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ENGINEERING LIBRARY
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1
1
1
NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS RELATED
TO THE RF PROPERTIES OF THE PLASMA SHEATH
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
AND THE COMMITTEE ON THE GRADUATE DIVISION
OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
ENGINEERING
AUG 6 1964
LIBRARY
By
John Milan Pavkovich
October 1963
I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my
opinion it is fully adequate , in scope and quality , as
a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy .
477Kino
I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my
opinion it is fully adequate , in scope and quality , as
a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy .
PA Stawock
Approved for the University Committee

on the Graduate Division :
K. Whitaker
Vinge
Dean of the Graduate Division
- ii -
¦
ABSTRACT
In many considerations of the rf properties of a finite plasma ,
the plasma is treated as a dielectric with a dielectric constant of

2 2
K = 1 - / and the boundary conditions associated with an ordinary
dielectric are applied . Although this approach works well at times ,
it is by no means a satisfactory approach to understanding the rf
properties of the boundary .
In this paper , a detailed rf theory of the sheath is presented .
The complete collisionless Boltzmann equation is used to derive a
linear integral equation for the rf electric field through the sheath .
The analysis is one -dimensional . This integral equation is solved
numerically for a semi - infinite uniform plasma bounded by a sheath

defined by a parabolic de potential . A Maxwellian distribution of
velocities is assumed for all computations . The results show that it
is reasonable to assume that the normal component of displacement is
continuous but that extra waves are set up near the boundary which
decay as one moves into the uniform plasma . These waves are somewhat
like the cutoff waves excited in the neighborhood of a waveguide dis-
continuity and thus give rise to a sheath impedance .
If one treats the plasma as a dielectric , this impedance gives
rise to a small discontinuity in the tangential component of electric

field . In many cases this discontinuity is negligible . However , the
impedance does contain a resistive component corresponding to
Landau damping , which is quite important in the consideration of loss .
In none of the computations has this resistive component become nega-
tive for a Maxwellian distribution and thus one is led to predict no
oscillations in the sheath . The results further show that for
frequencies below the plasma frequency , the field reverses from
inside to outside as expected . However , the magnitude does not
become particularly large in the region where w = ய
-- iii -
A pressure type theory is also presented . This theory is based on
moments of the collisionless Boltzmann equation . The results do not
agree very well with results of the more exact theory and thus it is
concluded that this type of theory is rather unreliable .
- iv -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my deepest thanks to Professor Gordon Kino for
his guidance and encouragement throughout the duration of this work .
His continued interest and support were key factors in overcoming many
of the problems that were encountered .
I also wish to thank Professor Peter Sturrock for reading the
manuscript .
Mr. Al Braun and the staffs of the Reports and Drafting Offices
made the preparation of the manuscript quite painless and their efforts
are greatly appreciated .
I also wish to thank the members of the staff of the Stanford
Computation Center , especially Mr. Wade Cole , for many enlightening
discussions and for answering my numerous questions .
Finally , I wish to thank my fellow students and the staff of the
Microwave Laboratory . Not only did I learn a great deal from them ,
but they made my stay a most pleasant one .
- V -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract iii
Acknowledgement V
I. Introduction 1
II . The Sheath Model 4
III . Landau's Problem 20
IV . Pressure Theory of the Sheath • 43
V. Solution of the Sheath Problem 61
VI . Boundary Conditions and Conclusions 102
Appendices
A. Landau's Kernel 115
B. The Fourier Transform of Landau's Kernel 125
C. The Solution of Large Systems of Algebraic Equations 138
D. The Reduction of a Linear Integral Equation to a
System of Algebraic Equations 149
E. Integration Rule ... 168
References 174
-- vi -
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
2.1 Plasma density profile . 6
3.1 The 90° sector outside of which ( k ) approaches ( w /w)2

as k → 0 26
3.2 The attenuation and propagation constants vs frequency for
the dominant wave of Landau's problem.. 30
3.3 The amplitude at the boundary vs frequency for the dominant
wave of Landau's problem... 31
33
3.4 The rf electric field for Landau's problem; w/wp = 0.2
3.5 The rf electric field for Landau's problem; w/w = 0.4 34
3.6 The rf electric field for Landau's problem; w/ = 0.6 35
3.7 The rf electric field for Landau's problem; w/w = 0.8 .... 36
3.8 The normalized impedance vs frequency for Landau's problem .. 42
4.1 The equation of state parameter , Y vs frequency 49
4.2 The rf electric field predicted by pressure theory ;
= 0.4 .... 52
w/ wp
4.3 The rf electric field predicted by pressure theory;
= 0.6 ........ 53
w /wp
= 54
w/wp 0.8 .....
= 1.0 ...... 55
w /wp
р
4.6 The rf electric field predicted by pressure theory;
= 1.2 ..... 56
w /wp
4.7 The normalized sheath impedance predicted by pressure theory . 59
= 3 , N = 4 .... 68
5.1 Arrangement of sample points for E (x); N
р
5.2 Arrangement of sample points for the kernel ; N = 3,
S
N = 4 68
р
- vii -
Page
5.3 The rf electric field in the plasma sheath region ;
= 0.2 75
w /wp = 0.4 , w/wp
ω = 76
w / wp = 0.4 , w/wp
0.4
77
w / wp = 0.4 , w/wp = 0.6
ω = 78
w /wp = 0.4 , w/wp 0.8
= 0.4 ... 79
w /wр = 0.5 , w/wp
= 0.6 ... 80
w /wp = 0.5 , w/ wp
81
w /wpр = 0.6 , w/ wp = 0.2
82
w /wp = 0.6 , w/wp-= 0.4
= 83
w /wp = 0.6 , w/wp 0.6
84
w /w = 0.6 , w/wp = 0.8
= 85
w /wp = 0.7 , w/wp 0.4
5.14 The rf electric field in the plasma sheath region;
= 86
w /w = 0.7 , w/wp 0.6
87
w /wp = 0.8 , w/wp = 0.2
= 88
w / w р = 0.8 , w/wp 0.4
w /w w/w == 0.6
= 0.8 , 89
р
= 0.8 90
w /wp = 0.8 , w/wp
91
w /wp = 1.0 , w/wp = 0.2
- viii ·
Page
w/
w dw
oo = 1.0 , w/w = 0.4 92
93
р = 1.0 ,
w /wp w/w = 0.6
94
w /wp = 1.0 , w/w = 0.8
95
w / wp = 1.2 , w/w = 0.2
w /w = 1.2 , w/w = 0.4 96

р р
= 0.6 97
w /wр = 1.2 , w/wp
98
w /wp = 1.2 , w/w = 0.8
w /w =1.2 , w/w = 0.9 99

p
5.28 The normalized resistance of the plasma sheath 100
5.29 The normalized reactance of the plasma sheath 101
6.1 Contours of integration 104
6.2 A comparison of the experimentally measured and
theoretically calculated rf fields in the sheath 111
A.1 Plot of the real and imaginary parts of F( s ) 120
B.1 126
B.2 Plot of F (k ) and G( k ) 137
C.1 System of N simultaneous equations 138
C.2 Reduced system of equations 139
C.3 Multiplier matrix 142
D.1 The i (x ) for the trapezoidal approximation of a

function ... 153
D.2 The notation for the K 156
D.3 The functions i(x ) used for Simpson's rule type of
approximation 162
-· ix -
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In most laboratory plasmas , the plasma is confined by glass walls
and metallic electrodes . The uniform plasma is separated from these
walls and electrodes by a thin region referred to as the sheath , in
which the density of electrons and ions is rapidly varying and in which
almost all of the electrons are reflected back into the uniform plasma
region . The existence of the sheath was recognized quite early by

1
Langmuir .
Although the dc properties of the sheath are not difficult to under
stand conceptually , any quantitative study , either experimental or theo

2
retical , is difficult . Tonks and Langmuir analyzed the low pressure
discharge for several geometries in 1929 by deriving what they called
the complete plasma sheath equation for the dc potential in the plasma
and the sheath . However , in order to solve the equation they had to
omit one term in the equation . Self³ has recently solved numerically
the complete plasma sheath equation for a de discharge and pointed out
that the Tonks and Langmuir solution is a good approximation for the
body of the plasma but is quite incapable of describing the sheath .
The rf and dc properties of the sheath have been studied by Gabor ,

4 5
Ash , and Dracott " and by Ott , Gierke , and Schwirzke . Both groups used
a finely collimated electron beam flowing parallel to the plasma sheath
interface to measure the electric fields present . In their experiments ,
Gabor , Ash , and Dracott found oscillations to be present in the sheath ,
and they postulated that these oscillations explained Langmuir's
Paradox , i.e. , the presence of high velocity electrons which should have
escaped through the sheath to the walls . However , Gierke , Ott , and
Schwirzke detected no sheath oscillations in their experiments and in a
- 1 -
6
similar experiment presently being conducted by Harp and Kino at the
Microwave Laboratory , no oscillations have been found .

7
On the theoretical side , Gordon has shown that an analytic approxi-
mation to the rf field measured by Gabor , Ash , and Dracott can indeed
result in negative beam loading for electrons with a Maxwellian distribu-
tion of velocities entering the sheath . However , in the author's estima-
tion , this analysis must be viewed rather skeptically since it is not
shown that the rf density which results from the motion of electrons in
the field is consistent with the assumed field . Also , the analysis is
confined only to the sheath , which , as we shall see , is incorrect .
In other areas of plasma work, a better understanding of the rf

8
properties of the sheath would be very useful . For example , Dattner
and others have observed many resonances of a cylindrical plasma column .
Although the main resonance at N2 is understood , the resonances at
higher frequencies are not . These unexplained resonances appear to be
temperature -dependent , and it is possible that the sheath plays an
important role in the coupling mechanism involved . In the study of slow-

9
wave propagation along a plasma column , the plasma is treated as a
dielectric with a dielectric constant given by
2 2
K = 1.
where ய is the electron plasma frequency and W is the frequency of
interest . The loss associated with these waves is not well understood .
Since the mean free path of an electron is several times the tube dia-
meter , the average electron undergoes several reflections in the sheath
between each collision . Thus it is quite possible that the sheath is an
important factor in the attenuation of these waves .
This work attempts to shed some light on the rf properties of the

sheath . In Chapter II an integral equation is derived for the rf elec-
tric field in the sheath and neighboring uniform plasma . Chapter III is
devoted to Landau's problem , i.e. , a semi - infinite plasma bounded by a
wall at which all the electrons are elastically reflected . This problem ,
which is a special case of the integral equation derived in Chapter II ,
- 2 -
10
was solved by Landau in terms of Fourier integrals . However , numerical
calculations are necessary to evaluate these integrals and the results
of such calculations are presented in Chapter III . In Chapter IV a
pressure theory of the sheath is presented . This theory is somewhat
dependent on the results of Landau's problem . Its main advantage is
simplicity . Its chief disadvantage is that it is unreliable . In Chapter
V the more general case of the integral equation derived in Chapter II is
considered and the results of extensive numerical calculations are
presented . Chapter VI treats the boundary conditions at the edge of a
plasma and attempts to show the significance of the results presented in
Chapter V.
- 3 -
CHAPTER II
THE SHEATH MODEL
A theoretical study of the behavior of the sheath under the influence
of monochromatic excitation tends to be difficult because any simplified
approach seems to be inadequate to describe the sheath . A zero tempera-
ture approach in which one assumes that everywhere the plasma behaves
like a dielectric fails completely since it predicts a singularity
( a point where the field becomes infinite ) in the electric field at any
point where the dielectric constant becomes zero . However , the failure
of a zero temperature theory in the sheath is not too surprising since the
sheath is characterized by the Debye length which goes to zero at zero temp-
erature . Thus it is not clear what one means by a sheath at zero tempera-
ture . The next step above a zero temperature theory is a pressure theory
in which moments of the Boltzmann equations are used in the analysis .
This approach is discussed in detail in Chapter IV and , as we shall see
there , the results are not very satisfying .
The only approach which satisfactorily describes the sheath is one
which uses the complete Boltzmann equation . This is the approach which
we shall use here . Although models using the Boltzmann equation may exist
which can be handled by analysis , this possibility seems remote because
of the basic nonuniformity of the problem . Our model requires extensive
numerical calculations to obtain results . This has the disadvantage that
any change in the parameters which describe the sheath means a new prob-
lem numerically . Thus it becomes difficult to state any broad general-
izations which one can sometimes find using an analytic type of analysis .
In studying the sheath , the following model will be used :
(1) Firstly , the rf motion of ions will be neglected , i.e. , they will be
assumed to be " frozen in . " Their effect on the rf properties enters the
- 4-
problem only insofar as they determine in part the static electric field
in which the electrons move about .
(2 ) Secondly , it will be assumed that the static portion of the electron
distribution is Maxwellian . In carrying out the numerical calculations ,
it matters little what one chooses for the dc electron distribution
function and , since the Maxwell distribution is of the greatest physical
interest , it was used in the calculations . The fact that a few electrons
are collected by the wall and the distribution deviates considerably from
a Maxwellian near the wall is neglected .
(3 ) Thirdly , it will be assumed that all quantities vary so slowly in a
direction parallel to the sheath , that a one - dimensional model is suf
ficient and thus all quantities can be assumed to depend only on the
coordinate perpendicular to the sheath . This means that Maxwell's equa
tions reduce to
de₁ (x , t )
= constant in space , ( 2.1 )
J₂ (x ) + €0
at
where the constant in the above equation represents the total current
through the sheath . The validity of this equation can be demonstrated
by noting that the divergence of the total current must be zero and we
are assuming negligible spatial variation in the plane of the sheath .
This assumption may be questionable at times since the distance perpen
dicular to the sheath over which we solve the problem may be several tens
of Debye lengths . However , without this assumption , the complexity of
the calculations increases greatly .
(4 ) Fourthly , collisions will be neglected . In an ordinary plasma , the
collision frequency is very small compared to the plasma frequency .
From the theoretical and experimental studies of the dc electric fields
which exist in the sheath, one finds that electrons spend about one
plasma period there . Thus the occurrence of collisions in the sheath
and neighboring plasma is a rather rare phenomenon and should be
negligible .
- 5 -
( 5 ) Fifthly , we assume no de magnetic field .
Finally , we shall choose the coordinate system as shown in Fig . 2.1 .
For x > O the plasma will be assumed to be uniform and to extend to

+ ∞ • There is no static electric field in this region . For x < 0 ,
the density of the plasma decreases monotonically . It will be assumed
FIG . 2.1 -- Plasma density profile .
that the dc electric field in the sheath region satisfies the relation
F (x ) ≤ 0 ( 2.2)
This means that the dc force on an electron is always in the positive
x direction and thus there exists no potential well in which electrons
can be trapped .
Consider now the Vlasov equation ( sometimes called the collisionless
Boltzmann equation ) for the electron distribution function . For the
- 6 -
one-dimensional case , this equation is
818
e
of of
E 0 (2.3)
0
m
at dx
where
f = f (x , v , t ) = electron velocity distribution ,
X = position ,
V = electron velocity ,
e = lel = magnitude of the electron charge ,

m = electron mass , and
E = E(x , t ) = total electric field .
If we separate f (x , v , t ) and E(x , t ) into their static and
time -varying parts , i.e. , we write
f ( x , v, t ) = f ( x , v ) + f₁ ( x , v , t) ( 2.4a)
E (x , t ) = (2.4b)
E ( x ) + E₁ ( x , t )
we can separate Eq . ( 2.3 ) into two equations . The first will involve
only de quantities and the second will involve primarily rf quantities ,
although some de quantities will appear . These two equations are
e af
O
V O ( 2.5a)
Eo
dx Dv
B
@E
af df. dr. e
1
18
+ V - - - - - •
Eo (2.5b)
E1
E
at dx m ду Ov m
- 7 -
Equation ( 2.5a) can be solved quite easily . Its solution is
1 2
f (x, v ) = ( 2.6 )
fo
[ ½ mv² -e (x )]
where (x ) is a scalar potential from which the dc electric field is
derivable by means of
a (x)
= (2.7)
B (x)
dx
Physically , Eq . ( 2.5a ) and its solution mean that the total energy of an
electron is constant along its unperturbed trajectory . If f (x , v) is
Maxwellian , then
KT
-{[ ½ mv² - op ( x ) ] /xr
B
= ( 2.8 )
fo(x, v)
2xkТ
and the de density is
+oo
= = e /T
n (x ) noo ( 2.9 )
√ f ( x, v )av
where
доо = electron density where (x ) = 0

= 0 , i.e. , the uniform
plasma region ,
n (x ) = electron number density ,
k = Boltzmann's constant , and
T = electron temperature .
The solution of Eq . ( 2.5b ) is much more difficult and its usefulness
is dependent on having a detailed knowledge of the unperturbed electron
- 8 -
trajectories . The solution is obtained by rewriting Eq . ( 2.5b ) in the
form
e df1
1 -
+ V - + - ( 2.10 )
n
E
at dx dv
11
By following Rosenbluth and observing that the left hand side of this
equation is the total time derivative of f ( x , v, t ) along an unperturbed
electron trajectory in x -v phase space , we can integrate both sides of
the equation from xo , Vo to to X v , t along the unper-
turbed trajectory with the result that
e t
Əf
。( x ' , v ' ) ǝf ( x ' , v ' , t ' )
f dt '
- - √ B₁₂ ( x ' , t ' )
Î₂ (x , v, t ) - Î½(xo , vo , t。 ) =
m t av'
( 2.11 )
For purposes of carrying out the integration in the above equation ,

x' and v' must be expressed as functions of x , v , and t- t '
i.e. ,
x' = x ' ( x, v, t - t ') ( 2.12a )
v' = v ' ( x , v, t t ') ( 2.12b)
with
X' = x ' (x , v , 0 ) = ( 2.13a )
V' = v '(x , v , 0) = ( 2.13b)
- 9 -
and
X' = = ( 2.14a )
x ' ( x, v, t - tô ) xo
v' = v ' (x, v , t − t ) 113 (2.14b )
For example , in the case of an infinite uniform plasma with no static
electric or magnetic fields present , the orbit equations are particularly
simple , and Eqs . ( 2.12a ) and ( 2.12b ) take the form
X' = X - v(t · t ') ( 2.15a )
V' = ( 2.15b)
It can be verified in terms of Poisson brackets that Eq . ( 2.11 ) is
indeed the solution of Eq . ( 2.5b ) .
For our purposes , we shall consider only small amplitude distur-
bances in the sheath so that linearized equations are sufficient . With
this approximation , Eq . ( 2.5b ) becomes
df. df. e of af
1 1 1
+ V - -- - E. ( 2.16)
11
1
at dx m dv m av
and its solution is
= - Š²
f₁ ( x , v, t ) E₁ (x'
( x ' ,, t¹ ) ³ 。 (x ' , v ' ) at ' + f₁ ( x‚³‚to )
-J
m to ду '
( 2.17)
If we now assume that f ( x, v, t) and E₁ ( x , t) can be Fourier
analyzed in time and consider only one frequency component , the result is
t
-iwt⋅ df ( x ' , v ' ) -iwt
-iwt
f ( x, v) e E₁₂ ( x ' ) e at ' + f₁ ( x , vo ) e
av'
( 2.18a)
- 10 -
or
。ia(t-t ' ) df (x ' , v ' ) Laxt-t₂ )

= e
f₁ ( x, v) E₂ (x ' ) åt ' + fq ( x¸‚Vo ) ¢
dr'
(2.186 )
If we further postulate that a has a small positive imaginary part due

to a small number of collisions , we can let to approach and obtain
e B₁ (x ' ) 。iw( t - t ' ) df

。 (x ' , v ' )
= - dt' ( 2.19 )
f₁ ( x , v )
11√ ( x) dv'
Equations such as ( 2.18 ) and ( 2.19 ) are sometimes referred to as "history
integrals " 12 since they relate the present value of f (x , v , t ) to the
past .
In Eq . ( 2.19 ) , the unperturbed trajectory of the electron has been
characterized by t' in the integral . For our purposes , it will be
more convenient to characterize the trajectory by x'

x' . In order to
change the variable of integration from t' to x' it is necessary
to split Eq . ( 2.15 ) into two equations , one valid for positive v and
the other valid for negative v . The reason for this is that elec
trons with positive velocity have suffered a reflection in the sheath
sometime during their past , while those with negative velocity have not .
If we change the variable of integration with this in mind , we find that
dt ' = dx '/v' (2.20 )
For v < 0 :
iWT. 1 df ( x ' , v ' )

NR
e dx ' ( 2.21a )
(x ) = f (x ) δν '
+00
- 11 -
For v >0 :
1ωτ , 1 df ( x ' , v ' )

NR -
= dx '
f₁ (x , v) E₁ (x')
Vi ду '
*MIN (v)
πν ( ν )
ΧμMIN
C
I UTR 1 df ( x ' , v ' )
+ - dx '
E E₁ ( x ' ) e
S V' ду '
too
( 2.21b)
where
'NR ( x , x ' , v ) = transit time from x' to X when the

NR
electron suffers no reflection in the
sheath .
= = transit time from x' to X when the

TR TR( x , x ' , v )
electron is reflected in the sheath .
= minimum value of X which an electron with

XMIN XMIN (V )
velocity v is capable of reaching .
We can now use Eqs . ( 2.21a ) and ( 2.21b ) to obtain the electron cur-
rent density in the plasma ; thus
+00
= - (2.22)
J1 ( x ) eJ v f₁ (x , v ) dv
81
- 12 -
and therefore ,
2
1WTNR 1 df (x ' , v ' )
= dv v dx E₁ (x ' ) e
J₂ (x) ·Jax''
m V'
-∞ +oo
iwr. 1 df ( x ' , v ' )

NR
dv (2.23)
dx ' E₁ ( x ' ) e
m Sarv
2² ] 1
v
XMIN ( V )
2 ∞ XMIN ( V ) iWU
TR 1 df ( x ' , v ' )
dv v
S dx ' E₁ ( x ' ) e
V' дү
+00
If we now express the integration over velocity in terms of an integration
over energy , then the energy of an electron , & " is
1
- mv2 ·
12
(2.24a)
W
e (x)
and so
de = mv dv (2.24b)
and
df (E) de
Jfo(x ' , v ' ) dfo ( )
= my' ; ( 2.25a)
1
ду ' d& ду ' de
1 df ( x ' , v ' ) df ( e)
m ( 2.25b)
dv' dЄ
- 13 -
and
2 X
iwτ, df
NR if (e )
10
J₂(x) ²
• ] de ƒ dx ' E₁ ( x ' ) e
m de
-e (x )
2
iwτ, R df
N dr ( e )
‫ر‬ ‫روه‬ dx ' E₁ ( x ' ) e ( 2.26)
m de
-e (x ) MIN (( E
*MIN 8 ))
XMIN(e)
2
iWTR df (e )
| ª
ac dx ' E₁ ( x ' ) e
m S dƐ
-e ( x )
By continuing to attribute a small positive imaginary part to w , we can
interchange the order of integration in the above equation . Table 2.I
indicates how this is done for each integral . Notice that it is necessary
that -e (x ) be a monotonically decreasing function in order to perform
the interchange as indicated . This is just the condition stated in Eq . ( 2.1 )
and is the requirement that there be no trapped particles . By performing
the interchange , we obtain the result
2 ∞
iwT, df ( e )
NR
= de
J₂ (x ) fodx ' E₁ ( x ' )
#
m r /
de
X
-e (x )
00
2 X
iwT. df ( 2)
NR
dx ' E , ( x de e
de
-x
。(x ' )
-ex
( 2.27 )
2 X
e
iWTR df ( e)
dx ' E, ( x ' ) de e
de
-e (x ' )
2 00
iWTR df ( e)
dƐ e
m Ја '
+ =√ax 2, (x ' ) ] de
-e (x)
14 -
_e$(x ' ) ___
-eØ(x)
X
∞ ∞
dx ' de
Sax ' S
deI
-eØ(x) +00 X -ep(x )
-e (x ' )
-eØ(x ) —
X
Jae Jax ' Jax Jae

-00
-e ( x ) xMIN ( e ) -ep(x ' )
&
-e (x ' )
-eØ( x ).
x'
00
X X
∞ 00
*MIN ( E )
de -
dx '
-Jax Jae - fax ' fae
-eØ(x) +∞o -eØ(x ' ) X ex(x )
TABLE 2.I -- Graphic representation of the change of order of

integration in Eq . ( 2.26 ) .
- 15 -
If we now examine the limits of integration , we find that the above
equation can be written as
2 700
iwT, iWT,
afo NR R
= E. d& e - e
J₂ ( x) dx ' B₂ (x ' ) /
de
-e [ MIN ( x , x ' )]
( 2.28)
Physically , the lower limit in the integration over energy means that an
electron must possess sufficient energy to reach both X and x'
Equation ( 2.28 ) can now be combined with Eq . ( 2.1 ) to obtain the
following integral equation for E (x) :

+oo
= E. (2.29)
E₁ (x ) E10 + √ K(x , x ' ) B₁ (x ' ) dx '
<-∞
where
2 W
iwT, i TR
dfo NR
K(x , x ' ) = i de - e ( 2.30 )
mwe
~-ex。 [MIN ( x , x ' )] de
The constant in Eq . ( 2.1 ) has been taken as E.

-iwe E10 and thus E10
represents the free space value of the electric field . Equation ( 2.29)
is a linear integral equation for the electric field in the sheath and
surrounding region . This is the basic equation in this report and it is
the solution of this equation to which most of this report is devoted .
As stated previously , we shall assume that f (x , v) is Maxwellian .
If we then substitute Eq . ( 2.8 ) into the kernel , we find that
e d iwT, iwT,
Poo √m/2лkт NR - R
K(x , x ' ) = i dg e
me ω de
10 [ MIN ( X , X ' )]
( 2.31 )
- 16 -
It is now possible to make a few statements about the characteristics
of the integral equation . Firstly , it can be seen that the kernel is

symmetric . The variables X and x' enter the calculation of the kernel
only through the lower limit of integration and the transit times TNR
and • The lower limit is certainly symmetric and since the electrons
TR
move in a conservative electrostatic field , the transit times are symmetric
functions . Secondly ,
if we consider the homogeneous integral equation , we
2
see that eigenvalues should be related to i.e. , W
[(nooe²)/ ( m€ )] P
the plasma frequency . However , since the kernel is symmetric and not
hermitian , we cannot expect that the eigenvalues will be real . This means
that the normal modes of the system associated with complex eigenvalues will
not be physically realizable on an individual basis , but that they will
appear physically only in combination with some or all of the other normal
modes .
Before proceeding to solve the integral equation , it would be well to
normalize the variables and also to express the equation in a form more
convenient for solution . Therefore , let us first change the variable of
integration in Eq . ( 2.31 ) from energy , & to speed in the uniform plasma

region , u ; thus ,
2
½ mu² = e (2.32a )
and
2
mu
2
2kT iwτ, iwT.
NR R
K(x , x ' ) = -i du u e e
• (n/kr) 3/ 2
/
2π
UMIN
(2.32b)
Now normalize u by letting
=
-|
u/(√kT/m ) ( 2.33 )
- 17 -
Variables will be underlined to indicate normalization . Then , we have
2 ∞
-u2/2 iwT, iwT,
NR R
K(x , x ' ) = - i du u e e
(m /kT )
wVar [
•
UMIN
( 2.34)
Now consider the integral equation . Let us normalize X in terms of
Debye lengths ; thus ,
( 2.35)
‫אן‬ x/^D
where
KTE
VKT/m O
= ( 2.36)
2
up nooe
which is the Debye length in the uniform plasma . In this case Eq . ( 2.29 )
can be written
+oo
E( x) E10 + λD K ( x , x ' ) E ( x ' ) dx' ( 2.37 )

·√
By combining Eqs . ( 2.34 ) , ( 2.36 ) , and ( 2.37 ) , we can now write
+oo
E (x ) = E10 +· K( x , x ' ) B ( x ' ) dx ' ( 2.38a )

-0
<
- 18 -
where
∞
-u2/2 10T iWT.
NR R
K(x , x ' ) = - i du u e -e • (2.38b)
Te
MIN
This is the form which will be used in the remaining chapters . We shall
subsequently omit the line under K.
- 19 -
CHAPTER III
LANDAU'S PROBLEM
10
In the second part of his famous paper , Landau considered the
problem of a semi - infinite plasma bounded by a wall at which all electrons
were elastically reflected . In this chapter , we shall consider this same
problem and essentially repeat Landau's analysis , although in somewhat

more detail and with numerical results . Since Landau's problem can be
solved analytically , it tends to give one better physical understanding
of the behavior at the boundary . It also clearly points up the fact that
the presence of a boundary is felt a considerable distance inside the
plasma and that therefore one cannot consider the sheath by itself .
In terms of the model described in Chapter II , a semi - infinite plasma
with a sharp boundary at x = 0 is defined by choosing
X > 0
= (3.1)
-e (x)
∞ •
ར
The transit time functions are particularly simple for this case . They
are
X _ │x - x ' |
T = │x - x ' = (3.2a)
NR u u wp
р
│x + x ' | 1x + x ' l
= ( 3.2b)
R u ய
Note that x , x' and u in the above equations are normalized and thus
dimensionless . By using the above relations , the integral equation
- 20 -
describing this case is
+ K( x , x ' ) E ( x ' ) dx' (3.3a)

E₁ ( x ) = E10
Š
where
x or x' < 0
K( x , x ' ) =
w
ய x - x' | ய │x + x '
∞
i i
น น
i du u e - e
WV 2π
x and x ' > 0 .
(3.3b)
The above integral equation holds for all X but it is trivial for
negative x " since the kernel is then identically zero . Thus Eq . ( 3.3a )
then becomes simply
= E. X < 0 (3.4)
E₁ ( x) 10
Of course , this is expected since there is no plasma in the negative X
region and the electric field assumes its free space value . Mathemat-
ically it is sufficient to consider the integral equation as being valid
only for positive x since the electric field in the negative x region
- 21 -
in no way affects the solution for positive x · Thus we can write
E , (x = (3.5a)
1 10 + K( x , x ' ) E¸ ( x ' ) dx '
where
+
∞
K( x , x ' ) · i du u e -e
2π
aཀ ཙྩཱ [ g མཱམ ཝཱ ཨཱམཱམ །

(3.5b )
If we now define E (x ) to be an odd function , i.e. ,
E. ( -x )
E₁ = - ( 3.6)
E₁1 ( x )
E.
and further replace the constant E10 by the function
E. X >0
10
sgn (x) = (3.7)
E10 sgn
-E. x < 0
10
we can define an extended integral equation valid for all x with a
difference kernel . Thus we can write
too
= (3.8a)
E₁ ( x ) E10 sgn (x ) + √ x ( x , x ' ) B₁
1 ( x ' ) ax '
- 22 .-
where
लगा
3139
2
-
X
∞ =
ल
u
= - i du u e •
K(x, x ') (3.8b )
Since the kernel is now a simple difference kernel , it is possible to
solve the above equation using Fourier transforms .
In his solution of Eq . ( 3.8a ) , Landau subtracted off the behavior
at infinity so that all his Fourier transforms were well defined . We
shall use more generalized Fourier transforms , but with the same results .
By taking the transform of Eq . ( 3.8a ) , we obtain the result
-i k x
dx e
e - i k X E₁ ( x ) dx e sgn (x)
E₁ ( x ) = 310 *
∞
too too
-ik x
dx e dx ' K( x , x ' ) E¸ ( x ' ) , ( 3.9a)
which becomes
2 E,
E10
= K( k ) Ẽ₁ ( k ) (3.9b )
¤₁ ( k )
ik
we find that
By solving Eq . ( 3.9b ) for Ẽ₁ ( k )
2E10
= ( 3.10 )
B₁ (k)
ik [ 1 - K( k ) ]
The behavior of E₁ ( x ) near infinity is determined by the behavior of
near zero . If we therefore separate off the singular behavior at

Ẽ₁ ( k )
- 23 -
k = 0 , we see that
21
0 2E. [ K(k ) - K ]
10
= ( 3.11 )
(k )
ik [ 1 - K ] i [1 - K ] k [ 1 - K( k ) ]
3 = 2, 2
where K = K( 0) It will subsequently be shown that Ko
If we now take the inverse transform of Eq . ( 3.11 ) , we find that
+00
E10 sgn ( x ) i E. +⁰⁰[ K。 e kx
- K( k ) ] 。i
E10
= dk " ( 3.12)
E,1(x)
K ПК k [ 1 - K( k ) ]
where
Егорово
K = 1 ( 3.13 )
which is the expression for the dielectric constant of a uniform plasma .
Equation ( 3.12 ) is the result obtained by Landau . The integration in
Eq . ( 3.12 ) must be performed numerically .
The properties of K( k ) are developed in detail in Appendix B.
They may be summarized as follows : The expression for K(k ) can be
written as
น
2
+oo
1
D
du
K(k ) = du (3.14 )
3
2x
-00 u
w k
р
or alternatively as
2 2
k T
2 iT
K( k ) = атте е 2600/00)2 (3.15)
- །7
·24 .
In Eq . ( 3.14 ) the path of integration around the pole at u = w/w k is
chosen by recalling that we consider ய to have a small positive
imaginary part . Thus for positive k the pole will lie slightly above
the real axis and for negative k it will lie slightly below. These
facts enable us to write
k > 0
K₁₂ (k)
K(K) = ( 3.16)
k < 0
K₂( k )
where ( k) and K₂( k ) are the functions defined by integrating below
and above the pole , respectively . The expressions for Ã₁ ( k ) and
are
K₂( k)
= P
Ã ( k) F ( k ) + i G ( k) (3.17a)
♡ a(k)
= F (k ) - 1 G( k ) (3.176)
K₂(k)
ய
where
2
w 2
N (2m) ! 2k
F (k ) =
2
2m
m= 1 2 m!
k2
n
2
ய
W N!
e (2N + 1 )!
ய
2k
+
2 n=1
k 22N (N ! )2
n (n + N) : ( 2n - 1 )
2
2k
3130
2 N!
N = zero or any
positive
integer .
n= 0
(Nn) ( 2n + 1) (3.18a )
- 25 -
or alternatively ,
2 2
ய
n!
ய
= (-1 )n ( 3.18b)
F(k )
2 n= 0
k ( 2n ) ! k2
鬥
and
2
w
2π /2k2
ய ய
G(k) = e ( 3.19 )
2k3
Notice that F(k ) and G(k ) and therefore (k) and (k ) possess
essential singularities at k = 0 .
From Eq . ( 3.14 ) it can be shown that (k) approaches (w /w)2

k approaches zero along an arbitrary path lying outside the 90°
sector bounded by the two 45° lines in the upper half plane . This sector
is indicated graphically in Fig . 3.1 .
Y Imaginary part of k
X
Real part of k
FIG . 3.1 --The 90° sector outside of which (k ) approaches

as k → 0 .
( w /w)2
26 -
In terms of the expansions for F( k ) and G( k ) , the singular behavior
cancels in the lower half plane and adds in the upper half plane . The
result of this is that in the unshaded region in Fig . 3.1 , (k) is
approximated by the first part of the expansion of F( k ) in Eq . ( 3.18a ) ,
i.e. ,
2
k k
3º
3
= 1 +3
NI
+ 15 · (3.20 )
3130
3130
K₁ ( k ) 2
Similarly , (k) is well behaved outside a similar 90° sector in the

near k = 0 outside of this
lower half plane . The expansion of ₂( k )
90° sector is identical to Eq . ( 3.20 ) , i.e. ,
2
k k
= 1+ 3 + 15 · (3.21 )
3130
K₂(k )
3130
3
If we now use Eq . ( 3.16 ) in Eq . ( 3.12 ) , we find that
i E. ikx ak
E10 E10 °[ K。 - Ĩ₂( k )]
= e
B₁ (x )
K JIK
-8 k [ 1 - Ñ₂( k ) ]
i1 E10 -
[K - Ã₁ ( k ) ] . ikx ak
e (3.22)
JIK k [ 1 - Ã₁ ( k ) ]
By adding and subtracting an integral involving (k ) taken from zero
to plus infinity , the following result is obtained :
+00
i E.
E10 E10 √ [ K。 -
- K₂( k ) ]
= ikx dk
E₁ (x)
K πK k [ 1 - Ĩ₂( k ) ]
(3.23 )
∞
i E. ikx ak
10 [Ã½( k) - Ã ( k ) ]
e x > 0 .
π
k [ 1 - Ĩ₁ ( k ) ) ( 1 - Ĩ₂( k ) ]
- 27 -
For some purposes , it is more useful to express the second integral in
the above equation in terms of F( k ) and G(k) · The result of this
transformation is
+00
i E ikx ak
E10 10 [K - K₁₂( k ) ]
dk
။
E₁ ( x )
K πK -8 k [ 1 - Ř₂( k ) ]
2
ikx
313
∞ G(k) e
2 E10 w
dk x > 0
+
2 2
ய -
π O k + [G( k ) ]
ய
(3.24 )
The first integral in the above equation can be evaluated by closing the
contour in the upper half plane and using Cauchy's residue theorem . The
complete evaluation of the second integral can only be obtained numeri-
cally .
Below the plasma frequency , the function 1 - ₂( k ) possesses one
zero in the upper half plane and this zero is located on the positive
imaginary axis . By evaluating this integral using residues , we obtain
the result
E1
i E. +00 2 E. 1
0
D(
[K - K₂( k ) ] ikx 0
dk (3.25)
။
S
∞- ak₂( k )
πκ ia
k [ 1 - K₂ ( k ) ]
dk
k = ia
where k ia is the location of the pole . Further analysis also shows
that dÃ½( k )/dk | k = ia is a positive imaginary quantity for all values
of X Thus we see that the contribution of this integral is a
decaying exponential . For frequencies just slightly below the plasma
frequency , K₂( k ) can be expanded as in Eq . ( 3.21 ) . By using this
28 -
expansion , we find that
2
2 2
ய 1
α = (3.26)
ய
-E 3
VE 3
OVE
By evaluating the residue at this pole , and neglecting the contribution
of the second integral , we find that
E1
E. 0
E(x)
22 1 · ( 3.27)
K
The correct value of the field at x = 0 is E10 and not zero as pre-
dicted by the above equation . This error occurs because of the approxi-
mation made in obtaining Eq . ( 3.27 ) . Notice , however , that this error
is small compared to 1/K .
Numerical calculations were performed to determine a for all
frequencies below the plasma frequency . Also the amplitude of the
decaying exponential wave was computed . These results are plotted in
Figs . 3.2 and 3.3 , respectively .
The second integral in Eq . ( 3.24 ) is quite well behaved for fre-
quencies below the plasma frequency although it can only be evaluated

numerically . This is best done using Filon's 13,14 rule if one is
interested in large values of X.
Filon's rule is useful for the numerical integration of integrals
of the form
cos kt
f(t) dt ,
sin kt
а.
- 29 -
1.2
2
ω 3B2
+
1
=
1.0 p
)Bohm
Relation
Dispersion
Gross
and
(
0.8
0.6
α + jB
- 30 -
0.4
0.2
Attenuation And Propagation Per Debye Length

1 2 3
Normalized
Frequ ency
3139
.3.2
FIG
the
for
frequency
vs
constants
propagation
and
attenuation
The
--
dominant
wave
Landau's
problem
.of
7
- 31 -
3
Amplitude at Boundary
2
1 2 3
Normalized
Frequ ency
problem
Landau's
of
wave
dominant
the
for
frequency
FIG
.--
3.3
vs
boundary
at
amplitude
The
3130
It is derived by approximating the function f(t ) by arcs of parabolas
and by carrying out the integration . Its accuracy depends only on how
well f (t ) is approximated rather than the whole integrand . Thus one
is able to evaluate accurately integrals of this form using a low sam-
pling rate , even when k is quite large .
Numerical calculations were performed to determine the total elec-
tric field for w/w = 0.2 , 0.4 , 0.6 , and 0.8 • The results are plotted
in Figs . 3.4 , 3.5 , 3.6 , and 3.7 , respectively . It can be seen that the
field is made up of a decaying exponential plus a small decaying oscil-
latory wave . However , no wave number can be associated with the oscil-
latory wave since its period changes considerably from one period to the
next . Notice also that the field is continuous at the boundary . This
is expected since the boundary conditions do not allow current to flow
to the wall .
Above the plasma frequency , the function 1 - ₂( k ) has no zeroes
in the upper half plane . Thus the contribution of the first integral is
zero . The evaluation of the second integral is more difficult now.
From the behavior of F(k ) and G(k ) , it can be seen that for fre-
quencies very close to the plasma frequency , the integrand behaves very
2
much like a delta function in the region where F( k ) = (w/w )² · This
р
behavior can be traced to the fact that 1 - Ã (k) has a zero very close
to the positive real axis . From the expansions for (k ) " it can be
found that for frequencies very close to the plasma frequency this pole
is located at
3
2
ய
2
ய K 2 K
3º
15 -
0 + i (3.28)
(D
ய
2
3 K
EV
ய
P
If we use the residue of this pole to approximate the integral , we find

that
ik
E10
≈ ( 3.29)
E₁ (x)
K *[
** ·-•** *
]
- 32 -
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
- 33 -
E1
E.
-Re
0.2
2 8
6
1
40 20 30
Im
E
1 Distance
Debye
in
Lengths
rfFIG
.3.4
electric
The
--
field
Landau's
for
problem
/
;w
p .0
=.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
E.
Re
1
-
0.2
34 -
468
10 20 30
+
Im
E.
Ε1
Distance
Lengths
Debye
in
electric
.3
FIG
rf
The
--
for
field
; .5
problem
Landau's
w
/
wp0.4
=
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 -Re
E1
0.2
20 30
+ +
100
- 35 -
Distance
Debye
in
Lengths
0
- .2
Im
E1
0.4
0.6
3.6
FIG
w
/
;w
problem
Landau's
for
field
electric
rf
The
.--
0
= .6
1.0
0.8
0.6
E1
-Re
E.
0.4
0.2
'8 10 20 30
Distance
in
Debye
Lengths
0.2
0.4
0.6 E.
Im
- 36
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
The
FIG
-- .7
electric
rf
for
Landau's
field
problem
3.8
0
=
w
/
.;w
Again , the above integral predicts the value zero at x = 0 rather than
the correct value of E10 • In any event , we see that an electrostatic
wave is excited at the boundary which is damped as it moves into the
plasma . Very close to the plasma frequency the damping is very small .
15
This wave is the normal plasma wave discussed by Bohm and Gross .
Numerical calculations were performed to determine ko and the

amplitude of this dominant electrostatic wave for a range of frequencies
above the plasma frequency . It must be confessed , however , that the
significance of these results decreases considerably as w/w increases
beyond about 1.4, because the pole is beginning to move an appreciable
distance away from the real axis . In terms of the integral in Eq . ( 3.24 ) ,
the delta function at F ( k ) = ( w/w )2 is broadening out with the result
that a wide range of frequencies is excited rather than a very narrow

band . These facts make it difficult to know what wave number to assign
to the dominant wave and further to decide how the amplitude should be
computed . To overcome these difficulties , it was arbitrarily decided to
take the location of the pole and the real part of the residue as the
quantities of interest . The results are plotted in Figs . 3.2 and 3.3 .
The Bohm and Gross dispersion relation
2
|8
= 1 +382
e
is also plotted in Fig . 3.2 for comparison . It may be noted that it is

·
accurate only when ( w/w ) is close to 1 The point at (w/w )
equal to 1.4 is a rather convenient point to remember since a wave-
length is then about 14 Debye lengths and the attenuation is about
1 neper per wavelength .
In his paper Landau also obtained an asymptotic expression for the
second integral in Eqs . ( 3.23 ) and ( 3.24 ) valid for large x using the
method of steepest descent . However , this asymptotic expression is only useful

when X has become so large that the contribution of the integral is 10-5
- 37 -
or less of its value at x = 0. This same difficulty arises in trying
to obtain an asymptotic expression for Landau's kernel in Appendix A.
The reader is referred to this appendix for a more complete discussion of
this problem .
Thus far the results may be roughly summarized as follows . At the
boundary a wave is excited whose amplitude is approximately equal to the
difference between the value of the electric field outside the plasma and
the value determined by assuming the plasma is a dielectric with a
dielectric constant given by Eq . ( 3.13 ) . Below the plasma frequency , the
wave is a decaying exponential and above the plasma frequency it is a
damped electrostatic wave . The damping is very small close to the plasma
frequency .
An important quantity which can be defined for the sheath is its
impedance . In terms of unnormalized variables , the impedance is defined

as
E10
dx
E₂ ( x )
K
z = (3.30)
H
where
I = - iw € 10 (3.31 )
is the total current through the sheath . In terms of normalized vari-
ables this can be written as
E10
D dx
i. (x)
K
Z = (3.32)
3º
3
|
3
E10
- 38 -
If we write
E10
= + F (x) E. (3.33)
E₁ (x ) + 1 BIM(x )
we can define a normalized resistance and reactance as
Em( x
EIM( X ) dx
(3.34a)
11
RN
139
3 3
E.
10
and
F ( x ) dx
XN (3.346)
ய E10
w
so that
Z
( RN + j XN ) (3:35)
To obtain the above equations , it was necessary to substitute -j for

i since impedance is defined using ejut time dependence and we have
-iwst
used e Notice that the impedance is defined using the difference
between the actual field and E. /K

E10 so that if the plasma behaved like a
dielectric near the boundary , RN and XN would both be zero .
- 39 -
Since the first integral in Eq . ( 3.24 ) contributes only to (x ) "
R. Thus we can write

any contribution to RN must come from the second .
330
2 G(k) eikx
8
Im dx dk
N 11 S 2
π k F(k )] + [ G(k ) ]
{[ «»» ] ² ·
( 12)² - »
(3.36)
By interchanging the order of integrations and performing the integration
over dx , we obtain
3/3
2 ∞ G(k )
Im dk
RN 2 2 2
2
K
k
- F(x)]² + [ G( k ) ]
(3.37)
Since G( k ) is always negative , we see that RN is always positive .
Thus the presence of a sharp boundary at which electrons are elastically
reflected always introduces loss for a Maxwellian distribution . From
Eq . ( 3.37 ) , it is also clear that there will be no contribution to X
from this integral . This means that above the plasma frequency the
sheath impedance is purely real . Below the plasma frequency , X can be
evaluated by using Eq . ( 3.25 ) . The result is
ய
р
2
‫حمد‬
3
|
(3.38 )
ak₂( k )
dk
k = iα
- 40 -
Both RN and XN were computed numerically and the results are plotted
in Fig . 3.8 .
From Eq . ( 3.37 ) it is easy to obtain an expression for RN valid
for frequencies large compared with the plasma frequency . When
3
>> MAX F (k ) 1.6 (3.39 )
we can write 3º
|
399
2 ∞ G( k)
ய dk (3.40)
RN
2
T
By using Eq . ( 3.19 ) for G( k ) and evaluating this integral , we find
ய
21 P 1.6 P (3.41)
RN
ய ய
Thus we see that the resistance decreases quite rapidly with increasing
frequency .
From Eq . ( 3.35 ) we see that the actual impedance is equal to
/ times the normalized impedance . This means that the actual
impedance and therefore any loss is proportional to the square root of
the temperature rather than the temperature itself . The problem of how
the sheath impedance should be used in applying boundary conditions at
the edge of a plasma if one wishes to assume the plasma is a dielectric
is discussed in Chapter VI .
- 41 -
XN RN
-30 3.0
-20 2.0
RN
- 42 -
Resistance
-10 1.0
Normalized Reactance
Normalized
1.0 2.0 3.0

Normalized
Frequ ency
313º
problem
Landau's
for
frequency
vs
impedance
FIG
.--
3.8
normalized
The
CHAPTER IV
PRESSURE THEORY OF THE SHEATH
Before describing the numerical solution of the sheath equation , a
few pages will be devoted to a simpler and cruder approach to the prob-
lem of how the rf electric field varies through the sheath . We shall
refer to this theory as the pressure theory of the sheath . This theory
is the next step beyond a zero temperature theory and overcomes the
major difficulty of the zero temperature theory , i.e. , the singularity
where w/w ( x ) is equal to 1 . Hopefully , the pressure theory should
give one some physical understanding because of its simplicity . However ,
as we shall see , the results of the pressure theory are rather disap-
pointing and the author believes one should be rather skeptical of any
physical intuition based on pressure theory .
This theory is based in part on moments of Eq . ( 2.3 ) , the Vlasov
equation . By taking the zeroth and first order moments of this equation ,
we find
818
(nv) = ( ( 4.1 )
and
+00
a 2
vf dv + n E = 0 ( 4.2 )
№ Xx Šv²r av
(nv) + &
-8
where n and are now the plasma density and velocity and E is the
electric field . Equation ( 4.1 ) is the equation of continuity . Equations
- 43 .·
( 4.1 ) and ( 4.2 ) can be combined to obtain
n - n E - ( 4.3 )
It дх dx
where р is the pressure and is defined by
+00
р = m (v - v)² f dv (4.4a)
S
-8
+00
=
3 · mnv2
vf dv - m n v (4.46 )
-∞
Equation ( 4.3 ) is the equation of motion for the plasma . One could
continue this process and take higher order moments , but as always ,
the problem is when to stop and what to do with the highest order
moment . A more reasonable approach it seems is to stop taking moments
at this point and to assume some equation of state for the plasma .
This is what will be done .
For the equation of state we shall assume
p (1/n) = constant in time (4.5a )
= =
Po (1/n ) ( 4.5b )
y-1
no
where the zero subscripts refer to non - time - varying quantities . For the
moment Y is an arbitrary constant , but as will be seen , reasonable
choices for Υ can be obtained from the numerical solutions of Landau's
problem . It may be noted that Y = 1 corresponds to isothermal
behavior of the plasma and Y

y = 3 corresponds to adiabatic behavior .
By using Eqs . ( 4.1 ) , ( 4.3 ) , and ( 4.5b ) with the appropriate forms
- 44 -
of Maxwell's equation , we now wish to derive a linear ordinary differ-
ential equation for the electric field in a region in which the density
of the plasma is varying and in which a static electric field is present .
It is necessary , however , to make some assumptions about the dc state of
the plasma . We shall assume that the temperature T is uniform
throughout the plasma and that the de velocity Vo is zero . This means ,
however , that the dc electric field and the dc density are not independ-
ent of one another . From Eqs . ( 4.3 ) and ( 4.5b ) we find that
e kło ano
- =
Eo ( 4.6 )
m m dx
The solution of this equation is
ex(x)
KT
=
no (x ) noo e (4.7)
where (x ) is the electric potential and is the density at the

noo
point where (x ) equals zero .
The linearized equation of continuity , equation of motion , and
equation of state for rf quantities take the form
on ( nov ૢ )
+ = ( 4.8a )
It dx
‫احمد‬
e
ap11
1 JP
до эт · -
In E1 + ₁E ] ( 4.8b)
m Xx
and
=
P. уктоді ( 4.8c )
-45-
-iwt
respectively . By now assuming time dependence and substituting
Eq . ( 4.8c ) into Eq . ( 4.8b ) , we obtain
e ykт dnı
157
- iw no vi - - ( 4.9 )
[noEn₁E ]
"
4
m m dx
Equation ( 2.1 ) , the appropriate form of Maxwell's equations , may be
written in the form
- = (4.10 )
- e no v₁ - iwe E1 -iw€ E10
By eliminating nov₁
1 from Eq . ( 4.9 ) using the above equation , we obtain
B2
ய EO укто ani
- · - ( 4.11 )
[ E10 E1 ] E + n₂B ] -
° [no¾¸
e m m dx
The 1 E. by means of Poisson

can now be express in terms of E1 's
ed
equatio , which can be derived from Eqs . ( 4.8a ) and ( 4.10 ) , and takes
n
the form
dE. ne
1
( 4.12 )
dx
Upon using this equation in Eq . ( 4.11 ) and also rearranging terms , the
becomes
equation for E₁
1
dE.
1 w (x)
+ - E (x) + w 1 · =
w²310
2 2
dx dx ய
B
( 4.13 )
- 46-
where
2
no (x)e²
2(x) = ( 4.14 )
me
It must be remembered that E (x ) and 2(x) are not independent

∞
quantities .
Equation ( 4.13 ) possesses the behavior one would like it to have .
In a uniform plasma it becomes
укто a²
1 - = ( 4.15 )
2 B₁
1 10
m dx
The particular solution of this equation is
E1
E.
10 0
E. = = ( 4.16 )
1 - K
(02
/0²)
The complementary solution of Eq . ( 4.15 ) also yields the dispersion
relation
ykT
2 2 02
ய = ( 4.17)
m
Here , B is used for the wave number to avoid confusion with Boltzmann's
constant . Thus we see that the total solution of Eq . ( 4.15 ) is the
particular solution ( forced solution ) plus waves which satisfy the
dispersion relation in an amount necessary to satisfy the boundary
conditions that must be imposed on the total solution . By now comparing
this dispersion relation with the results of Landau's problem in Fig . 3.2
-47
of the previous chapter , we can compute a value of Y which will make
Eq . ( 4.17 ) yield the dominant wave attenuation constant for Landau's
problem. The result of such computations is plotted in Fig . 4.1 .
1.0 is 3.0 , indicating the behavior of the

At w
w/
/wp
wp equal to
plasma is adiabatic . This seems reasonable since IB is approaching
zero . As w/w approaches zero , however , y approaches one , indicating
isothermal behavior of the plasma . This also seems reasonable in that it
is difficult to understand how the temperature could vary from place to
place for phenomena which are occurring very slowly . For frequencies
above the plasma frequency , it is difficult to know how Y should be
chosen . Using the results of Landau's problem makes y complex and
greater than 3.0 . Also , as stated previously , the contribution of the
dominant wave to the total field decreases considerably for w/wp

greater than about 1.5 .
To define the sheath we shall assume that (x) is of the form
x > 0
$(x ) = (4.18 )
2 2
1 kT X
O
x < 0
2 ய e
Ро
where is the natural frequency of oscillation of an electron in a
parabolic potential well of this kind , and po is the plasma frequency

associated with the uniform region . The reasons for choosing a para-
bolic potential are discussed in Chapter V. With this choice for (x ) ,
Eq . ( 4.13 ) can be normalized and written as
2 2
ω
1
Y X 1 - = E.
2 2 1 210
dx ய dx ய ய шро
ро Po
( 4.19 )
- 48 -
3.0
아
2.
-
Y
49
1.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Normalized
Frequency
4FIG
equation
The
--
state
of
,parameter
. Y.1 frequency
.vs
,
where
2
x > 0
ро
ო
2(x) = (4.20 )
2
- (1/2 ) ( w / w )²x²
X < 0
Ро
In Eq . ( 4.19 ) 7
Y cannot be a function of position . Although it would be
quite reasonable to assume that Y was a function of w/w ( x ) and thus

р
a function of X , Eq . ( 4.19 ) was derived assuming y constant .
Equation ( 4.19 ) must be solved numerically , but since standard
routines are available for integrating ordinary differential equations ,
the preparation of a program is straightforward . The only sources of
difficulty are the boundary conditions . They are specified as follows .
In the uniform plasma region we require that
E10 -xxx
= + A e ( 4.21 )
E₁ ( x )
K
where α is determined from Eq . ( 4.17 ) and A is as yet arbitrary . We
now require that E (x) and its derivative be continuous at x = 0

1
We also require that when the density of the plasma has decreased to
about 10th that of the uniform plasma , E (x ) is equal to E10 ·
To solve Eq . ( 4.19 ) with these boundary conditions requires that we first
integrate the inhomogeneous equation with
= (4.22a )
Y₂ (0) /K
E10
and
=
(4.22b )
Y₂ '(0)
- 50 -
We then integrate the homogeneous equation with
= 1.0
Y₂(0) (4.23a)
and
= -α (4.23b)
2 '(0)
We then determine A so that
= E (4.24)
Y₁ ( Xout ) + A y₂ ( out ) 10
where Xout is a point where the density of the plasma is negligible .

Theoretically there is some indeterminacy at this point since A now
appears to depend on the choice of Yout Numerically , however , one
finds this dependence is insignificant as long as the plasma density is
sufficiently small at • The solution E (x ) is then given by

out
E.
A e-¤x
10+ A
X >0
K
= (4.25)
E₁ (x)
X < 0
Y₂ (x ) + A y₂ (x )
‫אן‬
Numerical calculations were performed for several choices of w/wp < 1

and 0.4 w/w <≤ 1.2 • For all calculations Υ was chosen by using
Fig . 4.1 . Some typical results of these calculations appear in Figs . 4.2
through 4.6 .
In Chapter III , a sheath impedance was defined for Landau's problem .
As stated there , the purpose of the sheath impedance is to allow us to
treat the plasma as a dielectric plus a correction term at the boundary .
For Landau's problem, the definition of the sheath impedance is straight-
forward since for that case , the plasma possesses a sharp boundary .
- 51 -
two
0.8
0.61
ELECTRIC
PLASMA DENSITY
FIELD
D.A
0.2
12 10 8 2 6
ele
DISTANCE IN DEBYE LENGTHS
30.2
0.2
-0.4
0.4
0.6 3/3
016
IP
1.6
0.8
FIG . 4.2 --The rf electric field predicted by pressure theory ; w/ p = 0.4 .

w /wp
- 52 -
1.0
38
0.6
0.8 1000
+ PLASMA DENSITY
0.6
ELECTRIC
FIELD
0.4
10.2
2 6 8 10
НО +8 6 27
313
DISTANCE IN DEB YE LENGTHS 0.2
0:2
W = 0.4
Wo
0.4
0.6
106
W.
0.8
10
ele
E08
FIG . 4.3 --The rf electric field predicted by pressure theory; w/

w = 0.6 .
- 53 -
0.8
= 0.8
w
Plasma Density
0.4
Distance In Debye Lengths
-4 4 8 12
w
= 0.2
= 0.4
313º
ய
= 0.6
-0.8
-1.2
3/30
-1.6
= 0.8
FIG . 4.4 --The rf electric field predicted by pressure theory ;
w /w = 0.8 .
· 54-
1.0
301
30
-0.8 = 1.0
Plasma Density
0.4
-4 4 8 12
+
ω
= 0.2
ய
= 0.4
-0.4
ω
= 0.6
W
-0.8
-1.2
-1.6
= 0.8
3l
3
FIG . 4.5 --The rf electric field predicted by pressure theory ; w /w = 1.0 .

w /op
- 55 -
301
30
Plasma Density = 1.2
0.8
0.4
-4 4 8 12
+
= 0.2
= 0.4
-0.4
3/
= 0.6
20
b.8
-1.2
-1.6
3º
= 0.8
3|
FIG . 4.6 --The rf electric field predicted by pressure theory;
1.2 .
w /wp =
· 56 -
However , when the boundary is not sharp , the definition of the sheath
impedance becomes more difficult . It will be shown in Chapter VI that
the impedance should be defined by the relation
Xin
( E₁ ( x ) - EDIEL ( x ) ] dx
Y
out
Z = ( 4.26)
where
I = iwe E. ( 4.27 )
0-10
is the total current through the sheath , and Xout are points
Xin
sufficiently far into and out of the plasma , respectively , and E IBL ( x )
ED
is the field which would exist if the plasma were a dielectric with a
sharp boundary . Thus EDIEL ( x ) is defined by
E10 X < XBOUND
EDIEL (4.28 )
B10K X >
x BOUND
where is the location of the effective boundary of the plasma

BOUND
when treated as a dielectric . It will be subsequently shown that the
proper choice for XBOUND is given by
n (x) dx
=
XBOUND ( 4.29 )
n (x)。
where x0 is the point in the plasma at which the sheath begins . This
definition for BOUND seems logical since it is a measure of the total

amount of plasma present . It should be clear from Eq . ( 4.26 ) that Z
- 57 -
is independent of and Xout , provided each is chosen sufficiently
Xin
far from the plasma sheath interface . With this definition of the
impedance , the normalized resistance and reactance are given by
Xin
Im [ E ( x ) ] dx
You
t
(4.30a)
11
RN
31°
E10
3
ய
and
Xin
Re [ E ( x ) ] - EDIEL (x)
(X dx
fout
XN ( 4.30b )
( w/w ) E10
so that
+ j ( 4.31 )
N N
‫א‬
-iwt
Again it must be remembered that j = -i because we have used e
time dependence and the definition of impedance requires ejut time
dependence .
Using this definition , the normalized sheath impedance was evaluated

from the field calculation . For the parabolic potential , XBOUND is
located at
XBOUND (4.32 )
-F (0/0 )
The results of the impedance calculations are presented in Fig . 4.7 .
- 58 -
30139
7.0
6.0 0.4
5.0
4.0
3.0
Normalized
Reactance
0.5
Sheath
2.0
1.0
3/30
0.0 +0.6 +
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 07 0.9 10
-1 . 아
0.7
- 2.0
0.8.
-3.0
1.0
- 4.0
1.2
-5.0
8
-6.0
-- 7.0
Results From Chapter III-
Landau's Problem.
FIG . 4.7--The normalized sheath impedance predicted by

pressure theory .
- 59 -
If one examines Figs . 4.2 , 4.3 , 4.4 , 4.5 , and 4.6 , one finds many
things which do not seem logical . In particular , the plots for w/wp
equal to 0.6 and 0.8 in Fig . 4.2 possess humps which one suspects might
not exist in a real plasma . Also one sees that many of the plots deviate
appreciably from 1.0 ( the value of the field in free space ) in the region
where the density of the plasma has become extremely small . In general ,
one's confidence in the results tends to decrease as the sheath becomes
thicker and w/w becomes larger .
Since the impedance depends on the field calculations , one is quite
suspicious of the impedance for thick sheaths and large w/wp

Indeed , a comparison of Fig . 4.7 with Fig . 5.29 in the next chapter bears
this out . However , for thin sheaths (w / equal to 0.8 , 1.0 , 1.2 )
the results are remarkably good . One deficiency of the pressure theory ,
however , is that it predicts no resistance in the impedance . Since the
loss is quite similar to Landau damping , this is not surprising .
Above the plasma frequency , the pressure theory has great diffi-
culty . In the uniform plasma region it predicts electrostatic waves
which are undamped . The results in the previous chapter , however ,
indicate that these waves suffer quite heavy damping as w/

wp becomes
large . Also since the wave in the uniform plasma region is undamped , it
is impossible to compute a sheath impedance . Although one might attempt
to rescue the pressure theory by making y complex , this approach seems

7
to have no rational foundation and was not pursued .
All in all , the pressure theory seems to be unreliable . Although
its predictions sometimes agree quite well with the results of the next
chapter , at other times they are quite poor and thus one never quite
knows how much to trust the theory . This failure of the pressure theory
is a result of the fact that we have described the plasma in too simple
a manner . A real plasma has an infinite number of degrees of freedom ,
while the pressure theory we have developed only allocates three degrees
of freedom to the plasma . Although one might obtain better results from
a pressure theory by using a more sophisicated equation of state , e.g. ,
Y could depend on the plasma density , it is clear that any type of
pressure theory describes the plasma in a drastically simplified way .
Thus , even though calculations based on a pressure theory are relatively
easy , one has little assurance that they will be meaningful .
- 60 -
CHAPTER V
SOLUTION OF THE SHEATH PROBLEM
In Chapter II , an integral equation for the electric field in the
sheath and surrounding region was derived , which we repeat here for
reference :
+oo
= E. (2.388)
E₁ (x) ·
10 + √
B₂0 K(x , x ' ) E₁ ( x ' ) dx'
where
iWT
အား
-u2
/2 iwT, R
NR
K(x , x ' ) = i du u e - e
1
UMIN
( 2.38b)
In this chapter we shall define a potential in which the electrons move
and which , therefore , determines the plasma density . By using this
potential , we shall develop the expressions for the transit time
functions NR(x , x ' , u ) and T ( x , x ' , u )) and describe how the above
equation was solved numerically .
The choice of (x ) the potential in which the electrons move , is
influenced by two somewhat opposing desires . On the one hand , one wishes
to choose (x ) to be as near to physical reality as possible . One
might , therefore , attempt to use the potential measured by Gabor , Ash ,

4
and Dracott or by Gierke , Ott , and Schwirzke.5 Also the recent work of
- 61 -
Se lf3 might be considered , although his results were not available at
Self
the time the program for the solution of this problem was being written .
On the other hand , it is desirable to choose a potential function which
makes the numerical calculations as easy as possible . Since we had no
feeling for how acqurately the potential function needed to be chosen or
how much computer time would be required to solve the problem , we chose
the simplest potential function which would be meaningful , namely a
parabola . Numerically , there are two great advantages to this choice .
First , it is possible to express T.NR(x , x ' , u ) and TR( x , x ' , u )
explicitly as functions of " x' , and u 0 For most other

x
choices of (x) " the transit times are implicit functions , which makes
the computation of the kernel difficult and very time - consuming and may 1
•
make the solution of the whole problem unfeasible . Second , the choice
of a parabola makes the calculation of the kernel very easy and fast
when both X and x' are in the uniform plasma region . The disadvan
tage of this choice is that physical reality is not approximated as well
as one might like . Also , since all electrons spend exactly the same time
1
in the sheath , there may be some question as to whether this introduces
anomalies .
We write the potential function as
x > 0
Ø(x) = (5.1)
2 2
1
- x < 0
2 ய e
( 笑)
(
The factor wo is the natural frequency of oscillation for an electron
in a potential well of this kind . This may be verified from the
equation of motion . By using Eqs . ( 5.1 ) and ( 2.9 ) , we find that the
density of the plasma is
noo x > 0
2 2
= 1 (5.2)
n (x)
3
2 ய
р (
Li eve x < 0
noo e
62 -
It can be seen from this equation that a larger value of (w /w)
corresponds to a thinner sheath . The limit of (w / w ) approaching
infinity corresponds to Landau's problem, i.e. , no sheath at all . From

5
the measurements reported by Gierke , Ott , and Schwirzke , one finds
that ( w /w )
varied from about 1/2 to 1 for their experiments .
6
The more recent experiments by Harp indicate a value between 0.4 and
0.5 . It may be noted that w /wp equal to 0.5 corresponds to the

electron spending one full plasma period in the sheath .
The expressions for the transit functions P ,x ' ,u) and

NR( x
TN
R( x, x ' , u )
Tp are best obtained by finding first the expression for the
transit time from a point X to the point of deepest penetration in
the sheath . This expression is
X π
x > 0 (5.3a)
+
u wh 200
။
TDP
1
-1 x wo
COS x < 0 (5.36 )
u wh
30
р
|
or
K
‫אן‬
x > 0 (5.4a)
+
21
u
200
TDP
1
x
-1 x
1
10
COS
€
x < 0 (5.4b )
21
The transit time functions TNR( X, x

(X, X '' ,, u)
u) and ™p( x, x ' , u ) can now be
obtained by adding and subtracting the above expressions . The results
are shown in Table 5.I. Also the lower limit of integration ,

MIN
is indicated for each case . Notice that both TNR and are sym-
R
metric functions of x and x' •
Before Eq . ( 2.38a ) can be solved numerically , it is necessary to
somehow make the limits of integration finite . This can be accomplished
- 63 -
Transit
--
5.1
TABLE
i
s
fornfinite
plasma
-times
pa
with
arabolic
sheath
. emi
1
π -1 | |
x ‰ -
TN
R -- COS
NR
+
u
Up 2000 ய u
up
‫ןא‬
‫ןא‬
‫ןא‬
π 1 -1 X '
+
|x
> ≥
0
ΟΙT
'x R COS TR =
u 200 u up
‫ןא‬
U
р
зд
21
UMIN= 0
MIN
11
‫ןא‬
р
1 -1 X -1 % X 1
π -1 X
- 64 -
IX
NR = COS COS
· NR COS
11
wo up
U 200
P
1 -1 X -1 X 1 π 1 -1
XI
<
T
'xR COS c
+os TR + COS
11
200
P
3
P
31
이
UMIN= MAX UMIN =
ய ய
®p
P р
as follows . From Eq. ( 2.38b ) we see that
-u2/2
│K( x , x ' ) | ≤ du u e |2 |
21
"MIN
2
-UMIN/2 n ( x)
- =
VI
(5.5)
ய w Π noo
Thus the lower limit of integration can be set equal to some finite value
at which the density of the plasma is negligible . We shall call this
lower limit A. In the numerical calculations , A was always chosen
so that
no(A)
< 1
100-6
(5.6)
noo
The upper limit is more difficult to handle . From the results of Landau's
problem and the pressure theory , it can be seen that the electric field
approaches /K for large x Thus it seems reasonable to set E ( x)
equal to this value for x larger than some finite value which we shall
call The results of Landau's problem are very helpful in choosing
B. In the numerical calculations B was chosen so that
E.
·
E10 ESEC (0 )
E₁ (B) (5.7)
K 100
where ESEC ( O ) is the contribution of the second integral in Landau's

problem at the boundary X = 0 Numerical calculations were performed
only for frequencies below the plasma frequency , so this criterion was
-· 65 -
quite satisfactory . Physically , it means that the oscillatory portion
of the solution of Landau's problem has decreased to about one per cent
or less of its initial amplitude . At this point one also finds that for
the cases considered , the amplitude of the exponentially decaying wave

has decreased to 10-4th or less of its initial value . With these
changes Eq . ( 2.38a ) becomes
∞ B
E10
= E1 K( x , x ' ) E ( x ' ) dx '
E₁ ( x ) 0
[ x( x , x ' ) ax ' +√
Š
K
B A
(5.8)
This can be written as
= (5.9a)
E₁ ( x ) R( x ) + √ K ( x , x ' ) B( x ' )
A
where
∞
E.
10
R (x ) = K( x , x ' ) dx ' (5.9b )
E10 +
K
B
is the inhomogeneous term .
Although this process of changing the upper limit of integration to
B can be regarded as a reasonable mathematical approximation , it is also
possible to interpret this change physically . Setting the field equal

E. for X greater than B corresponds to injecting those
to 10/K
electrons with negative velocity into the plasma sheath region with an
ac velocity distribution given by
e E.
E10 df (v)
= i v < 0
11
f₁ ( B , v ) ( 5.10 )
m w k dv
- 66 -
This is the distribution the electrons would have if they had been in a
E. · This can be verified from

spatially uniform field of value 10/K
Boltzmann's equation .
The first step in solving Eq . ( 5.9a ) numerically is to reduce the
integral equation to a system of simultaneous algebraic equations .
Thus one replaces the integral equation by
E. = + Kij (5.11 )
i R₁
i ₁j Ej
j=1
where E and R now represent column vectors with N components and
· Each compo
Kij is an N by N matrix somehow related to K( x , x ' )
nent of E, and R. represents the value of E(x ) and (x))

R (x at some
i
sample point X
x; · How the sample points are chosen is of course
i
reflected in the values of Kij · The problem of relating the matrix
Kij to the kernel is difficult and not as straightforward as it may

appear . The kernel K( x , x ' ) has a discontinuous first derivative along
the diagonal as well as infinite higher order derivatives along the axes
X = 0 and x
x '' = 0. These facts must be taken account of properly in
the determination of the Kij . The whole problem of reducing an inte
gral equation to a system of algebraic equations is treated in some
detail in Appendix D and the reader is referred there for a discussion
of the problems involved . In our numerical calculations , the formulas
in Table D.1 of that appendix were used to compute Kij with the
modification that the point spacing in the sheath could be different

from that in the uniform plasma region . If N is the number of
S
equally spaced sample points in the sheath and N is the number of
р
equally spaced sample points in the uniform plasma , the total number of
sample points N is
N = N + N + 1 ( 5.12)
Ns p
and they are chosen as indicated in Fig . 5.1 . The corresponding arrange
ment of the sample points of K( x , x ' ) is indicated in Fig . 5.2 . It can
- 67 -
X
= 3, N =3 4.
FIG . 5.1 -- Arrangement of sample points for E (x ) ; N
NS р
X'
FIG . 5.2 --Arrangement of sample points for the kernel ; N = 3, N = 4.

S р
68 .-
be seen that if N is the number of sample points of E₁ ( x ) , the
number of samples of K( x , x ' ) is then
NK = N( 4N - 3 ) (5.13 )
It is obvious that if N is of the order of 100 or 200 , NK is very
large indeed . Since the kernel is symmetric , however , the effective
number of samples is reduced by about one - eighth .
At first it may appear that the number of samples of K( x , x ' ) is
so large that the numerical solution of the problem is unfeasible .
However , the choice of a parabolic potential reduces the amount of
calculation by a considerable factor . When both x and x''

x are
positive , the calculation of the kernel becomes degenerate . The expres-
sion for the kernel in this region is

XM
-
∞ i
‫אן‬
-u²/2 u
1 སྱཱ ;
K( x , x ' ) = · du u e
W√277
X + X
+21
i
1 ( w/w )π น
- e (5.14
This can be written in terms of Landau's kernel K (x) as
1 ( w/w )π
K (x , x ' ) = · K ( x + x' (5.15)
K ( x - x' ) ) .
The behavior of K (x ) is described in Appendix A. Thus by preparing
a table of Landau's kernel , K( x , x ' ) can be computed quickly and easily
for all points in the first quadrant . This degeneracy of the kernel is
a result of the fact that all electrons spend the same time in the sheath .
The calculation of the kernel when one or both points are in the
sheath requires the evaluation of an integral . For these purposes it is
- 69 -
best to express the integral as follows . Let u = 1/v so that
VMAX e -1/2v2
1 ( w/w ) ( x/2 )
= - e dv
K( x , x ' ) j
‫י‬.
( 5.15a )
1 ( w/w )x v w
e sin COS
<
‫אן‬
w
р
and
VMAX e-1/2v2
= - dv
K(x, x ' )
器 3
( 5.15b )
-1 / ( w/ w ) x v
COS ய -1
301
i (w/w )
e sin COS
<
‫אן‬
W
30
where
ய
= (5.15c )
VMAX
w X
x
For x 0 x' and xx 0 , x and x' can be interchanged in
the above equations . This follows from the symmetry of the kernel .
- 70 -
13,14
Filon's method was used for the numerical integration of Eq . ( 5.15a )
except near the upper limit . At V = V. the derivative of the

MAX
integrand becomes infinite and so a special integration rule described
in Appendix E was used near that point . The integral in Eq . ( 5.13b ) was
evaluated using Simpson's rule over all of the interval except near the
upper limit where the special rule was applied .
To speed up the computation , third - order interpolation was used to
help evaluate kernel samples . The program would evaluate the kernel at
widely spaced points and then construct a difference table and check that
the fourth - order differences were less than some limit . If not , more
values would be added to the table until the prescribed accuracy was
reached . This procedure was very helpful in those regions where the
kernel was slowly varying .
The computation of R(x ) the inhomogeneous term , is quite
similar to the computation of the kernel samples . The integration over
x' in Eq . ( 5.9b ) can be performed analytically so that the expressions
for R (x ) take the form
1 e -1/2v2
R(x) = E. 1 + dv
10
- 1 ] jav
√zal
( )
0/02
(5.16a )
1 ( w/w ) | B - x | 1 ( m/w ) 1 ( 0/0 р ) | B + x |

e e X > 0
and
i ( wo/ 2w ) MAX -1/2v2

e e
R(x) = E1
0 1 + i√ dv
4
( 4/4
[1 - (w/ )²] 0
w )2]
(5.16b)
1 [ ( w/w ) Bv ] -1
e sin [ ( w/w ) COS x < 0
| (w x/w ) v / ]
р
༦ , ༦)
- 71 -
where again
VMAX (5.16c )
w X
x
Again R(x ) can be computed from a previously computed table for
x > 0. For x < 0 " the integral in Eq . ( 5.16b ) must be evaluated
numerically . Again this was done using Filon's method except near the
upper limit where the rule described in Appendix E was used .
Once all the matrix elements K and the inhomogeneous terms
represented by Ri are evaluated , one is faced with the problem of

solving the system of N simultaneous algebraic equations represented
by Eq . ( 5.11 ) for E · Typically , N was about 125 to 200 for our
calculations . From the form of Eq . ( 5.11 ) , it appears that iteration
might be a satisfactory procedure . For most iterative procedures to
converge , however , it is necessary that
< 1 all i ( 5.17)
j= 1
I. · is diagonally dominant . In terms of

so that the matrix ij - Kij
the original kernel , Eq . ( 5.17 ) becomes
( 5.18)
SIK( x , x ' ) ax ' < 1
- 72 -
By using the results of Appendix A , one may show that
+oo
1 ய
√ │K(x, x ' ) dx ' ≤ 2 P dx ' (5.19a)
w 1√G ய
18
33
∞
2
T
VI 2 F( s ) ds (5.19b) .
‫لة‬
≤3.4 (5.19c )
3.4(
22)2
Thus we find that Eq . ( 5.17 ) is unconditionally satisfied only when
(5.20)
wp
w/ > 1.9
This is a rather conservative estimate , but it is certainly clear that
any iterative procedure which requires that the matrix be diagonally
dominant cannot be used when w/w is less than one .

Although there
16
are iterative procedures which always converge such as Kacmarz's
16
procedure or Cimmino's procedure , these methods tend to converge
extremely slowly . Since the matrix Iij - Kij is dense , i.e. , it
possesses very few zero elements , any iterative procedure must produce
the correct answer in less than N/3 iterations or else a direct

method will be faster . Because of these considerations , it was neces-
sary to solve the system of equations represented by Eq . ( 5.11 ) directly .
Ordinarily a direct method of solution is quite straightforward .
However , our systems of equations were so large that they would not fit
in core storage on the IBM 7090. How this difficulty was overcome is
discussed in detail in Appendix C.
- 73 ·
In Figs . 5.3 through 5.27 the results of the numerical calculations
are presented . In each figure the real and imaginary parts of the
electric field and the plasma density are plotted . Also the parameters
N Ax and ΔΥ used in each calculation are indicated .

S Np S р
These parameters represent the number of sample points in the sheath ,
the number of sample points in the uniform plasma , the point spacing in
the sheath , and the point spacing in the plasma , respectively .
The normalized impedance defined by Eqs . ( 4.30a ) and ( 4.30b ) was
also evaluated . The result is indicated in each field plot and also
plotted in Figs . 5.28 and 5.29 . The results of Landau's problem are
also plotted for comparison . It is clear that the impedance depends
quate strongly on the transit time of electrons in the sheath , i.e. ,
00/up
From these results it can be seen that as in Landau's problem , the
disturbance excited at the boundary extends a considerable distance into
the uniform plasma . It will also be noted that in some cases the
imaginary part of the field is quite significant . Since this part of
the field is in phase with the current , there is the possibility of :
damping which if negative , would indicate the possibility of self

oscillations . However , the impedance calculations show that the sheath
resistance is always positive for the cases thus far considered .
Although this would lead one to suspect that a Maxwellian distribution
cannot lead to oscillations in the sheath , one should not be too hasty
in making broad generalizations from these numerical results .
- 74 -
DENSITY
PLASMA
= 0.4 ။ 0.2
0.8
30 3
3 | 3º
B
(Re
N 46 N 150
= =
P
S
AX = 0.3 ΔΧ ‫ةي‬ = 0.5
‫غل‬
0.6
S
RN 0.68 XN 4.67
= =
75 -
0.4
0.2
DISTANCE
LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
8 16 4 2 2 6 8 to 18
22
20
1121
14
26
24
32
30
28
16
Im
)
E
(
region
sheath
plasma
the
FIG
.--
5.3
in
field
electric
rf
The
DENSITY
PLASMA
%
3
= 0.4 0.4
။
up
30130
0.8
8 |3º
N 46 N = 100
=
P
S
10.6 ΔΥ 0.3
= AX = 0.4
S P
RN 0.78IN 2.82
=
=
-· 76 -
0.2
)
E
(
Im
2 6 12
ΠΟΙ
1161
14 18 201
26
22
24 1321
30
128
34
81 +
LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE
RefEt
5.4
.FIG
region
sheath
plasma
the
in
field
electric
rf
The
--
1.2
PLASMA
DENSITY
3
= 0.4 0.6
08
3º 3º
N 46 100
N
= =
P
S
D 0.3 0.4
AXXs = схр
S
VIDE
9.2 RN 1.02 3.15

LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE = IN =
+ 4
81-6 · 8
6
41 18
12
16
14 20
- 77 -
0.2
Re ( E)
0.6
0.8
FIG
.5.5
region
sheath
plasma
the
in
field
electric
rf
The
--
PLASMA 1.2
DENSITY
0.8
+0.6
0.4
DISTANCE
DEBYE
IN
LENGTHS
£
0 .22
+8 4 6 12
14
10
22
20
26
24
30
28
18
16
8 32 34
for
0.2
0.4
= 0.8
ய
)
-
E
(
Im
3 130
30130
0.6
NS 46
== N 100
0.8 =
P
0.3 LXp 0.4
- 78 -
1.2 = =
S
RetEl 14
RN 2.61
= XN = 8.83
18
2.0
=
22
2/4
/
-
2.6
2.8
+3.0
.5
FIG
--
in .6
electric
rf
The
field
plasma
the
sheath
region
PLASMA
DENSITY
= 0.5 0.4
30130
0.8
N = 40 100
N=
P
S
0.3
= xp = 0.4
0.6 S
RN = 0.32
X
-
= 0.95
0.4
- 79 -
0.2
)
E
(
-IM
8 +674
21 6 10
81 121 14 16 22
20
18 26
24
34
30
28
32
உ
O
IN
LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE
)
(E
Re
0.21
The
.5
FIG
--
electric
rf
field
plasma
the
in
sheath
. .7
region
1.2
DENSITY
PLASMA
0.5
= 0.6
0.8
3 1390
0.6 N S = 40 Np = 100
0.4 0.3
A= хр
ΔΥ 0.4
=
)
(E
Im
S
0.2 0.
XN43 1
=.04
RN =
DEBYE
DISTANCE
LENGTHS
IN
+8
-6 -4 10
20
12
16
4
6
8
14
18
- 80 -
T
0.2
4
RetEl
0.8
FIG
5. .8
--
The
rf
electric
field
the
in
sheath
region
.plasma
DENSITY
PLASMA ய
= 0.6 0.2
=
30130
0.8 N = 36 N = 15
T 0
P
S
ΔΧ = схр
0.3 Δ = 0.5
RN = -0.28
0.09 XN =
- 81 -
0.4
0.2
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE ENGTHS
24
+2 4
2 6 14 22
20
18 24
26
28
+8 +6 8 16
12 30
32 34
NO
-
)
(E
Im
RetE
FIG
.5.9
region
sheath
plasma
the
in
field
electric
rf
The
--
PLASMA
DENSITY
0.6
=
8130
0.4
=
3013º
0.8
N 36 N 100
= =
S P
ΔΧ 0.3
= ΔΥ 0.4
=
0.6
S р
RN = =0.20
0.12-
N
0.4
- 82 -
0.2
)
E
(
Im
8 6 F2 4
21 14
10
12
118
16
61
81 201 122 28
30
13.2
24
241
34
26
+
LENGTHS
DISTANCE
DEBYE
IN
Re
)
E
(
0.2
.5.10
FIG
electric
rf
The
--
in
field
plasma
the
region
.sheath
DENSITY
PLASMA
0.6 0.6
= =
3013
3189
0.6 N = 36 Np 100
=
S
0.4 0.3 0.4

ΔΙ = xp =
S
e.2 RN 0.17
= IN = -0.22
LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE
8 6 24 12
14
4
На
6
18
16 118 20
- 83 -
+
B
E
Im
0.2
FREKEL
0.67
0.8
region
sheath
plasma
.in
the
field
electric
rf
5 .11
The
--
FIG
PLASMA
DENSITY
0.8
0.6
-0.4
552
0.2 DISTANCE
IN
LENGTHS
DEBYE
6
8 -4 21
4 6 10
12
8
16
14
20
18
24
22 30
28
26
34
32
2
*
)
E
(
Im 0.2 %
0.6 0.8
= =
-0.41
330
3139
N 36
- 84 -
= N 100
=
0.6 P
S
33*
0.8 ΔΧ 0.3 0.4
= AXP =
S
0.69
R = XN = -0.69
N
112
14
4.6 )
E
(e
R
N8
5FIG
. .12
--
The
electric
rf
field
in
plasma
sheath
region
.the
PLASMA
DENSITY
ய
= 0.7 = 0.4
8| 8
0.8
NS = 30 N = 100
P
10.6 Ax 0.3
= ΔΙ 0.4
=
S P
RN = 0.04-
=
XN0.97
- 85 -
0.2
1
2 8 2
28
-8 6 2 21
4 6 la
12
16
14 202 24 36
0 32 34
ተወ
LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE
Im ( E)
0.2
FRe
E
(
5.13
FIG
field
electric
rf
--
.The
region
sheath
plasma
the
in
DENSITY
PLASMA
= 0.7 0.6
0.8
3139
3013º
N = 30 N = 100
S P
0.4 DX 0.3
Ax 0.4
s = =
P
S
0.2 RN 0.06 -1.06

= IN =
DISTANCE
DEBYE
IN ENGTHS
- 86-
+6
F81 4 8
to 118
1121
14
16
N
6
N
+
)
(E
Im
0.2
RetEl
e.c
0.8
plasma
region
sheath
electric
.field
the
in
FIG
5.14
rf
The
--
PLASMA
DENSITY
0.8
= 0.2
"
3180
30130
0.8
N 26
= Np = 150
ΔΧ 0.3
= хр
Δ = 0.5
S
0.6
RN = 0.04XN = -2.37
- 87 -
0.2
Im (E)
DISTANCE
IN LENGTHS
DEBYE
+8 +6 2
41 21 4 18
12
30
32
114
20
16
28
26
24
22
34
6
E
(
Re
electric
5.15
FIG
rf
The
plasma
the
in
field
.--
region
sheath
PLASMA
DENSITY
= 0.8 8139 0.4
30139
0.8
N 26 N 100
= =
р
ΔΙ S 0.3 LXP 0.4

= =
0.6
S
RN -
=1.53
0.02XN
=
te
88 -
0.2
81 6 43 41 6 8 10
14
121
16 32
30
28
1241
120
1221
18
12161 34
pot
DISTANCE
LENGTHS
CEBYE
IN
0.2
)E
(
Re
FIG
5
--
The
rf
elect
.16 ric
field
in
.the
plasm
sheat
regio
. a
h
n
102
PLASMA
DENSITY
0.8 = 0.6
0.8 =
3º 3º
3 130
N 26 N = 100
=
9.0 P
S
0.4 0.3 0.4

ΔΥ = ΔXp =
S
0.01XN = -1.66
A =
DEBYE
LENGTHS
DISTANCE
IN N
- 89 -
+6 12
1
18
16
14
8
6
4
200
8
N
El
Im
0.4
0.4
E
Re
0.6
-0.8
rf
.5
FIG
The
--.17
field
electric
plasma
the
in
region
sheath
PLASMA
DENSITY
0.8
-0.6
+0.4
+0.2 LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE
+8
+6
F4 7F2 21 4 68 1121
20
16
14
18 28
26
24
22
30
32 34
N
+
)
8
(Im
9.2
0.8 0.8
= =
3130
30130
- 90 -
N 26 N 100
= =
+0.6 S P
-OL
8 ΔΧ 0.3
= Δ схр 0.4
=
S
1.01
0
X.
RN = N18 = -3.53
1.2
E
(T
Re
16
2.0
5FIG
. .18
--
The
electric
rf
field
in
plasma
sheath
region
.the
DENSITY
PLASMA
= 1.0 0.2
=
3 13º
3013º
N = 20 N = 150
S P
LXS 0.3
= схр = 0.5
0.6
RN 0.12 -3.47
XN
= =
Ν
- 91 -
0.4
9.2
)
E
(
-Im
LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE
18 6 1 7-2 41 6 20
810
12
18
16
1141
22
24 28
26
30
34
32
+
Re
(
)
E
5FIG
. .19
electric
rf
The
--
field
plasma
the
sheath
region
.in
PLASMA
DENSITY
3
= 1.0 0.4
=
3130
1018 °13º
20
N
= N = 100
P
S
ΔΥ
AXS 0.3
= AXP = 0.4
06
0.05
= XN = -2.27
R
N
0.4
- 92 -
0.2
(
)
E
Im
LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE
8 -41 220 2 41
28
30
1
8
6
18
121
20
22
260
1416
24
34
32
6
)
(E
Re
0.4
--
.5
FIG
.20
electric
rf
The
field
the
in
sheath
plasma
region
DENSITY
PLASMA
***
10 9.5
- 10 N - •
P
‫דיין‬
6.5
##
-
1 - 70 0,4
"# - 0.01
% 4,47
DISTANC IN
DEBYE ENG
5 6 12
10
LE
:: $
911
1 1
.. B
tus
simetrik
if
field
1.21
*
,5
in
the 5
plasma
shanini
pogin
DENSITY
PLASMA
3
= 1.0 0.4
=
°13º
3139
0.8
N = 20 N = 100
P
S
ΔΧ 0.3
Δ
.= = 0.4
06
S
RN 0.05
= = -2.27
-· 92 -
0.2
)
(E
Im
DISTANCE LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
20
2
242
8-6 -41 2 8
6
4 10
18
16
14
121 26 128
30
34
32
Re
(
E
)
0.2
5.20
FIG
--
electric
rf
The
field
plasma
the
sheath
.in
region
1.2
DENSITY
PLASMA
3
= 1.0 = 0.6
0.8
3°13º
0.6 N 20 N 100
= =
S P
0.4 ΔAXS 0.3 хр 0.4

= =
0.2 RN = 0.01XN -2.47

=
DISTANCE DEBYE
IN
LENGTHS
- 93 -
-8 6 12- -2 4
T
2
8
1121
14
6O
16 118 20
18
+
(E
Im
)
0.2
0.4
)
E
(
Re
0.6
0.8
5FIG
. .21
The
--
electric
rf
field
in
plasma
the
sheath
.region
DENSITY
PLASMA
0.6
0.4
) KE
Im
10.2
DISTANCE LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
+8 2712 4 6 8 121
14
16
18 20
26
122
24 30
32
28 34
6
N
0.2
= 1.0 0.8
0.4
3139
30130
-· 94 .
N 20
= N 100
=
0.6 P
S
0.8 ΔΥ
0.3
xp 0.4
=
S
.
+et
R. = 0.03XN = -5.01
N
1.2
1.4
FRALET
1.8
FIG
5
--
The
rf
elect
.22 ric
field
.in
the
plasm
sheat
regio
. a
h
n
ய
PLASMA
DENSITY 1.2 0.2
= =
3 13
10.8
N 18 N = 150
=
P
Ax = 0.3 схр 0.5

=
S
0.6
RN = 0.21XN = -4.14
11
- 95 -
0.4
0.2
)
E
(In
LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE
8 4 12
20
18
22
H
6
16
14
8 o 24
30
28
26
34
+32
do
+6
FRE
--
5.23
FIG
electric
rf
The
field
the
in
sheath
region
.plasma
DENSITY
PLASMA
1.2
= 0.4
33
13º
0.8
N = 18 N = 100
P
S = 0.3 ΔΧ 0.4
=
0.6 S р
RN = 0.11 IN = -2.73
0.4
- 96 -
0.2
(
Im
E
)
DISTANCE
LENGTHS
DEBYE
IN
8-61
4
= 2 4 6 10
14
12
20
22
118
16
18 24
28
22
26 32
30
34
)
E
(
-Rel
0.2
5FIG
. .24
The
--
electric
rf
field
in
the
sheath
region
.plasma
1.2
DENSITY
PLASMA
1.2
= 0.6
0.8
11
P
8130
9.6 N = 18 Np 100
=
S
0.4 0.3
= AXP 0.4
=
*
S
0.2 R = 0.06 = -2.98

N
DEBYE
IN
DISTANCE LENGTHS
- 97 -
8 +4 21 4
[6 10
14
12
118
16
8 22
20 30
28
26
24
22 34
32
30
6
0.2
0.4
)
E
(
Re
0-6
0.8
FIG
.5.25
region
sheath
plasma
the
in
field
electric
rf
The
--
PLASMAL
DENSITY
0.6
3.4
0.2
+ +4
8-6 4
21 8
61 Ho 12
14
16 128
30
20
118
24
1321
22
26
O
DISTANCE
DEBYE
LENGTHS
IN
0.2
= 1.2 0.8
11
3180
-0.4
3013º
18
- 98 -
N = N 100
=
0.6 р
S
ΔΧ = 0.3 хр
ΔΥ = 0.4
)
E
(
RG
S
RN = 0.01IN = -5.94
1.2
+6
1.8
FIG
5
. .26
The
--
electric
rf
field
the
plasma
sheath
region
.in
DENSITY
PLASMA
0.8
0.6
0.4 DISTANC
DEBYE
IN
LENGTHS E
18
20
22
24
26
8 +4 21 41 18 ПОЕ
14
12
16 28
30
32
6
6 +
0.2
0.6
3
0.8 1.2 0.9
11
P
"
301 30
N = 22 N = 100
P
12
66 -
0.25
Δ
.= ΔΧ = 0.4
2.0 S P
RN 0.11
= IN = -15.31
ReKE
3.0
4.0
the
5.27
FIG
in
field
electric
rf
The
.--
region
sheath
plasma
301
30
=
1.0
Resistance
Normalized
0.9
= 0.4
P
0.8
0.7
0.6 = 0.6
w
р
0.5
301
30
= 0.5
0.4
0.3
301
301
= 0.8
30
= 1.2 w
0.2 р
301
3º
301
= 1.0
= 0.7
0.1
W
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
ω
P
Frequency
FIG . 5.28 -- The normalized resistance of the plasma sheath .
- 100 -
7.0
!
6.0
5.0
4.0
= 0.4
3.0
lized
Normaance
h
2.0
Sheat
React
°
3
= 0.5
1
1.0
w
р
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
313º
1.0
зор
за
= 0.7
= 0.6
-2.0
2-3.0 = 0.8
W
P
= 1.0
-4.0 ω
-5.0
= 1.2
P
-6.0
∞
-7.0
Landau's Problem
FIG . 5.29 -- The normalized reactance of the plasma sheath .
101 -
CHAPTER VI
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
In the previous chapters the sheath has been characterized by an
impedance . Although the definition of this impedance seems logical , we
shall now show how it arises quite naturally from considerations of the
boundary conditions .
From the results of the previous chapters it is seen that unless
w/wp is very close to 1 2 the electric field in the plasma approaches
within a few tens of Debye lengths of the boundary . Since the

E10K
sheath represents a drastic discontinuity in the plasma , it seems
reasonable to expect the plasma to behave like a dielectric with a
dielectric constant of
Егоров
K = 1 ·
по
(6.1 )
if this distance is small compared with a wavelength . If this approach
is pursued , two questions immediately arise . First , where is the effec-
tive boundary of plasma when treated as a dielectric ? Second , what are
the boundary conditions which should be applied and how does the sheath
impedance enter into them?
Two of the boundary conditions present no problem . The normal
component of magnetic field must be continuous since
= ( 6.2 )
and we have assumed that all quantities vary slowly in the plane of the
- 102 -
sheath . Similarly , we find that the normal component of electric dis-
placement is continuous since
制片
V. V X H = 0 = ▼ • I + €0 (6.3a)
(6.3b )
at
Thus we find
=
( 6.4a)
( B1 ) vacuum (B1)plasma
and
= p
(EL ) vacuum (K EL) lasma (6.4b )
Notice that the sheath impedance does not affect the boundary condition
for the normal component of electric field . The considerations of the
boundary conditions for the tangential components of electric and
magnetic fields are more difficult but they answer the two questions in
the preceding paragraph .
In an ordinary dielectric the tangential components of the electric
and magnetic fields are continuous across the boundary . Since the plasma
does not interact directly with the magnetic field , we must necessarily
require that the magnetic field be continuous across the boundary . It
is this requirement which determines the effective edge of the plasma .
с
Consider the two contours C and C2 in Figs . 6.la and 6.1b ,
respectively . It is assumed that C₁ and C2 are identical in size
C1
and shape and that they are small compared to a wavelength . The contour
C₁ is in the plasma sheath region and lies in a plane perpendicular to

the sheath and contains the tangential component of magnetic field .
- 103 -
Cla C2a
X
out
Sheath
B
*OUND
C26 C2d
Xi
n Plasma C20
C1c
C+ Са C
+2a
C C C2c
+ C
+
C la
=.1b
C1 Cle C.
+ = 2b 2d
•
104
-. -
Plasma
)
a
( D
) ielectric
b
(
condition
boundary
.the
derive
used
6to
integrati
of
Contours
--
. .1
FIG s
on
The point x is sufficiently far out of the plasma so that the density
out
of the plasma is negligible . The point Xin is sufficiently far into the
plasma so that any effect of the boundary has died away and the plasma is
behaving like a dielectric . The contour C₂ is in a dielectric medium,
•
and its orientation is similar to C₁ The point bound is the edge
of this dielectric . Since we have shown that the normal component of
magnetic field is continuous across the boundary and we must necessarily
assume that the tangential component is also continuous , it follows that
= 25
1 ( 6.5)
f . đ SA.
C2
By now using Stoke's theorem and Maxwell's equation , we find that
• = 2
+ €0 2 (6.6)
S It at
Аг
respectively ,
where A and A2 are the areas bounded by C1 and C2
and is the polarization vector . We shall subsequently show that the
tangential component of is essentially continuous across the bound-
ary . Actually there is a small discontinuity , but we shall neglect it
here . Since the tangential electric field is relatively uniform across
the boundary , it is reasonable to assume that the tangential component
of the current 主 is proportional to and to the dc number

tan tan
density no • Thus we write
= σ no Eta (6.7)
tan o 。n
- 105 -
where σ is the conductivity and is a constant . Furthermore , if the
plasma is to behave like a dielectric , this means that must be given
by
12
€ ( K - 1) ( 6.8)
་
where K is the relative dielectric constant . If we now use Eqs . ( 6.7)
and ( 6.8 ) in Eq . ( 6.6 ) , we find that
n ds.
as₁ = € (K - 1 ) (6.9)
SSD Jas₂
A₁ A₂
where A is the region in which polarization is present , i.e. , the area

between *bound and •
Xin Thus we see that bound represents a
measure of the total amount of plasma present and is located at
X
out
n (x ) dx
in
= Xi
Xbound n+ (6.10 )
noo
One would be very suspicious if this were not the result since Xbound
must certainly measure the amount of polarization that is present and
it seems intuitively clear that the polarization should be proportional
to no
To obtain the boundary conditions for the tangential electric field ,
We now assume
we again consider the contours C₁ and C₂
C2 in Fig . 6.1 .
that each contour lies in a plane which is perpendicular to the boundary
and which contains the tangential component of electric field . Since
-- 106 -
the magnetic field is continuous across the boundary , we can write
d . Is .1
• =
SS 52 ( 6.11)
at
A₁ It A2
If we again use Maxwell's equations and Stoke's theorem , this becomes
= ( 6.12 )
ED · as2
C₂
where the subscripts P and D refer to the plasma and dielectric ,
respectively . By now separating C.1

and C2 into their respective
component parts , we find that
· - • + · - ·
S as₁
C 28
Cla lb
C13 C2b
· • + • - • = 0 .
x
C1c C ၇၀ C1d 2d
( 6.13 )
We now assume that outside both the plasma and the dielectric , the elec-
tric fields are equal so that we may see how they differ inside . With
this assumption , we can write
= (6.14 )
SEp . ds
la 2a
- 107 -
Also it can be seen that the integral along the b or d portion of the
contours is essentially the definition of the impedance used in the
previous chapters , i.e. ,

X
in
Ρ ( x ) - Ep ( x ) ] dx
[ Ep
out
z = ( 6.15 )
- i w € E
Ο I
tsid
outside
By using the above equations , we find that Eq . ( 6.13 ) becomes
- i w € Z E, + i w € ELP
ZE
IP
'X at b at d
out out
as · = ( 6.16 )
ог
о
If we now divide this equation by the length of the с portion of the
contour and let this length become small , the result is
DE
LP
Et - - i w € Z ( 6.17 )
ap Etan
p d dz
X
in in out
For a dielectric the tangential electric field is continuous across the
boundary . Thus we can replace Etan Etanp • If we also

by
Bearpl
replace Z by ‫یاد‬
in out
7/00
= (6.18 )
N
108-
where ZN is the normalized impedance , we find that
ბა JE
Et - Et --
an an ( 6.19 )
ZN λD
W dz
in out out
iẞz
If we also assume that all quantities vary as " then we can write
Eq . ( 6.19 ) as
ய
Et ――
an Etan (6.20 )
BAD ZN E
ய
in out out
Thus we see that there is a discontinuity in the tangential component of
electric field . Equation ( 6.20 ) can also be arrived at in another manner .
If we assume that the rf electric field is derivable from a scalar poten
tial , we see that the effect of the sheath is to give rise to a discon
tinuity in the potential at the boundary of the dielectric , i.e. ,
- λD
# iw€0 E10 ZN (6.21 )
& buta
butside inside ய 27
05062727 )534
р
ißz
By assuming e dependence , we again arrive at Eq . ( 6.20 ) .
The discontinuity in field or potential at the boundary is actually
quite small . The reason for this is that all of the results derived in
the previous chapters require that all quantities vary slowly in the
z -direction compared to their variation in the x - direction . Since one is
usually concerned with distances of 20 or 30 Debye lengths in the x
direction , B D should be of the order of 1/100 or less . Since ZN is
of order unity , the discontinuity is small .
The boundary conditions one should use at the edge of a plasma when
it is considered as a dielectric can be summarized as follows : All of
the boundary conditions are identical to those for an ordinary dielectric
- 109 -
except for the tangential component of electric field . This component
has a slight discontinuity given by Eq . ( 6.20 ) . In many cases this
discontinuity can be neglected . For instance , in deriving the propa
gation constant for waves or a plasma column the discontinuity can be
neglected . However , when attenuation and loss are considered , the
effects of the boundary are quite important as we shall subsequently

see . It is interesting to note that the sheath impedance affects only
the boundary condition for the tangential component of electric field and
has no influence on the normal component of electric field .
At the present time , R. Harp is conducting an experiment in the
Microwave Laboratory in which he is attempting to measure the rf electric

field in the sheath . Thus far , only the amplitude of the rf field has
been measured and the agreement of the results presented in Chapter V
with Harp's measurements is quite good . Some experimental and theoret
ical results are plotted in Fig . 6.2 . A value of 0.4 for w /wp
corresponds most closely to Harp's plasma sheath and his plasma frequency
is about 95 megacycles . It can be seen that the agreement between theory
and experiment is quite good .
The application of the results of Chapter V to the problem of
attenuation of slow waves along a plasma column is also interesting .
If w/wp is small compared to 1 " the plasma column behaves like a
transmission line with inductance and capacitance per unit length of
1
L :
"I
2 2
W Па
and (6.22 )
2 € Ke
C
ln(b/a)
respectively , where a is the radius of the plasma column , b is the
- 110 -
DISTAN
VS.
MAGNIT
FIELD
RF
WALL
FROM
SHEATH PLASMA
10 EXPER
----
=
.
w80w
p
THEORY
=
0
wo.4wp
UNITS )
.
=78
w wp
=
1
w = .20wp
0
=.4wp
5
111 -
| E | ( RELATIVE
.
= 22wp
ω
-5 5 IO
LENGTHS
DEBYE
sheat
the
in
field
rf
calcu
measu
theor
and
exper
c
the
ofompa
FIG
.6
A
--
.2
radius of the surrounding metal conductor , and Kỵ
e is the dielectric
constant of the material between a and b . This value of L can be
arrived at by neglecting displacement current in the plasma and assur-
ing the electric field is longitudinal and uniform across the plasma
column . The capacitance is simply that between two concentric cylinders .
The characteristic impedance of this transmission line is then
1 la(b/a)
= = (6.23 )
го √L/C
ла ш 2K
P
If E10 is now the electric field at the outside edge of the sheath ,
the voltage across the transmission line is
E10a
8
V = la (b/a) (6.24 )
ке
The loss per unit length along the column and the power flow are then
given by
· 2
Loss = (2ла ) (6.25 )
(1/2)( i w to E10 )
WE
and
12
212
1 v2 да ш 2K E10a
8
- e
P = ln (b/a) ( 6.26)
2 Z 2 n(b/a)
Ke
respectively . Thus we find the attenuation per unit length is
2
in (b/a) K
e . ( 6.27)
α =
( 4/4 )2 (x₁/ a² ) 21 RN
2K ln (b/a)
- 112 -
If we evaluate a for a = 0.508 cm , b = 0.623 cm ? and Ke = 4
these are the parameters which describe one of the plasma waveguides
used by Ludovici¹? ) , we find that
≈ (6.28 )
2100 ( w/w )2 (1 /a ) RN db/cm
It is difficult to compare this result with Ludovici's measurements
since the w/w which characterizes his sheath is unknown as well as
the value of /a . If, however , we assume that /a is about
( 1/100 ) and that w/ is about 0.45 , we obtain the following :

3|
=
3
0.1 0.4
º
R.. α = 0.08 db/cm.

N
3
= 0.4 ≈ 0.5 α
RN a≈ 1.7 db/cm.
W
P
Thus the sheath can introduce significant loss and a more exact calcula-
tion of the attenuation may well explain the anomaly observed by Ludovici ,
i.e. , the rapid increase in attenuation as w/w becomes larger . The
effect of the radial variation of plasma density is to concentrate the
field near the surface of the plasma column and further increase the
loss in the sheath .
From these results it appears that the numerical calculations
presented in Chapter V are quite meaningful and useful . In the future
it would be well to increase the range of these calculations . It appears
that calculations for somewhat smaller values of /wp would be useful .

The only difficulty in performing such calculations is that the number
of sample points in the sheath becomes quite large and the amount of
computer time required to evaluate the necessary kernel samples is long
(each case would require 1 hour or more of 7090 time ) . Also , calcula-
tions closer to the plasma frequency would be useful . Here the problem
- 113 -
is somewhat different . It can be seen from Fig . 3.2 that close to the
plasma frequency , the attenuation of waves in the uniform plasma becomes

very small . This means that the computation must extend over a very
large region in the uniform plasma . This difficulty can be overcome by

taking account of the dominant wave separately in the computation . It
should be clear from Fig . 3.2 that this problem is more severe above the
plasma frequency than below. It is also possible that close to the plasma
frequency the system of equations might become ill - conditioned and the
calculations would have to be performed in double precision . In all of
the computations performed thus far , ill - conditioned systems of equations
have not occurred , but it seems clear that such problems would be most
severe near the plasma frequency . Calculations above the plasma fre
quency would also be useful and the present program should be quite
adequate for w/w greater than 1.4 .

р
All in all , the integral equation approach seems to be quite accu
rate in describing a plasma sheath . The difficulties present in a zero
temperature theory , in particular , the singularity where w (x) is

equal to ய , are not encountered with the integral equation approach .
It should be noted that temperature enters the work here through the
Debye distance , and since the Debye length goes to zero with the tempera
ture , it is questionable as to what one means by a sheath at zero
temperature .
In the future it may be possible to use this integral equation
approach to study the complete plasma column , taking into account the
nonuniform cross - section . This would not be easy and the computations
involved would probably be more difficult and involved than those pre
sented in this work .
-· 114 .-
APPENDIX A
LANDAU'S KERNEL
1
We define Landau's kernel as
-u²/2 1 (w/w ) \ x \ /u
= - i р du u e e
K₂ (x ) (A.1 )
This is the kernel one encounters in the study of an infinite uniform
plasma in which the electrons possess a Maxwellian distribution . In
this appendix we shall obtain series expansions for the real and imaginary
parts of the above kernel and study its behavior quantitatively .
Firstly , notice that as w

w/ becomes larger , the magnitude of
K (x ) decreases . Thus for frequencies very large compared to the plasma
frequency , one finds very little interaction between the plasma and the
rf field because the kernel has become small . Secondly , notice that the
scale of the kernel is (w/w )x · Thus at low frequencies , the kernel
is more spread out and the behavior at any point is influenced by a
larger region of plasma than at higher frequencies .
Consider now the following integral :
- u²/2 1 s/u
F ( s) = du u e S > 0 (A.2 )
It is an easy matter to relate F( s) to the kernel K (x ) 0 To obtain
series expansions for the real and imaginary parts of F( s ) is not a
- 115 -
simple task . The easiest approach is to observe that F(s ) satisfies
the following differential equation :
d
a³F(s)
S · F( (A. 3 )
s) = 0
s3
ds
It is necessary to assume that S has a small positive imaginary part
to properly carry out the differentiations and the integration by parts

in obtaining the above equation . Its three solutions are
( 2/2 )
= (A. 4a )
Y₁ ( s ) 5
.
( 2n ) ! ( n - 1 ) !
n=1
2n n!
2n + 1
= (A. 4b )
Y₂(5)
n=0 ( 2n + 1 ) ! ( 2n ) !
2
S
( 2/2 )n
log -
Y3 ( s ) = 1 +Σ
n=1 ( 2n ) ! (n - 1 ) : 2
- 2H ( 2n ) - H( n - 1 ) (A. 4c )
"}
where H( n ) is the finite harmonic series and is given by

HIM
1
H(n) == 1 +1212 + ... + (A. 5a)
+
with
H( 0 ) = 0 (A.5b )
- 116 -
If we let FR ( s ) and FIM( s ) be the real and imaginary parts of F( s ) ,
respectively , i.e. ,
= du u2/2
Sau u e- COS (A. 6a)
FR( s )
0
and
-
= e u² 2 sin (3)
FIM( s ) Sauu / (A.6b )
the problem is now to find the linear combinations of y₁ ( s ) Y₂(s )

FR ( s ) and FIM( s ) • From Eqs . (A. 6a ) and
and y₂ ( s ) which make up F (s ) and
(A.6b ) it may be shown that
= 1 = O
FR( 0) FIM( 0 )
(A.7 )
=
F (0 ) = 0 FIM( 0 ) -√
Thus we find that
Α (A. 8a )
Fr
R( s ) = Ay₂ ( s ) + Y₂ ( 8 )
and
= (A.8b )
FIM( 8 ) - By₂1 ( 8 ) + √
√ √₂(8 )
where A and are as yet undetermined . Their determination is quite
difficult . It requires that the first few terms of the expansions be
- 117 -
found directly from Eqs . ( A.6a ) and ( A.6b ) . These calculations are
quite lengthy and will not be presented here . The result is that
A == 37 , (A.9a )
where Y is Euler's constant , and
(A.9b )
Thus we find that
2
( 2/2)n
= 1 +
11
FR (s) 3y + log
Σ
1
( 2n ) ! (n - 1 ) ! 2
n=1
(A.10a )
2H ( 2n ) H (n - 1 )
and
အ
( 2/2)
= π
FIM( s )
( 2n ) : (n - 1 ) :
n=1
∞
2¹ ni s²n + 1
TKIN
(A.10b )
V ( 2n + 1 ) ! ( 2n ) :
n=0
These two expansions are quite useful for small values of s ,
i.e. , S less than 2 or 3. For larger values of S one encounters
large terms of comparable magnitude but of opposite sign . Thus a very
large number of significant figures must be used to obtain reasonably
accurate results if these expansions are used . A better method of

F. for such values of s is to return to
computing F (s) and IM )
FM(s
- 118 -
Eqs . (A.6a ) and ( A.6b ) and perform the integrations numerically . For
such calculations , it is better to express FR ( s ) and S)

FIM( s as below :
1
2
2v
e
ivs
FR( s ) =3 Re dv (A.lla )
3
2
2v
ivs
Im dv (A.11b )
FIM( s )
3
후에
10,11
In this form Filon's rule can be used quite effectively . Also
after integrating away from the origin , the path of integration can be
turned upward into the complex plane so that the interval over which
the numerical integration must be performed is decreased .
Numerical calculations were performed to compute FR ( s ) and

S • These results are plotted in Fig . A.1
FIM( s ) for a wide range of
and are also tabulated in Table A.I.
It is possible to obtain an asymptotic expression for F(s) by the
method of steepest descent . Consider the following expression for F( s ) :
1
+ ivs
8
1 2
2v
F(s) = dv (A.12 )
S
If we let y (v ) be the exponential factor in the integrand of Eq . (A.12 )
and expand y(v ) about the point where y ' (v ) = 0 , we obtain
- i i
273
= - 2
y(v) - 282/3 e - 24/3 e (v
(A.13 )
-· 119 -
1.0
0.8L
0.6
0.4
)
(6
1+
8 FIM
(
FR
0.2 s
(
) IM
F
- 120
-
0.0 + +
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
)
8
(
FR
-0.2
.A.1
FIG
Plot
--
imaginary
and
real
the
of
parts
)
(s
F
TABLE A.I
S Fr Fo ( s )
Im(s )
S
FR( s ) R Im
FIM(8)
0.00 1.00000 0.00000 8.25 0.01727 -0.14080
0.25 0.92575 0.26738 8.50 0.03038 -0.13115
0.50 0.78716 0.45448 8.75 0.04169 -0.12081
0.75 0.62766 0.57675 9.00 0.05125 -0.11001
1.00 0.46616 0.64730 9.25 0.05915 -0.09896
1.25 0.31285 0.67720 9.50 0.06548 -0.08784
1.50 0.17334 0.67574 9.75 0.07035 -0.07680
1.75 0.05048 0.65066 10.00 0.07386 -0.06597
2.00 -0.05459 0.60840 10.50 0.07727 -0.04539
2.25 -0.14187 0.55424 11.00 0.07664 -0.02679
2.50 -0.21205 0.49247 11.50 0.07287 -0.01058
2.75 -0.26630 0.42656 12.00 0.06678 0.00301
3.00 -0.30603 0.35925 12.50 0.05913 0.01396
3.25 -0.33280 0.29271 13.00 0.05055 0.02234
3.50 -0.34820 0.22856 13.50 0.04158 0.02834
3.75 -0.35381 0.16802 14.00 0.03266 0.03219
4.00 -0.35115 0.11196 14.50 0.02413 0.03416
4.25 -0.34163 0.06093 15.00 0.01623 0.03456

4.50 -0.32658 0.01527 15.50 0.00915 0.03366
4.75 -0.30718 -0.02488 16.00 0.00297 0.03175
5.00 -0.28451 -0.05954 16.50 -0.00224 0.02909
5.25 -0.25952 -0.08884 17.00 -0.00649 0.02591
5.50 -0.23304 -0.11300 17.50 -0.00981 0.02242
5.75 -0.20579 -0.13232 18.00 -0.01226 0.01879
6.00 -0.17837 -0.14714 18.50 -0.01391 0.01518
6.25 -0.15130 -0.15783 19.00 -0.01485 0.01168
6.50 -0.12501 -0.16478 19.50 -0.01518 0.00840
6.75 -0.09982 -0.16838 20.00 -0.01501 0.00541
7.00 -0.07601 -0.16903 21.00 -0.01349 0.00041
7.25 -0.05377 -0.16711 22.00 -0.01100 -0.00317
7.50 -0.03326 -0.16299 23.00 -0.00810 -0.00538
7.75 -0.01455 -0.15701 24.00 -0.00523 -0.00642
8.00 0.00229 -0.14952 25.00 -0.00266 -0.00654
- 121 -
TABLE A.I
(Continued )
S
FR(B) Im( s)
FI
26.00 -0.00055 -0.00601
27.00 0.00102 -0.00506
28.00 0.00206 -0.00392
29.00 0.00264 -0.00274
30.00 0.00283 -0.00164
31.00 0.00273 -0.00069
32.00 0.00243 0.00006
33.00 0.00201 0.00061
34.00 0.00153 0.00097
35.00 0.00106 0.00116
36.00 0.00062 0.00121
37.00 0.00025 0.00115
38.00 -0.00004 0.00102
39.00 -0.00026 0.00085
40.00 -0.00041 0.00066
42.00 -0.00051 0.00029
44.00 -0.00045 0.00001
46.00 -0.00031 -0.00015
48.00 -0.00016 -0.00021
50.00 -0.00003 -0.00020
52.00 0.00005 -0.00015
54.00 0.00009 -0.00009
56.00 0.00009 -0.00003
58.00 0.00007 0.00001
60.00 0.00005 0.00003
- 122 -
where
KN
1 7
30
S
= - 1/3 e (A.14 )
is the extremum point of the exponent . If we now integrate through this
point along the path of steepest descent , assuming all other factors in
the integral are relatively constant near Vo and that the expansion in
Eq . ( A.13 ) is sufficient , we obtain
+ i 2/3={
2/3 2/3 ]
S • (A.15 )
2
F(8) √ /3-
1 /3
From the numerical point of view , this asymptotic expression is useless .
For any kind of accuracy at all , must be considerably larger than
100.0 . At this point F(s ) is less than 10-6 and can be assumed to
be zero in any numerical computation . The reason this asymptotic expres-
sion is so bad can be seen by looking at the next term in the expansion
of y(v ) . It is
-i 5
s /3 e
2 $5 (v - ‫ح‬ (A.16 )
‫ر‬
‫ة‬
From Eq . ( A.13 ) we see that the value of ( v - Vo)

v ) for which the magni-
is one is
tude of the term containing ( v - vo ) ²
KN
-i
(v - (A.17 )
3 S 2/3
-- 123 -
If we now use this value in Eq . ( A.16 ) , we find the value of the next
term in the expansion is
21
5lm
5lm
i i
4√2 e e
(D
(D
(A.18 )
1/3
3√3 87/3
Even for S = 125 " this term is not negligible compared to one .
As indicated in Chapter III , Landau obtained an asymptotic expan
sion for the electric field in his treatment of a plasma of uniform
density bounded by a wall at x = 0. His asymptotic expansion suffers
from the same difficulties as Eq . ( A.15 ) and for the same reasons .
One useful fact can be obtained from this asymptotic expression ,
however . As S becomes very large we see that F( s ) decreases faster
than 1/ s where N is any positive integer . However , F(s ) does
not decrease as fast as e -a/s! where a is any number greater than
zero . This means that the Fourier transform of K (x) will be defined
only along the real k axis and will not be an analytic function in
any strip with a finite width . Indeed , this is found to be the case
and as is shown in Appendix B , the two analytic functions which make up
the transform of (x ) both possess essential singularities at k = 0 .
-- 124 -
APPENDIX B
THE FOURIER TRANSFORM OF LANDAU'S KERNEL
In this appendix we shall obtain a series expansion for the Fourier
transform of Landau's kernel . We define Landau's kernel as
2
u
·
i
u
K (x) = i du u e (B.1 )
2x
The Fourier transform of Eq . ( B.1 ) is
2
∞
-ikx - i
W u
K(k ) = i dx e du u e (B.2 )
S
If the order of integration in Eq . ( B.2 ) is reversed and the integration

over X is performed ( w is assumed to have a small positive
imaginary part ) , the result is
2
u
1 1
2
x(x) = au u e • (B.3 )
W ω
собча (k + (k -
w u
- 125
This can also be written as
/N
E
N
+00
3
du
= du
(*) ( B. 4a )
ku ·
ய
or as
2
u
·
+oo 2
1
du
K(K ) = du (B. 4b)
s
KV 21
-∞ (ku ·
Equation (B. 4b ) is the form one encounters most often .
When using Eq . ( B.4 ) , one must have some a priori information about
which way to integrate around the pole at u = • In the solu-
w/w k
tion of Landau's problem in Chapter III , it is necessary to consider
both paths . Thus we shall define two functions , ₁ (k ) and (k)
where (k ) is the value of the integral in Eq . ( B.4b ) when the path
is taken below the pole and (k) is the value for a path above the
pole . This is indicated graphically in Fig . B.1 :
ய
u =
w k
р
0
W
2
11
u
w k
р
FIGURE B.1
-- 126 -
Although (k) and (k ) may be considered as analytic functions of
k , Ĩ( k ) should be associated with (k) for positive k and with
K₂( k) for negative k i.e. ,
k > 0
K₁ (k )
K( k ) = (B.5)
(k) k < 0
The reason for this is that we are attributing a small positive imag-
inary part to a and thus the pole at u = w/wk will lie slightly
above the real u axis for positive k and slightly below for
negative k . As we shall see , (k ) and (k ) both possess an

essential singularity at k = 0 .
Although it is possible to obtain series expansions of (k ) and
K₂( k ) directly from Eq . ( B. 4b ) , it is easier to return to Eq . ( B.1 ) and
obtain an expression for K( k ) which yields the desired results more
easily . By changing the variable of integration in Eq . ( B.1 ) from

u to T where
w | x|
3º
+
3
|
( B.6 )
u
we obtain
2 2
2
X
1 iT 1
ய
i dr e e p (B.7)
11
K₁₂ (x )
27 3
- 127 -
If we take the Fourier transform of Eq . ( B.7 ) we obtain the following
expression :
2 2
X
HI2
iT
3
∞
-ikx
8
w 2
2
K(k ) = - dx e x e •
30
( B.8)
|
3 S
2π Τ
The evaluation of the integral over X can be performed analytically as
follows :
3/30
2 2 2 2
112
X
ཁ
· ikx ·
,c
+00
W 2 2
2 P T
dx e X 2 x2 cos e (B. 9a)
∞- efo + 008 (2 ) •
√ dx x²
2 2
k T
3 2 2
2π k 012
2
1 (B.9b )
3 2
ய
མ་
P p
Thus we find that

2 2
KT
2
2 ∞ k T ய 2
w
р iT 2
K(K ) = i ат 1 w (B.10a)
2 p
w ω
W
p
2 2
k T
2
W
2 ∞ 2
d ω
P iT
i ате те (B.10b)
ய dτ
2 2
k T
3.130
12
လ
2
ω
iT
атте
CD
e (B. 10c )
ய
· 128-
From Eq . ( B.10c ) it is easy to obtain the Laurent series for (k) and
• To do this , consider the following two integrals :
K₁₂(k)
2 2 2 2
k T k T
12
2
3º
2 2
3
/
ய
2n+ 1
dT T cos те = e (B.lla )
Sa 2n
n=0
n!
n+1 (B. 1lb)

Σ 2n ) !
k
n=0 2 [12/2 (w/w )2]
2 2 2 2
x² k
A
2 ♡ 2
313
00 ∞
ய w
P
dr T sin Te dT cos т е (B.12a)
Ја 2
k
21 /2k2
e ( B.12b)
2/2/3
Notice the absolute value signs on If we now define two functions ,

k³ .
F( k ) and G( k) , as
2 2
n!
F( k ) = (-1)n (B.13 )
2
k (2n ) ! k
44n=0
- 129
and
3 2
3l3
21 /2k2
G(k) = (B.14 )
2k3
then (k ) and ₂(k) can be expressed in terms of these functions as
= F( k ) + i G ( k ) ( B.15)
K₁ (k )
G( X)
( ၁) ကမ
and
2
31
= F(k) - i G(k ) ( B.16)

K₂( k)
ய
Notice that the difference between K₁ ( k ) and (k) is the sign of
G(k) • The correct sign is chosen by considering Eqs . ( B.5 ) and ( B.12b ) .
It is obvious from Eqs . ( B. 11 ) and ( B. 12 ) that F( k) and G( k ) and
therefore (k ) and (k ) possess essential singularities at k = 0 .
Although Eq . ( B.13 ) is the Laurent series for F( k ) a more useful
series expansion for F( k) can be obtained by evaluating the integral
in Eq. ( B.lla ) in another manner. Consider the following defining
integral for F( k ) for real k :

2 2
k T
2
13
∞
3
လ
F (k) = Re dτ (B.17)
- 130 -
By completing the square in the exponent , the integral can be evaluated
in the following manner :
2
KT
] \*
/2k2
N
ய
= - Re e атте
CD
F(k ) ( B. 18a)
33
2 2 2
k T
al3º
/2k2 2
ய ய
∞ 2
w W
- Re P
T + i e
CD
(B.18b)
11
2
2 k
2
W
2 2
3130
2 k T
313
‫טח‬
2 2 /2k2 2
1
W - i 14 2
315
ய w e 2
CD
+ i ат е
2 2
k k
(B.18c )
By expanding the integral in a power series and integrating term by
term, we obtain the following form for F(k ) :

3/30
21n
-
3/30
2 /2k2
2
ய ய ∞
e
ω
р 2k
F( k ) = +2
2
2
Κ n=1 (n - 1 ) : ( 2n - 1 )
4
(B. 19 )
- 131 -
By using the relation
2n - 1 (B.20)
= 2n + 2 ( 2n- 1)
Eq . ( B.19 ) can be written as
1 02
1 3. n
.
13
ய
e
2
2k
F (k) = - 1 . (B.21 )
11
Σ
2 n=1
k n ! ( 2n - 1 )
Now consider the following expansion for 1/(

1 / ( 2n
2n - 1 ))
- 1 valid for N
equal to zero or any positive integer :
1 n! ( 2m ) : n! ( 2N + 1 ):
= + (B.22)
2m 2N
2n - 1 (n + m) : 2 m! (n + N ) N 2 (2n - 1 )
m= 1
If this equation is substituted into Eq . ( B.21 ) we obtain the result
2 n + m
313
/2k2
-
m
°
2 ய
2
e ( 2m) ! 2k
W 2
2k
F (k ) =
3139
21
2 2m
k m=1 2 m! n=1 (n + m ) :
(B.23 )
2
3
( 2N + 1 ) ! 2k
1
22N N! (n + N) : ( 2n - 1 )
n=1
- 132 -
By recognizing that
2 ‫מך‬ + m 2 ‫מו‬
w
2
ய ω
W
/2k2 2
ய 2k
2k
e (B.24 )
(n + m ) ! n!
n= 1 n=0
The following form can be obtained :
2
W
2
ய ( 2m ) : 2k
F (k ) =
2
2 22m m : ய
k m= 1
W
พ
33
/2k2
e ( 2N + 1 ) ! 2
ய @
2k l®
+ (B.25 )
2
k 22N N! n=1 (n + N ) ! ( 2n - 1 )
21 n
2
( 2m) ! 2k
- 1
w 2
2m
m= 1 2 m! w n=0 n:
Now let
2
( 2m) ! 2k
2k
S = +1
2m 2 (B.26 )
2 m: W n!
m=1 n=0
-- 133 -
The 1 can be included in the summation by letting m run from O to
N. If we then let j = m - n " the following expression for S is
obtained :
2
2k [2(j + n) ] !
S = ( B.27 )
3/30
2 2 (1
(j + n
22 ( j + n ) ! n!
j=0 n=0
ω
If we now let i = ( Nj ) - n the summation can be written as
2 j
2k
3130
( 2N ) !
12
N [2(N - i ) ] ! N! (N - j ) !
р 21
S =
‫טח‬
2N -
2 N! ( N - j ) ! i=0 ( 2N ) ! (N - i ) ! ( Ni j)!
j=0
( B.28 )
If the summation over i is written out , it will be found that the
series can be summed by beginning with the last term and combining it
with the preceding term . This process can be repeated again and again
with the result
[ 2(N - i ) ] ! N: 1 (N - j ) ! 2N + 1
22 = -- • (B.29 )
#1
( 2N) ! ( Ni ) ! (N - i - j) ! 2j + 1
i=0
- 134
Thus we have
2 J
2k
2
3
3
(2N + 1 )!
|
S = ( B.30)
2N
2 N! (N · j ) : ( 2j + 1 )
j=0
If we now use this expression in Eq . ( B.25 ) , the result is
B
( 2m ) ! 2k2
F (k ) =
330
12
2 2m
k 2 m:
m=1
/2k2 w
2
e ∞ N!
ய ( 2N + 1 ) :
p 2k
(B.31 )
2
2 22N (N:)² (n + N ) ! ( 2n - 1)
k
j
2
2k
2
3l3
N!
ய
(N - j ) ! ( 2j + 1 )
j=0
This is the desired result . It will be seen that Eq . ( B. 21 ) is the
above equation with N = 0 .
The useful feature of this expansion for F(k ) is that one is
free to choose N. Usually the best choice of N is
2
ய
ய
N (B.32 )
2
2k
· 135 -
With this choice , all of the series in Eq . ( B.31 ) will be composed of
terms which decrease monotonically with the value of the summation
parameter . This is very desirable if one must evaluate F(k ) numerically .
In carrying out the numerical calculation of F(k) Eq . ( B. 31 ) is
most useful for |k/ ( w/w ) <

< 1/3
1/3 . For /k/ ( w/w ) | > 1/3 , the Laurent
р р
series of Eq. ( B. 11 ) is better since this expansion contains no exponential
term . F( k ) and G( k ) are plotted in Fig . B.2 for real values of k .
The computation of the derivative of (k ) or K₂( k ) can be accom
plished quite easily by noticing that
( k)
[ 1 - 3k² ] 1
a Ã1̧2
Ã , 2 (k) · (B.33)
3
dk k³
‫الله‬
This differential equation for ₁ (k ) and ₂( k ) is not very useful for
small values of k The best expressions for the derivative in this
region are obtained by differentiating one of the expansions .
- 136 -
1.0
)
(k
F
- 137
1.0
k
13
1.0 )
(k
G
FIG
.B.2
(a
F
of
Plot
--
)
k
(
G nd
APPENDIX C
THE SOLUTION OF LARGE SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
The solution of a system of linear algebraic equations using a
computer is not a difficult problem as long as the equations are not ill
conditioned and all of the coefficients can be stored in the computer .
However , when the number of coefficients is so large that supplemental
means of storage , such as magnetic tape , are required , the problem of
solving the system in an efficient manner increases considerably . This
appendix describes a method of solution whereby such systems of equations

can be solved in an efficient manner . The problems associated with ill
conditioned systems of equations are not discussed .
The method described on the following pages was implemented on the
IBM 7090 at Stanford for equations with complex coefficients . Although
all figures quoted related to tape movement and arithmetic speed are for
this computer , the ideas behind the method are applicable to any computer
which has the ability to read tape , write tape , and compute simultaneously .
Consider the system of equations indicated in Fig . C.l. The first
step in the solution is to normalize the system, i.e. , to multiply each
equation by a factor
=
a11*1 a12x2 + 213x3 + 81N*N Y1
= 52
a21x1 a22x2 + a2N*N
+ a X =
8N1X1 + a№2x2 + ²NN N
FIG . C.1 -- System of N simultaneous equations .
- 138
which makes the magnitude of the largest coefficient in that equation
approximately equal to 1 • In the case of a binary machine , this
factor should be a power of two so that no significant figures are
lost during this process . The reason for normalizing the system of
equations is to increase the effectiveness of pivoting ( interchanging
equations during the solution process ) and thus minimize the diffi-
culties associated with roundoff error .
The method used to solve the system of equations is basically
Gauss's 14,18 method with pivoting by rows . Briefly , this method is
performed as follows : The first column of the system of equations is
scanned to find the largest coefficient of X. The equation con-
taining this coefficient is then interchanged with the first equation
(or row ) . A suitable multiple of this new first equation is then
subtracted from each of the other equations in order to eliminate X1

from each of them . This process is then repeated using the coefficients
of and Eqs . ( 2 ) through ( N ) . Coefficients

x2 a22 through aN2 are
examined to determine the largest . The equation containing this coef-
ficient is interchanged with the second equation and a suitable multiple

is subtracted from each of the remaining equations . This same process
of eliminating one variable at a time from all succeeding equations is
repeated again and again until a system of equations is obtained in

th
which the i equation contains only the unknowns X₁ h
i throug XN
Such a system of equations is shown in Fig . C.2 . This so- called reduced
system can now be solved by starting at the bottom and solving first for
XN then XN- 1 using Eq . ( N - 1 ) and the now known value of 0
XN
This process , known as backsolving , is continued until the entire solu-
tion is obtained .
a11x1 + a12x2 + 13x3 + + N N = Y1

$
=
a22x2 + a23x3 + + &2N N 1
=
YN-1
aN- 1 , N - 1 N - 1ªN - 1 , N*N
a....x. =
NN N YN
FIG . C.2 --Reduced system of equations .
- 139-
Gauss's method as described above is inefficient when applied to a
system of equations too large to fit in storage . The reason is that as
each variable is eliminated from all subsequent equations , all the
coefficients of these equations must be read from tape and the new
coefficients written on tape . Moreover , while each coefficient is in
core storage , it is used in only one arithmetic operation . What is
needed is a method whereby numbers , which must be read from tape and
written on tape many times , are used in many arithmetic operations while
they are in core storage . This can be accomplished by applying Gauss's
method in a more subtle fashion in which successive columns of the
reduced system are obtained rather than successive rows . This is
achieved as follows : Consider again the system of equations first
mentioned . Assume that it has been normalized . As with the ordinary
form of Gauss's method , the first column of coefficients is examined to
locate the first pivotal element , i.e. , the largest coefficient of X1
The location of this element is recorded and this coefficient is inter-
changed with all • It is necessary to remember this interchange since

11
this same interchange must be performed in all subsequent columns to
accomplish the interchange of the first equation with the equation
containing the largest coefficient of X. • After the interchange has
been performed , a11 is the first column of the reduced system of
equations and will not be involved in any more numerical operations
until the backsolving is performed . The remaining elements in column 1 ,
i.e. , a21 through al " are now divided by The result of

all
this operation will be denoted by b.

bil and these numbers will be refer-
red to as multipliers since in terms of Gauss's method , bil represents
the factor by which the first equation is multiplied when it is used to

th
eliminate X1 from the i equation .
Thus , we have
ail
i == 2, 3, ... N (c.1 )
H
il
all
The bil'' s will be used in processing all of the remaining columns .
- 140 -
The reduction of the second column begins by performing the inter-
change associated with column 1. The coefficients 222 through
aN2 are then processed using the relation
= 812 i := 2, 3 , . . . N . (c.2 )
12. 01 - bila12
NEW OLD
In terms of Gauss's method , these are the calculations which occur in
the second column when X1 is eliminated from Eqs . ( 2 ) through (N ) •
The elements 82
2 through aN2 are now examined to find the second
pivotal element . Its location is recorded and it is interchanged with
@ Elements and 222 are now the second column of the

222 a12
reduced system of equations . Elements 832 through aN2 are divided
by 222 to obtain the second column of multip . The second set of

li ers
multip will be used to proces all remain column .
liers s ing s
The pattern for obtaining the successive columns of the reduced
systems of equations is now established . Each column is taken in order
and reduced using the interchanges and multiplier columns associated

th
with all of the previous columns . The equation for reducing the k
th
column with the jt column of multipliers is
= KO - j < k
a11NEW ai LD ijajk
i = j + 1, j + 2, . . . N. ( c.3 )
Note that Eq . ( C.2 ) is just a special case of this equation with j = 1

th
and k = 2 @ After the k column has been processed using multi-
plier columns 1
through k - 1 " elements akk through
Nk
are a
th
examined to find the k pivotal element . Its location is recorded
Elements through aNk
and it is interchanged with akk ak+l k
th
are then divided by akk to obtain the k column of multipliers .
To obtain the complete reduced system of equations , the operations
indicated above are carried out until all the columns have been reduced .
th
The right hand side is reduced in exactly the same way that the N
column is reduced . The result of these operations will be a reduced
- 141 -
system of equations like that of Fig . C.2 . Note that columns of multi
pliers will form a lower triangular matrix like that shown below .
21
b31 32
04 04
7 2 043
b b.
N1 N2 N3 N N- 1
FIG . C.3 -- Multiplier matrix .
Associated with each column of multipliers is an interchange which must
be performed before that column of multipliers is applied .
It should be clear from the above discussion that the numbers
which are used again and again in performing the reduction are the
multipliers . Thus these numbers must be repeatedly read from tape if
there is insufficient room for all of them in core storage . However , a
little thought will show that it is permissible to process more than
one column at a time with the same column of multipliers .
that while a column of multipliers is in core storage , we should process
enough columns with it to allow the next column of multipliers to be
read from tape . With a judicious choice of the number of columns one
chooses to reduce simultaneously , it is possible to overlap almost all
tape movement with computing and still keep the amount of core storage
required to a minimum .
In the case of the IBM 7090 , the number of columns to be processed
simultaneously can be arrived at as follows . The time required to
perform arithmetic operations and to read or write tape are as follows :
Floating Multiplication 24 microseconds
Floating Addition or Subtraction 14 microseconds
Read and Write Tape
( 729 - IV Tape Drive 556 Characters/Inch ) 100 microseconds/word
Pass a Record Gap 7300 microseconds .
- 142 .-
From Eq . ( C.3 ) , it can be seen that it is necessary to perform one
multiplication and one subtraction per multiplier element per column

being processed . Here we are assuming the coefficients are real . If
each column of multipliers is written as one record , then the following
relation is the criteria we wish to satisfy :
Compute Time > Tape Read Time (C.4a )
K(M + 1 ) ( 24μs + 14us ) > M • 100μs + 7300μs (C.4b)
where K = numbers of columns being reduced simultaneously and
M = length of multiplier column being read By solving for K " we

find
K > 2.63 ( M/M+1 ) + 192/ ( M+1 ) (c.5)
From the above relation , we see that K should certainly be 3 or
larger . A choice of 6 or 8 would probably be the most reasonable
since the record gaps would introduce some lost time only when the
length of multipliers became less than 30 or 40 In the case of
complex coefficients the calculation is quite similar . For the program
written at Stanford , 4 columns were used .
If the ideas put forth thus far are implemented in a program , it
would proceed as follows . Three tapes are required which will be
denoted as below:
IT = Input Tape . This tape contains the matrix describing the
system of equations to be solved . It is assumed that the
system of equations has been normalized and that the matrix
is stored by columns on this tape .
MT = Multiplier Tape . This tape will contain all of the multi-
pliers at the conclusion of the reduction process .

RST = Reduced System Tape . This tape will contain the columns of
the reduced system at the conclusion of the reduction
process .
- 143 -
It will be seen that the program as described below possesses one major
difficulty , namely , that there may be some delay while the MT tape
rewinds . A method of overcoming this difficulty will be described
subsequently . The program proceeds as follows :

(1 ) Read the first K columns of the system of equations from
IT into core storage .
(2 ) Reduce these K columns until the first K columns of the
reduced system and the first K columns of multipliers are

obtained .
(3 ) Write the K columns of multipliers on MT and rewind it .
(4 ) Write the K columns of the reduced system on RST •
(5) Read the next K columns of the system of equations from
IT into core storage .
(6 ) Reduce these K columns using the multipliers stored on MT
During this process , all of the multipliers which have been

previously written on MT will be read .
(7) Further reduce these K columns to obtain K more columns
of the reduced system and K more columns of multipliers .
(8) Write the K new columns of multipliers on MT and rewind it .
(9 ) Write the K new columns of the reduced system on RST
( 10 ) If more columns remain on IT , go to step ( 5 ) .
To solve the system of equations for some particular right hand side ,
one reduces this right hand side by processing it with all of the multi-
pliers on MI • The reduced system is then backsolved with this reduced
RHS to obtain the solution . During the backsolution process it is neces-
sary to backspace RST before reading each column since they are required
in the reverse order from that on the tape . If one has to backsolve the
system many times for many different RHS's it is wise to write a tape
of the reduced system matrix with the columns in the order in which they
are required during backsolving . This can be done the first time the
system is backsolved .
As stated previously , the program described above wastes consider-
able time waiting for the MT to rewind . However , this difficulty can
be overcome by using extra multiplier tapes in such a fashion that a tape
is always available with the correct column of multipliers ready to be
- 144
read into core storage . One possible way of doing this using a total of
three multiplier tapes will be described here . These three tapes are
denoted MT " MT1 , and MT2 • To be effective , this scheme
requires two channels .
Tapes MT and MT1 are on Channel A and MT2 is on Channel B .
Table C.I describes how the tapes are used . Here , K , the number of
columns reduced at one time , is 4 0 By studying Table C.1 , it will be
seen that MT contains approximately one - half of the multiplier columns .
The remaining columns of multipliers are on either MT1 or MT2
Consider line 10 in Table C.1 . At this point columns 1-12 have been
reduced . Multiplier columns 1-8 are on ΜΕ

MI and multiplier columns 9-12
are on MT1 . Columns 13-16 are now read from the input tape and pro-
cessed using multiplier columns 1-8 . When this is complete , the rewinding
of MT is initiated . Columns 13-16 are then further processed using
multiplier columns 9-12 . While each of these multiplier columns is in
core storage , it is copied onto MT2 0 Since MT1 and MT2 are on
different channels it is possible to read multipliers from MT1 , write
multipliers on MT2 , and compute , all simultaneously . After multiplier
columns 9-12 have been used , columns 13-16 are further processed to obtain
columns 13-16 of the reduced system and multiplier columns 13-16 . The
columns of the reduced system are written on RST and multiplier columns
13-16 are written on MT2 The MT1 and MT2 are now rewound . At
this point , the configuration of the tapes is that shown on line 13 of
Table C.l.
The program is now ready to begin processing columns 17-20 . These 4
columns are read from IT and processed using multiplier columns 1-8
from MT • Multipliers from MT2 are now used to process the 4 columns
in core . While each multiplier column 9 , 10 , 11 , and 12 is in core , it is
copied onto MT 0 Since MI and MT2 are on different channels , there
is no delay in the program . As soon as multiplier 12 has been written on
MT " it is rewound . While multiplier columns 13-16 are in core , they
are written on MT1 Columns 17-20 are then further processed to obtain
4 more columns of the reduced system and 4 more columns of multipliers .
The 4 columns of the reduced system are written on RST and the 4 columns
of multipliers are written on MT1 • Tapes MT1 and MT2 are then
- 145 -
TABLE C.I
ARRANGEMENT OF TAPE STORAGE DURING THE
REDUCTION PROCESS
Columns Being Channel A Channel A Channel B

Processed MT MT1 MT2
Reading Writing Reading Writing
2 1-4
3 1-4
4 1-4
56
5-8
1-4 5-8
78
1-4 5-8
8 9-12
9 1-8 9-12 5-8
10 1-8 9-12
11 13-16
12 1-8 9-12 9-16
13 1-8 9-16
14 17-20
15 1-12 13-20 9-16
16 1-12 13-20
17 21-24
18 1-12 13-20 13-24
ETC.
-· 146 -
rewound and the tapes are in the configuration indicated on line 16 of
Table C.I. The reader should now be able to make his way through
Table C.I.
When all the columns on IT have been processed , it is necessary
to copy the multipliers from MT1 or MT2 onto MT if one wants one
tape with all of the multiplier columns on it . This will delay the
program slightly , but the delay is of little significance when compared
to the time required for the entire reduction process .
The program written at Stanford performs the reduction as described

above . It also has the capability to compute residues using double
precision and to iterate the solution to obtain more accurate results .
Timing experiments were performed using this program and some represent
ative results are indicated in Table C. II . A millisecond core clock on
the IBM 7090 was used to measure the elapsed time so the measurements
are quite accurate . It must be confessed , however , that the results
are not exactly reproducible . The reasons for this are related to tape .
The start and stop times of various tapes are probably not reproducible
from one experiment to another . Also any tape error further introduces
differences since the program delays while the tape error is corrected .
TABLE C.II
N Reduction and Solution Solution for 2nd

for 1 RHS ( no Iterations ) RHS (no Iteration ) Iteration
40 11.9 sec 0.44 sec 0.70 sec
80 52.8 sec 2.47 sec 5.32 sec
120 149.6 sec 4.59 sec 10.93 sec
160 327.8 sec 7.33 sec 18.60 sec
320 2398.2 sec 24.57 sec
From the results of the timing experiments , it was possible to
construct polynomials which give reasonably good estimates of the run
ning time for solving a system of N equations . These polynomials are
- 147 -
as follows :
(1 ) Reduction and solution for 1 RHS with no iterations :
T = ( 0.000068 ) Ñ³ + ( 0.0012 ) N² + ( 0.125 ) N + ( 0.425 ) (C. 6a )
(2 ) Solution for a second RHS with no iterations :
T = ( 0.000195 ) N² + ( 0.0144 ) N + ( 0.078 ) (c.6b )
(3) Each iteration :
T = ( 0.000629 ) N² + ( 0.015 ) N + ( 0.095 ) (c.6c )
Using polynomial ( C. 6a ) , one estimates that the time required to solve
1000 simultaneous equations with complex coefficients would be about 19
to 20 hours . A program to solve equations with real coefficients would
require about 30% of this time . Although the numerical operations would
require only one - fourth as much time , there is no decrease in the amount
of bookkeeping required .
In principle , the program written at Stanford is capable of solving
1000 or more simultaneous equations . However , the use of the present
program to solve a system larger than about two or three hundred is
rather risky , the reason being that the tape routines are not very
sophisticated . In their present form , the tape routines make 5 attempts
to correct writing errors and 10 attempts to correct reading errors .
If the routines are unsuccessful in correcting the tape error , the pro
gram halts and the whole computation must be restarted from the begin
ning . It would be better if the program were able to salvage as much of
the computation as possible after encountering bad tape . This could be
accomplished by using an extra tape on which a copy of all multipliers
and reduced columns were written so that if any tape failures occurred ,
the program could continue after new tapes were mounted . This would
increase the running time slightly , but it would be well worth the
increased reliability .
- 148-
APPENDIX D
THE REDUCTION OF A LINEAR INTEGRAL EQUATION
TO A SYSTEM OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
The reduction of a linear integral equation to a system of linear
algebraic equations can be carried out using essentially two different
approaches . Each approach can give a variety of results , depending on
the particular integration rule one uses . In this appendix , these two
general approaches will be outlined and the advantages and disadvan
tages of each will be indicated .
Consider the inhomogeneous integral equation below:
(x) = f (x ) + λ K(x , x ' ) ( x ' ) dx ' (D.1 )

·S
• 2 /xx.
A
Here (x ) is the unknown , f(x) is the inhomogeneous term , and
K(x , x ' ) is the kernel , which is assumed to be well behaved in some
sense appropriate to the reduction process one chooses to use . The λ
is a parameter which must take on certain values ( eigenvalues ) if the
homogeneous equation is to have a nontrivial solution . This means , of
course , that if λ is an eigenvalue , f(x ) must satisfy certain
conditions if a solution is to exist , and then the solution is not
unique .
The first and simplest approach to reducing Eq . ( D.1 ) to a system
of simultaneous equations is to apply some integration rule to the
integral . Typically , one might use Simpson's rule , Gregory's rule , a
- 149 -
Newton-Cotes formula , or a Gaussian quadrative formula . Thus , we write
· (D.2 )
ƒ`x( x, x ' ) µ( x ' ) ax ' → wg K( x , x'g ) Ø ( x'g )
A j=1
Here W is the weight associated with the particular integration rule

j
being used and the X ' s are the sample points . If we replace the
xj
integral in Eq . ( D.1 ) by this finite sum and write the equation for
each of the sample points , we obtain
= (D.3 )
8(x1) f( x¡ ) + λ Σ Wg x
K(x1
( xq , xg ) ( xg )
J=1
If we now rearrange terms so that Eq . ( D.3 ) looks more like a system of
algebraic equations for (x ) , we obtain
- λ (D.4 )
Pij −
- x wg X(
K( x1
xq , xg ) ] Ø (xg ) = 2( x₁ )
J= 1
where 81
9 is the Kronecker delta , which is defined as
1 i = j
=
8{}
O 1 7 J
Is this a good way to reduce an integral equation to a system of
algebraic equations ? The answer depends on the nature of the kernel .
If K( x , x ' ) is well behaved , i.e. , it and its first few derivatives
are all continuous and bounded , and the same good behavior is expected
of (x) , then the use of a high order integration rule is reasonable ,

and accurate results could be expected without letting N " the number
-- 150 -
of sample points , become unreasonably large . However , if K( x , x ' ) is
discontinuous or has a discontinuous first derivative , then the use of
any integration rule of higher order than the trapezoidal rule is very
questionable . It should be noted that this type of behavior is quite
common . For example , if the problem of the vibrating string fixed at
each end is formulated as an integral equation , a kernel of the form
x ' (x - L
L )) 0 <
≤ x' <
≤ x
K(x , x ' ) = (D.5 )
x (x ' - L)
L) x ≤
< x' <
≤ L
is encountered . This kernel is continuous , but possesses a discon
tinuous first derivative along the diagonal , i.e. , the line x = x' .
This is typical of kernels related to Green's functions .
We might attempt to overcome this difficulty by breaking the

integral into two parts , one from A to the discontinuity and the
second from the discontinuity to B • If this is done , the system
of equations becomes
Wi
λω (D.6 )
j K( x1
( x, xg ) ] $ ( xg ) = x ( xg )
j=1 [2 ]
where now the weights depend on both i and j . The difficulty with
using this method of integrating is that the discontinuity will approach
A or B for some value of x, and one will then encounter integrals

Xi
which contain only one or two sample points . For these integrals , we
must use a low order integration rule .
The main advantage of this approach is that it is simple and
straightforward . If the kernel is well enough behaved so that a high
order integration rule can be used , then this approach may well be
satisfactory . If , however , the kernel is not well behaved , this
approach is not very useful , even if one tries to overcome the diffi
culties by using the method of Eq . ( D.6 ) .
The second approach is more complex , but overcomes some of the
- 151 -
limitations of the first approach . Here we represent (x) as a linear
combination of functions in the form
= Y₁ ¥; ( x ) + € ( x ) (D.7)
8(x)
i= 1
Here the ' (( x ) are the set of functions used to build the approxi-
mation and e (x ) is the error . For example , if we represent (x) as
a series of straight lines between successive sample points , we obtain
= + € (x )
$(x) Ꭹ
i
(D. 8a )
£ ,,,,,,,
or
=
8(x ) Y₁ S ( x ; x₁ , X2 )
X -
2
N- 1 - X
i -l i+1
Ꭹ + S ( x ; X₁ › X1 + 1 )
i=2 -
སྤྱན་ (“ ན,ཞན་(Xi Xi +1 Xi
4 )
X -
XN-1
+ YN S ( X ; XN- 1 , XN ) + € (x ) (D.8b )
XNXN - 1/
where S(x; x , x , ) is a function which has the value 1 for X between
X and and is zero otherwise . If we represent the V. ( x ) in the

i xj i
-· 152 ··
above equation graphically , they appear as in Fig . D.1 .
#2(x) *₁(x) WN(x)
44
Xi-l Xi + 14
XN-1
FIGURE D.1 -- The (x ) for the trapezoidal approximation of a function .
Notice that this set of are

i (x ) has the property that the Yi
yi
associated with certain sample points Xi since
$(x₁ ) = Y+ + €(x₁ ) (D.9 )
Of course it is not necessary for the i (x ) to possess this property ,
but , as shall be seen , this property can be useful .
If we now substitute the expansion in Eq . (D.7 ) into the integral
equation , we obtain
N B
Ꭹ. 41 (x ) = f Ꭹ. *½ (x ' ) dx '
Y± i
Σ £₁ V₁ ( x ) + √x ( x, x ' )
i= 1 i= 1 A i=1
( D.10 )
Here the error terms e (x ) have been omitted and f(x ) has been
approximated in the same manner as (x ) . If the set of functions
*₁₂ (x) possesses the property defined by Eq . ( D.9 ) , we can simply
- 153 -
write Eq . ( D. 10 ) for each of the sample points and obtain a system of
algebraic equations for the Yi

Ꭹ • The result is
= y (D.lla )
f₂ + λ
.
Ꭹi x / K(xq 'g * g ( x ' ) dx '
x( x ,, xx ' ' )) ), Yg
A J=1
or
B
N
- (D.11b)
4
ij ·[ x ( x₁₂x ' ) y ( x ' ) ax ' J
A
J=1
Here each matrix element involves the computation of an integral .
However , if the v,i ( x ) are zero over most of the interval , the
evaluation of this integral may not involve much effort . Of course ,
if the integration can be carried out analytically , the calculation
of matrix elements for this approach is numerically no more difficult
than their calculation for the first approach .
A second way of obtaining a system of algebraic equations from
Eq . ( D.10 ) is to multiply by (x) and integrate over the interval

j
to obtain the jth equation . In this case , the result is
B B
i(x)
*1 g ( x ) dx - λ *. ( x ) K( x , x ' ) #1 ( x ' ) dx ' dx i
i=
#{ 1!A A A
/ aea } ,
= (D.12 )
i ¥1 ( x ) ¥g ( x ) dx
i= 1 A
Here it is unnecessary for the i (x ) to possess the property defined
in Eq . ( D.9 ) , but the calculation of matrix elements involves the
evaluation of a double integral .
- 154 -
The advantage of the second approach over the first is that with it ,
we can construct a system of algebraic equations which will give satis-
factory answers without N becoming excessively large even when the
kernel is discontinuous or possesses a discontinuous first derivative .
All that is necessary is that we evaluate the integrals in either Eq . ( D.11 )
or (D.12 ) in a satisfactory manner . In fact , this approach can be useful
even when K(x , x ) is weakly singular , i.e. , becomes infinite , but is
absolutely integrable . Another advantage is that it permits one to make
use of any insight he has about the solution in choosing the V; ( x ) ·
A little insight applied in a clever manner can reduce the amount of compu-
tation tremendously . It should be clear that this qualitative type of
information can be utilized more easily in the second approach than in the
first .
If the integrals in Eqs . ( D.11 ) or ( D.12 ) must be evaluated numer-
ically , it is useful to have some explicit formulas available for con-
structing the matrix elements in terms of samples of K( x , x ' ) · Some
formulas will now be derived to meet this need . Consider the following
four integrals :
-h/2
= K(x ) E ( x ) dx (D. 13a )
11 S
-h
H
= K (x ) E ( x ) dx (D.13b )
12 ‫م‬
-h/2
h/2
= K(x ) E ( x ) dx (D.13c )
Із
K( x ) E ( x ) dx (D.13d )
14 = .
5
h/2
- 155 -
To evaluate these integrals , it will be assumed that E (x ) can be
approximated by a parabola determined by samples of E( x ) at x = -h ,
O , and +h . Thus we replace E (x ) in the above equations by
E ( h ) - E ( -h ) E(-h) · 2E ( 0 ) + E ( +h ) 2
E (x ) → E ( 0 ) + x + X . (D.14)
2
2h 2h
Similarly , K( x ) will be approximated as a parabola in each of the four
integrals except that for each integral , the sample points for K( x )
are taken to be the beginning , midpoint , and end of the interval of
integration . Thus for I1 , the sample points for K( x ) are -h "
-3/4h and -h/2 " and K( x ) in the interval -h to -h/2 is
approximated by
K( -h/2 ) - K( -h )
K( x ) → K ( -3h/4 ) + (x + 3h/4)
(h/2)
K( -h ) - 2K ( -3h/4 ) + K( -h/2 ) 3h 2
x + • (D.15)
4
2(2/4 )2
To obtain the formulas for the evaluation of the integrals I , 12

I and I like ( D.15 )
" we use Eq . ( D. 14 ) for E ( x ) and equat
13 ions
for K( x ) and perfo all the integ and algeb in a strai
r m r
ation ra ght-
s
forwa
rd
manne . Howev , befor stati t he r esult i t i s u seful to
r er e ng s
chang notat so that the formu can be more easil under and
e ion l as y s tood
utili :
zed
E E E
-1 +1
-h +h
+2 +4 5 +7
K K Κ' Κ K 4x K K-1
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1
·3 2
K-4 K+l **3
қо
-8 ·7 -6 -3 -2
Κ+1 K Κ K K K K K
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
FIGURE D.2 -- The notation for the K
- 156 -
For the E's we introduce subscripts to indicate the location of the
sample points . For the K's we introduce both subscripts and super-
scripts . The subscripts refer to the same points as the subscripts for
the E's • The superscripts refer to the number of ( h/4 ) steps to
the right or left of the point indicated by the subscript . Thus the
same sample point for the K's can be referred to in many different
ways . Reference to Fig . D.2 should make this notation clear .
Using this notation then , the values of the integrals are :
-h/2
K (x ) E ( x ) dx
-h
79 29
E K K
= 8_1h
-1 960 K01
120 960 x+1
-1 +212 960 x+2
글 + 300
[
2 136 62 2
+ E h + K³ (D.16a)
960 960 960
-8 28 -7 11
+ E h K K
+1
8.1' - 病 +1 960 +1 960
920x10 - 300 x1 - 320 K-1
K ( x ) E ( x ) dx
Š
-h/2
29 +2 52 +3 -
= Eh Κ
-1 960 960 960
62 296 1 82
+ Eh + (D.16b)
960 960
11 -6 28 -5
K
+ +1'
' 960 +1
--- 960 +1 960 Ki ]
[-
h/2
K (x ) E ( x ) dx
1 +4 28 +6
Κ
= B_₂h - 920 x
960-1 960 x+5
- 680 x3 - 110
82 (D. 16c )
+ Eoh
B.h ко
960 x
[32 960 x+ 2]
+ 206 x+1 + 62
1 .4 52 29
+ E h K
+1 960 +1
• * [· • 960 960 +1
- 157 -
and
K( x ) E ( x ) dx
h/2
11 28 1
= Eh Κ- 1 K K
8_1h 6
360
- 9 0x5 6
- 380
9 0 kr] - 960x9
62 136
+ + (D.16α)
960 960 उ + 96
212 79
+ Eh +
+1 960 960 +1 960 +1
• ~ [ # < • # < • b <]
By combining the above equations in the appropriate manner , we can obtain
the following integration formulas . The usefulness of the notation can
now be seen :
+h/2
K ( x ) E ( x ) dx
-h/2
29 52 2
= Eh K Κ'
-1 96 0 -1 960
8.h [38 x+ 2 + 38 x+ 3 - 58
960 xth 960 Κx+-1
-1 - 28 5 - 960 x +6)
116
2 1 +1 62
+ Eh (D.17 )
B.h 960 x² + 396 x² + 166
[ 628 960 ко
x 960 x+ ²
+ 396 x+2 + 68 ]
-6 28 52 29
Eh K
+ 8h - 960
11 K+1
-5 - 960
38 K3 960 K1
+1 - 32 960 x3
+1 + 38 +1 + 960
386 x2]
B42 [
+h
K (x ) E ( x ) dx
-h
79 212 52 2
= Eh Κ
- -1
B_1h 960 x -1
380 960 x+-1
960 K + 1 + 58
1 + 318 2 + 320 960 K
960 x + 3 - 380 +4
x++
-1
28 1
28 x+5 - 22 K
x+6 - 38 x+7 - 26 +3
96 0 960 -1 960
2 .4 •3 296 1
E K (D.18 )
+ 8h [ 96
5800 қ
x 96 0 960
+ 136 x3 + 12 960
x2 +686 960 ко
+16 K (D. 18 )
296 x+ 1 + 124 x+2 + 126 x+3 + 2x+ 4]

960 960
1 28 -7 -4
+ E h
+1
8.1 +1
- 920 K- 960 -
0-380K +1
1-286x +1 960 K-
960 -6-28 +1
5-22
960 K-
+11
52 58 212 79
Κ K
960 K+
+ 386 +3 960
1 + 386 960 x+1
+1 + 328
+2 960 *+ 1]
+1 + 180
- 158 .
The integration formulas which have just been derived may be
described briefly as integration rules for the product of two functions
in which we sample one function [ in this case K( x ) ] four times as
often as we sample the other . Because of the way we have approximated
K(x ) in obtaining the above formulas , it is permissible for K( x ) to
possess a discontinuous first derivative at -h , -h/2 , 0 , +h/2 ,
and/or h . However , these formulas would not be appropriate if either
K(x) or E (x ) became infinite or had an infinite derivative at any
point .
We can now use these integration formulas to obtain explicit rules
for calculating the matrix elements in terms of samples of the kernel
K(x , x ' ) . Consider Eq . ( D.11b ) . Let us rewrite this equation as
Κ ;; (D.19a )
- λ K ij | V; fi
j=1
where
= (D.19b )
Kij K( ×¡ , x ' ) ¥¡ ( x ' ) dx '
A
If we approximate the unknown (x ) as a succession of arcs of parabolas
in the same manner as in Simpson's rule , we can use Eq . ( D.18 ) to obtain

Ki
K.
explicit formulas for the K₁ j
in terms of samples of K ( x , x ' )
Thus N will be odd and the sample points will be located at
= A + (i - 1) h (D. 20a )
Xi
where
BE
A
h (D.20b )
N - 1
- 159
We then use Eq . ( D.18 ) over each successive interval 2h in length to
obtain the results indicated in Table D.I. Thus , for each x we

Xi
sample K(x , x ' ) at ( 4N - 3 ) equally spaced sample points of x' in
the interval A to B and combine these samples of the kernel using
The N is only 7 in
the weights in Table D.I to obtain the Ki
Table D.I , but it should be obvious what the weights are for larger N.
The functions i (x ) are shown in Fig . D.3 , although in this case it
was unnecessary to know explicitly what they were .
Another way of approximating (x ) using parabolas is the method
used in Gregory's rule . In this case we again use equally spaced sample
points . The first parabola is determined by the first three - sample
points , but it is only used to approximate (x ) from A to A + ( 3/2 )h •
Other parabolas are used to approximate (x ) from xi - h/2 to
X1 + h/2 each parabola being determined by the sample points at

- h X1 " and X + h • A parabola determined by the last three
Xi i
sample points is used from B - ( 3/2 )h to B . In this case we can use
Eqs . ( D.16a ) , ( D.16d ) , and ( D.17 ) to construct a weight table . The result
is shown in Table D.II. Again N is 7 for the table shown but it is
permissible for N to take on any value . It is not necessary that N be
odd . To extend the table to larger N " the fourth column is repeated as
many times as necessary .
The question of whether the formula of Table D.I or of Table D.II is
better is probably a question of personal preference . The advantage of

Table D.II is that N may take on any value . However , it is easier to
modify Table D.I if we wish to change the sample spacing within the
interval A to B •
If the kernel possesses a discontinuous first derivative along its
diagonal , it is not appropriate to use these integration rules in develop-
ing formulas for the method of Eq . ( D.12 ) . A little thought will show
that attempting to do this will mean approximating the kernel by a para-
bola through the point where the discontinuity in the derivative exists .
Before concluding this appendix , a few facts about the eigenvalue
problem should be pointed out . If one plans to compute eigenvalues by
finding those values of A

λ for which the determinate of the matrix on the
left hand side of Eqs . ( D.4 ) , ( D.6 ) , ( D.llb ) , or ( D.12 ) vanishes , it is
- 160 -
TABLE D.I
COEFFICIENTS USED TO DETERMINE MATRIX ELEMENTS FOR
SIMPSON'S RULE TYPE OF APPROXIMATION
Kernel Samples
Kil K12 K13 K14 K15 K16 K17
79 2 · 1
K(x1 , x )
212 136 -28
K( x1 , x₁ + h/4 )
58 124 -22
K( x1 , x₁ + h/2 )
52 296 -28
K( x1 , x2 - h/4 )
- 2 164 - 2
K(x , x2)
-28 296 52
K( x1 , x2 + h/4 )
K(x1 , x2 + h/2) -22 124 58
-28 136 212

K( x1 , x3 - h/4)
1 2 79+79 2 - 1
K ( x1 ,x3 )
212 136 -28
K( X1 , X3 + h/4)
58 124 -22
K( x¸ ‚ ×3
X3 + h/2)
52 296 -28
K( x1 , x - h/4 )
- 2 164 - 2
K (x ,x )
-28 296 52
K( ×¸ ‚ ×¸ + h/4 )
-22 124 58
K(
K(X1 ×₁ + h/2)
×¸ ‚,X4
-28 136 212
K( x1 , ×5 - h/4 )
- 1 2 79+79 2 - 1
K ( x1 + x5 )
212 136 -28
K(x1 , x5 + h/4 )
X1, X5 + h/2 ) The factor h/960 is 58 124 -22
K(×¡
K( ‚ ×5
missing from all terms . 52 296 -28
K( x1 , ×6 - h/4 )
· 2 164 - 2
K( x1 , x6 )
-28 296 52
K(X1 , X6 + h/4 )
K( X1 , X6 + h/2) -22 124 58
-28 136 212

K( X1 , X7 - h/4 )
1 2 79
x (x1,x-
7)
- 161
← ₁(x
i )
i even
X X1+1
X1 *2 x3 X1-1 i
odd
X1-2 X1-1 ་ ནས་་བ X1+2
← (x)
XN-2 XN-1 XN
used for Simpson's rule type of

FIG . D.3 --The functions i (x )
approximation .
- 162 -
TABLE D.II
COEFFICIENTS USED TO DETERMINE MATRIX ELEMENTS FOR
GREGORY'S RULE TYPE APPROXIMATION
Kernel Samples Kil K

Ку K₁4 K16 K17
K12 з K15
79 2 1
K (x₁₁ )
212 136 -28
K(x1 , x₁ + h/4) 88 28
58 124 -22
K(x₁ , X₁ + h/2)
52 296 -28
K( x1 , x2 - h/4 )
2 164 - 2
K (x1 , x2 )
-28 296 52
K(x1 , x2 + h/4 )
x1 ‚, ×½
K(×¸ x2 + h/2 ) -11 91 91 -11
K(
x ( x₁x3 - h/ 4 ) 52 296 -28
2 164 2
K (x,, x3 )
-28 296 52
K(X1,X3 + h/4 )
-11 91 91 -11
K(X1 , X3 + h/2 )
K(x1 , x - h/4 ) 52 296 -28
- 2 164 2
x(xx )
K( ×¸ ‚ ×¸ + h/4) -28 296 52
-11 91 91 -11
K( X1 , x₁
K(x1 X) + h/2 )
X1‚,×5
X5 - h/4) 52 296 -28
K(×¸
K(
- 2 164 -· 2
K(x ,x5)
x5 + h/4 ) -28 296 52

K(x1
,
The factor h/960 -11 91 91 -11

K(X1,X5 + h/2)
K ( x1 , x6 - h/4 ) is missing from 52 296 -28
all terms . · 2 164 - 2

x (x1 , x6)
-28 296 52
K(x1 , x6 + h/4)
K(X1 , X6 + h/2 ) -22 124 58
K( x1 , x - h/4 ) -28 136 212
K( x1 , x -
7) - 1 2 79
- 163 -
important that the matrix one uses possess the same properties as the
kernel . In particular , if the kernel is hermitian , i.e. ,
K(x , x ' ) = K*(x ' , x ) (D.21 )
then the matrix one uses to compute eigenvalues should be hermitian .
The only equation system derived which satisfied this condition is that
defined in Eq . ( D.12 ) . Notice here , however , that the reciprocal of
A may appear in off -diagonal terms unless the functions V₁i ( x ) are
orthogonal . The matrix of Eq . ( D.4 ) can be made satisfactory by

th
multiplying the i equation by √w and writing the new system as
below:
- λ = •
√w₁ f(x₁)
x √w; x
K((x,, xg 同 √#
×3 ) √wg] 同 Ø(
z # (xg
x3)
)
J =1
( D.22 )
The matrices defined in Eqs . ( D.6 ) and ( D.11b ) are not appropriate for
computing eigenvalues if the kernel is hermitian since in general ,
these matrices will not possess this property .
In order to obtain some experimental evidence regarding the use-
fulness of the formulas just derived , the following integral equation
was solved numerically and the results were compared with the exact
solution :
8(x) = 1 + cos [x - x' ] + i cos [ 3 (x - x $(x ' ) dx'

11
(D.23 )
164-
The kernel of this integral equation is degenerate and thus its solution
can be obtained easily . It is :
4 (4π - 18 )
Ø( x ) = 1 - sin x · sin 3x (D.24 )
2
π- 2 3(4 + π )
Equation ( D.23 ) was solved numerically using three different
methods . All three methods permit the kernel to possess a discontinuous
first derivative along the diagonal , although the kernel in Eq . ( D.23 )

is very well behaved . The three methods used were :
(1 ) The method of Eq . ( D.4 ) . The trapezoidal rule was used to
perform the integration so that
1/2 j = 1 or N
=
1 otherwise
(2) The method of Eq . ( D.6 ) . The Gregory's rule with accuracy
corresponding to Simpson's rule was used when there were enough sample
points . The Wij for this case are tabulated in Table D.III .
(3) The method of Eq . ( D.11 ) . The coefficients in Table D.II were
used to evaluate the integral in terms of samples of the unknown .
The results of these calculations are tabulated in Table D. IV . For each
case the magnitude of the largest error , i.e. , the difference between the
exact solution and the solution obtained by numerical methods , is
indicated . As can be seen , method 2 is slightly superior to method 1 ,
and method 3 is far superior to method 2 .
- 165-
mb 3p
3b 3bo 360 30 નાળ 110
2
22
22 ៩៩
ឧស្សា 12 82 WIF 172 288
+
ata
at ata
at ata 22 1/3
+ 282821283 ata
CONO 360
2 +1
8G
ล
ส 82
22
1
1
1
1
1
1
몸를
MATRIX OF WEIGHTS FOR GREGORY'S RULE WITH ALLOWANCE FOR A
몰+ 몰
2222 22
1
DISCONTINUOUS DERIVATIVE ON THE DIAGONAL
ata
1
1
1
1
1
248 +
-
82
1
1
1
1
29282243
TABLE D.III
ನೀನೆ ಇ
- 166
룸+중
สีสี สี
ส
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
몰+ 몰
ata a12 a12 ata
1
1
1
1
1
1
쭖룸 + 룸
ಇನ
몽를
360
}+}
ata 22
1
1
1
1
+ P NW NW ata
ส ส 3ส 213
18 + WIF H HH HH HH HH HH HH HH HH
110
3100 3100 360 360 360 360 360 3100 360
380 1KU 1/3 3100
TABLE D.IV
MAGNITUDE OF LARGEST ERROR FOR
METHODS 1 , 2 , AND 3
N Method 1 Method 2 Method 3
16 0.0181 0.0102 0.000297
24 0.0076 0.0024 0.000058
32 0.0042 0.0009 0.000019
40 0.0026 0.0004 0.000008
- 167 -
APPENDIX E
INTEGRATION RULE
In the numerical integration of a function which remains bounded
but which possesses an infinite first derivative at one end of the
interval of integration , the use of any rule based on a polynomial
approximation with equally spaced sample points results in an error
which decreases quite slowly as one decreases the point spacing .
Functions which fall in this category include
y = cos - 1 X ( E.la )
y - sin- 1 X (E. lb )
y = √x ( E. lc )
2 2
y a · X (E. la )
All of the above functions behave like √x at the point of difficulty .
Thus it seems reasonable to develop an integration formula of the form
(n+1 )h
√x f ( x ) dx = α_₁ f [ ( n- 1 ) h ] + αf ( nh )
S
(n-1)h
a+1 f [ (n+1 )h ] ( E.2 )
n == 1, 2 , 3, 4,
- 168 -
We shall find the a's which make Eq . ( E. 2 ) exact for f(x ) equal to
any polynomial of degree two or less and show also that the formula we
obtain begins to look like Simpson's rule if n becomes very large .

2
If we substitute 1 . X , and X
x² into Eq . ( E.2 ) , the fol-
α+1 are obtained :

lowing three equations for a_1 ' α。 , and
2 · (n ·
·h³/
2[ (n ++ 1 ) 3/ 1 ) 3/2] = α1 + α + α+1
(E. 3a )
215
5/2 (n + = a+λ ( n
a
= [ + 15/2 - ( n - 1 ) 3 +1
a_ ( n - 1 ) n + định + dj
• ( n + 1 )h
( E. 3b)
2,2
- α+1 ( n
§ h7 /2 [ ( n + 1) 7/2 - ( n - 1 )7/2] - ɖ.¸ (n − 1 )²² + q« ²² + q¿ (n + 1 )²² .
(E. 3c )
The solution of these equations is
h3/2 2
= n+1 ( 8n3 + 10n² - 4n - 6 )
105
(E. 4a)
· √n-1 (8n3 + 18n² +

+ 10n
10n - 36 )
h3/2 2
= √n+1 ( -16n3 + 80 + 64n + 40)
%
105
(E. 4b)
√n-1 ( 16n3 + 8n² - 64n + 40 )
40)
= √n+1 ( 8n3 - 18n² + 10n + 36 )

1M² [JI ( 8 )
(E. 4c )
- √n-1 (8n3 - 10n2 - 4n + 6)
6)
- 169 -
Although the above equations are exact , it is difficult to ascertain the
character of a_l α , and α+1 from them . More insight is
obtained if the square roots are expanded in series . The algebra is
straightforward , but somewhat tedious . The result is
F
(2k - 2) : 1
H /3
= h√mh + 4 (E. 5a)
•Σ (-2)*
(k + 3 ) ! (k − 2 ) : 2m
k=2
k
( 2k - 2 ) ! 1
= hmh 8 (k + 2 ) (E.5b )
(k + 3 ) : (k - 1 ) ! 4m
k=2
and even
∞
k
( 2k - 2 ): 1
H /M
= W mh • (E.5c )
α+1
(k + 3 ) ! (k - 2) ! 2m
k=2
The notation has been changed slightly in the above equations . Now m
refers to the point at which the coefficient is being evaluated .

Thus m equals n - 1 n , and n + 1 in Eqs . ( E. 5a ) , ( E.5b ) and
(E.5c ) , respectively . If we keep only the first term in Eqs . ( E.5 ) , we
obtain
1 1
1 h√ (n - 1 ) h
n = + (E. 6a )
3 60 ( n - 1 ) 2
1
do ( E.6b )
2
3 30 n
1
--
α+1 h√ (n + 1 ) h ( E.6c )
3 60 ( n - 1 )2
- 170 -
It can be seen that if n becomes very large , this integration rule
begins to look very much like Simpson's rule . This means that one can
numerically integrate functions like those in Eq . ( E.1 ) using Simpson's
rule and then apply a slight correction to the sample points near the
point where the derivative becomes infinite . For this purpose it is
better to write the integration formula in the form
(n+ 1 )h
√x f (x ) dx = h √(n - 1 ) h f ( ( n - 1 )h]
(n-1 )
√nh f (nh) + √( n+1 )h f [ ( n+1 ) h]
+
(E.7)
where the B's now represent the correction which must be applied to
Simpson's rule . The values of a and B are tabulated in Table E.I
for n equals 1 3 , and 5 •
A crude error formula can be derived for this integration rule by

18
the following method . In Hildebrand , it is shown that the difference
between f (x ) and the parabolic approximation to f (x ) is given by
tu
D(x) = f ( 5 ) π (x ) (E. 8a)
where
= • ·
π (x ) [x - (n - 1 ) h] x - nh ]
[ x- [x - (n + 1 ) h ] ( E.8b)
and is some point between (n - 1 ) h and (n + 1) h . Thus the
error in the integration formula is given by
(E.9 )
z = $ " *= " cs( s ) r ( c ) ax
(n-1 )h
- 171 -
TABLE E.I
COEFFICIENTS FOR INTEGRATION RULE
α = 0.107750 B -1 = Not Applicable

-1
n = 1 = 1.292995 = -0.040338
а Во
= 0.484873 B +1 = +0.009524
α+1
a_1 = 0.475358 B = +0.002795

1
n =3 = 2.302887 =
Bo -0.003761
α = 0.669470 B +I = +0.001402
+1
α = 0.668338 = +0.000835
-1 B-1
n = 5 do = 2.978426 = -0.001341
Во
α. = 0.817862 = +0.000557
+1 B+1
· 172 -
where is some unknown function of x . If we now let M be the
maximum of f(5 ) , we can write
(n+ 1 ) h
M
VI
E √x | x (x ) ! dx (E.10 )
3!
( n+ 1 )h
Although it is possible to carry out the above integration , the result
is so algebraically complicated that it is difficult to understand .
It is better to transform Eq . ( E.10 ) so that it can be written as
h
VI
E (xh2 - · x + √nh + x dx (E.11 )

x³ ) [√nh
W
/3
It is easy to verify that
2 √nh nh · x + √nh + x (E.12 )
by squaring both sides . Upon using this relation in Eq . ( E.11 ) we find
Jnh
h
E < MAX f" (5) (E.13 )
12
This is probably a very conservative bound for the error because of the
approximation made in going from Eq . ( E.9 ) to Eq . ( E.10 ) . Although it
may be possible to derive a better error bound using the influence

14
function as discussed in Hamming , this was not done because of the
difficulty in verifying that the influence function is of constant sign .
- 173 -
REFERENCES
1. I. Langmuir , " Positive Ion Currents in the Positive Column of the
Mercury Arc , " Gen. Elec . Rev. 26 , 731-735 ( Nov. , 1923 ) .

2. L. Tonks , I. Langmuir , " A General Theory of the Plasma of an Arc , "
Phys . Rev. 34 , 876-922 ( Sept. , 1929 ) .
3. S. A. Self , "Exact Solution of the Low- Pressure Plasma - Sheath
Equation , " Microwave Laboratory Report No. 1009 , Stanford
University ( Feb. , 1963 ) .

4.
D. Gabor , E. A. Ash , D. Dracott , " Langmuir's Paradox , " Nature 176 ,
916-919 ( Nov. 1955 ) .
5. G. von Gierke , W. Ott , F. Schwirzke , " Untersuchung von Plasma-
Genzschichten mit einen Electronoenstrahl - Sonde , " Fifth . Int .
Conf . on Ionization Phenomena in Gases , Munich , 1961 , North-
Holland Press ( 1962 ) .

11
6. R. S. Harp , G. S. Kino , " Experiments on the Plasma Sheath ,
Microwave Laboratory Report No. 1052 , Stanford University ( June 1963 ) .
7. E. I. Gordon , " ' Plasma Oscillations , ' the Interaction of Electron
Beams with Gas Discharge Plasmas , " Ph.D. Thesis , Physics Department ,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( Jan. , 1957 ) .

8. A. Dattner , Ericsson Tech . 2 , 309 ( 1957 ) .
11
9. A. W. Trivelpiece , " Slow Wave Propagation in Plasma Waveguides , '
Technical Report No. 7 , Electron Tube and Microwave Laboratory ,
California Institute of Technology (May , 1958 ) .
10 . L. Landau , "On the Vibrations of the Electronic Plasma , " J. Phys .
( U.S.S.R. ) 10 , 25-34 ( 1946 ) .

11 . 11
M. Rosenbluth , " Hydromagnetic Basis for the Treatment of Plasmas ,
The Plasma in a Magnetic Field , Lockheed Symposium on Magneto-
hydrodynamics , Stanford University Press ( 1958 ) .
--174-
12. D. R. Dobrott , " Plasma Conductivity Kernel and Accrual of
Perturbations Along Particle Histories , " Technical Report
No. 104-8 , Electron Devices Laboratory , Stanford Electronics
Laboratories , Stanford University (August 1962 ) .
13. L. N. G. Filon , " On a Quadrature Formula for Trigonometric
Integrals , " Proc . Roy . Soc . Edinburgh 49 , 38-47 ( 1928-29 ) .

11
14. R. W. Hamming , " Numerical Methods for Scientists and Engineers ,
McGraw-Hill Book Company , Inc. ( 1962 ) .
15. D. Bohm , E. P. Gross , " Theory of Plasma Oscillations A : Origin
of Medium Like Behavior , " Phys . Rev. 75 , 1851-64 ( June , 1949 ) .
16. E. Bodewig , " Matrix Calculus , " 2nd Edition , North - Holland
Publishing Company , Amsterdam , Interscience Publishers , Inc. ,
New York ( 1959 ) .
17. B. F. Ludovici , "An Investigation of Nonlinear Effects in
Plasmas , " Microwave Laboratory Report No. 900 , Stanford
University , ( April 1962 ) .
18. F. B. Hildebrand , " Introduction to Numerical Analysis , " McGraw
Hill Book Company , Inc. ( 1960 ) .
- 175
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TO THE RF PROPERTIES OF THE PLASMA SHEATH

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

AND THE COMMITTEE ON THE GRADUATE DIVISION

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

John Milan Pavkovich

opinion it is fully adequate , in scope and quality , as

a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy .

I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my

opinion it is fully adequate , in scope and quality , as

a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy .

Approved for the University Committee

In many considerations of the rf properties of a finite plasma ,

the plasma is treated as a dielectric with a dielectric constant of

dielectric are applied . Although this approach works well at times ,

it is by no means a satisfactory approach to understanding the rf

properties of the boundary .

In this paper , a detailed rf theory of the sheath is presented .

The complete collisionless Boltzmann equation is used to derive a

The analysis is one -dimensional . This integral equation is solved

numerically for a semi - infinite uniform plasma bounded by a sheath

velocities is assumed for all computations . The results show that it

is reasonable to assume that the normal component of displacement is

like the cutoff waves excited in the neighborhood of a waveguide dis-

continuity and thus give rise to a sheath impedance .

If one treats the plasma as a dielectric , this impedance gives

rise to a small discontinuity in the tangential component of electric

impedance does contain a resistive component corresponding to

Landau damping , which is quite important in the consideration of loss .

In none of the computations has this resistive component become nega-

tive for a Maxwellian distribution and thus one is led to predict no

oscillations in the sheath . The results further show that for

frequencies below the plasma frequency , the field reverses from

inside to outside as expected . However , the magnitude does not

become particularly large in the region where w = ய

moments of the collisionless Boltzmann equation . The results do not

concluded that this type of theory is rather unreliable .

I wish to express my deepest thanks to Professor Gordon Kino for

his guidance and encouragement throughout the duration of this work .

of the problems that were encountered .

I also wish to thank Professor Peter Sturrock for reading the

are greatly appreciated .

I also wish to thank the members of the staff of the Stanford

Computation Center , especially Mr. Wade Cole , for many enlightening

discussions and for answering my numerous questions .

Finally , I wish to thank my fellow students and the staff of the

but they made my stay a most pleasant one .

II . The Sheath Model 4

III . Landau's Problem 20

IV . Pressure Theory of the Sheath • 43

V. Solution of the Sheath Problem 61

VI . Boundary Conditions and Conclusions 102

A. Landau's Kernel 115

B. The Fourier Transform of Landau's Kernel 125

C. The Solution of Large Systems of Algebraic Equations 138

D. The Reduction of a Linear Integral Equation to a

System of Algebraic Equations 149

E. Integration Rule ... 168

2.1 Plasma density profile . 6

3.1 The 90° sector outside of which ( k ) approaches ( w /w)2

3.2 The attenuation and propagation constants vs frequency for