftk
ftk jif ols
`lngogblbks sijgloks, ko lutijiftrio, ko skftgegkfti bk ngkfkstlr y ol ljkptljgúf bk ois
gmuloks1 y, fkmltgvlekftk, jif ol sgftieltioimål bkprksgvl, jif ol lfsgkblb, jif ko
jifsuei bk loji`io y jgmlrrgoois y jif ol pinrk gftkmrljgúf sijglo kf ko luol y kf ko
ìengti olnirlo (Mrljgl, @krrkri y Eusgtu, <77;1 @krrkri, <7721 Jlvl, <770).
Kf fgüis y lbioksjkftks, kstl bgekfsgúf jirrkoljgifl pisgtgvlekftk jif ols
 prìjtgjls plrkftloks bk lckj
lckjti,
ti, jieprkfsgúf, gfbujjgúf y lpi
lpiyi,
yi, egkftrls quk oi `ljk
fkmltgvlekftk jif ol jikrjgúf vkrnlo y cåsgjl, ol gfbgckrkfjgl, ol fkmogmkfjgl y ois
elois trltis (Nribkrgja, <77:1 Tgflzi, <77:1 Mrljgl, <77<1 Ogol, <77;1 @krrkri, <77>,
Jlvl, <77;, <7701 Oogflrks, <7701 Eusgtu, ^ieìf y Mutgçrrkz, <7731 Mrljgl y
<7721 Jlvl,
Eusgtu, <77:).
Lutijifjkpti clegogl
Lutijifjkpti clegoglr.
r. Zk rkcgkrk l ol pkrjkpjgúf quk tgkfk ol pkrsifl bk su
gepogjljgúf, plrtgjgpljgúf k gftkmrljgúf kf ko ekbgi clegoglr. Ko sgmfgcgjlbi bk kstk
cljtir sk lrtgjuol kf tirfi l bis khks
khks.. Ko prgekri sk rkcgkrk kspkjåcgjlekftk
kspkjåcgjlekftk l ois plbrks
kf bis biegfgis gepirtlftks bk ols rkoljgifks clegoglrks jiei sif ol jifcglfzl y ko
lckjti. Ko skmufbi khk `ljk rkckrkfjgl l ol clegogl y lo `imlr jif jultri vlrglnoks, bis
bk kools cireuolbls pisgtgvlekftk ‚ek sgkfti ckogz y eg clegogl ek lyublrål‚ loubkf
lo skftgegkfti bk ckogjgblb y bk lpiyi, y ols itrls bis, cireuolbls fkmltgvlekftk ‚eg
clegogl kstì bkjkpjgiflbl y siy euy jrgtgjlbi‚, `ljkf rkckrkfjgl lo skftgegkfti bk fi
kstlr gepogjlbi y bk fi skr ljkptlbi pir ois itris egkenris clegoglrks.

Kstk clj
Kstk cljtir
tir,, qu
qukk ks ufi bk ois eì eìss gep
gepirt
irtlft
lftks
ks bko lut
lutiji
ijifjk
fjkpti
pti,, jir
jirrko
rkoljg
ljgifl
ifl
 pisgtgvlek
 pisgtgvlekftk
ftk jif ko rkfbge
rkfbgegkfti
gkfti ksjio
ksjiolr
lr y olnir
olnirlo,
lo, jif ko lhust
lhustkk psgji
psgjisijgl
sijglo, o, jif ko
skftgegkfti bko ngkfkstlr jif ol gftkmrljgúf ksjiolr y olnirlo, jif ol jifbujtl prisijglo,
jif
jif vl
vloi
oirk
rkss uf
ufgv
gvkr
krsl
slogs
ogstl
tlss y ji
jif
f ol pk
pkrj
rjkp
kpjg
jgúf
úf bk sl slou
oub
b cå
cåsg
sgjl
jl y ekekft
ftlo
lo.. Rl
Rlen
engçgçf
f
jirrkoljgifl fkmltgvlekftk jif ol sgftieltioimål bkprksgvl, ol lfsgkblb y ko jifsuei bk
brimls (Lnrgo, <7731 Tgflzi, <77:1 Mgo, <77=1 Oogflrks, <7701 Jlvl, <7701 Eusgtu y Looltt,
<7721 Olen, Akttkrogfus y Crljlssi, <77>1 Elrj`kttg, <7==).

Kf fgüis y lbioksjkftks, ko lutijifjkpti clegoglr sk rkoljgifl pisgtgvlekftk jif

oiss ks
oi kstg
tgoi
oiss pl
plrk
rkft
ftlo
loks
ks bk lc
lckj
kjti
ti,, ji
jiep
eprk
rkfs
fsgúf
gúf y lp
lpiy
iyi1
i1 y fkfkml
mltg
tgvl
vlek
ekft
ftkk ji
jif
f ol
jikrjgúf, ol
 

<0
 

>. Bgekfsgifks bko LC-; 

vgiokfjgl, ol gfbgckrkfjgl y ol fkmogmkfjgl (Mrljgl, @krrkri y Eusgtu, <77;1 Mrljgl, <77<1

Lmubkoi, <77=1 Lrlfmi, <773).
Lutijifjkpti cåsgji. Kstk cljtir `ljk rkckrkfjgl l ol pkrjkpjgúf quk tgkfk ol
 pkrsifl bk su lspkjti cåsgji y bk su jifbgjgúf cåsgjl. Ko cljtir mgrl kf tirfi l bis khks
quk sif jiepokekftlrgis kf su sgmfgcgjlbi
sgmfgcgjlbi.. Ko prgekri loubk l ol prìjtgjl bkpirtgvl kf
su vkrtgkftk sijglo ‚ek nusjlf…‚, cåsgjl y bk `lngogblb ‚siy nukfi…‚. Ko skmufbi
`ljk rkckrkfjgl lo lspkjti cåsgji ‚ltrljjgúf, mustlrsk, kokmlftk‚. [f lutijifjkpti
cåsgji loti sgmfgcgjl quk sk pkrjgnk cåsgjlekftk lmrlblnok, quk sk jugbl cåsgjlekftk y
quk pukbk prljtgjlr lomøf bkpirtk lbkjulblekftk y jif çxgti. Oi jiftrlrgi sk pibrål
bkjgr bk uf lutijifjkpti cåsgji nlhi. Ko K o lutijifjkpti cåsgji jirrkoljgifl
 pisgtgvlekftk jif ol pkrjkpjgúf bk sloub, jif ko lutijiftrio, jif ol pkrjkpjgúf bk
 ngkfkstlr, jif ko rkfbgegkfti bkpirtgvi, jif ol eitgvljgúf bk oimri y jif ol
gftkmrljgúf sijglo y ksjiolr (Mlrjål, <77:1 @krrkri, <7721 Mrljgl, @krrkri y Eusgtu,
<77;1 Lyirl, <773). Lsgegsei, ko lutijifjkpti cåsgji jirrkoljgifl fkmltgvlekftk jif
ko bkslhustk ksjiolr, ol lfsgkblb y, kf ekfir mrlbi, jif ol prkskfjgl bk prinokels jif
ois gmuloks (Jlvl, <7701 @krrkri, <7721 Ztkvkfs, <773).

<7
 

:. Firels bk lpogjljgúf y jirrkjjgúf

:.<. Gfstrujjgifks mkfkrloks

Zk tkfbrìf kf jukftl ois sgmugkftks lspkjtis8


Ol slol bknkgouegfljgúf
tkepkrlturl, rkufgr jifbgjgifks sucgjgkftks bk lepogtub, lså jiei lbkjulbl
y vkftgoljgúf.
 Ois kvloulbis sk sgtulrìf bk cirel quk pukblf trlnlhlr jif gfbkpkfbkfjgl.
 Ks jifvkfgkftk lpogjlr
lpogjlr ol pruknl julfbi ois kvloulbis
kvloulbis fi kstçf jlfslbis
 ‚prkckrkftkekftk kf ols prgekrls
prgekrls `irls bk jolsk i bk ol
ol hirflbl olnirlo‚. Ol
lpogjljgúf sk bknk rklogzlr kf ufl siol sksgúf.
 Ko pricksgiflo quk lpogquk ol pruknl tkfbrì quk prkplrlr tibi ko eltkrglo lftks
bk ol sksgúf.
 Burlftk ko bkslrriooi bk ol egsel, ko kxlegflbir bknk kstlr prkskftk plrl
sioujgiflr ols pisgnoks bubls quk pubgkrlf surmgr, lufquk fi ks jifvkfgkftk
 pripirjgiflr gfcireljgúf ljjksirgl sinrk ois åtkes jif ko cgf bk fi vlrglr ol
`ieimkfkgblb bk ol prkskftljgúf bk ois egseis.
 Ks jifvkfgkftk jrklr uf jogel bk jifcglfzl plrl quk ois
o is kvloulbis trlnlhkf jif
trlfqugogblb y skmurgblb, kvgtlfbi tkfsgifks y lmingis.
 Ks gepirtlftk, lbkeìs bk mlrlftgzlr ufl lbkjulbl lpogjljgúf, quk ko
 pricksgiflo quk lpogquk ko LC-; l fgüis y lbioksjkftks goustrk kf ol pgzlrrl ols
gfstrujjgifks lftks bk gfgjglr ol pruknl sgrvgçfbisk, pir khkepoi, bko bgnuhi bk
uf tkreúektri jif ufl ksjlol bk ekbgbl bk < l 77 quk pukbk lyublroks l
vloirlr
vloir lr ols crlsks
crlsks bko jukstgiflrgi bk cirel eìs prkjgsl k gftugtgvl. Kf fgfmøf
jlsi bknk kepkzlr `lstl quk tibis ois kvloulbis
kvloulbis `lylf jieprkfbgbi
jieprkfbgbi júei
rkspifbkr lo jukstgiflrgi.

><
 

2. Cufblekftljgúf kstlbåstgjl

Kf prgekr oumlr sk lpogjú ko lfìogsgs cljtirglo plrl jiftrlstlr kepårgjlekftk ol

vlogbkz tkúrgjl bk ois jgfji jiepifkftks. Zk utgogzú ko primrlel ZTZZ y sk kxtrlhkrif
ois cljtirks ekbglftk ko eçtibi TCL ‚lfìogsgs bk jiepifkftks prgfjgploks‚, lpogjlfbi ol
ritljgúf inogegf jif firelogzljgúf bk Algskr, pir trltlrsk bk bgekfsgifks rkoljgiflbls.
Zk lsgmfl
lsgmfl uf eìeìxg
xgei
ei bk 777 gtkrljgifks
gtkrljgifks plrl ol kxtrljjgúf
kxtrljjgúf y itrls tlftls plrl ol
ritljgúf1 ; bk oåegtk bk ols bgekfsgifks, plrl jiftriolr ko føekri bk jiepifkftks, y ->4
lo vloir bk bkotl plrl ol ritljgúf.
Kf ol tlnol 2.< sk kxpifkf ois åtkes y slturljgifks kf jlbl ufi bk ois jgfji
cljtirks kxtrlåbis pir irbkf bk slturljgúf, rkelrjlfbi kf fkmrgtl ko cljtir bifbk jlbl
åtke tgkfk ol eìxgel slturljgúf.
Kstl egsel kstrujturl cljtirglo sk jifcgreú kf ols tksgs bijtirloks bk Ogol (<77;),
Lyirl (<77=), Elrj`kttg (<77=), Jlvl (<770) y Oogflrks (<770). Kf ko trlnlhi bk Ogol
(<77;) sk lpogjú ko gfstruekfti l ufl eukstrl jioienglfl y itrl ksplüiol y sk intuvi
ol egsel kstrujturl1 tlengçf Elrj`kttg (<77=) intuvi rksuotlbis jifcgreltirgis kf uf
kstubgi gftkrjuoturlo jif eukstrls bk Gtlogl y Ksplül.
Ois jiftkfgbis skeìftgjis bk ois åtkes lsgmflbis l jlbl jiepifkftk jigfjgbkf
jif ois cljtirks rljgifloks bkcgfgbis ekbglftk ol tçjfgjl bk lsgmfljgúf rljgiflo pir 
kxpkrti
kxpk rtis.
s. Ri
Ribi
biss oi
oiss åt
åtke
kess sl
sltu
turl
rlf
f kf ol bgbgek
ekfs
fsgú
gúff ls
lsgm
gmfl
flbl
bl jijif
f pu
puft
ftul
uljg
jgif
ifks
ks
supkrgirks l 4,;, l kxjkpjgúf bko åtke >> (4,2>4) y bko <; (4,27>), oi quk gfbgjl quk ols
mlrlftåls bk rkpogjljgúf bk ol egsel kstrujturl cljtirglo jif itrls eukstrls sif euy
lotls (Ztkvkfs, <77>). Kf ol elyirål bk ois jukstgiflrgis bk lutijifjkpti punogjlbis,
rksuotl euy bgcåjgo rkpogjlr ols bgekfsgifks tkúrgjls quk pripifkf ois lutirks ekbglftk
ko lfìog
lfìogsgs
sgs cljtirglo y, kf itris jukstgiflrgis,
jukstgiflrgis, sk bkcgk
bkcgkfbk
fbk ol ufgb
ufgbgekfs
gekfsgiflo
giflogblb
gblb bko
lutijifjkpti lftk ol bgcgjuotlb bk jiftrlstlr ols bgekfsgifks tkúrgjls (Tlstir, Flvlrri,
Riels y Iogvkr, <77=).
Tksk l quk ol kstrujturl cljtirglo intkfgbl ks euy fåtgbl, jifcgrelfbi
sltgscljtir
sltgscljtirglekf
glekftktk ols bgekf
bgekfsgifks
sgifks tkúrgjls,
tkúrgjls, ois jiepif
jiepifkftks
kftks kxpogjlf ko ;<% bk ol
vlrglfzl titlo y ko jikcgjgkftk locl bk jifsgstkfjgl gftkrfl ks bk 4,0<; (tlnol 2.>). Kf ko
lfìogsgs
lfì ogsgs bktlo
bktloolbi
olbi pir sunks
sunksjlol
jlolss sk jiepr
jiepruknl
uknl quk ol bgekf
bgekfsgúf
sgúf Ljlbçegjl/
Ljlbçegjl/olnir
olnirlo
lo
kxpogjl ol elyir pripirjgúf bk vlrglfzl (<0,=%) y tgkfk, tlengçf, ko elyir åfbgjk bk
jifsgstkfjgl gftkrfl (4,00). Kf ols itrls jultri bgekfsgifks, ol jifsgstkfjgl gftkrfl bk
jlbl sunksjlol rksuotl gfckrgir
gfckrgir l ol quk sk intgkfk kf jifhufti jif ois :4 åtkes bko
gfstrue
gfstruekfti
kfti.. Ol ekfi
ekfirr jifs
jifsgstkf
gstkfjgl
jgl gftkrfl bk ols ; sunk
sunksjl
sjlols
ols jirrkspifbk l ol
bgekfsgúf Zijglo, quk ks bk 4,=4, lufquk ol pripirjgúf bk vlrglfzl kxpogjlbl ks bko
<4,>%, ol skmufbl kf irbkf bk gepirtlfjgl.
 

>;
 

 L[RIJIFJKTRI CI^EL ;

Ol bgckrkfjgl eìs jolrl quk sk lprkjgl kf ko jiepifkftk Cåsgji bko lutijifjkpti

ks quk kf tibis ois mrupis ko pkrcgo bk ekbgls bk ois vlrifks kstì pir kfjgel bko bk ols
euhkrks (tlnol 2.<2). Lplrtk bk kstl jolrl bgckrkfjgl skmøf ko skxi, tlengçf sk pribujk
ufl tkfbkfjgl bksjkfbkftk jif ol kblb plrl vlrifks y euhkrks.

2.>. Kstubgis rkjgkftks

Bksbk ol punogjljgúf bko LC-; kf ko lüi <777 kstk gfstruekfti `l tkfgbi ufl mrlf
bgcusgúf y ufl kxtkfsl lpogjljgúf kf ko ìengti bk ols jgkfjgls bko jiepirtlegkfti.
Kstkk `kj`i sk rkcokhl kf ko gftkrçs bk ois pricksgifloks y ois gfvkstgmlbirks pir 
Kst
kxtkfbkr su usi y kf ols fuekrisls gfvkstgmljgifks bk ols quk `l sgbi inhkti.

Jiei yl sk `l gfbgjlbi kf ko prúoimi, su kstrujturl cljtirglo `l sgbi

rkpo
pogj
gjlb
lbll sltgscljtirglekftk kf eø
eøootgpoks kstubgis gfbkpkfbgkftks, tlfti kf
jlstkoolfi (Nussi, >44:) jiei kf jltloìf (Eloi, Nltlookr, Jlsls, Mrls y Mifzìokz,
>4<<). Rlengçf sk `lf intkfgbi rksuotlbis lfìoimis jif eukstrls bk plåsks jiei
Eçxgji
Jlegfi,(Zloue-Clrk
(Zloue
>44:) k-Clrks,
s, Lmugolr
Gtlogl y Lflyl,
, <77=). >4<<), Nrlsgo (Elrtåfkz, Eusgtu, Mlrjål y
(Elrj`kttg,
(Elrj`kttg

Rlengç
Rlen gçff sk `lf lpolpogjlb
gjlbi i lfì
lfìogsgs
ogsgs cljt
cljtirglo
irgloks
ks jifcg
jifcgrel
reltirgi
tirgiss quk lskm
lskmurlf
urlf ol
kstr
kstruj
ujtu
turl
rl cl
cljt
jtir
irgl
gloo bk
bkoo LC
LC; ; (M
(Mlr
lrjå
jål,
l, EuEusgsgtu
tu y Skgm gmll, >4
>443
4311 Ml
Mlrj
rjål
ål,, Mr
Mrlj
ljgl
gl y
Xkokzfivl, >4<:1 Eurmug, Mlrjål, Mlrjål y Mlrjål, >4<>1 Rieìs y Iogvkr, >442), ol
vlogbkz bk
bkoo ei
eibk
bkoi
oi bk jg jgfj
fjii cl
cljt
jtir
irkks ininog
ogjjui
uiss bk
bkoo LC
LC; ; (c
(cgm
gmur
urll 2.
2.<)
<) jijift
ftrl
rl oi
oiss
eibkois lotkrfltgvis ufgcljtirglo y irtimiflo (Mlrjål, Mrljgl y Xkokzfivl, >4<:1
Mlrjål, Eusgtu y Skgml, >4431 Mlrjål, Eusgtu, ^gqukoek y ^gqu ^gqukoek,
koek, >4<<) y ol
gfvlrgl
gfvlrglfzl
fzl cljtirglo
cljtirglo bk ois pksis cljtirg
cljtirgloks,
loks, vlrglfzls y jivlrglfzls bk ois cljtirks
kftrk bgvkrsis
bg vkrsis mrupis (Cukf
(Cukftks,
tks, Mlrjål,
Mlrjål, Mrljgl y Ogol, >4<<n1 Cukftks,
Cukftks, Mlrjål, Mrljgl
y Ogol, >4<<l1 Eurmug, Mlrjål, Mlrjål y Mlrjål, >4<>1 Mlrjål, Eusgtu, ^gqukoek y
^gqukoek, >4<<). Ol jifskjukfjgl prìjtgjl bk kstl fukvl gfvkstgmljgúf ks quk lvlol
quk ko sgmfgcgjlbi bk ois åtkes y su kstrujturl pkftlclj tirglo fi vlrål
sunstl
sun stlfj
fjglo
gloekf
ekftktk sk
skmøf
møf ololss jl
jlrl
rljt
jtkr
krås
åstg
tgjl
jlss bk ol pkpkrs
rsif
ifll kv
kvlo
loul
ulbl
bl (k(kbl
blb,
b, sk
skxi
xi,,
jifsuei bk sustlfjgls, prìjtgjl bk bkpirtk, ktj.).

Rlengçf su cglngogblb `l sgbi inhkti bk eøotgpoks gfvkstgmljgifks (vçlsk ol tlnol

2.<;) rksploblfbi tibls kools ois rksuotlbis intkfgbis irgmgfloekftk. Ols ekbglfls bk
ois jikcgjgkftks bk jifsgstkfjgl gftkrfl isjgolrif kftrk 4,=< l 4,00. Julfbi sk
lflogzlrif tibis ois kokekftis l ol vkz, ko jikcgjgkftk bk jifsgstkfjgl cuk bk 4,02.

:2
 

2. Cufblekftljgúf kstlbåstgjl

Cgmurl 2.<. Ois trks eibkois lotkrfltgvis

Eibkoi ufgcljtirglo Eibkoi bk jgfji cljtirks irtimifloks

k< x< k< x<
k3 x3 k3 x3
k<< x<< k<< x<<
 Ljlbçegji
k< x<3   k<3   x<3
3
k> x><   x2 k2   k><   x><   x2   k2
<
x<2 k<2 x<2 k<2
Clegoglr 
x<7 k<7 x<7 k<7
x>2 k>2 x>2 k>2
k> x> k> x>
x>7 k>7 x>7 k>7
k= x= k= x=
k<> x<>  Lutijifj
 Lutijifjkpt
kpti
i k<> x<> Zijglo
k<= x<= k<= x<=
x; k;
k>> x>> k>> x>> x; k;
x<
4 k<4 x<4 k<4
k>=   x>=
k>=   x>=
x< k<; x<; k<;
Cåsgji
; x>4 k>4
x>4 k>4
x>; k>;
k:   x: k>;   k:   x: x:4 k:4
x>;

k0 x0   x:4 k:4 k0   x0 Keijgiflo

k< x<:   k<:   x<

: :
k<   x<0   k<0   x<

Eibkoi bk jgfji cljtirks jirrkoljgiflbis

k<
x<
k3
x3
k<<
x<<
k<3  Ljlbçegji
x<3
k><
x>< x2 k2
k>3
x>3 x7 k7
x<2 k<2
Clegoglr 
x<7 k<7
k> x>2 k>2
k= x> x>7 k>7
x=
k<>
x<>
k<= Zijglo
x<=
k>> x; k;
x>>
k>= x<4 k<4
x>=
x<; k<;
Cåsgji
x>4 k>4
k: x>; k>;
x:
k0 x:4 k:4
x0
k<:
x<:
k<0 Keijgiflo
x<0
k>:
x>:
k>0
x>0

:;
 

 L[RIJIFJKTRI CI^EL ;

Rlnol 2.<;. Jikcgjgkftks bk jifsgstkfjgl gftkrfl bk ols sunksjlols y ko titlo bko LC-;

Kstubgis Kblb   F   L Z K C CG RR
J I E  L

Mlrjål y Eusgtu (<777) <4-

3> 3.20: 4,
0 4,=
4 4,=
: 4,
= 4,
= 4,0>
0 = 2
Nussi (>44:) <<- <.<4 4, 4,= 4,= 4, 4, 4,0
<0 4 0 < 4 0 = 2
3 4 3
Elrtåfkz, Eusgtu, Mlrjål y Jlegfi <4- >.2: 4, 4,3 4,= 4, 4, 4,0
(>44:) <0 = 7 7 < = = :
4 0 =
Rieìs y Iogvkr (>442) <4- ;.72 4, 4,= 4,= 4, 4, 4,0
34 : 0 4 = = = 0
0 = ;
Eusgtu y Mlrjål (>442) <4- 2.:3 4, 4,= 4,= 4, 4, 4,0
<0 7 0 : : 0 = 2
7 4 0
Kstkvk (>44;) <:- :;<   4, 4,= 4,= 4, 4, 4,0
<0 0 2 0 0 = ;
= > 7
Mlrjål, Eusgtu y Skgml (>443) <0- <.4; 4, 4,= 4,= 4, 4, 4,0
3> 0 0 0 ; = = ;
0 7 :
Elrtåfkz y Mlrjål (>44=) <:- <.2; 4, 4,= 4,= 4, 4, 4,0
<3 3 7 2 : 0 = :
4 < 3
Mlrjål y Mrljgl (>447) <>- <.2< 4, 4,= 4,= 4, 4, ‒
<= 3 0 < 4 0 =
7 ; 2
Ekbglfl   4, 4,= 4,= 4, 4, 4,0
0 < : 0 = 2
0 4 3

Fitl8 LJ 5 Ljlbçegji1 ZI 5 Zijglo1 KE 5 Keijgiflo1 CL 5 Clegoglr1 CG 5 Cåsgji1 RR 5 Ritlo.

Tir itrl plrtk, `lf sgbi fuekrisis ois kstubgis kepårgjis quk lvlolf ol vlogbkz
bko LC-;. Tir khkepoi, Cukftks, Mlrjål, Mrljgl y Ogol (>4<<l) lflogzlrif ol rkoljgúf
kftrk ols bg
bge
ekfkfssgi
gif
fks bko LC-; y <: gfb fbgj
gjllbi
birk
rkss bk lhu husstk ps
psggji
jisisijjglo kf ol
lbioksj
lbi oksjkfjg
kfjgl.
l. Kfji
Kfjiftrl
ftrlrif
rif quk ols puftuljgifks
puftuljgifks eìs lotl lotlss kf ols bgek
bgekfsgif
fsgifksks bko
LC-;
LC -; sk jijirr
rrks
kspi
pifbfbål
ålf
f ji
jiff ko ek
ekhi
hirr lh
lhus
ustk
tk ps
psgj
gjis
isijijgl
glo,
o, ol
olss ek
ekhi
hirk
rkss `l
`lng
ngogb
ogblb
lbks
ks
 pkrsifloks y ko ekfir føekri bk prinokels jifbujtuloks. Kf itris kstubgis (Mlrjål,
Tlsjulo, Cråls, Slf Arufjakosvkf y Eurmug, >4401 Tçrkz, Flvlrri y Ooinkoo, <777), sk
kfjiftrlrif rkoljgifks jolrls kftrk8
• ko lutijifjkpti ljlbçegji y ko rkfbgegkfti ljlbçegji (r xy
xy  5 4,34)1

• ko lutijifjkpti
<70;) (r xy sijglo
xy 5 4,23)1 y y ol sunksjlol bk jiepktkfjgl sijglo pkrjgngbl (@lrtkr,
• ko lutijifjkpti keijgiflo y ol sunksjlol bk gfkstlngogblb keijgiflo bko
Tkrsiflogty Lsskssekft \ukstgifflgrk (^i`fkr, <774) (r xy
xy 5 -4,2<).

Mlrlgmirbingo, Burì y Tçrkz (>44;), pir su plrtk, kfjiftrlrif rkoljgifks kftrk

 

ko lutijifjkpti keijgiflo y ols sunksjlols

s unksjlols bk bkprksgúf (rxy 5 -4,3>) y lfsgkblb
(r xy
xy  5 4,
4,27
27)) bk
bkoo ju
juks
kstg
tgif
ifllrg
rgi
i Zye
Zyepti
pties
es J`k
J`kjao
jaogst
gst-74
-74-^k
-^kvgs kb (ZJO-74-^
vgskb (ZJO-74-^,, Bkrimltgs,
<70:). Kstkvk (>44;) kfjiftrú lotls rkoljgifks kftrk ko lutijifjkpti cåsgji y tibls
olss su
ol sunk
nksj
sjlo
lols
ls bk
bkoo T`y
T`ysgj
sgjlo
lo Zko
Zkoc-J
c-Jifj
ifjkpt
kpt \uk
\ukstg
stgiff lgrkk (El
ifflgr (Elrs`,
rs`, ^gj`l
^gj`lrbs,
rbs, Hi`fsi
Hi`fsif,
f,
^ij`k y Rrke
Rrkelyfk
lyfk,, <772) Qbksbk jiirbgfljgúf, rxy 5 4,33, `lstl lutijifjkpti cåsgji,
r xy
xy 5 4,=3U.

Rlengçf
Rlen gçf ols pu
puft
ftul
uljg
jgif
ifks
ks kf lu luti
tiji
jifj
fjkp
kpti
ti ke
keijijgi
gifl
floo `l
`lff sg
sgbi
bi kx
kxtk
tkfs
fsle
lekf
kftk
tk
rkoljgiflbls jif ko ekhir kstgoi bk sijglogzljgúf plrkftlo (Mlrjål y Mrljgl, >447, >4<41
Elrtå
El rtåfk
fkzz y Ml
Mlrj
rjål
ål,, >4
>44=
4=,, >4
>440
40),
), lb
lbke
keìs
ìs bk eieistr
strlr
lr uf
ufll rk
rkol
oljg
jgúf
úf pi
pisg
sgtgv
tgvll ji
jif
f ol
jieufgjljgúf keijgiflo (Elblrglml, Eurçolml y Sgbloks, >440) y ufl rkoljgúf fkmltgvl
jif ol gf`gngjgúf kf ols ljtgvgblbks cåsgjls y bkpirtgvls (Nkrflo, >44=).

:3
 

;. FI^ELZ BK GFRK^T^KRLJGÚF W NL^KEIZ

Jiei sk `l gfb
Jiei gfbgjl
gjlbi
bi lft
lftkrg
krgire
irekft
kftk,
k, ko LC
LC-;
-; kvl
kvloøl
oøl jgf
jgfji
ji bge
bgekfs
kfsgif
gifks
ks bko
lutijifjkpti bk ufl pkrsifl8 ol sijglo, ol ljlbçegji/pricksgiflo, ol keijgiflo, ol
clegoglr y ol cåsgjl. Tlrl ol gftkrprktljgúf bk ols puftuljgifks kf kstls bgekfsgifks, l
jiftgfuljgúf
jiftgf uljgúf sk gfjouykf ols tlnols jif ois nlrkeis bgckrkfjglbis pir skxi plrl ols
bgstgftls eukstrls bk ksjiolrks, ufgvkrsgtlrgis y lbuotis.
Kf jlbl tlnol bk nlrkeis, lplrkjkf kf ol plrtk jkftrlo ols puftuljgifks bgrkjtls
(TB) bk ols bgckrkftks bgekfsgifks y kf ol prgekrl y øotgel jiouefls sk prkskftlf ois
 pkrjkftgoks (Tj).
^kjuçrbksk quk ol puftuljgúf pkrjkftgo kxprksl ko pirjkftlhk bk pkrsifls bk ol
eukstrl bk tgpgcgjljgúf quk intuvgkrif puftuljgifks gfckrgirks l ol bko kxlegflfbi.
Tir khkepoi, uf pkrjkftgo bk =4 sgmfgcgjl quk ko =4% bk ois kvloulbis bk su egsei
mrupi
mrupi bk kblb intintuvg
uvgkrif
krif puf
puftul
tuljgi
jgifk
fkss gfc
gfckrgi
krgirk
rkss kf ol pruk
pruknl.
nl. Zg
Zgkfb
kfbi
i lså puk
pukbk
bk
bkjgrsk quk ko kvloulbi `l supkrlbi ol rklogzljgúf bko =4% bk ols pkrsifls bk su mrupi
bk kblb i, jiepokekftlrglekftk, quk kstì kf ko :4% eìs loti.
Zk rkjiegkfbl jifsuotlr ko jlpåtuoi > plrl intkfkr gfcireljgúf eìs bktloolbl
sinrk ko sgmfgcgjlbi bk jlbl ufl bk ols bgekfsgifks.
Ois nlrkeis quk sk gfjouykf kf kstk elfulo sk `lf kolnirlbi pir jursis
ljlbçegj
ljl bçegjis.
is. Tlrl eibgcgjlr ol gftkrprktljgúf kf ko jlsi bk itris sgstkels kbujltgvis kf
ol tlnol ;.< sk gfbgjlf ols kblbks quk jirrkspifbkf l jlbl jursi.

Rlnol ;. Kqugvlokfjgl kf lüis bk jlbl jursi ljlbçegji

Jursi   Kblb Jursi   Kblb

(lüis) (lüis)

;.¸ KT   <4 - <<   :.¸ KZI   <2 - <;

3.¸ KT   << - <>   2.¸ KZI   <; - <3

<.¸ KZI   <> - <:   <.¸ <3 - <=

Nlj`gookrlti
>.¸ KZI   <: - <2   >.¸ <= - <0
Nlj`gookrlti
:=
 

3. Lblptljgúf
3. Lblptljgúf lo kusakrl
L[RI^LZ8
T. Koisøl Iogbkf y L. Oúpkz Hìurkmug
[fgvkrsgblb bko Tlås Slsji

3.<. Gftribujjgúf

Ol jrkjgkftk pinoljgúf vlsjl quk sk jieufgjl y, sinrk tibi, quk sk kbujl kf kstl
okfmul `ljk quk jlbl vkz eìs sk jifvgkrtl kf ufl fkjksgblb ol kxgstkfjgl bk
gfstruekftis bk kvlouljgúf psgjioúmgjl trlbujgbis y lblptlbis l kstl pinoljgúf.
Ol lblptljgúf ogfmÿåstgjl lo kusakrl bko LC-; `l skmugbi ols plutls bgjtlegflbls
 pir ol trlbujjgúf gfvkrsl. Zk trltl bk uf tçjfgjl bk hugjgi quk nusjl elftkfkr ol
jlogblb ogfmÿåstgjl bk ols lblptljgifks (Koisul, >44:l) y trlfsjurrk nìsgjlekftk kf
trks ktlpls8 kf ol prgekrl sk lblptl ko tkst lo okfmulhk inhktgvi, kf ol skmufbl uf mrupi
bk trl
trlbuj
bujtir
tirks
ks gfb
gfbkp
kpkfb
kfbgkf
gkftks
tks rks
rkspk
pkjti
jti l ol cls
clskk lf
lftkrg
tkrgir
ir ‟rk
‟rk-tr
-trlbu
lbujkf
jkf―― ol vkr
vkrsgú
sgúf
f
lblptlbl lo gbgiel irgmgflo i cukftk y, cgfloekftk, sk kstubglf y sk puokf ols pisgnoks
bgvkrmkfjgls quk pubgkrlf kxgstgr kftrk ols bis vkrsgifks kf okfmulhk cukftk. Jlbl ufl
bk ols clsks ol `l rklogzlbi uf trlbujtir pricksgiflo.
Kf ois lplrtlbis sgmugkftks sk bksjrgnk ol eukstrl fireltgvl y sk icrkjkf ois
rksuotlbis bk ois lfìogsgs kstlbåstgjis rklogzlbis. Kf kstl lblptljgúf sk jifskrvú ol
ksjlol bk rkspukstl irgmgflo bk < l 77.
Tlrl ko jirrkjti usi bk ol lblptljgúf kusakrl, bknkrìf jifsuotlrsk ols firels bk
lpogjljgúf, jirrkjjgúf k gftkrprktljgúf rkjimgbls kf ois jlpåtuois >, : y ; bk kstk
elfulo.

3.>. Bksjrgpjgúf bk ol eukstrl fireltgvl

Ol euks
eukstrl
trl kstì cirelbl pir <.:;2 kstubglftks
kstubglftks quk jurslf kstubgis kf ko eibkoi
ogfmÿåstgji B kf ois fgvkoks kbujltgvis Kfskülfzl Trgelrgl (KT), Kfskülfzl
Zkjufblrgl (KZI) y Nlj`gookrlti (Nlj`). Bk koois 303 sif vlrifks y 330 sif
euhkrks. Ol tlnol
3.< eukstrl su bgstrgnujgúf pir skxi y fgvko
fg vko kbujltgvi.
 

;<
 

=. Lblptljgúf
 Lblptljgúf lo jltloìf
L[RI^KZ8
Z. Eloi Jkrrlti, E. Mifzìokz Jlrrlsji, C. Jlsls Lzflr, C. Sgüls Tij`, E.ª K. Mrls Tçrkz
y Z. Nltlookr Zlookft
Gfstgtut bk ^kjkrjl sinrk \ulogtlt bk Sgbl
Kqugp bk ^kjkrjl kf Gfcäfjgl, Lbiokfjàfjgl, Brkts bkos Gfclfts g ol skvl \ulogtlt bk Sg
Sgbl
bl
[fgvkrsgtlt bk Mgrifl

=.<. Gftribujjgúf

Zkmøf ol øotgel kfjukstl punogjlbl sinrk ois usis ogfmÿåstgjis kf Jltlouül

(Gbksjlt, >440) rklogzlbl l =.:44 pkrsifls elyirks bk <; lüis quk rksgbkf kf ko
tkrrgtirgi jltloìf, uf :<,3% bk ol pinoljgúf elfgcgkstl quk ko jltloìf ks su okfmul
eltkrfl, uf ;;% ko jlstkoolfi y uf :,0%, lenls okfmuls. Bk elfkrl eìs jifjrktl, uf
:;,3
:; ,3%
% bk oioiss kf
kfju
juks
kstl
tlbi
biss el
elfg
fgcg
cgks
kstl
tl qu
qukk ko jl
jltl
tloì
oìf
f ks su okokfm
fmul
ul `l
`lng
ngtu
tulo
lo pl
plrl
rl
jieufgjlrsk, egkftrls quk plrl uf 2;,7% oi ks ko jlstkoolfi y plrl uf <>% oi sif
lenls okfmuls. Rkfgkfbi
Rkfgkfbi kf jukftl ko ìengti bk usi, ko kstubgi eukstrl quk8
• ko >:% elfgcgkstl `lnolr jif ois jieplükris bk trlnlhi sioi kf jltloìf y uf
<4,;% bgjk `lnolr jif koois eìs kf jltloìf quk kf jlstkoolfi1
• jif ois jieplükris bk kstubgis, uf ::,2% `lnol sioi kf jltloìf y uf <;,:%
`lnol eìs kf jltloìf quk kf jlstkoolfi1
• jif ois legmis, ois pirjkftlhks sif bko >>,;% y bko <4,0%, rkspkjtgvlekftk y
•  pir øotgei, uf :<,3% kxprksl `lnolr kf
kf ko `imlr sioi kf jltloìf y uf :,3% bgjk
`lnolr eìs kf jltloìf quk kf jlstkoolfi.
Kstis bltis pifkf bk elfgcgksti quk ko jltloìf ks ol skmufbl okfmul quk sk `lnol
kf Jltlouül, sgkfbi, lbkeìs, ol okfmul vk`gjuolr quk eìs sk usl kf ols ksjukols. Tir 
tibi kooi, sk jifsgbkrú rkokvlftk ookvlr l jlni ol lblptljgúf lo jltloìf bk ol ksjlol
 Lutijifjkpti
 Lutijifjkp ti Cirel ; (LC-;)
(LC-;),, blbi quk ks uf gfstruekfti
gfstruekfti jif uf lepogi ìengti bk
lpogjljgúf y fi kxgstål fgfmufl vkrsgúf lblptlbl l kstl okfmul `lstl ko eiekfti.
Kf ois sgmugkftks lplrtlbis sk bksjrgnk ol eukstrl ksjiolr (bk 7 l <3 lüis) jif ol
quk sk `l ookvlbi l jlni kstl lblptljgúf, ois lfìogsgs kstlbåstgjis rklogzlbis y ois
 nlrkeis l utgogzlr kf su jirrkjjgúf.
jirrkjjgúf.

37
 

 L ol vlfmulrbgl bk
ol kvlouljgúf psgjioúmgjl

o  Lutijifj
 Lutijifjkpti
kpti Cire
Cirel l ; (L
(LC-;
C-;)) ks uf

K juksiflrgi
juksifl rgi bk cìjgo lpogjljgú

kokekftis quk kvl

lpogjljgúf,

vlooølf ko lu
luti
tij
jif
f, jirrkjjgú

ifjk
jkpt
jirrkjjgúf
k gftkrprktljgúf. Kstì jiepuksti pir :4
i bk ol
pti
f

pkrsifl kvloulbl kf sus vkrkftks sijglo, ljlbçegjl/

pricksgiflo,
pricksgifl o, keijgi
keijgiflo,
flo, clegoglr y sgjl. Tri
Tripirj
pirjgifl
gifl
puft
pu ftul
uljg
jgif
ifks
ks bk jljlbl
bl ufufl
l bk ks kstl
tlss vk
vkr
rkf
kftk
tkss,
pkregkfbi ufl jiepoktl ekbgbl bk kstis lspkjtis
jolv
jolvk
k plr
plrll ko ji
jirrk
rrkjt
jti
i bks
bkslrr
lrrio
iooi
oi y ngk
ngkfks
fkstlr
tlr bk ol
pkrsifl.

Kstl kbgj
kbgjgúf
gúf bgsp
bgspifk
ifk bk jie
jiepokt
poktls
ls lblp
lblptljg
tljgifks
ifks lo
kusakrl y lo jltloìf jif vlogisl gfcireljgúf sinrk
su cu
cufj
fjgi
gifl
fleg
egkf
kfti
ti,, l
lng
ngog
ogbl
blb
b y vlvlog
ogbk
bkzz kf kstltlss
okfmuls.

www.tk kbgjgi ks.jie