Romanticismo

Mourning jewellery in the form of a jet brooch , 19th century. Duelo de joyas en forma de un
chorro de broche , siglo 19.

Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on the development of
western jewellery. A partir de finales del siglo 18, el romanticismo tuvo un profundo impacto
en el desarrollo de la joyería occidental. Perhaps the most significant influences were the
public's fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of modern
archaeology and a fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Tal vez la más significativa
influencia fueron la fascinación del público con los tesoros que se descubren a través del
nacimiento de la moderna arqueología y una fascinación por el arte medieval y renacentista.
Changing social conditions and the onset of the Industrial Revolution also led to growth of a
middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. Las cambiantes condiciones sociales y el
inicio de la Revolución Industrial también llevó al crecimiento de una clase media que quería y
podía darse el lujo de joyas. As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and
stone substitutes led to the development of paste or costume jewellery . Como resultado, el
uso de procesos industriales, más barato aleaciones, y los sustitutos de piedra llevó a la
elaboración de pasta o bisutería . Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as
wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of
the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though superior
artistic and technical work. orfebres Distinguidos continuó floreciendo, sin embargo, como los
clientes más ricos tratado de garantizar que lo que llevaba todavía se mantenía apartado de las
joyas de las masas, no sólo a través del uso de metales preciosos y piedras preciosas, sino
también a través del trabajo artístico y técnico superior. One such artist was the French
goldsmith Françoise Désire Froment Meurice . Un artista como fue el orfebre francés Françoise
Désiré Froment Meurice . A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the
philosophy of romanticism was mourning jewellery . Una categoría única de este período y
muy apropiado a la filosofía del romanticismo fue el duelo de joyería . It originated in England,
where Queen Victoria was often seen wearing jet jewellery after the death of Prince Albert ,
and it allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewellery while expressing a state of mourning
at the death of a loved one. [ 28 ] Se originó en Inglaterra, donde la reina Victoria fue visto a
menudo usando chorro de joyería después de la muerte del príncipe Alberto , y permitió al
usuario seguir usando joyas al tiempo que expresa un estado de luto por la muerte de un ser
querido. [28]

In the United states, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by Charles Lewis
Tiffany . En los Estados Unidos, este período se produjo la fundación en 1837 de Tiffany & Co.
por Charles Lewis Tiffany . Tiffany's put the United States on the world map in terms of
jewellery and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as the wife of
Abraham Lincoln . Tiffany's puso a los Estados Unidos en el mapa del mundo en términos de
joyería y saltó a la fama la creación de comisiones deslumbrante para las personas como la
esposa de Abraham Lincoln . Later, it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film
Breakfast at Tiffany's . Más tarde, ganaría notoriedad popular como el ajuste de la película
Desayuno con diamantes . In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier SA in 1847, while 1884 saw
the founding of Bulgari in Italy. En Francia, Pierre Cartier fundó Cartier SA en 1847, mientras
que 1884 vio la fundación de Bulgari en Italia. The modern production studio had been born
and was a step away from the former dominance of individual craftsmen and patronage . El
estudio de producción moderna había nacido y estaba a un paso de la dominación ex de
artesanos individuales y el clientelismo .

This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West. Este período
también vio la primera colaboración importante entre Oriente y Occidente. Collaboration in
Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists led to Shakudō plaques set into Filigree
frames being created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885). [ 29 ] Perhaps the grand finalé – and an
appropriate transition to the following period – were the masterful creations of the Russian
artist Peter Carl Fabergé , working for the Imperial Russian court, whose Fabergé eggs and
jewellery pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmith's art. Colaboración en
Pforzheim entre artistas alemanes y japoneses llevó a Shakudō placas puesto en filigrana
marcos creados por la empresa Stoeffler en 1885). [29] Tal vez la gran final - y una adecuada
transición al período siguiente - fueron las creaciones magistrales de la Federación de Rusia
artista Peter Carl Fabergé , trabajando para la corte imperial de Rusia, cuyos huevos de
Fabergé y joyas piezas se siguen considerando como el epítome de la orfebrería de arte.

[ edit ] Art NouveauArt Nouveau

In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing Art Nouveau style and
the closely related German Jugendstil , British (and to some extent American) Arts and Crafts
Movement , Catalan Modernisme , Austro-Hungarian Sezession , Italian "Liberty", etc. En la
década de 1890, los joyeros comenzó a explorar el potencial de la cada vez mayor de estilo Art
Nouveau y el estilo estrechamente relacionado con el alemán Jugendstil , Gran Bretaña (y en
cierta medida, de América) movimiento Arts and Crafts , el catalán del Modernismo , austro-
húngaro Sezession , italiano "La libertad", etc .

Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on the female
form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling
techniques including basse-taille, champleve, cloisonné, and plique-à-jour . Joyería Art
Nouveau, que abarca muchas características diferentes incluyendo un enfoque en la forma
femenina y un énfasis en el color, por lo general prestados a través del uso de las técnicas de
esmaltado incluyendo basse-taille, champlevé, cloisonné y plique-à-jour . Motifs included
orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures,
and the female silhouette. Los motivos incluyen orquídeas, lirios, pensamientos, vides, cisnes,
pavos reales, serpientes, libélulas, criaturas mitológicas, y la silueta femenina.

René Lalique , working for the Paris shop of Samuel Bing , was recognised by contemporaries
as a leading figure in this trend. René Lalique , que trabajaba para la tienda de París de Samuel
Bing , fue reconocido por sus contemporáneos como una figura destacada en esta tendencia.
The Darmstadt Artists' Colony and Wiener Werkstätte provided perhaps the most significant
German input to the trend, while in Denmark Georg Jensen , though best known for his
Silverware , also contributed significant pieces. La "Colonia de Artistas de Darmstadt y el
Wiener Werkstätte siempre quizás la aportación más significativa alemán a la tendencia,
mientras que en Dinamarca Georg Jensen , aunque más conocido por su Platería , también
contribuyó piezas significativas. In England, Liberty & Co. and the British arts & crafts
movement of Charles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still characteristic
designs. The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's art from the setting of stones to the
artistic design of the piece itself. Lalique's dragonfly design is one of the best examples of this.
Enamels played a large role in technique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognisable
design feature.

The end of World War I once again changed public attitudes, and a more sober style
developed. [ 30 ]

Art Deco

Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived
decadence of the turn of the 20th century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective
manufacturing for mass production of high-quality jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s
and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco . Walter Gropius and the
German Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no barriers between artists and
craftsmen" led to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were
also introduced: plastics and aluminium were first used in jewellery, and of note are the
chromed pendants of Russian-born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky . Technical mastery became
as valued as the material itself. In the West, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by
the German Elizabeth Treskow , although development of the re-invention has continued into
the 1990s.

Jewish jewellery

Jewellery has been a part of Jewish culture since Biblical times. Joyería ha sido una parte de la
cultura judía desde los tiempos bíblicos. There are references in the Bible to the wearing of
jewellery, both as a decoration and as a symbol. Now, Jewish jewellery, as well as talismans
and amulets, is worn to show affiliation with Judaism , .

One of the most common symbols in Jewish jewellery is the Star of David . Another popular
symbol is the Hamsa , also known as the "Hamesh hand." The Hamsa appears often in a
stylised form, as a hand with three fingers raised, and sometimes with two thumbs arranged
symmetrically. Its five fingers are said to symbolise the five books of the Torah. The symbol is
used for protection and as a talisman in amulets and charms to ward off the Evil Eye and can
also be found in various places such as home entrances and cars. It is also common to place
other symbols in the middle of the Hamsa that are believed to help against the evil eye such as
fish, eyes and the Star of David. The colour blue, or more specifically light blue, is also
considered protective against the Evil Eye, and many Hamsas are in that colour or with
embedded gemstones in different shades of blue.

The Chai is also a popular Jewish motif for necklaces. Other motifs found in Jewish jewellery
are symbols from the Kabbalah , such as the Merkaba, a three-dimensional Star of David, and
the Tree of life. Pieces of jewellery are decorated with parts or initials of known Jewish prayers
and with three-letters combinations, believed to represent different names of the Jewish God.

[ edit ] Asia

Asia

Royal earrings, India , 1st Century BC.

In Asia, the Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making
anywhere, with a history of over 5,000 years. [ 31 ] One of the first to start jewellery making
were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization in what is now predominately modern-day
Pakistan. Early jewellery making in China started around the same period, but it became
widespread with the spread of Buddhism around 2,000 years ago. Principios de joyería en
China comenzó en la misma época, pero se generalizó con la difusión del budismo hace 2.000
años aproximadamente.

[ edit ] China [ editar ] China

One of the earliest cultures to begin making jewellery in Asia were the Chinese around 5,000
years ago. Chinese jewellery designs were very religion-oriented and contained Buddhist
symbols, a tradition which continues to this day.

The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more often than gold and decorated it with their
favourite colour , blue. Blue kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and
later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. However, jade was preferred over
any other stone and was fashioned using diamonds . The Chinese revered jade because of the
human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability, and beauty. [ 5 ] The
first jade pieces were very simple, but as time progressed, more complex designs evolved. Jade
rings from between the 4th and 7th centuries BC show evidence of having been worked with a
compound milling machine , hundreds of years before the first mention of such equipment in
the west. [ 32 ]

Jade coiled serpent, Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD)

`Xin' Shape Jewellery from Ming Dynasty Tombs , (1368–1644)

In China, jewellery was worn frequently by both sexes to show their nobility and wealth.
However, in later years, it was used to accentuate beauty. Women wore highly detailed gold
and silver head dresses and other items, while men wore decorative hat buttons , which
showed rank, and gold or silver rings. Women also wore strips of gold on their foreheads,
much like women in the Indus Valley. The band was an early form of tiara and was often
decorated with precious gems. The most common piece of jewellery worn by in China was the
earring, which was worn by both men and women. Amulets were also common, often with a
Chinese symbol or dragon . Dragons, Chinese symbols, and phoenixes were frequently
depicted on jewellery designs.

The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves. Most Chinese graves found by
archaeologists contain decorative jewellery. [ 33 ]

[ edit ] IndiaLa India

India has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere since Ramayana and
Mahabharata times. While Western traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning
empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5,000 years. [ 31 ] One
of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization
(encompassing present-day Pakistan and northwest India). By 1500 BC, the peoples of the
Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces, and metallic bangles .
Before 2100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade
in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using
simple techniques. First, a bead maker would need a rough stone, which would be bought
from an eastern stone trader. The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would
be heated until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red
stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole bored through it with primitive drills.
The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was
often passed down through family. Children of bead makers often learned how to work beads
from a young age.

Jewellery in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who wore numerous clay or
shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over
time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable ones. In present-day India , bangles are
made out of metal or glass. Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold
that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers , and gold rings.
Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small
beads were often crafted to be placed in men and women's hair. The beads were about one
millimetre long.

A female skeleton (presently on display at the National Museum, New Delhi, India) wears a
carlinean bangle (bracelet) on her left hand.

India was the first country to mine diamonds , with some mines dating back to 296 BC. India
traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. This trade almost vanished 1,000 years
after Christianity grew as a religion, as Christians rejected the diamonds which were used in
Indian religious amulets. Along with Arabians from the Middle East restricting the trade, India's
diamond jewellery trade lulled.

Today, many of the jewellery designs and traditions are still used, and jewellery is
commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings. [ 33 ]

[ edit ] AmericanAmérica

Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish established an
empire to seize South American gold. Jewellery making developed in the Americas 5,000 years
ago in Central and South America . Large amounts of gold was easily accessible, and the
Aztecs , the Mixtecs , the Mayans , and numerous Andean cultures, such as the Mochica of
Peru, created beautiful pieces of jewellery.

With the Mochica culture, goldwork flourished. The pieces are no longer simple metalwork,
but are now masterful examples of jewellery making. Pieces are sophisticated in their design,
and feature inlays of turquoise, mother of pearl, spondylus shell, and amethyst. The nose and
ear ornaments, chest plates, small containers and whistles are considered masterpieces of
ancient Peruvian culture. [ 34 ]

Moche Ear Ornaments. 1-800 AD. Larco Museum Collection, Lima-Peru

Among the Aztecs , only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power, and
wealth. Gold jewellery was most common in the Aztec Empire and was often decorated with
feathers from Quetzal birds and others. In general, the more jewellery an Aztec noble wore,
the higher his status or prestige. The Emperor and his High Priests, for example, would be
nearly completely covered in jewellery when making public appearances. Although gold was
the most common and a popular material used in Aztec jewellery, Jade , Turquoise , and
certain feathers were considered more valuable. [ 35 ] In addition to adornment and status,
the Aztecs also used jewellery in sacrifices to appease the gods. Priests also used gem-
encrusted daggers to perform animal and human sacrifices. [ 19 ] [ 28 ]

Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewellery making were the Maya . At
the peak of their civilization, the Maya were making jewellery from jade , gold, silver, bronze ,
and copper . Maya designs were similar to those of the Aztecs, with lavish headdresses and
jewellery. The Maya also traded in precious gems. However, in earlier times, the Maya had
little access to metal, so they made the majority of their jewellery out of bone or stone.
Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewellery in the Maya Empire,
much the same as with the Aztecs. [ 33 ]

In North America , Native Americans used shells , wood, turquoise , and soapstone , almost
unavailable in South and Central America. The turquoise was used in necklaces and to be
placed in earrings. Native Americans with access to oyster shells, often located in only one
location in America, traded the shells with other tribes, showing the great importance of the
body adornment trade in Northern America. [ 36 ]

[ edit ] PacificPacífico

Main article: Jewellery in the Pacific

Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human
settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood, and other natural materials, and
thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses,
necklaces, hair pins, and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces.

Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either
fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as
the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea , wear certain headdresses once they have killed an
enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses.

Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside
cultures. Some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be explored by Western
nations. However, the island nations that were flooded with Western missionaries have had
drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery
as a sign of the wearer's devotion to paganism. Thus many tribal designs were lost forever in
the mass conversion to Christianity. [ 37 ]

A modern opal bracelet

Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world. Opals had already been mined
in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 19th century, the Australian
opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places
around the country, making it one the most profitable stones in the Pacific. [ 38 ]
One of the few cultures to still create their jewellery today as they did many centuries prior is
the New Zealand Māori , who create Hei-tiki . The reason the hei-tiki is worn is not apparent. It
may either relate to ancestral connections, as Tiki was the first Māori, or fertility, as there is a
strong connection between this and Tiki. Another suggestion from historians is that the Tiki is a
product of the ancient belief of a god named Tiki, perhaps dating back to before the Māoris
settled in New Zealand. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone (commonly
whale), nephrite , or bowenite . It is a lengthy and spiritual process. The Hei-tiki is now popular
amongst tourists, who can buy it from souvenir or jeweller shops.

Other than jewellery created through Māori influence, jewellery in New Zealand remains
similar to other western civilisations: multicultural and varied. This is more noticeable in New
Zealand because of its high levels of non-European citizens. [ 37 ]

[ edit ] ModernModerno

The modern jewellery movement began in the late 1940s at the end of World War II with a
renewed interest in artistic and leisurely pursuits. The movement is most noted with works by
Georg Jensen and other jewellery designers who advanced the concept of wearable art. The
advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay (PMC), and colouring
techniques, has led to increased variety in styles. Other advances, such as the development of
improved pearl harvesting by people such as Mikimoto Kōkichi and the development of
improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a diamond simulant ), has placed
jewellery within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population.

The "jewellery as art" movement was spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris and
continued by designers such as Gill Forsbrook in the UK. Influence from other cultural forms is
also evident. One example of this is bling-bling style jewellery, popularised by hip-hop and rap
artists in the early 21st century.

The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniques such as
Mokume-gane . The following are innovations in the decades straddling the year 2000:
"Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming, anti-clastic raising , fold-forming , reactive metal
anodising , shell forms, PMC , photoetching , and [use of] CAD/CAM ." [ 39 ]

Artisan jewellery continues to grow as both a hobby and a profession. With more than 17
United States periodicals about beading alone, resources, accessibility, and a low initial cost of
entry continues to expand production of hand-made adornments. Some fine examples of
artisan jewellery can be seen at The Metropolitan Museum. [ 40 ]
A Kayan girl in Northern Thailand.

Jewellery used in body modification is usually plain. The use of simple silver studs, rings, and
earrings predominates. Common jewellery pieces such as earrings are a form of body
modification, as they are accommodated by creating a small hole in the ear.

Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks. Padaung mujeres en
Myanmar a cabo grandes anillos de oro alrededor de sus cuellos. From as early as five years
old, girls are introduced to their first neck ring. Over the years, more rings are added. In
addition to the twenty-plus pounds of rings on her neck, a woman will also wear just as many
rings on her calves too. At their extent, some necks modified like this can reach 10-15 inches
long. The practice has obvious health impacts, however, and has in recent years declined from
cultural norm to tourist curiosity. [ 41 ] Tribes related to the Paduang, as well as other cultures
throughout the world, use jewellery to stretch their earlobes or enlarge ear piercings. In the
Americas, labrets have been worn since before first contact by Innu and First Nations peoples
of the northwest coast. [ 42 ] Lip plates are worn by the African Mursi and Sara people , as well
as some South American peoples.

In the late 20th century, the influence of modern primitivism led to many of these practices
being incorporated into western subcultures. Many of these practices rely on a combination of
body modification and decorative objects, thus keeping the distinction between these two
types of decoration blurred.

In many cultures, jewellery is used as a temporary body modifier, with, in some cases, hooks or
even objects as large as bike bars being placed into the recipient's skin. Although this
procedure is often carried out by tribal or semi-tribal groups, often acting under a trance
during religious ceremonies, this practise has seeped into western culture. Many extreme-
jewellery shops now cater to people wanting large hooks or spikes set into their skin. Most
often, these hooks are used in conjunction with pulleys to hoist the recipient into the air. This
practice is said to give an erotic feeling to the person and some couples have even performed
their marriage ceremony whilst being suspended by hooks. [ 41 ]

Jewellery market

According to a recent KPMG study [ 43 ] the largest jewellery market is the United States with
a market share of 30.8%, Japan, India, China, and the Middle East each with 8 - 9%, and Italy
with 5%. The authors of the study predict a dramatic change in market shares by 2015, where
the market share of the United States will have dropped to around 25%, and China and India
will increase theirs to over 13%. The Middle East will remain more or less constant at 9%,
whereas Europe's and Japan's marketshare will be halved and become less than 4% for Japan,
and less than 3% for the biggest individual European countries, Italy and the UK.

[ edit ] See alsoVéase también

Gemology and Jewelry portal

Gemología y Joyería portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jewellery

Art jewellery

List of jewellery types

Gemology Gemología

History of jewellery in Ukraine

Jewellery cleaning

Murano glass De cristal de Murano

Murano beads

Wire sculpture

Titanium ring Anillo de titanio

[ edit ] References [ editar ] Referencias

^ see American and British spelling differences

^ jewel. (nd). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved on August 7, 2007, from the
Dictionary.com website.

^ Study reveals 'oldest jewellery' , BBC News , June 22, 2006.

^ Kunz, PhD, DSc, George Frederick (1917). Magic of Jewels and Charms . John Lippincott Co..  
URL: Magic Of jewels: Chapter VII Amulets George Frederick Kunz was gemmologist for
Tiffany's built the collections of banker JP Morgan and the American Natural History Museum
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talismanic purposes in Western Cultures. The next chapter deals with other, indigenous
cultures.

^ a b c Holland, J. 1999. The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia. Kingfisher books .

^ Morris, Desmond. Body Guards: Protective Amulets and Charms . Element, 1999, ISBN 1-
86204-572-0 .

^ McCreight, Tim. Jewelry: Fundamentals of Metalsmithing . ^ McCreight, Tim:. joyería

Fundamentos de la Orfebrería. Design Books International, 1997 ISBN 1-880140-29-2

^ http://lgdl.gia.edu/pdfs/janse-table1.pdf

^ Pliny. Natural History XXXVI, 15

^ Microsoft Word - WMP 2001-2005 title.doc

^ Natural Diamond: World Production, By Country And Type

^ Silver Stars Collection Gemstone Glossary

^ Nassau, K. (1980). Gems made by man . ISBN 0801967732

^ Jewelry-Encyclopedia.com

^ Pliny the Elder. The Natural History. ed. ed. John Bostock, HT Riley, Book XXXIII The Natural
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^ Howard, Vicky. "A real Man's Ring: Gender and the Invention of Tradition." Journal of Social
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^ Yusuf al-Qaradawi . The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam (online)

^ Greenbaum, Toni. "SILVER SPEAKS: TRADITIONAL JEWELRY FROM THE MIDDLE EAST".
Metalsmith , Winter2004, Vol. 24, Issue 1, p.56. Greenbaum provides the explanation for the
lack of historical examples; the majority of Islamic jewellery was in the form of bridal dowries ,
and traditionally was not handed down from generation to generation; instead, on a woman's
death it was sold at the souk and recycled or sold to passers-by. Islamic jewellery from before
the 19th century is thus exceedingly rare.

^ a b c d e Reader's Digest Association. 1986. 1986. The last 2 million years. Reader's Digest .
ISBN 0-86438-007-0

^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life , 155–157.

^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life , 295–297.

^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life , 297.

^ Treister, Mikhail YU. "Polychrome Necklaces from the Late Hellenistic Period." Ancient
Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 2004, Vol. 10 Issue 3/4, p199-257, 59p.
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Byzantium. Harvard, 1987. p 506 p 506

^ Duby, throughout.

^ Sherrard, P. 1972. Great Ages of Man: Byzantium. Time-Life International .

^ Scarisbrick, Diana. Rings: Symbols of Wealth, Power, and Affection . New York: Abrams, 1993.
ISBN 0-8109-3775-1 p77.

^ a b Farndon, J. 2001. 1,000 Facts on Modern History. Miles Kelly Publishing .

^ Ilse-Neuman, Ursula. Book review “Schmuck/Jewellery 1840-1940: Highlights from the

Schmuckmuseum Pforzheim.'' ''Metalsmith''. Fall2006, Vol. 26 Issue 3, p12-13, 2p

^ Constantino, Maria. Art Nouveau . Knickerbocker Press; 1999 ISBN 1-57715-074-0 as well as
Ilse-Neuman 2006.

^ a b Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewellery of India . New York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0-8109-
3886-3 . Nueva York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0-8109-3886-3 . p15. P15.

^ Lu, Peter J., "Early Precision Compound Machine from Ancient China." Science, 6/11/2004,
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^ a b c Reader's Digest Association. 1983. 1983. Vanished Civilisations. Reader's Digest .

^ Larco Hoyle, Rafael (2008). Museo Larco. Experience Ancient Peru . Lima: Museo Larco. ISBN
978-9972-9341-2-4 .  

^ The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. Miller,Mary 1993

^ Josephy Jr, AM 1994. 500 Nations: The Illustrated History of North American Indians. Alfred
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