Taller de profundización de inglés 8 (16/01/2024)

Preguntas orales-quiz- exposiciones

Written codes (códigos escritos)

Civil low
Common law solo países anglosajona
En estados unidos no utiliza código si no la costumbre, ellos toman casos similares para poner en
practicar en otro caso similares a los de ellos.

THE VIDEO IS ABOUT HOW A JUDGE SENTENCES A GIRL OR A DECISION HE MAKES.

Créate a case civil law applies and a case where the common law applies
Créate un caso se aplica el derecho civil y un caso en el que se aplica el derecho común
Caso Civil
Caso de Derecho Civil: Responsabilidad por Daños y Perjuicios Derivados de un Accidente de
Tráfico
Hechos Relevantes: En la ciudad de Cartagena, el día 25 de diciembre del año 2023, el Sr.A
conducía su vehículo por la calle principal cuando el vehículo del Sr. B, que venía en dirección
contraria, cruzó el semáforo en rojo e impactó violentamente con el vehículo del Sr. A. Como
resultado del accidente, el Sr. A sufrió lesiones graves, daños materiales en su vehículo y gastos
médicos significativos.
Partes Involucradas: El Sr. A, como demandante, y el Sr. B, como demandado, son las partes
principales en este caso. Además, se incluyen las compañías de seguros respectivas de ambas
partes.
Reclamaciones Legales: El Sr. A reclama daños y perjuicios por lesiones personales, daños a la
propiedad, gastos médicos, pérdida de ingresos y sufrimiento emocional, basándose en el presunto
incumplimiento de las normas de tráfico y la responsabilidad del Sr. B en el accidente.
Argumentos Legales Fundamentados: El abogado del Sr. A argumentará que el Sr. B fue negligente
al no respetar las normas de tráfico, lo que resultó en el accidente y las consecuentes lesiones y
daños. Se respaldará esta afirmación con referencias a leyes de tráfico y precedentes judiciales
relevantes.
Pruebas y Evidencia: Se presentarán pruebas, como informes policiales, testimonios de testigos
presenciales, registros médicos y expertos forenses, para respaldar los hechos y reclamaciones
planteadas por el Sr. A.
Conclusión: El Sr. A solicita una compensación justa por los daños sufridos, incluyendo los daños
físicos, emocionales y financieros derivados del accidente, así como la cobertura de los gastos
legales asociados al caso.
Este es un ejemplo simplificado de un caso de derecho civil que involucra un accidente de tráfico y
reclamaciones por daños y perjuicios.

INGLES
Civil Law Case: Liability for Damages Derived from a Traffic Accident
Relevant Facts: In the city of Cartagena, on December 25, 2023, Mr. A was driving his vehicle on
the main street when Mr. B's vehicle, which was coming in the opposite direction, crossed the red
light and collided. violently with Mr. A's vehicle. As a result of the accident, Mr. A suffered serious
injuries, property damage to his vehicle, and significant medical expenses.
Parties Involved: Mr. A, as plaintiff, and Mr. B, as defendant, are the main parties in this case.
Additionally, the respective insurance companies of both parties are included.
Legal Claims: Mr. A claims damages for personal injuries, property damage, medical expenses, loss
of income and emotional suffering, based on the alleged failure to comply with traffic rules and Mr.
B's liability in the accident .
Well-founded Legal Arguments: Mr. A's attorney will argue that Mr. B was negligent in failing to
follow traffic rules, which resulted in the accident and subsequent injuries and damages. This
assertion will be supported with references to relevant traffic laws and judicial precedents.
Proof and Evidence: Evidence, such as police reports, eyewitness testimonies, medical records, and
forensic experts, will be presented to support the facts and claims raised by Mr. A.
Conclusion: Mr. A requests fair compensation for the damages suffered, including physical,
emotional and financial damages resulting from the accident, as well as coverage for legal expenses
associated with the case.
Caso de derecho común
Caso: El incidente en la calle Robles
Hechos: El Sr. García, un conductor experimentado, circulaba por la calle Robles a la velocidad
permitida. Mientras tanto, el Sr. Martínez, un peatón, cruzaba la calle por un cruce peatonal bien
iluminado. En un momento, el Sr. Martínez fue embestido por el vehículo del Sr. García y sufrió
lesiones graves.
El Sr. Martínez afirma que tenía el semáforo a su favor y que el Sr. García no respetó su derecho de
paso en el cruce peatonal. Por otro lado, el Sr. García asegura que tenía luz verde y que el Sr.
Martínez cruzó la calle de manera imprudente.
Argumentos legales: El Sr. Martínez podría alegar que el Sr. García fue negligente al no ceder el
paso a un peatón en un cruce peatonal, lo que constituye una violación de las leyes de tránsito.
Además, podría afirmar que sufrió daños debido a la conducta imprudente del Sr. García.
Por su parte, el Sr. García podría argumentar que tenía el derecho de paso y que el Sr. Martínez
cruzó la calle de manera imprudente, contribuyendo así al accidente.
Resolución: El caso plantea cuestiones de responsabilidad civil y negligencia. La resolución
dependerá de la evaluación de las pruebas, como testimonios de testigos y pruebas forenses.
Además, se considerará si alguna de las partes violó las leyes de tránsito y si hubo contribución
comparativa a los daños sufridos por el Sr. Martínez.
Esta situación ilustra la complejidad de los casos de derecho común y la importancia de examinar
detenidamente los hechos y las pruebas para llegar a una resolución justa.

Case: The incident on Robles Street

Facts: Mr. García, an experienced driver, was traveling on Robles Street at the permitted speed.
Meanwhile, Mr. Martínez, a pedestrian, was crossing the street in a well-lit crosswalk. At one point,
Mr. Martínez was struck by Mr. García's vehicle and suffered serious injuries.
Mr. Martínez claims that he had the traffic light in his favor and that Mr. García did not respect his
right of way in the crosswalk. On the other hand, Mr. García assures that he had the green light and
that Mr. Martínez crossed the street recklessly.
Legal Arguments: Mr. Martinez could argue that Mr. Garcia was negligent in failing to yield to a
pedestrian in a crosswalk, which is a violation of traffic laws. Furthermore, he could claim that he
suffered damages due to Mr. Garcia's reckless conduct.
For his part, Mr. Garcia could argue that he had the right of way and that Mr. Martinez crossed the
street recklessly, thereby contributing to the accident.
Resolution: The case raises questions of civil liability and negligence. The resolution will depend
on the evaluation of evidence, such as witness testimonies and forensic evidence. Additionally, it
will be considered whether either party violated traffic laws and whether there was a comparative
contribution to the damages suffered by Mr. Martínez.
This situation illustrates the complexity of common law cases and the importance of carefully
examining the facts and evidence to reach a fair resolution.
  GLOSARIO
 Sue -Demandar
 Dissolve -Disolver
 Valued - Valorado
 Rules - Reglas
 Writting - Escribir
 Argue- Argumentar
 Claim -reclamar
 Damages - Daños y perjuicios
 Judges - jueces
 Penalty- pena
 Sentence – sentencia
GLOSARIO

 source (recurso)
 overwatching gobernment (sobrevigilar el gobierno)
 court of appeals (tribunal de apelaciones)


18-01-2024
-ACITIVIDAD
El origine de Common law (The origin of Common law)

Precedent = precedente
It is a judment or decisión of a court that is cited in an subsquent dispute as an example or analogy
to justify deciding a similar case or point of law in the same manner
Cammon law and equity, as found in english and american legal system very strongy on the body of
established , although in the original development of equity court thearetically had freedom from
precedent

El Common law nació en Inglaterra en la Edad Media con la creación de los Tribunales Reales y se
formó por las costumbres de las Tribus Germanas que habitaban la isla. Este sistema jurídico
subsiste en países de la comunidad internacional como Inglaterra, Estados Unidos de América,
Australia, Canadá (salvo Quebec) y otros, y se caracteriza por su relance en decisiones judiciales y
que significa que los tribunales están obligados a seguir los precedentes establecidos por decisiones
anteriores a menos que haya razones convincentes para desviarse
El desarrollo del Common law estuvo influenciado por la interacción entre las tradiciones legales
inglesas y normandas después de la Conquista Normanda. A lo largo del tiempo, el Common law se
convirtió en un sistema legal distintivo e influyente, con sus principios y precedentes dando forma a
las prácticas legales no solo en Inglaterra, sino también en otras jurisdicciones, incluidos los
Estados Unidos
El sistema de Common law ha tenido un impacto significativo en los sistemas legales de todo el
mundo, particularmente en países que alguna vez formaron parte del Imperio Británico o tienen
lazos históricos con Inglaterra. Su influencia se puede observar en varios sistemas legales, incluido
el de los Estados Unidos, donde ha desempeñado un papel fundamental en la conformación del
marco legal del país.
El desarrollo y la evolución del Common law siguen siendo de interés para académicos y
profesionales del derecho, ya que sigue siendo un aspecto fundamental de los sistemas legales en
muchas partes del mundo.

 INGLES

1. Common law was born in England in the Middle Ages with the creation of the Royal
Courts and was formed by the customs of the Germanic Tribes that inhabited the island.
This legal system subsists in countries of the international community such as England, the
United States of America, Australia, Canada and others, and is characterized by its
relationship in judicial decisions and which means that courts are obliged to follow
established precedents. by previous decisions unless there are compelling reasons to
deviate.
The development of common law was influenced by the interaction between English and Norman
legal traditions after the Norman Conquest. Over time, Common law became a distinctive and
influential legal system, with its principles and precedents shaping legal practices not only in
England, but also in other jurisdictions, including the United States.
The Common law system has had a significant impact on legal systems around the world,
particularly in countries that were once part of the British Empire or have historical ties to England.
Its influence can be seen in various legal systems, including that of the United States, where it has
played a fundamental role in shaping the country's legal framework.
The development and evolution of common law continues to be of interest to academics and legal
practitioners, as it remains a fundamental aspect of legal systems in many parts of the world.
19-01-2024
Overviwe of the american legal system
This means that courts are bound to follow the decisions of higher courts within the same
jurisdiction, leading to a predictable and consistent body of law.
Each state has state laws that are enacted by the Congress of each state and are enforced only in its
territory and only in its territory.
Federal laws are enacted by the federal Congress, composed of a Senate and a House of
Representatives, and apply throughout the country.
Las leyes estatales son dictadas por el Congreso de cada estado y solo se ejecutan en su territorio y
solamente en su territorio. Las leyes federales son dictadas por el Congreso federal, compuesto de
un Senado y una Cámara de Representantes, y rigen en todo el país
GLOSARIO

 source (recurso)
 overwatching gobernment (sobrevigilar el gobierno)
 court of appeals (tribunal de apelaciones)

Jurisdiction:
State courts primarily handle cases involving state law, while federal courts handle cases involving
federal law. Most criminal cases are heard in state court, as they typically involve violations of state
law.
Selection of Judges:
Federal judges are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate, holding office typically
for life. State court judges are selected in various ways, including elections and appointments
Types of Cases Heard:
Federal courts are courts of limited jurisdiction, meaning they can only hear cases authorized by the
United States Constitution or federal statutes. On the other hand, state courts have broader
jurisdiction and handle a wide range of cases involving state law
Appeals Process:
In the federal court system, parties dissatisfied with the decision of the trial court may take their
case to the intermediate Court of Appeals. The U.S. Supreme Court is the final arbiter of federal
constitutional questions. In contrast, parties have the option to ask the highest state court to hear the
case
Procedure:
Rules and procedures vary between state and federal courts, including differences in investigatory
procedures, discovery, motions, and other aspects of the criminal process. While state criminal
courts and procedures can vary from state to state, the rules and procedures in federal courts are
consistent across the country

Jurisdicción:
Los tribunales estatales se ocupan principalmente de los casos relacionados con la legislación
estatal, mientras que los tribunales federales se ocupan de los casos relacionados con la legislación
federal. La mayoría de los casos penales se juzgan en los tribunales estatales, ya que normalmente
implican violaciones de la ley estatal. Sin embargo, los casos penales que implican leyes federales
se juzgan exclusivamente en los tribunales federales.

Selección de jueces:
Los jueces federales son nombrados por el presidente y confirmados por el Senado, ocupando el
cargo normalmente de por vida. Los jueces de los tribunales estatales son seleccionados de varias
maneras, incluyendo elecciones y nombramientos.
Tipos de asuntos
Los tribunales federales son tribunales de jurisdicción limitada, lo que significa que sólo pueden
conocer de casos autorizados por la Constitución de Estados Unidos o por leyes federales. Por otra
parte, los tribunales estatales tienen una jurisdicción más amplia y se ocupan de una gran variedad
de casos relacionados con la legislación estatal.

Proceso de apelación:
En el sistema judicial federal, las partes insatisfechas con la decisión del tribunal de primera
instancia pueden llevar su caso ante el Tribunal de Apelación intermedio. El Tribunal Supremo de
los EE.UU. es el árbitro final de las cuestiones constitucionales federales. En cambio, las partes
tienen la opción de solicitar al tribunal estatal de mayor rango que conozca del caso.
Procedimiento:
Las reglas y procedimientos varían entre los tribunales estatales y federales, incluyendo diferencias
en los procedimientos de investigación, descubrimiento, mociones y otros aspectos del proceso
penal. Mientras que los tribunales penales estatales y los procedimientos pueden variar de un estado
a otro, las normas y procedimientos de los tribunales federales son coherentes en todo el país.
Actividad

 Trasnlate and explain five articles of the const.

 Constitución de estados unidos

 Artículo Cinco

Siempre que las dos terceras partes de ambas Cámaras lo juzguen necesario, el Congreso
propondrá enmiendas a esta Constitución, o bien, a solicitud de las legislaturas de los dos
tercios de los distintos Estados, convocará una convención con el objeto de que proponga
enmiendas, las cuales, en uno y otro caso, poseerán la misma validez que si fueran parte de
esta Constitución, desde todos los puntos de vista y para cualesquiera fines, una vez que
hayan sido ratificadas por las legislaturas de las tres cuartas partes de los Estados
separadamente o por medio de convenciones reunidas en tres cuartos de los mismos, según
que el Congreso haya propuesto uno u otro modo de hacer la ratificación, y a condición de
que antes del año de mil ochocientos ocho no podrá hacerse ninguna enmienda que
modifique en cualquier forma las cláusulas primera y cuarta de la sección novena del
artículo primero y de que a ningún Estado se le privará, sin su consentimiento, de la
igualdad de voto en el Senado.

R :Article V of the U.S. Constitution establishes the process for amending the Constitution.
This article establishes two methods for proposing amendments: by Congress or by a
convention of states. Amendments must be ratified by three-fourths of the states to become
effective.
 Artículo Seis

1. Todas las deudas contraidas y los compromisos adquiridos antes de la adopción de

esta Constitución serán tan válidos en contra de los Estados Unidos bajo el imperio
de esta Constitución, como bajo el de la Confederación.
2. Esta Constitución, y las leyes de los Estados Unidos que se expidan con arreglo a
ella, y todos los tratados celebrados o que se celebren bajo la autoridad de los
Estados Unidos, serán la suprema ley del país y los jueces de cada Estado estarán
obligados a observarlos, a pesar de cualquier cosa en contrario que se encuentre en
la Constitución o las leyes de cualquier Estado.
3. Los Senadores y representantes ya mencionados, los miembros de las distintas
legislaturas locales y todos los funcionarios ejecutivos y judiciales, tanto de los
Estados Unidos como de los diversos Estados, se obligarán mediante juramento o
protesta a sostener esta Constitución; pero nunca se exigirá una declaración
religiosa como condición para ocupar ningún empleo o mandato público de los
Estados Unidos.
R: El Artículo VI, conocido como la Cláusula de Supremacía, establece que la Constitución, las
leyes federales y los tratados son la "suprema ley del país". Además, establece que los funcionarios
estatales deben prestar juramento de fidelidad a la Constitución
 Artículo Siete

La ratificación por las convenciones de nueve Estados bastará para que esta Constitución
entre en vigor por lo que respecta a los Estados que la ratifiquen.
Dado en la convención, por consentimiento unánime de los Estados presentes, el día 17 de
septiembre del año de Nuestro Señor de mil setecientos ochenta y siete y duodécimo de la
Independencia de los Estados Unidos de América.

R: El Artículo VII describe el proceso de ratificación de la Constitución. Establece que la

ratificación de la Convención de nueve estados sería suficiente para que la Constitución entrara en
vigor

22-01-2024

Enmienda
An amendment to the Constitution of the United States is a formal change or addition to the text of
the Constitution. The Constitution establishes the fundamental legal and political framework of the
United States, and amendments are changes that can be proposed and ratified to reflect new
circumstances, values, or societal needs.
The amendment process is outlined in Article V of the Constitution. There are two primary ways to
propose an amendment:
Proposal by Congress: An amendment can be proposed by a two-thirds majority in both the House
of Representatives and the Senate.

Convention of States: If two-thirds of the states request a convention, Congress must call one.
Amendments proposed at the convention must then be ratified by three-quarters of the states.
Once an amendment has been proposed, it must be ratified by three-quarters of the states, either by
state legislatures or by state conventions, as determined by Congress.
Amendments to the Constitution of the United States have played a crucial role in the evolution of
the country's legal and political system, addressing issues ranging from individual rights to the
structure of the federal government. The amendment process is intentionally difficult to ensure that
modifications are thoughtful and widely supported.
24-01-2024

CONVOCATORIA
The legislative branch is made up of the House and Senate, known collectively as the Congress,
Among other powers, the legislative branch makes all laws, declares war, regulates interstate and
foreign commerce and controls taxing and spending policles. The following are legislative
branch organizations
Architect of the Capitol (AOC)

 Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives and Records Administration

 Congressional Budget Office (CBO)
 Government Accountability Office (GAO)
 Government Printing Office (GPO)
 Library of Congress (LOC)
 Office of compliance
 U.S senate

 Legislative (el Senado de la República y la Cámara de Representantes

 Executive (el presidente, el vicepresidente y el Gabinete del presidente
 Judicial (la Corte Suprema y otras cortes federales menores
 Make all laws (ellos hacen las leyes)

 The executive branch consists of the President, his or her advisors and various
departments and agencies. This branch is responsible for enforcing the laws of the
land. The following are executive branch organizations and agencies:

 Executive Office of the President (White House)

 The President's Cabinet (Federal Agencies)
 Independent Federal Agencies and Commissions
 USAGOV
 The Federal Information Center (FIC)
 USA Jobs
  vice president+

 The judicial branch consists of the U.S. Supreme Court and the Federal Judicial
Center. According to the Constitution, " the judical Power of the United States,
shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress
may from time to time ordain and establish." The Federal Judicial Center is the
education and research agency for the federal courts

Para hacer juez en estados unidos tiene que vivir por lo menos 9 años en el país y no requiere
ninguno titulo profesional

8. 1. **Age**: Members of the House of Representatives must be at least 25 years old, while
Senators must be at least 30 years old.

2. **Citizenship**: Both Representatives and Senators must be U.S. citizens. Senators must have
been citizens for at least nine years, while there is no specific duration mentioned for
Representatives.

3. **Residency**: Representatives must live in the state they wish to represent at the time of the
election, but there is no requirement for them to live in the specific district they represent. Senators
are also required to live in the state they represent at the time of the election.

It's important to note that these qualifications are outlined in the United States Constitution and are
unalterable by the legislature. Additionally, there may be additional requirements or procedures
related to candidacy, such as filing candidacy statements, collecting petition signatures, or paying
registration fees, which can vary from state to state.

Please keep in mind that the qualifications for Congress in Colombia may differ, and it would be
best to consult specific sources for information on the requirements in Colombia.

6. The United States and Colombia have some differences in their respective constitutions. Here are
a few key points:

1. **Electoral Process**: In Colombia, the president is elected through a popular vote every four
years. In contrast, the United States uses the electoral college system to elect its president.
2. **Historical Background**: Colombia's constitution has undergone several changes throughout
its history. The current Colombian Constitution was adopted in 1991, replacing the previous
constitution from 1886. On the other hand, the United States Constitution was enacted in 1776 and
signed by the founding fathers.

3. **Government Structure**: The United States is a federal republic, with power divided between
the federal government and individual states. In contrast, Colombia is a unitary, decentralized
republic.

4. **Territorial Organization**: The United States is composed of 50 states, each with its own
government and constitution, while Colombia is divided into departments (states) and
municipalities.

5. **Rights and Protections**: Both constitutions emphasize the protection of individual rights and
freedoms. The Colombian Constitution recognizes the primacy of the inalienable rights of the
individual and protects the family as the basic institution of society. Similarly, the United States
Constitution includes a Bill of Rights that guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms.

- In the United States, the process of approving laws involves several steps.
Here is a general overview of how laws are made:
-
- 1. **Introduction of a Bill**: The process begins when a member of
Congress (either a Representative in the House or a Senator) introduces a
bill. A bill is a proposed law that addresses a specific issue or concern.
-
- 2. **Committee Review**: The bill is then referred to the appropriate
committee in the House or Senate, depending on its subject matter. The
committee reviews the bill, holds hearings, and may make amendments or
revisions.
-
- 3. **Floor Debate and Voting**: If the committee approves the bill, it is
sent to the full chamber (House or Senate) for debate and voting. During
this stage, members of Congress discuss the bill, propose amendments, and
vote on its passage.
 - 4. **Conference Committee**: If the House and Senate pass different
versions of the bill, a conference committee is formed to reconcile the
differences and create a single unified version.
-
- 5. **Presidential Approval**: Once both the House and Senate have
approved the final version of the bill, it is sent to the President for approval.
The President can either sign the bill into law or veto it. If the President
vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority
vote in both chambers.

 ENOFRCIG THE LAW

HACER CUMPLIR LA LEY

 El poder ejecutivo está formado por el presidente, sus asesores y diversos departamentos y
agencias. Este poder es responsable de hacer cumplir las leyes del país. Las siguientes son
organizaciones y agencias del poder ejecutivo:
- Oficina Ejecutiva del presidente (Casa Blanca)
- Gabinete del presidente (Agencias Federales)
- Agencias y Comisiones Federales Independientes
- USAGOV
- El Centro de Información Federal (FIC)
- Empleo en EE.UU.

 El poder judicial está formado por el Tribunal Supremo de EE.UU. y el Centro Judicial
Federal. Según la Constitución, "el Poder Judicial de los Estados Unidos residirá en un
Tribunal Supremo y en los Tribunales inferiores que el Congreso ordene y establezca
periódicamente". El Federal Judicial Center es el organismo de educación e investigación
de los tribunales federales

Characteristics of Common Law

Common law is a legal system that has its roots in medieval England and has evolved over time.
Here are some key characteristics of common law:

1. **Precedent-based**: Common law is based on judicial decisions and precedents set by past
cases. Judges decide cases by referring to previous rulings and applying the principles established
in those cases.
2. **Flexible and adaptable**: Common law allows for flexibility and adaptation to changing
circumstances. It can be applied to situations that were not specifically contemplated by the
legislature at the time the law was created.

3. **Emphasis on case law**: Common law relies heavily on case law, which means that the law is
developed through the interpretation and application of legal principles by judges in specific cases.
This contrasts with civil law systems, which are based on statutes and prescribed texts.

4. **Trial by jury**: Common law systems often include the right to a trial by jury. This means that
a group of citizens, rather than a judge, decides the outcome of a trial based on the evidence
presented.

5. **Supremacy of the law**: The doctrine of the supremacy of the law is a characteristic of
common law. It means that even the government and its agencies are subject to scrutiny and must
abide by the law.

6. **Dual legal system**: In some countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, a
dual legal system exists, where both common law and civil law coexist. Common law operates
alongside civil law, which is derived from Roman law and is based on statutes and codes.

Precedent

Precedent refers to a court decision that serves as a legal authority or guide for deciding
subsequent cases with similar facts or legal issues. It is an important concept in common law
systems, such as those found in the United States and the United Kingdom. Here are some key
points about precedent:

- **Definition**: Precedent is a legal decision or form of proceeding that establishes an

authoritative rule or pattern for future similar or analogous cases.

- **Stare Decisis**: Precedent is incorporated into the doctrine of stare decisis, which means "to
stand by things decided." This principle requires courts to apply the law in the same manner to
cases with the same facts, ensuring consistency and predictability in the legal system.

- **Binding and Persuasive Precedent**: Precedents can be binding or persuasive. Binding

precedents are decisions from the same or a superior jurisdiction and must be followed by lower
courts. Persuasive precedents, on the other hand, come from other jurisdictions or lower courts
and are not binding but can be influential in guiding a court's decision.

- **Hierarchy of Courts**: In the United States, courts are organized in a hierarchical structure.
The Supreme Court sits at the top of the federal system, and its decisions have final authority on
questions about the meaning of federal law, including the interpretation of the U.S. Constitution.
Lower courts are bound by the precedents set by higher courts within their jurisdiction.
- **Ratio Decidendi**: Precedents are based on the legal reasoning, or ratio decidendi, of a case.
The ratio decidendi represents the part of a judgment that is binding and must be followed,
particularly if it comes from a superior court and is from the same court in an earlier case.

- **Flexibility and Evolution**: While precedent provides stability and consistency, the common
law system also allows for flexibility and adaptation. Precedents can be overruled or distinguished
in certain circumstances, such as when there are significant changes in societal values or when
higher courts revisit previous decisions.

Precedent
It is a judgment or decision of court that is cited in a subsequent dispute as an example of analogy to
justify deciding a similar case or point of law in the same manner.
Common law and equity, as found in English and American legal system, rely strongly on the body
of established precedent, although in the original in the original development of equity the court
theoretically had Fresno from precedent