Cuadernillo 2017 - Nivel 1

 MATERIA: Inglés
 CÁTEDRA: Dr. Raúl Narváez / T.P. Eric Salceek
 NIVEL: 1
PROFESOR ERIC SALCEEK
TITULAR
- Traductor Público en Idioma Inglés - Universidad Museo Social
Argentino.
- Intérprete de Inglés - Universidad Museo Social Argentino.
- Formación docente - Facultad de Derecho - UBA
- Profesor de Inglés -Nivel Elemental - Instituto Superior
"Daguerre" (A 779).
- Traductor Literario, Técnico y Científico en Inglés - Instituto
Superior "Daguerre" (A 779).
- Postgraduate Diploma in Laws (Posgrado: Diploma en Derecho)
Universidad de Londres.
PROFESOR JORGE CONVERSO

ADJUNTO
- Dr. en Lenguas Modernas - Especialidad Lengua Inglesa -
Universidad del Salvador.
- Traductor Público en Idioma Inglés - Universidad del Salvador.
- Profesor Universitario - Universidad del Salvador.
GABRIELA BOIDO
- Lic. en Educación. Orientación: Diseño, coordinación y

evaluación de la enseñanza. - UNQ
- Profesora Nacional de Inglés –Inst. Nacional del Profesorado
“Joaquín V. González”.
JEFES
DE CLAUDIA TURTULA
TRABAJOS
PRÁCTICOS - Lic. en Educación. Orientación: Enseñanza de la Lengua Inglesa
Y UNQ
AYUDANTES - Profesora de Inglés – Inst. Nac. de Enseñanza Superior “Victoria
Ocampo”.
- Traductor Literario, Técnico y Científico en Inglés - Ins. Nac.
Superior en Lenguas Vivas.
- Lic. en Ciencias de la Comunicación – Fac. de Ciencias Sociales
UBA (En curso).
CAROLINA ELIZALDE
- Lic. en Educación. Orientación: Gestión – Universidad Nacional

de Quilmes
- Profesor de Inglés -Nivel Elemental - Inst. Superior del
Profesorado " San Agustín” (A 75 7).
- Profesor de Inglés -Nivel Medio - Instituto Superior del
Profesorado “San Agustín” (A 757)
SILVIA MARGARITA PARISE
- Master of Arts in English Language Teaching and Applied

Linguistics (Maestría en Enseñanza de la Lengua Inglesa y
Lingüística Aplicada) – Universidad de Londres
- Abogada - Universidad de Buenos Aires.
MARCO SANTIAGO LUCCON
- Lic. en Lengua Inglesa – Universidad del Salvador.

- Profesor en Lengua Inglesa - Universidad del Salvador (En curso).
- Ciencia Política – Fac. de Ciencias Sociales UBA (En curso).
MARIA EMMA RAMOS

JEFES
DE - Profesora de Inglés – Inst. de Enseñanza Superior en Lenguas
TRABAJOS Vivas “Juan Ramón Fernández”.
PRÁCTICOS - Traductor Literario, Técnico y Científico en Inglés - Inst. de
Y Enseñanza Superior en Lenguas Vivas “Juan Ramón Fernández”.
AYUDANTES - DELTA (Diploma: Enseñanza de Inglés a adultos). Módulos 1 y 2.
Universidad de Cambridge.
-
KARINA MATEODA
- Profesora en la especialidad Inglés – Inst. Nacional Superior del

Profesorado de Paraná (E. Ríos)
- Traductor Literario, Técnico y Científico en Inglés - Inst. de
Enseñanza Superior en Lenguas Vivas “Juan Ramón Fernández”.
FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS SOCIALES
DEPARTAMENTO DE LENGUAS MODERNAS
PROGRAMA 2017
INGLÉS
NIVEL I - NIVEL II - NIVEL III
OBJETIVOS DE LA ASIGNATURA
OBJETIVOS GENERALES
 Favorecer la construcción de sentidos a partir del abordaje sistematizado de textos con

temáticas propias de las carreras que se cursan en la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de la
Universidad de Buenos Aires.
 Lograr el acto de lectura rápido y autónomo concebido como proceso desde un enfoque
comunicacional.
OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS
La especificidad de estos objetivos estará perfilada en:
Nivel I: por el nivel elemental de complejidad de sus contenidos – textos con finalidad
comunicativa general, sentidos codificados en elementos gramaticales y de léxico de
complejidad básica (prevalecerán los tiempos verbales simples, enunciados simples, la
cohesión textual elemental, claves textuales básicas, etc.).
Nivel II: por el nivel intermedio de complejidad de sus contenidos – textos con finalidad
comunicativa de cierta especificidad, sentidos codificados en elementos gramaticales y de
léxico de complejidad intermedia (prevalecerá el uso de tiempos verbales perfectos, unidades
léxicas compuestas, estructuras con inversión, etc).
Nivel III: por el nivel de alta complejidad de sus contenidos – textos con finalidad
comunicativa específica, sentidos codificados en elementos gramaticales y de léxico complejo
(prevalecerán las oraciones complejas, usos específicos de los modos y tiempos verbales, etc).
 Integrar significativamente conocimientos lingüísticos propios de la retórica de los

textos escritos en lengua inglesa sobre temas relacionados con las áreas de las ciencias
sociales con el fin de facilitar la construcción de los sentidos.
 Construir significados a partir de la integración de estrategias específicas de
comprensión lectora que afiancen las competencias propias del lector comprensivo.
 Reestructurar y organizar la información según esquemas de conocimiento propios con
el fin de resumirla, retenerla y utilizarla como sustento de nueva información.
 Favorecer la actualización mediante el acceso a fuentes de información con contenido en
relación directa con los centros de interés del estudiante universitario de la Facultad de
Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad de Buenos Aires y su futuro desempeño profesional.
 Incentivar el desarrollo y la expresión del pensamiento crítico dentro de un ámbito
democrático.
MARCO TEÓRICO
Los contenidos propios de cada “Nivel” encontraran su marco referencial en los aportes del
constructivismo, del aprendizaje significativo, de la teoría de los esquemas y de la psicología
cognitiva. Se integraran según el orden progresivo que implica la división de la asignatura en
“Ingles-Nivel I”, “Ingles-Nivel II”, “Ingles-Nivel III”.
El objetivo de lograr un lector comprensivo autónomo implica que a medida que se avanza en el
recorrido de estos niveles habrá una disminución gradual en el otorgamiento de pistas
orientadoras y una mayor complejidad del material de lectura.
El abordaje de los textos se hará desde un enfoque comunicacional, hecho que implica la
intervención de soportes teóricos afines – teorías de la comunicación y de la enunciación, de la
lingüística del texto, de la pragmática, de la gramática del texto, de la sociolingüística, etc.
Significativamente se integraran estrategias de lectura que afianzaran las competencias del

lector comprensivo.
BIBLIOGRAFÍA GENERAL
 BARTHES, Roland (1990): La aventura semiológica. Ediciones Paidos. Buenos Aires.

 BARTHES, Roland (1992):El grado cero de la escritura. Siglo veintiuno editores.
Méjico.
 BARYLKO, Jaime (1997): El aprendizaje de la libertad. Emecé editores. Buenos Aires.
 BERLO, David K.(1990):El proceso de la comunicación. El ateneo. Buenos Aires.
 BROCKBAND, Ian McGill (1999):Aprendizaje reflexivo en la educación superior.
Ediciones Morata. S.L.Madrid.
 COLL, C.(1994):Aprendizaje escolar y construcción del conocimiento. Ediciones
Morata. Madrid.
 COOK, Guy (1989): Discourse. Oxford University Press.
 ECO, Umberto (1992): Los límites de la interpretación. Editorial Lumen.
 ECO, Umberto (1990):Semiótica y filosofía del Lenguaje. Editorial Lumen.
 FREIRE, Paulo (1974): La educación como práctica de la libertad. Editorial siglo XXI.
Méjico.
 GONZALEZ REQUENA, Jesús (1992): El discurso televisivo-espectáculo de la
posmodernidad. Catedra. Madrid.
 HALLIDAY, M.A.K y HASAN,R.(1976): Cohesion in English. Longman. Londres.
 NARVÁEZ, Raúl Eduardo (2005): The Act of Translating-Linguistic and Hermeneutic
Approaches. Universidad de Buenos Aires.
 NARVÁEZ, Raúl Eduardo y LINDE LÓPEZ, Ángeles (1996): La aventura de traducir.
Una perspectiva cultural. En voces nº28-Colegio de Traductores Públicos de la Ciudad
de Buenos Aires.
 NARVÁEZ, Raúl Eduardo (1995): Traducción: un ejercicio de libertad. En voces nº 20
Colegio de Traductores Públicos de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires.
 CORDER,Stephen Pit (1981): Introducing Applied Linguistics. Penguin books Canada,
limited, Toronto, ON, Canada.
 NOVAK,Joseph (1982): Teoría y práctica de la educación. Editorial alianza. Madrid.
 POZO,Ignacio (1989):Teorías cognitivas del lenguaje. Editorial Morata.
 REBOUL,Oliver(1986):Lenguaje e ideología. Fondo de cultura económica. México.
 VAN DIJK, Team A(1992):La ciencia del texto-Un enfoque interdisciplinario. Paidos.
Buenos Aires.
 VAN DIJK, Team A(1993):Texto y contexto. Semántica y práctica del discurso. Cátedra
lingüística.
MODALIDAD
Carácter: Asignatura cuatrimestral
Carga horaria: 4 horas semanales
Metodología de la enseñanza: Clases teórico-practicas
Promoción: Directa o por examen final
Calificación: Numérica
Requisitos:
 Inglés-Nivel I: Haber aprobado seis materias de la carrera (en los casos en que el plan
de estudios fije como requisito obligatorio la aprobación de sólo “un” idioma
extranjero)
 Inglés-Nivel II: Haber aprobado Inglés-Nivel I
 Inglés-Nivel III: Haber aprobado Inglés-Nivel II
LOS TEXTOS
El corpus estará integrado por textos auténticos en torno a temáticas en estrecha relación con las
áreas de las ciencias sociales. Provendrán de diversas fuentes de información para asegurar la
variedad de tipología textual según la función (apelativos, informativos, argumentativos) y la
trama (narrativa, descriptiva, argumentativa).La extensión y complejidad de los contenidos
serán mayores que en los niveles anteriores.
CONTENIDOS
La presentación y la práctica de los puntos que integran los contenidos se harán durante el
análisis del material discursivo seleccionado. El orden asignado responde sólo a un criterio de
practicidad y no a un orden de presentación metodológico.
NIVEL DISCURSIVO
Discurso. Géneros y tipología de discurso. Funciones.
NIVEL CONTEXTUAL
 Elementos no verbales que acompañan al texto – gráficos, tablas, formatos, tipografía,

lugares y otros indicadores.
 Elementos verbales – títulos, subtítulos, anexos, copetes, autorías, fechas, lugares y
otros indicadores verbales.
NIVEL TEXTUAL
 Coherencia y cohesión. Referencia (anafórica, catafórica, personal, demostrativa,

comparativa, usos idiomáticos de la comparativa especial).
 Cohesión léxica (reiteración, sinonimia, antonimia, hiperonimia, colocación),
sustitución (nominal, verbal, léxica), elipsis (nominal, verbal, léxica), nexos
(coordinantes, subordinantes: and, however, thus, notwithstanding, etc.).
 Organización de la información.
 Hipótesis de contenidos a partir de pautas textuales. El enunciado.
 Intertexto.
 Contexto: variaciones del sentido, asociaciones.
 Relaciones pragmáticas. Enunciación y pragmática –deixis, subjetivemas,
modalizaciones de enunciado y de enunciación (actos del habla directos e indirectos).
NIVEL GRAMATICAL
Los temas se abordaran progresivamente desde la perspectiva de la gramática comunicativa con

el propósito de descubrir el funcionamiento de la lengua inglesa a partir del material textual.
La oración: partes, tipos.
La construcción nominal básica y compleja: estructuración y función comunicativa (el

sustantivo; el adjetivo simple y el compuesto: hard, college-trained; el articulo; el pronombre;
la preposición; construcción relativa-restrictiva/no restrictiva; pre/posmodificación; etc).
La construcción verbal: funciones comunicativas; verbos regulares e irregulares (de estado,

factuales); Auxiliares: do have, be, modales; tiempos verbales (cronológico, gramatical);
aspecto (perfectivo, progresivo); voz activa/pasiva (en estructuras simples y complejas);
modos (indicativo, subjuntivo, imperativo); acciones (habituales, hipotéticas, lenguaje de las
instrucciones); variaciones semánticas especificas (there+be, verbo+particula adverbial: carry
out, account for, etc.).
Relaciones léxicas: morfología, sintaxis. Afijos (prefijos: mis-, dis-, over-, re-, etc.; sufijos: -ful,
-ly, -ness, -ship, etc.).
Falsos cognados (actual, actually, candis, candidly, ability, etc.).
EVALUACION
 ALUMNOS REGULARES
Por medio de dos instancias de exámenes parciales escritos en castellano se medirá el
nivel de competencia de lecto-comprensión adquirido. Consistirán en la realización de
actividades de lecto-comprensión aplicadas al material textual seleccionado.
 ALUMNOS LIBRES
Por medio de una instancia de examen final escrito en castellano se medirá el nivel de
competencia de lecto-comprensión adquirido. Consistirá en la realización de actividades
de lecto-comprensión aplicadas al material textual seleccionado.
ESTRATÉGIAS DE LECTO-COMPRENSIÓN
 Predicción: exploración de elementos paratextuales –título, subtítulos, fuentes, etc.

 Inferencia. Basada en datos implícitos y explícitos.
 Formulación y verificación de hipótesis.
 Corrección de la comprensión: por reevaluación de la información procesada y rastreo
de datos no integrados.
 Elicitación de conocimientos previos.
ACTIVIDADES DE LECTO-COMPRENSION
 Lectura global y analítica.

 Construcción de sentidos globales: macroestructura, macroreglas (supresión, selección,
generalización, construcción).
 Análisis de la organización de la información.
 Detección y categorización de las unidades de información.
 Respuesta a cuestionarios.
 Trabajo con mapas conceptuales y de contenido.
 Actividades de opción múltiple y de enunciado incompleto.
 Elaboración de resúmenes y síntesis.
 Traducción: correspondencia formal, equivalencia dinámica, procedimientos.
 Subrayado
 Uso de diccionarios bilingües de uso general.
 Búsqueda selectiva de información.
BIBLIOGRAFIA
Corpus de material de lectura seleccionado por la cátedra.
RECOMENDADA
 GRIJALBO (2004): Collins-Diccionario Pocket-Inglés/Español, Español/Inglés.

Grijalbo. Buenos Aires.
 HARRAP (2001):Harrap Spanish-English/English-Spanish Concise Dictionary. Harrap
Books Ltd. Gran Bretaña.
 http://www.yourdictionary.com/
 http://www.costpercustomer.com/search.asp?affid=iorn&keyword=diccionarios
 INVERNIZZI, Silvia Ana (2005): Guía para la lecto-comprensión y traducción de textos
en inglés. Edición de la autora.
 LONGMAN (1987): Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. U.K.
 MacMillan India Ltd (2002):Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Lerners-
Edited by Rundell Michael. MacMillan India Ltd. Nueva Delhi
 OLSEN DE SERRANO REDONNET, Maria Luisa y ZORRILLA DE RODRÍGUEZ,
Alicia Maria (1997): Diccionario de los usos correctos del Español. Brasil, Ángel
Estrada y Cía.
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS (1993):Diccionario Bilingüe: Español-Inglés/Inglés-
Español. O.U.P.
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS (1997):Diccionario OXFORD POCKET – Edición
Rioplatense – Español-Inglés/Inglés-Español. Versión con C.D. opcional. O.U.P.
 REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA (1992): Diccionario de la Lengua Española. Real
Academia Española.
EXAMEN GLOBAL
MODALIDAD
Carácter: Examen final escrito (libre).
Calificación: “aprobado” o “desaprobado”.
Su carácter de “Global” implica la aprobación de los tres niveles correlativos de la asignatura

“Inglés” en una sola instancia de evaluación.
OBJETIVOS
 Proveer de un mecanismo que permita la aprobación de Inglés-Nivel I, Inglés-Nivel II e

Inglés-Nivel III en una sola instancia de evaluación.
 Proveer de un medio que permita evaluar la velocidad de lectura y la competencia para
la comprensión e interpretación autónoma de textos con un nivel de lengua de alta
complejidad morfosintáctica, léxica y temática mediante la aplicación de especificas
técnicas de lectura.
EVALUACIÓN
Por medio de una instancia de examen final escrito en castellano se medirá el nivel avanzado de
lecto-comprensión y la velocidad de lectura de textos escritos en lengua inglesa sobre temas en
directa relación con las ciencias sociales.
Consistirá en la realización de actividades de lecto-comprensión aplicadas al material textual

seleccionado.
La extensión y la complejidad del material seleccionado se ajustarán a los objetivos propuestos.
CONTENIDOS
Ídem Inglés-Nivel I, II y III.

INGLÉS-NIVEL I
ÍNDICE DE CONTENIDOS
1
REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA
Proceedings of a conference held at the New York State School of Industrial and Labor
Relations, Cornell University (1994)
MARÍA LORENA COOK AND HARRY C. KATZ, EDITORS
CONTENTS
The Transformation of U.S. Industrial Relations —An

Overview of Recent Developments, Harry C. Katz --------------------- 1
Industrial Democracy, Total Quality, and Mexico's Changing

Labor Relations, Enrique de la Garza Toledo --------------------- 19
Current Developments in Canadian Industrial Relations,

Mark Thompson --------------------- 37
The Mexican Model of Labor Regulation and Competitive

Strategies, Graciela Bensusán Areous --------------------- 52
Economic Integration and Labor Law Policy in Canada,

Gilles Trudeau and Guylainevallde --------------------- 66
The Social Dimension of Freer Trade, Roy J. Adams and

Lowell Turner --------------------- 82
How will the North American Free Trade Agreement Affect

Worker Rights in North America?, Ian Robinson --------------------- 105
The Mexican Dual Transition: State, Unionism and the

Political System, Alberto Aziz Nassif --------------------- 132
Regional Integration and Transnational Labor Strategies
Under NAFTA, Maria Lorena Cook --------------------- 142
Free Trade and Its Implications for Industrial Relations and

Human Resource Management, Morley Gunderson and Anil --------------------- 167
Verma
The Restructuring of the Automobile Industry in Mexico and
the Repercussions for Labor, Arnulfo Arteaga García --------------------- 180
Industrial Relations in the Maquiladora Industry:

Management's Search for Participation and Quality, Alfredo -------------------- 207
Hualde
The Effects on Labor of the Restructuring of Petró1eos
Mexicanos: 1989-1993, Rafael Layola Díaz and Liliana --------------------- 218
Martinez Pérez
NAFTA and AFTA: Regional Integration and Industrial
Relations in Southeast Asia, Sarosh Kuruvilla and Adam --------------------- 233
Pagnucco
Appendix: Summary of Paper Presentations and Discussion
--------------------- 254
2
OBJETIVOS DE LECTO-COMPRENSIÓN:
 Paratexto. Lectura de un índice.

 Bloque nominal.
 Falsos amigos: school, contents.
 Ortografía: diferencias entre el inglés británico y el estadounidense.
ACTIVIDADES DE LECTO-COMPRENSIÓN:
Leer el texto en su totalidad. A continuación incluir en la segunda columna la información que

se solicita en la primera.
NOMBRE DE LA OBRA
Equivalente en castellano
MATERIAL QUE CONTIENE
DISERTACIÓN QUE DESEARÍA LEER

POR SER DE MI INTERÉS
Fundamentación
DISERTACIÓN QUE NO LEERÍA POR

NO SER DE MI INTERÉS
Fundamentación
II
Incluir en la segunda columna la información que se solicita en la primera.
PÁGINA 1
Título de la disertación
PÁGINA 19
PÁGINA 66
PÁGINA 105
PÁGINA 167
PÁGINA 180
PÁGINA 207
PÁGINA 233
3
III
Indicar cómo se escriben las siguientes palabras según el país de origen del texto (EEUU o Gran
Bretaña). Tachar el país que no corresponda.
Labor EEUU/Gran Bretaña Colour EEUU/Gran Bretaña Honour EEUU/Gran Bretaña
Labour EEUU/Gran Bretaña Color EEUU/Gran Bretaña Honor EEUU/Gran Bretaña
Theatre EEUU/Gran Bretaña Center EEUU/Gran Bretaña Meter EEUU/Gran Bretaña
Theater EEUU/Gran Bretaña Centre EEUU/Gran Bretaña Metre EEUU/Gran Bretaña

4
What is Sociology?
Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of
human behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies,
and how people interact within these contexts. Since all human behavior is social, the subject
matter of sociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mob; from organized crime
to religious cults; from the divisions of race, gender and social class to the shared beliefs of a
common culture; and from the sociology of work to the sociology of sports. In fact, few fields
have such broad scope and relevance for research, theory, and application of knowledge.
Sociology provides many distinctive perspectives on the world, generating new ideas and
critiquing the old. The field also offers a range of research techniques that can be applied to
virtually any aspect of social life: street crime and delinquency, corporate downsizing, how
people express emotions, welfare or education reform, how families differ and flourish, or
problems of peace and war. Because sociology addresses the most challenging issues of our
time, it is a rapidly expanding field whose potential is increasingly tapped by those who craft
policies and create programs. Sociologists understand social inequality, patterns of behavior,
forces for social change and resistance, and how social systems work.
Sociology
Sociology is the systematic study of social life; including social change, and the social causes
and consequences of human behaviour. Sociologists investigate social institutions, ranging
from macro structures of culture, policy and economy; to meso-structures of groups such as the
family, the peer group, the school, the church, the workplace, and the media; to micro-
structures of interaction between individuals and how society shapes identities. Since we
assume that human behaviour is social in origin, the subject matter of sociology ranges over a
variety of social contexts; from the family to mass society; from criminal subcultures and
prisons to corporations; from churches to the state; from peaceful to warring societies; from the
divisions of class, race and gender to common cultures and beliefs systems; from the sociology
of local work and professions to the study of the mass media and the cutting edge of
information technology. In fact, few academic disciplines and fields of work have such broad
scope and relevance for research, theory, and the application of theory to real world issues.
Because sociology addresses the most challenging issues of our time, it is a rapidly expanding
field whose potential in theory and practice is practically unlimited.
People afraid of shocking discoveries should stay away from sociology… To ask sociological
questions is to look beyond the commonly accepted or officially defined reality. Social reality
turns out to have several layers of meaning… Sociological perspectives can best be understood
in terms of such phrases as looking through the keyhole, or seeing through the game… (From
Peter Berger, “Invitation to Sociology”).
The sociological imagination delves into the interplay of individual and society, of biography
and history, of self and world… (From C. Wright Mills, “The Promise of Sociology”).
5
1) Tiempo verbal Present Simple.

2) Omisión del artículo.
3) Conectores: from…to …; since; in fact.
4) Sustantivos contables e incontables (few vs. many)
5) Adverbios de modo. El sufijo –ly.
1) Lea ambas definiciones de la sociología y reflexione. ¿Son parecidas o diferentes?
2) Consigne en español los siguientes bloques nominales:

a- American Sociological Association
b- The study of social life
c- Social change
d- Subject matter
e- Organized crime
f- Shared beliefs
g- Relevance for research
h- Challenging issues
i- Rapidly expanding field
3) Busque los siguientes términos en el diccionario:

And / Since / In fact / Also / Or / Because
4) A- Los siguientes verbos fueron extraídos del texto. Colóquelos en la columna que
corresponda:
investigate / interact / ranges / have / provides / offers / express / differ / flourish /
addresses / craft / create / understand / work / shapes / assume
I/You/We/You/They He/She/It
B- Busque el significado de los verbos en el diccionario.
5) El verbo “is” corresponde al infinitivo de “BE”. Complete el siguiente cuadro con las
distintas formas de “BE” en el presente. Utilice el diccionario si no las conoce.
Verbo BE: SER o ESTAR

I You/We/They He/She/It
IS
6
THE DEMOCRATIC ROLLBACK - The Resurgence of the Predatory State
Author: Larry Diamond

Source: Foreign Affairs, March/April 2008
LARRY DIAMOND is a Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution and Co-Editor of the Journal of
Democracy. This essay is adapted from his book, The Spirit of Democracy: The Struggle to
Build Free Societies throughout the World (Times Books, 2008). Hoover Institution on War,
Revolution and Peace, Stanford University (after President Herbert Hoover) is a public policy
research center devoted to the advanced study of politics, economics, political economy as well
as international affairs.
1 Since 1974, more than 90 countries have made transitions to democracy, and by the
turn of the century approximately 60 percent of the world's independent states were
democratic. The democratization of Mexico and Indonesia in the late 1990s and the more
recent "color revolutions" in Georgia and Ukraine formed the crest of a tidal wave of
5
democratic transitions. Even in the Arab world, the trend is visible: in 2005, democratic
forces in Lebanon rose up to peacefully drive out Syrian troops and Iraqis voted in
multiparty parliamentary elections for the first time in nearly half a century.
10 But celebrations of democracy's triumph are premature. In a few short years, the
democratic wave has been slowed by a powerful authoritarian undertow, and the world has
slipped into a democratic recession. Democracy has recently been overthrown or gradually
stifled in a number of key states, including Nigeria, Russia, Thailand, Venezuela, and, most
15 recently, Bangladesh and the Philippines. In December 2007, electoral fraud in Kenya
delivered another abrupt and violent setback. At the same time, most newcomers to the
democratic club (and some long-standing members) have performed poorly. Even in many
of the countries seen as success stories, such as Chile, Ghana, Poland, and South Africa,
there are serious problems of governance and deep pockets of disaffection. In South Asia,
20 where democracy once predominated, India is now surrounded by politically unstable,
undemocratic states. And aspirations for democratic progress have been thwarted
everywhere in the Arab world (except Morocco), whether by terrorism and political and
religious violence (as in Iraq), externally manipulated societal divisions (as in Lebanon), or
25 authoritarian regimes themselves (as in Egypt, Jordan, and some of the Persian Gulf
monarchies, such as Bahrain).
Before democracy can spread further, it must take deeper root where it has already
sprouted. It is a basic principle of any military or geopolitical campaign that at some point
30 an advancing force must consolidate its gains before it conquers more territory. Emerging
democracies must demonstrate that they can solve their governance problems and meet
their citizens' expectations for freedom, justice, a better life, and a fairer society. If
democracies do not more effectively contain crime and corruption, generate economic
35 growth, relieve economic inequality, and secure freedom and the rule of law, people will
eventually lose faith and turn to authoritarian alternatives. Struggling democracies must be
consolidated so that all levels of society become enduringly committed to democracy as the
best form of government and to their country's constitutional norms and constraints.
Western policymakers can assist in this process by demanding more than superficial
electoral democracy. By holding governments accountable and making foreign aid
contingent on good governance, donors can help reverse the democratic recession.
 Tiempos verbales Simple Present, Present Perfect y Simple Past.

 Bloque nominal.
 Verbos modales can y must.
 There is / There are: HAY
 Condicional tipo I. Verbo modal will.
7
01).- Completar el siguiente mapa de contenido.
TRANSICIÓN
A LA
DEMOCRACIA
A partir del año 1974
DEMOCRACIA
Alegría prematura
DEMOCRACIA
Desafío para el futuro
02).- Traducir el copete. Preste atención a las frases nominales. Identifique cada núcleo y luego
sus modificadores.
03).- Los siguientes verbos fueron extraídos del texto. Colóquelos en la columna del tiempo
verbal que corresponda:
is / have made / were / formed / rose up / voted / are / has slipped / delivered
have performed / has sprouted / conquers
Simple Present Present Perfect Simple Past
Busque el significado de los verbos en el diccionario.
04).- ¿Qué situación se describe en el primer párrafo?
05).- En la línea 17 se encuentra la expresión “there are”. ¿Cómo se traduce en español?
06).- En el segundo párrafo, ¿por qué se afirma que la celebración es prematura?
07).- En el último párrafo, varios verbos están precedidos por “must” o por “can”. ¿Qué idea
denotan cada una de estas palabras? Búsquelas en el diccionario.
08).- Traduzca la siguiente oración (línea 29): “If democracies do not more effectively contain
crime and corruption, generate economic growth, relieve economic inequality, and secure
freedom and the rule of law, people will eventually lose faith and turn to authoritarian
alternatives”.
09).- ¿Qué desafío a futuro se describe en el último párrafo?

8
GIRLS' VIOLENCE IN SCHOOLS ON THE RISE
Source: The New Zealand Herald – Saturday, May 24th, 2008
1 Reality TV and text messaging are being blamed for a big increase in girls' violence in
the school playground.
Education Ministry figures show a 41 per cent increase in girls being stood down,
5 suspended or kicked out of school for assaults between 2002 and 2006, The Dominion
Post reported today.
But the way violence was meted out appeared to be changing.

10 Secondary Principals' Association president Peter Gall told the paper schools were
seeing not only more overt physical violence by girls, but a big increase in cyber-
bullying — sending nasty text messages and emails, or putting humiliating images or
words on the internet.
15
Reality TV shows based on "shaming and bullying" were also encouraging girls in
particular to respond aggressively to threats or playground relationship problems.
"They prioritise all the sorts of behaviours we are desperately trying to prevent."
20
Social anthropologist Donna Swift, who runs a girls' violence intervention programme,
said teenage girls often used "covert" violence and aggression, such as calling others
"sluts" and "hos" in group text messages sent to hundreds of others.
25 The "Barbie Bitches" syndrome had compounded violence among girls, as they tried
balancing desires to be attractive with being tough and mean.
Unlike boys, girls had not learnt to "fight fair", so their aggression could boil over into
physical violence or bullying tactics.
30
They are tipped to be part of an increase in the Education Review Office's scrutiny of
schools.
Tasman police district youth services coordinator Ross Lienert said police were seeing
35 more defiance in girls and premeditated violence aligned with a gang mentality.
The paper reported that Education Minister Chris Carter was poised to announce plans
to stamp out bullying and improve pupil safety.
 Lectura rápida en busca de datos específicos (scanning).

 Voz pasiva.
 Bloque nominal
 Falsos amigos: figures, assaults.
 Conectores: but, as, unlike.
Responder las siguientes preguntas:
01).- ¿Qué se afirma en la primera oración?

02).- ¿Qué revelan las estadísticas?
03).- ¿Qué cargo ocupa Peter Gall?
04).- ¿Qué datos aportó respecto de las alumnas?
9
05).- ¿Qué fundamenta la referencia a determinados programas de la televisión de Nueva
Zelanda?
06).- ¿Qué contraste se verifica entre los comportamientos de las alumnas y las acciones
propuestas para eliminar la violencia de las escuelas?
07).- ¿Qué comportamiento describe Donna Swift?
08).- ¿Qué diferencia de comportamiento se observa en las escuelas según el género?
09).- ¿Qué propondrá el Ministerio de Educación de Nueva Zelanda?
10).- ¿Considera que una realidad similar a la descripta se verifica también en las escuelas
argentinas?
10
ARTISTS SUE GOVERNMENT FOR USING MUSIC FOR TORTURE
by Ismael Abdu Salaam
Friday, October 23rd, 2009.
1 A group of prominent artists are moving forward with a lawsuit against the U.S.
government for using music as a means for torture at Cuba’s controversial Guantanamo
Bay facility.
5 Last December, news hit media outlets about how military personnel were using music to
humiliate and demoralize detainees.
Rage Against the Machine member Tom Morello is participating in the suit, and revealed
1 that reports have shown the music was played just low enough to prevent detainees from
0 suffering shattered eardrums.
“Guantanamo is known around the world as one of the places where human beings have
been tortured,” Morello explained. “From waterboarding to stripping, hooding and forcing
detainees into humiliating sexual acts, playing music for 72 hours in a row at volumes just
1 below that to shatter the eardrums. Guantanamo may be Dick Cheney’s idea of America,
5 but it’s not mine. The fact that music I helped create was used in crimes against humanity
sickens me.”
Hip-Hop music was a staple of the torture tactic, with selections from Dr. Dre, Lil Kim,
2 Eminem (“Kim,” “Slim Shady,” “White America”), and Tupac (“All Eyez On Me”) being
0 used.
Even though songs like Eminem’s “White America” are ironically critical of American
politics, the Bush Administration approved the track as a part of the “futility technique,”
which seeks to show torture victims the hopelessness of their situations.
2
5 The goal of the musicians’ lawsuit, dubbed the “National Campaign to Close
Guantanamo,” is to have all government documents declassified on music torture and have
the base shut down.
3 In addition to artists such as the Roots, REM, Pearl Jam, and Nine Inch Nails, several
0 former U.S. generals and lawmakers have joined the suit.
Previously, President Barack Obama had promised to close the facility by January 22,
2009.
3 However, the economic crisis and resistance from Congress have delayed that goal. At
5 press time, a court date has not been announced.
 Lectura: scanning.
 Traducción.
 Tiempos verbales: Present Continuous, Past Continuous, Present Perfect, Past Perfect.
 Voz pasiva.
 Estructuras: prevent someone from doing something; have something done (causative).
 Infinitivo de propósito.
 Conectores: from...to...; even though; in addition to; such as.
 La forma –ing.
 Falso amigo: facility.
11
I: Responder las siguientes preguntas:
01).- ¿Qué fundamenta la referencia a un grupo de reconocidos artistas?

02).- ¿Cuándo y cómo accedió el público general a dicha información?
03).- ¿Por qué se hace referencia a la banda musical Rage Against The Machine?
04).- ¿A qué tipos de torturas practicadas en la prisión de Guantánamo alude el texto?
05).- ¿Por qué se menciona al Vicepresidente del Presidente Bush?
06).- ¿Qué horroriza a Tom Morello?
07).- ¿Cómo se denominó a la campaña de los músicos y cuál fue el objetivo propuesto?
08).- ¿Por qué se hace referencia al momento de impresión del artículo?
II: Traducir la selección que se transcribe a continuación:
TEXTO VERSIÓN EN CASTELLANO
Even though songs like Eminem’s “White
America” are ironically critical of American
politics, the Bush Administration approved
the track as a part of the “futility technique,”
which seeks to show torture victims the
hopelessness.
12
ABOUT THE INFORMAL ECONOMY
WIEGO: WOMEN IN INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT: GLOBALIZING AND

ORGANIZING.
1 There are different causal theories of what gives rise to informality. Many economists
subscribe to the notion that informal entrepreneurs choose — or volunteer — to work
informally (Maloney 2004). Yet many economists also recognize that informal
employment tends to expand during economic crises or downturns, suggesting that
5
necessity — in addition to choice — drives informality. Other observers point out that
informalization of employment relations is a feature of contemporary economic growth and
the global economy. A worker focus helps to deepen our understanding of what gives rise
to informal employment under different circumstances, including the following:
1
0 Some of the self-employed choose — or volunteer — to work informally in order to avoid
registration and taxation. While others do not choose to work informally but do so out of
necessity or tradition.
Many of the self-employed would welcome efforts to reduce barriers to registration and
1
related transaction costs especially if they were to receive the benefits of formalizing, such
5
as written and enforceable commercial contracts as well as access to financial resources
and market information.
Much of the recent rise in informal wage employment is due to the decline in formal
2 employment or the informalization of previously formal employment relationships.
0
Formal employment relationships get informalized when employers choose to a) retain a
small core regular workforce and hire other workers on an informal basis; b) avoid payroll
taxes and employer contributions to social security or pensions; and/or c) avoid other
obligations as employers. In such cases, the employers (not the workers) are avoiding
2
regulation and taxation.
5
SEGMENTATION
To understand the informal economy, it is important to recognize that it is multi-
segmented. The main segments of informal employment, classified by employment status,
3 are as follows:
0  Employers: Owner operators of informal enterprises who hire others;
 Employees: Unprotected employees with a known employer: either an informal
enterprise, a formal enterprise, a contracting agency or a household;
 Own account workers: Owner operators of single-person units or family businesses
3 or farms who do not hire others;
5  Casual labourers: Wage workers with no fixed employer who sell their labour on a
daily or seasonal basis;
 Industrial outworkers: Sub-contracted workers who produce from their homes or a
small workshop;
4  Paid contributing members of cooperatives or producer groups, and unpaid
0 contributing family workers;
 Family workers who work in family businesses or farms without pay.
A set of national data analyses in five developing countries commissioned for a 2005
UNIFEM publication (see below) found that, with respect to non-agricultural informal
4 employment, women are more likely than men to work as own-account workers, domestic
5 workers, and unpaid contributing workers in family enterprises [Chen et al 2005]. In
contrast, men are more likely to work as employers and wage workers.
In the countries studied for the UNIFEM publication, men comprise the majority of
5 informal agricultural workers, although exceptions exist. However, in many countries
0 women still account for a large share of own-account agricultural workers and a majority
of unpaid workers on family farms. Typically, few women are employed as informal
agricultural wage workers. Informal agricultural employment tends to be more precarious
than non-agricultural informal work, and it is characterized by very low earnings, uncertain
incomes, and high risks of poverty.
5
5
13
 Lectura: skimming; scanning.

 Tiempos verbales: Present Simple y Present Continuous.
 Modo Potencial o Condicional (Would).
 Afijos: a) prefijo –un; b) sufijo –ly.
 Plurales irregulares: crises; analyses; men.
 Estructura: to be likely to happen (comparación con su equivalente en castellano).
 Conectores: yet; while; but; out of; however.
 Referencia bibliográfica: la abreviatura et al
Localizar información sobre los puntos que se especifican a continuación indicando los números
de los renglones en que se encuentran esos datos. Resumir el contenido de la información
localizada.
01).- Principales causas del trabajo informal.

02).- Segmentos principales del empleo informal.
03).- Conceptos fundamentales del informe de UNIFEM de 2005.

¿Cuántas posturas respecto de las causas del trabajo informal se presentan en el primer párrafo?
Según lo expresado en las líneas 10-26, ¿es correcto afirmar que el trabajo informal se origina
gracias tanto a empleados como a empleadores? ¿Por qué?
¿Qué criterio utiliza el autor para identificar los diferentes segmentos de la economía informal?
¿Qué se dice de las mujeres en el anteúltimo párrafo?
¿Qué se afirma respecto del empleo agrícola informal en el último párrafo?
Busque las siguientes palabras en el diccionario y de su equivalente en castellano:

a) Yet (línea 3):
b) in order to (línea 10):
c) such as (línea 15):
d) as well as (línea 16):
e) due to (línea 19):
f) such (línea 25):
g) either… or (líneas 33 y 34):
h) below (línea 46):
i) although (línea 52):
j) However (línea 52):
14
THE LAST WORD
ROBERT B. ZOELLICK
HELPING AFRICA GROW

Since the financial crisis hit, the World Bank has provided a record $89 billion to support
development initiatives around the world. Much of this funding has gone to Africa, a special
focus of President Robert B. Zoellick, a U.S. trade representative under George W. Bush.
Zoellick recently sat down with NEWSWEEK's Jerry Guo in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, to talk
about the continent's prospects for growth. Excerpts:
THE CHINESE ARE SMART AND Which model —China's, India's, or its own— is
RECOGNIZE THEY´RE GOING TO FACE Africa following in terms of development?
BACKLASHES. BUT THEY UNDERSTAND
AND ARE WILLING TO WORK WITH I think it is going to follow its own model, but it can
US.
learn lessons from others. China has been extremely
successful, first at creating added value through the agriculture sector and then export-led
growth. In India, you've seen a fantastic development of the service sector. A third [model] is
the European Union. One of the challenges for sub-Saharan Africa is that markets are of modest
size. This makes regional integration important.
Which African economies would you single out for doing particularly well?
At slightly higher income levels, Botswana and Mauritius are good growth stories. A little bit
lower are Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania, Mozambique, Mali, and Burkina Faso.
How quickly will a critical mass of middle-class consumers develop here?
You really have to get to [per capita income levels of] $10 a day to get to some people's
definition of a middle class. What I'd focus on in Africa is getting to $2 a day. At a slightly
higher income level, you start to have local manufacturers who can target the local market. The
other interesting possibility coming out of the crisis is that some Chinese operations may move
basic manufacturing to Africa. A Chinese provincial party secretary said maybe they should
move out of the "shoes and Christmas toy" markets, start moving up the value-added chain, and
move basic manufacturing to sub-Saharan Africa. We're working with the Chinese in Ethiopia
on an industrial zone.
But the Chinese are often looked on suspiciously by the West for their commodities push
into Africa, particularly for the unfavorable terms they impose.
Europeans and Americans have their own sorry history when it comes to resource development.
If China can develop resources in a constructive way, that can help create jobs. The Chinese are
smart and recognize they're going to face backlashes. I'm sure there are Chinese companies that
are not following proper safeguards. But when I present these issues to them, they understand
the point and are willing to work with us. Now when I meet donors in developing countries, I
often try to invite the Chinese ambassador.
Some of Africa's poorest states are landlocked with few natural resources—Malawi and
Burundi come to mind. Where's the hope for them?
15
These are small markets that are going to have to link to larger markets —subregional
integration. Rwanda is a landlocked country, but it hasn't stopped developing. They built a high-
end tourism industry around the mountain gorillas. A country like Malawi could still increase
income considerably with the right agricultural gains.
In the aftermath of the global recession, many are now calling this the age of emerging
markets. Which ones do you see as having the greatest potential for growth?
Clearly people are focusing on China and India. I think Africa is a potential pole for growth. To
get out of the crisis, it is important to provide financing to these countries to create the basis for
demand. But it is also important to invest productively, because this will create additional
productivity and growth for the future.
 Grado comparativo y superlativo de adjetivos.

 Present Perfect; Present Continuous; Future Simple; going to future; Conditional (would).
 This: referencia anafórica y catafórica.
 Verbos modales: can; could; may.
01).- ¿Qué situación conecta al Banco Mundial con África en el primer párrafo?
02).- ¿Qué datos aporta el texto sobre Robert B. Zoellick?
03).- ¿En dónde se realizó la entrevista a Zoellick?
04).- En la oración “I think it is going to follow its own model, but it can learn lessons from
others”, ¿a qué refieren cada uno de los pronombres “it”?
05).- ¿Por qué se menciona la importancia de la integración regional en la respuesta a la primera

pregunta?
06).- En la segunda pregunta se nombran varios países africanos. ¿Cuáles son? ¿Se los cita por
un motivo positivo o negativo? ¿Cuál?
07).- ¿Qué objetivo pretende Zoellick que África alcance respecto del desarrollo de la clase
media? ¿Podría afirmarse que es un objetivo modesto o ambicioso?
08).- ¿Cuál es la opinión que tienen los europeos y los estadounidenses sobre China? ¿Comparte
Zoellick esta visión?
09).- ¿Cuál es la particularidad de países como Malawi o Burundi? ¿Es Zoellick optimista o
pesimista al respecto?
10).- ¿Qué propone Zoellick para salir de la crisis en África?

16
POLITICAL MAN
by Robert Alan Dahl (1915 - 2014)
Robert Alan Dahl was a Sterling Professor Emeritus of Political Science at Yale University,
which is the highest academic rank at that University. He was one of the most distinguished
contemporary American political scientists.
1 An elementary starting point for all political theory is the fact that members of the human
species live together. Human beings do not live in complete isolation. Yet, though man is
a social animal, he is not a political animal, at least not in the same sense. Even though he
lives in a society, he does not necessarily concern himself with the politics of that society
5
or participates actively in the political life. Some people do, but many do not.
However, simply because human beings are social they also develop political systems.
Evidently they cannot live together without entering into relationships of influence;
10 whenever these relationships become stable and repetitive, political systems exist.
In this sense, then, one might say that man is a political animal. He is inevitably immersed
in political systems.
15 But individuals are not equally interested in political life. There are some people who are
indifferent to politics; others who are more deeply involved in it. Among those who are
heavily involved, only some actively seek power. And among those who seek power, some
obtain more power than the rest. Thus, individuals could be classified into four groups,
20 according to their degree of interest/involvement in political life: the apolitical stratum, the
political stratum, the power seekers, and the powerful, four groups that will be studied in
the following chapter.
 La forma –ing.
 Tiempos verbales: Present Simple; Future Simple.
 Voz Pasiva.
 Verbos modales: could; might.
 Conectores: yet; thus; among; then; but.
01).- ¿En qué sentido puede afirmarse que el hombre no es un animal político?
02).- ¿En qué sentido puede afirmarse que sí lo es?
03).- ¿Cómo pueden agruparse los individuos según su actitud respecto de la política?
04).- ¿Qué significa yet, qué relación establece y entre qué ideas? (Renglón 2)
05).- ¿Qué significa however, qué relación establece y entre qué ideas? (Renglón 7)
II: Traducir las partes subrayadas según el contexto en que aparecen en el texto.
01).- starting point

02).- Human beings
03).- without entering
04).- one might say
05).- individuals could be classified
06).- groups that will be studied in the following chapter
17
WIEGO: WOMEN IN INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT: GLOBALIZING AND

ORGANIZING (Part 2)
1 COST AND BENEFITS

The poverty and other outcomes of work are a function not only of the level of earnings but
also of the period over which earnings are sustained, and the arrangements through which
they are achieved, including related costs and benefits. It is widely assumed that informal
5
operators choose to do so because of the associated benefits. The most widely cited
benefits of informal enterprises include tax avoidance, illegal occupation of premises, and
illegal tapping of electricity, all of which are seen to lower the costs of informal enterprises
and give them a competitive advantage over formal firms that pay taxes, rent and utility
1 bills. However, a 2004 World Bank survey found that, compared to all size of formal firms
0 (small, medium, and large), informal firms:
- pay relatively high bribes (using bribe payments as a share of sales as the measure);
- have less access to formal finance;
- experience more frequent electricity outages;
1 - find government services less efficient;
5 - are more vulnerable to being evicted or shut down; and
- are more likely to have to pay bribes or be harassed by officials.
But what about the relative costs and benefits of informal wage work? The cost-benefit
debate tends to focus on the self-employed in the informal economy — and often on the
2 more entrepreneurial among them. What is needed is an understanding of the specific costs
0 and benefits associated with different categories of informal employment and different
dimensions of informal employment — place of work, employment relationship, and
system of production.
2 The WIEGO network has undertaken a number of research studies to help fill in this
5 picture. In sum, while informal employment does offer positive opportunities and benefits,
the benefits are often not sufficient and the costs are often too high for more of those who
work informally to achieve an adequate standard of living. Some costs are direct in the
form of “out of pocket” expenses needed to run an informal business or work informally;
others are indirect, reflecting the more general conditions under which the working poor
3 live and work. For instance, many informal workers face significant occupational hazards
0 (direct costs) yet are not covered by occupational health and safety regulatory or
compensation mechanisms (indirect costs). Some of the hidden costs of informal
employment can be rather high over the long-term, such as when a worker has to sacrifice
access to health and education (or training) for herself or family members.
3
5 In addition, most informal workers have to forego the benefits associated with working
formally and being legally recognized by the state. Formal enterprises are more likely than
informal enterprises to have access to financial resources and market information; secure
and enforceable commercial contracts; membership in business associations; and incentive
packages, subsidies, or support services to promote competitiveness. Formal wage workers
4
are more likely than informal wage workers to have unemployment funds; workers
0
‘compensation and maternity benefits; health insurance and retirement savings; and
collective bargaining agreements or dispute resolution mechanisms.
LINKS WITH POVERTY

4 The WIEGO network has also analyzed national data on the links between informality,
5 poverty, and gender, including a summary overview of existing national data for the World
Bank in 1999; and new analyses of national data in six developing and one developed
country for UNIFEM IN 2005 (Chen et al. 2005). These analyses found a hierarchy of
average earnings and segmentation by sex both between the formal and informal
5 economies and between the informal economy. These findings can be summarized as
0 follows:
 There is a significant, but not complete overlap, between working informally and being
poor. Average earnings are lower in the informal economy than in the formal economy.
 However, one category of informal employment — i.e., informal employers who hire
others — is associated with relatively high average earnings: higher than the average
5
earnings of all other categories of informal employment and some low-end categories
5
of formal wage employment.
 Within the informal economy, average earnings are highest for informal employers
followed by informal wage workers with a steady job and lowest for casual day
laborers followed by industrial outworkers.
6  Within the informal economy, women are under-represented among employers or
0 steady wage workers and over-represented among industrial outworkers.
18
[UNIFEM: United Nations Fund for Women]
 La voz pasiva.
 El bloque nominal.
 Estructura: to be likely to happen.
 Abreviaturas: i.e.; et al..
 Uso enfático de does.
 Conectores: not only…but also; for instance; however.
 Falsos amigos: utility; officials; premises.
01).- Localizar información sobre los puntos que se especifican indicando los números de los
renglones en que se encuentra. Resumir el contenido de la información localizada. (1) Factores
que reducen los costos de las empresas informales; (2) Factores que aumentan los costos de las
empresas informales según encuesta del Banco Mundial 2004; (3) Relación entre trabajo
informal y pobreza.
02).- Traducir:
 el título del texto.
 la expresión “a 2004 World Bank survey” (línea 9).
 el tercer párrafo (líneas 25-35).
03).- Responder las siguientes preguntas:
¿Cuáles son los beneficios más citados que tienen las empresas/emprendimientos informales?
¿Qué características se describen respecto de las empresas informales?
¿Qué inconveniente existe en el debate de los costos y beneficios?
¿Cuáles son las ventajas de las empresas formales?
¿Qué beneficios tienen los trabajadores formales?
04).- Lea las conclusiones a las que arribó la red WIEGO respecto de la formalidad, la pobreza
y el género y determine si las siguientes afirmaciones sobre éstas son verdaderas o falsas.
Justifique sus respuestas:
 Si una persona trabaja en la economía informal, esa persona es indefectiblemente pobre.

 Todas las formas de empleo informal reportan salarios promedio más bajos que los de la
economía formal.
 Los salarios promedio de las distintas categorías de empleos informales no son todos
iguales entre sí.
 La representación de las mujeres en la economía informal es en la proporción esperada.
19
CUTS TO HIGHER EDUCATION

FRUSTRATED AMBITIONS
AS DEMAND FOR UNIVERSITY PLACES INCREASES, SUPPLY DECREASES
Feb 4th 2010/ From The Economist print edition
On your course or on your bike
1 Pity the young. They work hard at school, where they are encouraged to aspire to higher
education. Many attain the grades normally needed to get into university. Sadly, this year
many will be denied a place. As Britain crawls out of recession and jobs remain scarce,
demand for university places is booming, while cuts to public spending mean that
5
competition for them will be fiercer than ever.
Although British students will pay £3,290 a year for their tuition from September, the real
cost of educating them is far higher; the gap is plugged by taxpayers. It is taxpayers too
1 who lend students the money to pay those fees. Graduates need not begin repaying their
0 loans until they earn more than £15,000 a year. The interest rate is pegged to the rate of
inflation, and the debts of those who never earn enough to repay the state are written off. It
all adds up.
With that in mind, and provoked by its newly squeezed balance-sheet, the government
1
announced in January 2009 that it would not compensate universities that recruited extra
5
students; it would even fine them for any bodies over the previous year's count, unless the
extra numbers had been agreed in advance. About 160,000 students were therefore denied
places. Some did not meet the grades set by universities but others held qualifications that,
in previous years, would have let them in. According to the Universities and Colleges
2 Admissions Service (UCAS), 24% of applicants for full-time places were rejected in 2009,
0 compared with 21% in 2008.
Then, just before Christmas, the government spoke again, this time saying that it planned to
cut university funding by £900m by 2013. Like many public services, universities had been
2 enjoying a boom: their total funding doubled between 1997 and 2009 whereas student
5 numbers increased by just 20%. On February 1st the body that distributes most of the public
funding received by universities said that the axe would fall on teaching rather than
research. Spending on new buildings and special projects will be hit especially hard.
Such gloom is not what was promised in the early years of the Labour government. In 1999
3 Tony Blair pledged that half of all young people would go into higher education by 2010.
0 The proportion has increased by four percentage points since then, but has only reached
43%. The modest rise is due to more young women going to university; the proportion of
young men doing so has fallen. Despite the introduction of tuition fees, and subsequent
raising of the maximum price that universities were allowed to charge, too little private
3 money is going into higher education to fund such a dramatic expansion.
5
A study by the Institute for Employment Studies, published on January 28 th, said that
potential students would be prepared to pay up to £20,000 a year for courses such as
medicine that lead to well-paid jobs. The taxpayer would still have to find the money to
lend to the future medics, however, and might be unwilling to do so.
4
0
20
 Voz pasiva.
 Condicional Simple (would) y Condicional Perfecto (would have).
 Bloque nominal.
 In versus by.
 Verbos multipalabra: write off; add up.
 Grado comparativo de adjetivos.
 Far como intensificador.
 Conectores: as; although; until; therefore; unless; whereas; despite; however.
01).- ¿Por qué son dignos de lastima los estudiantes británicos?

02).- ¿Qué datos sobre los aranceles universitarios ofrece el texto?
03).- ¿Qué anuncio el gobierno Británico en Enero del 2009? ¿Cuál fue el resultado?
04).- ¿Dónde se sentirán los futuros ajustes al presupuesto?
05).- ¿Qué prometió Tony Blair en 1999? ¿Se cumplió?
06).- ¿Qué significa la palabra medics? (No recurra al diccionario)
07).- ¿Qué se afirma respecto de ellos en el último párrafo?
II: Asignar un título a cada párrafo.
PÁRRAFO I
_____________________________________________________________________________
PÁRRAFO II
_____________________________________________________________________________
PÁRRAFO III
_____________________________________________________________________________
PÁRRAFO IV
_____________________________________________________________________________
PÁRRAFO V
_____________________________________________________________________________
PÁRRAFO VI
_____________________________________________________________________________
21
BLUE-COLLARS IN ECLIPSE occupations such as construction and

Productivity led to working class transportation, perhaps because
decline manufacturing is less well protected
By Rodger Doyle against foreign competition.
In 1840 manufacturing and other

manual labor industries employed
about 17 percent of the U.S. job force.
These employees consisted of a
heterogeneous group encompassing
artisans, ditch diggers, sailors and
others who worked with their hands.
The American blue-collar class began
to take shape in the early 20 th century, Shifting perceptions among
when management engineers wrested blue-collars themselves also drained
control of the manufacturing process their power. Sociologist David Halle of
from skilled laborers such as the University of California at Los
machinists to take advantage of the Angeles showed that blue-collars tended
proliferating number of new tools. to think of themselves as working folks
Through time-and-motion studies, they united in opposition to plant
also prescribed the precise way people management. But outside of the factory,
should do their jobs. they gravitated toward middle-class
Thus “scientific management” attitudes typical of white-collar
in part created assembly-line employees, particularly if they were
production, which greatly increased homeowners. Modern company
productivity by eliminating the older practices, such as profit-sharing, also
rhythms of work. But the technique probably made it easier to lower
helped to generate millions of boring, working-class consciousness.
closely supervised jobs. Some of the Manufacturing employment
tasks required special clothing, parallels trends in agriculture, which
including, in some cases, blue employed 63 percent of the workforce in
protective gear, which gave the class its 1840 compared with about 2 percent
name. today. It would not be surprising if blue-
By the 1930s, with the coming collar jobs in manufacturing, now at
of the New Deal and its pro-labor about 8 percent, fell to the same 2
legislation, it might have seemed that percent level before the 21st century
workers would soon dominate the ends.
country, for they were organized, ______________________________
motivated and numerous. But Rodger Doyle can be reached at
American labor never became rdoyle@adelphia.net
politically dominant, unlike labor in
several European countries [see By the THE BULK OF BLUE-COLLARS
Numbers, May 1999]. In 1943, the __________________________________
peak year in terms of their numerical ___
importance, blue-collar employees Production workers in 2002, in thousands:
accounted for at least 40 percent of the Manufacturing: 11,217
job force.
The figures sum up the 20th Construction: 5,196
century history of American workers in Transportation/Warehousing: 3,811
manufacturing by far the most
important employer of blue-collars. Utilities: 478
Their relative importance has declined Mining: 438
almost without pause since 1943. The
drop traces primarily to vastly
increased productivity: for example,
the productivity of the average
manufacturing worker in 2003 was 5.1
percent higher than in 2002.
Competition from developing
countries, often cited as the reason for
the decline in manufacturing, has been
a secondary factor [see By the
Numbers, May 2002]. Real wages have
generally stagnated in recent decades.
But wages in manufacturing have
trailed those in other blue-collar
22
 Tiempo verbal Past Simple (verbos regulares e irregulares).

 Modo Potencial o Condicional (would).
 Verbos modales: should; might.
 Grado comparativo de adjetivos.
 Adjetivos posesivos.
 Pronombres reflexivos.
 Conectores: unlike; such as; also; for = because.
 False friends: figures.
01).- Responder las siguientes preguntas:
 ¿Cuál era la situación de la fuerza de trabajo estadounidense en 1840?

 ¿Cuándo y cómo comienza a surgir la clase obrera estadounidense?
 ¿Qué cambios introdujo la “gestión científica”?
 ¿Cuál es la peculiaridad de la clase obrera estadounidense?
 ¿Qué mostró David Halle?
 ¿Qué predicción arroja el texto para el siglo XXI?
02).-Traducir:
 el cuarto párrafo.
 las siguientes expresiones:
a- should do
b- might have seemed
c- would dominate
d- would not be surprising
23
POLITICAL SCIENCE: AN INTRODUCTORY OVERVIEW
 Approaches to the Study of Political Science

 The Subfields of Political Science
 Major Concepts
 References
 Study Questions
 Core Text & Suggested Reading
Political Science is a relatively new discipline which, like the other social and behavioral
science disciplines, concentrates on human behavior in both its individual and collective
forms. A working definition of Political Science includes three major elements namely
Politics, Power and Science. The last of these concepts, science, is easily defined as “an
objective, logical and systematic method of analysis devised to describe, explain and predict
observable phenomena”, [Dickinson and Watson, 1976, 10]. This is not the case with the
other two concepts —politics and power— which are among the most difficult terms to
define. Both are aspects of human behavior.
Politics is generally defined, but not quite satisfactorily, as “an art, the art of the possible”;
as providing an answer to the question, “who gets what, when and how?” Here, following in
the footsteps of the late Professor Hans Morgenthau, we define politics as “the struggle for
power and peace”, for the control of the authoritative allocation of resources and values in
an organized society for the public good; a process for determining who controls, when and
how, the ordering and organization of human relations in a specific society. Once this
process is fairly and freely completed, the control of the authoritative allocation of resources
and values within the society is said to be legitimate and binding, and is consequently
backed by the ultimate use of a monopoly of physical force also known as police powers.
Relations are described as political when they involve elements of conflict and competition.
Power involves influence and is defined in political terms as the ability of one person or
group to control or influence the minds and actions of other persons or groups. The object of
political power is to implement the “Public Good.” Whether at the local, national or
international level, power is a critical element of politics and therefore is of interest in
Political Science.
Students of Political Science, political scientists, devote themselves to a scientific, that is,
rigorous, systematic and orderly, study of political behavior —politics— and/or similar
observable phenomena in organized societies. Such scientific study provides, among other
things, explanatory generalizations and theories about political life which are usually of
predictive value.
Although Political Science is not an exact science in the same sense as Physics, its subject-
matter is studied systematically with the scientific method. Thus, political scientists attempt
to describe, explain, and predict such varied phenomena as political elections, revolutions,
wars, legislative behavior, political protests, judicial decisions, alliances, governmental
performance, national and international behavior.
Description, explanation and prediction form the triple core of the scientific method.
Description, which usually precedes explanation and prediction, provides an account to
facilitate the understanding of the phenomenon described. It not only reports what happens
but also attempts to answer the questions of who, what, where, when or how much.
Explanation clarifies, expounds, interprets or accounts for an event or situation. It deals with
the “why” type of questions. Why do interest groups come into being? Why are interest
groups most likely to influence a general or national election more than unorganized masses
of people?
24
Prediction attempts to forecast what will occur in the future. Students of political science are
interested in foretelling the conditions under which an event — a stable government, a
military coup, a civil war — is likely to occur in the future.
Compared with other social and behavioral science disciplines, Political Science is a
relatively new field of inquiry that “can be identified precisely neither by methods special to
it nor by a particular terminology.” [Wasby, 1970, p.8].
It adapts methods and terminologies borrowed from sister social sciences —Antropology,
History, Sociology, Economics, and Psychology— to fit its specific problems of data
collection, analysis and interpretation. This characteristic makes modern Political Science
resemble “a Gothic Cathedral, built over many centuries, with its turrets, spires, balconies,
nooks and crannies.” [Wasby, p.8].
 Voz pasiva.
 Wh-words: who, why, what, where, when.
 Adverbios de modo.
 Grado superlativo de adjetivos.
 Conectores: both; both...and...; namely; whether; therefore; although; thus; such...as...; not
only... but also...; neither...nor....
 Estructura: to be likely to happen.
Identificar palabras terminadas en –ly y brindar la versión en castellano.
II
Traducir el texto subrayado (primer párrafo). ¿Cómo se interpreta la palabra both en cada caso?
III
1. ¿A qué se refiere la expresión “who gets what, when and how?”
2. ¿Qué condiciones requiere un estudio para ser científico?
3. ¿Cómo se define el poder desde las Ciencias Políticas?
4. ¿En qué consiste el estudio de los politólogos?
5. ¿Por qué se compara a las Ciencias Políticas modernas con una catedral gótica?
IV
Elegir la versión correcta:
Las Ciencias Políticas son un campo de investigación relativamente nuevo, que…
 se puede identificar con métodos específicos propios y con una terminología

determinada.
 no se puede identificar con métodos específicos propios ni con una terminología
determinada.
25
THE POST-MEDIA CONDITION

Peter Weibel
(Austrian artist, curator and theoretician)
1 Just like the case of the old technical media of photography and film, the pivotal successes
of the new technical media consisting of video and computer are not just that they
launched new movements in art and created new media for expression but that they also
exerted a decisive influence on historical media such as painting and sculpture. To this
5
extent the new media were not only a new branch on the tree of art but actually
transformed the tree of art itself. Here we have to distinguish between old technological
media (photography and film) and new technological media (video and computers) on the
one hand and the arts of painting and sculpture on the other. Until now, the latter were not
10 considered to be media at all. Under the influence of the media, however, they came to be
regarded as such, i.e. as non-technological old media. With the experiences of the new
media we can afford to take a new look at the old media. With the practices of the new
technological media we can also embark on a fresh evaluation of the practices of the old
15 non-technological media. In fact we might even go so far as to say that the intrinsic
success of the new media resides less in the fact that they have developed new forms and
possibilities of art, but that they have enabled us to establish new approaches to the old
media of art and above all have kept the latter alive by forcing them to undergo a process
of radical transformation.
20
All of the artistic disciplines have been transformed by the media. The impact of the media
is universal. The media paradigm embraces all of the arts. The computer’s claim to be a
universal machine, as Alan Turing called his computer model in ‘On Computable
25 Numbers’, a paper he wrote in 1937, is being fulfilled by the media. Just as many scientists
today dream of a computerized model of the universe, of a perfect presentation of the
universe based on digital computations, artists today also dream of a computerized model
of art, of a kind of art which can be completely created through digital computations. This
30 computational way of thinking, the impacts and successes of which have already captured
the entire world — for airports, factories, railway stations, shopping centers or hospitals,
etc., would be helpless without computers or calculators — is now complemented by the
parallel emergence of the computational arts whose aim is to capture the entire world. And
indeed, the impacts and successes of the computational arts which we can observe follow
35 precisely in the tradition we have just described: they, too, are transforming all of the
practices and forms of art. The computer, as it were, can simulate not only all forms and
laws of the universe, not only the natural laws; it can also simulate the laws of form, and
the forms and laws of the world of art. Creativity itself is a transfer program, an algorithm.
40 From literature to architecture, from art to music we are beginning to see more and more
computer-aided transfer programs and instructions, control mechanisms and guidelines for
actions. The impact of the media is universal and for that reason all art is already post-
media art. Moreover, the universal machine, the computer, claims to be able to simulate all
of the media. Therefore all art is post-media art.
45
This post-media condition, however, does not render the idiosyncratic worlds in the world
of devices or the intrinsic properties of the media world superfluous. On the contrary, the
specificity and idiosyncratic worlds of the media are becoming increasingly differentiated.
50 Total availability of specific media or of specific properties of the media, from painting to
film, is only possible in the post-media condition. For example, the computer is better at
simulating and defining a particular degree of granulation on a reel of 16mm film than a
real film could ever achieve itself. The digital simulation of the notes of a flute sounds
more like a flute than the notes a flute player could ever coax out of a real flute. Likewise,
the computer is even better at simulating the flickering of the writing if there is a tattered
perforation on the reel of film than reality itself, and the same goes for the notes of a
prepared piano. It is only thanks to the post-media computer, the universal machine that
we can realize the abundance of possibilities which resides in the specificity of the media.
26
 Lectura: skimming; scanning.
 Traducción.
 Verbos modales: can; might.
 Tiempos verbales.
 Vocabulario sobre media.
 El bloque nominal.
 Conectores: not just...but...; on the one hand...on the other...; not only...but...; from...to... ;
also; indeed; as it were; however; on the contrary; likewise
02).- ¿Cuál es la contribución de los medios audiovisuales respecto del arte tradicional?
03).- ¿A qué aspiran los artistas actuales?
04).- ¿Qué dice el texto sobre la relación computadora-arte?
05).- ¿Por qué se afirma que todo el arte es postmediático?
06).- Traducir el último párrafo del texto.

27
Antes de continuar leyendo, completar:
 Título y subtitulo del libro
 Autor
 ¿Qué puede anticipar sobre el contenido de la obra?
DISABILITY HATE CRIME NEEDS TO BE TACKLED
Keith Philpott was killed by so-called “mates” because of his learning disability. In a new book,
Katherine Quarmby asks what can be done to prevent this type of hate crime. (Source: The
Guardian.)
 Predicción textual.
 Deducción de reglas y reconocimiento de la formación de la voz pasiva.
I: Subrayar los casos de voz pasiva que aparecen en el texto y dar su versión en castellano.
II: Responder las siguientes preguntas.
01).- ¿Qué actividad desarrollaba Keith Philpott conjuntamente con sus asesinos?
02).- ¿Cuál fue el motivo por el que lo asesinaron?
03).- ¿Qué planteo presenta Katherine Quarmby en su libro?
28
BROADSHEETS VS TABLOIDS: NEUTRALITY VS SENSATIONALISM

By Miguel Ángel Benítez Castro
1 1.INTRODUCTION
This paper intends to analyse the linguistic repercussions that the coverage of a news story
may have when reported in both British quality press (the so-called broadsheets) and
5
British popular press (the so-called tabloids). This purpose will be accomplished by
examining in detail the remarkable linguistic contrasts that may be found in the way three
different news stories are approached by several British broadsheets and several British
tabloids. Given that the access to print newspapers was somehow hindered by the obvious
10 lack of British press close at hand, I felt compelled to make use of the on-line versions of
the following British newspapers: The Times, The Guardian, The Independent, The Sun,
and The Daily Mirror. The news stories to be commented on in this paper were taken from
three different issues: 29th February, 3rd March and 24th March 2008. As regards the
15 structure of this essay, let me say that first of all I will provide a brief introduction to the
British press. Then, I will proceed to discuss in depth the linguistic features peculiar to the
way the three news reports are dealt with in British quality press and British popular press.
It should be pointed out that for each news story, I will start by analyzing the headlines,
20 and then I will comment on the news reports. Finally, the last section of this essay will be
devoted to a small-scale lexical study of war propaganda in 21 st century Britain, as present
in the coverage of Prince Harry’s deployment in Afghanistan.
25 2.INTRODUCTION TO THE BRITISH PRESS

2.1BROADSHEETS VS. TABLOIDS
To start with, it should be noted that Britain’s first newspapers appeared over 300
30 years ago. Now, as then, newspapers receive no government subsidy, unlike in some other
European countries today. Hence, the survival of newspapers is very much dependent on
advertising, which constitutes a vital source of income.
35 Surprisingly enough, this small island boasts approximately 130 daily and Sunday
papers, 1,400 weekly papers and over 6,500 periodical publications. More newspapers,
proportionately, are sold in Britain than in almost any other country. According to David
McDowall (1999: 159), “national newspapers have a circulation of about 13 million on
40 weekdays and 17 million on Sundays, but the readership is twice this figure”.
The national newspapers, both on weekdays and on Sundays, fall into two broad
categories: the ‘popular’ (also called in a derogatory way: ‘gutter’) and ‘quality’ press. All
the popular papers, with the exception of the Sunday Express, are ‘tabloid’ in format. The
45 tabloids are essentially mass entertainment, as evidenced by the fact that they are smaller
than the other papers, have larger illustrations, bold captions and a sensational prose style
(as we shall see later on). This leads to an emphasis on gossip, emotion and scandal, and a
significant reduction in the news content. By contrast, quality newspapers, known as
‘broadsheets’ on account of their larger format, emphasize news coverage, political and
economic analysis and social and cultural issues.
 Tiempos verbales: simple present, simple future, past simple.

 Modal verbs.
 Passive Voice.
 Vocabulary on the Press.
29
I: Indicar o responder según corresponda.
01).- Indicar la relación existente entre el formato y el contenido de los diarios británicos.
Especificar en qué renglones aparece esa información.
02).- ¿Es aplicable a los diarios argentinos lo expresado en (1)? Fundamentar la respuesta.
03).- Indicar la época de aparición de los primeros diarios británicos.
04).- ¿Qué dice el texto sobre los subsidios del gobierno?
05).- ¿Qué aspectos son enfatizados según el tipo de diario?
06).- Indicar el método aplicado por el autor del texto.
II: Subrayar los ejemplos de voz pasiva que aparecen en el texto. Ofrecer, en castellano, un
posible equivalente.
III: Establecer si la siguiente afirmación es verdadera o falsa. Fundamentar la opción.
El uso de la voz pasiva hace que el texto sea más personal. --- Verdadera/Falsa
30
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
1 Established in 1895 as the first U.S. scholarly journal in its field, American Journal of
Sociology remains a leading voice for analysis and research in the social sciences. The
journal presents path-breaking work from all areas of sociology, with an emphasis on
5 theory building and innovative methods. AJS strives to speak to the general sociological
reader and is open to sociologically informed contributions from anthropologists,
statisticians, economists, educators, historians, and political scientists. AJS prizes research
that offers new ways of understanding the social; for example, a project currently under
way seeks to compile a special issue organized around genetic influences on social
10
interaction.
AJS offers a substantial book review section that identifies the most salient work of both
emerging and enduring scholars of social science. Commissioned review essays appear
15 two or three times a year, offering the journal's readers a comparative, in-depth
examination of prominent titles.
Although AJS publishes a very small percentage of the papers submitted to it, a double-
20 blind review process is available to all qualified submissions, making the journal a center
for exchange and debate "behind" the printed page and contributing to the robustness of
social science research in general.
Frequency: bimonthly. Volume 113 begins July 2007.

ISSN: 0002-9602. 300 pages/issue
 Tiempos verbales: Simple Present.

 Frases nominales.
 Distintos usos de las palabras terminadas en –ing.
I: Leer el texto y a continuación completar en la columna II los datos solicitados en la columna

I.
I II
Año en que apareció
la primera publicación
Frecuencia de
publicación
Temas
que aborda
Destinatarios
Publicación de
artículos remitidos al
Journal: porcentaje
II: Responder
1. ¿Qué oración del párrafo II contiene la idea principal y cual la secundaria? ¿Cuáles son
esas ideas?
2. ¿Qué oración del párrafo I contiene la idea principal? ¿Qué información contienen las
demás?
31
Climate Change in the Americas: Reference Documents. (AIDA: Interamerican

Association for Environmental Defense)
1 FEATURED PUBLICATIONS
 The Human Rights Impacts of Climate Change in the Americas — The

Executive Summary to AIDA’s forthcoming report on the impacts of climate
5
change and what governments must do to protect human rights. Presented before
the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights (IACHR) on March 28 th, 2011
during a hearing on climate change and human rights. (English)
10 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
 Draft agreement on long-term cooperative action under the convention. December

2010. (English)
15  Draft agreement on further commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. December
2010. (English)
SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION
20
 Concept Paper on Black Carbon: Effects on climate and Opportunities for
Regulation. AIDA. 2010. (English)
25 PUBLIC CONSULTATION
 Public Comments on Proposed Power Plant Regulations in Chile. AIDA. April

2010.
30  Comments on the Inter-American Development Bank’s Strategic Framework for
Supporting Climate Change Action in Latin America and the Caribbean. AIDA.
May 2010. (Spanish)
 Comments and Questions on the Preliminary Advancements of the Inter-American
Development Bank Environmental Safeguard Policy Review. AIDA. May 2010.
35
(Spanish)
 Civil Society Organizations’ Comments on the World Bank Group’s Proposed
Energy Strategy from its October 2009 Energy Strategy Approach Paper. June
2010. (Spanish)
40
 Civil Society Organizations’ Comments on the Interamerican Development
Bank’s Climate Change and Renewable and Sustainable Energy Strategy. January
25th, 2011. (Spanish)
45 SELECTED MEDIA COVERAGE
 “Heads or Tails. Climate Change: Two sides of the coin of Mexico’s Expansion”,
AIDA attorney Andres Pirazzoli refers to Mexican Lobbying, and the risks
associated with the World Bank playing a management role in climate change
funds. (p.7) CEMDA’s Energy and Air Program Coordinator, Sandra Guzman,
Talks about the government’s role in dirty energy development and explains
current energy surplus in Mexico. (p.4)
 Lectura: skimming, scanning.

 Caso posesivo: ‘s vs of + object.
 Falsos amigos: policy, current.
 Vocabulario sobre climate change: dirty/renewable/sustainable energy, power plant.
 Bloque nominal.
 Preposiciones: on, for, under, before, etc
32
Leer el título del texto e inferir:
 Tema general
 Elementos citados
 Fuente
II
Leer los subtítulos y completar la columna (1) del cuadro.
Leer los contenidos y completar las columnas (2) (3) y (4).
(3) (4)
(1) (2)
PAIS/REGION AÑO(S)
DOCUMENTO TEMA(S) PRINCIPAL(ES)
(*) (*)
(*) Cuando se mencione
III
Inferir el significado de las siguientes expresiones:
 heads or tails
 two sides of the coin

33
COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Comparative Politics —City University of New York— 365 Fifth Avenue, NY, NY-10016
1 Comparative Politics is an international journal presenting scholarly articles devoted to

the comparative analysis of political institutions and processes.
5 Comparative Politics communicates new ideas and research findings to social scientists,
scholars, students, and public and NGO officials. The journal is indispensable to experts in
universities, research organizations, foundations, embassies, and policymaking agencies
throughout the world.
10
Comparative Politics is sponsored, edited, and published by the PhD Program in Political
Science of the City University of New York. Opinions, findings, or conclusions expressed
in the journal are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors
or the City University of New York.
15
Comparative Politics is published quarterly in January, April, July and October, in print
and online.
20 Comparative Politics is a member of the JSTOR journal archive and is available in the
JSTOR Arts and Sciences II Collection.
Articles in Comparative Politics are abstracted and/or indexed in CSA Political Science
25 and Government: A Guide to Periodical Literature; Worldwide Political Science Abstracts
at www.csa.com/political; International Political Science Abstracts; Social Sciences
Index/Abstracts; Current Contents Social & Behavioral Sciences; ISI Basic Social
Sciences Index; Social Sciences Citation Index; International Bibliography of the Social
Sciences; Historical abstracts and/or America: History and Life; United States Political
Science Documents; and PAIS Bulletin. Comparative Politics is available on microfilm
from National Archive Publishing Company. (JSTOR: Journal Storage).
 Tiempos verbales: Simple Present.

 Usos de las palabras terminadas en –ing.
 False friends: officials.
 Acronyms: NGO, PhD, JSTOR.
Ofrecer la información que se solicita
Institución que publica y auspicia la revista:
Contenido de los artículos:
Frecuencia de publicación:
Modalidad de publicación:
Responsabilidad respecto de las ideas expuestas en los artículos.
Destinatarios de la publicación:
Significado de las siglas NGO y PhD:

34
ACCULTURATION
1 DEFINITION
Acculturation is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and
behaviors of another group. Although acculturation is usually in the direction of a
minority group adopting habits and language patterns of the dominant group,
5
acculturation can be reciprocal —that is, the dominant group also adopts patterns typical
of the minority group. Acculturation may be evidenced by changes in language
preference, adoption of common attitudes and values, membership in common social
groups and institutions, and loss of separate political or ethnic identification.
10
MEASUREMENT
The most comprehensive measure of acculturation for use in health services and
epidemiological research in Mexican-American populations was developed by Hazuda et
15 al. (1988), according to Rice University in Houston. Hazuda's scales are based on a
theoretical model that views acculturation as a multi-dimensional process involving
language, cultural beliefs and values and ‘structural assimilation’ —the integration of
members of the minority group into the social structure of the majority group. The
20 following are the items included in Hazuda's acculturation scales.
Items in the Final Acculturation and Structural Assimilation Scales:

San Antonio Heart Study, San Antonio, Texas 1979-82
_______________________________________________________
25 Dimensions Measured, Scale Items, and Scale Score Ranges
________________________________________________
Acculturation
30
I. Early childhood experience with English versus Spanish language
1. What was the first language you learned to speak?
2. What language was spoken in your home when you were a child?
Scale range: 2-6 points
35
II. Adult proficiency in English
1. In your opinion, how well do you understand spoken English?
2. In your opinion, how well do you speak English?
40 3. In your opinion, how well do you read English?
III. Adult pattern of English versus Spanish language usage

1. What language do you usually use with your spouse?
45
2. What language do you usually use with your children?
3. What language do you usually use with your parents?
4. What language do you usually use at family gatherings, such as Christmas or other
holidays?
50 5. What language do you usually use with most of your friends?
6. What language do you usually use with most of your neighbors?
7. What language do you usually use with most of the people at work?
8. In what language are the TV programs you watch?
55 9. In what language are the radio stations you listen to?
10. In what language are the books and magazines you read?
IV. Value placed on preserving Mexican cultural origin

60 1. How important do you feel it is for your children to know something about the
history of Mexico?
2. How important do you feel it is for your children to follow Mexican customs and
ways of life?
65 3. How important do you feel it is for your children to celebrate Mexican holidays
such as Cinco de Mayo or El Diez y Seis de Septiembre?
V. Attitude toward traditional family structure and sex-role organization

70 1. Knowing your ancestry or lineage, that is, tracing your family tree is an important
part of family life.
2. It is important to know your cousins, aunts and uncles and to have a close
relationship with them.
75 3. A person should remember other family members who have passed away on the
anniversary of their death, All Soul’s Day, or other special occasions.
4. Brothers have a responsibility to protect their sisters while they are growing up.
5. While they are growing up, sisters have an obligation to respect their brother’s
80 authority.
6. If they could live anywhere they wanted to, married children should live close to
their parents so that they can help each other.
7. In the absence of the father, the most important decisions should be made by the
eldest son rather than the mother, if the son is old enough.
85 Scale range: 7-35 points
STRUCTURAL ASSIMILATION
I. Childhood interaction with members of mainstream society
90 1. When you were growing up, were your neighbors mostly Mexican American,
mostly Anglo, or about equal numbers of each?
2. When you were growing up, were your schoolmates mostly Mexican American,
95 3. When you were growing up, were your close, personal friends mostly Mexican
American, mostly Anglo, or about equal numbers of each?
100 II. Adult interaction with members of mainstream society

1. Throughout your adult life, have your neighbors been mostly Mexican American,
2. Throughout your adult life, have your close, personal friends been mostly
Mexican American, mostly Anglo, or about equal numbers of each?
105
3. (Are the people with whom your work closely on the job/Are the people with
whom you worked closely on your last job) mostly Mexican American, mostly
Anglo, or about equal numbers of each?
By contrast, the measure of acculturation used in the Hispanic Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (HHANES), 1982-1984, consisted of the following items (Solis et
al., 1990):
What language do you speak?
What language do you prefer?
What language do you read better?
What language do you write better?
What ethnic identification do you use?
What ethnic identification does/did your mother use?
What ethnic identification does/did your father use?
Where was the birthplace of yourself, your mother, your father?
 Frases nominales
 Verbos modales: may, can, should, could
 Passive Voice
 Conjunctions: although, while,
 Tiempos verbales: Simple Present, Past Simple, Present Continuous, Present Perfect
 Wh- questions.
 False friends: parents, spouse.
01).- Ofrecer la definición de aculturación a la que remite el texto.

02).- Comparar la encuesta de Hazuda con la de HHANES. ¿Qué tienen en común? ¿Qué
aspectos no figuran en la medición de HHANES?
03).- Señalar los ejemplos de voz pasiva incluidos en el texto.
04).- Comparar las siguientes oraciones: a. You must remember your ancestors.
b. You should remember your ancestors.
36
IMPACT OF POPULATION GROWTH ON FOOD SUPPLIES AND ENVIRONMENT

by David Pimentel, Xuewen Huang, Ana Cordova, and Marcia Pimentel
Presented at AAAS Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD, 9th February 1996

Submitted for publication to Population and Development Review, New York, NY, USA
1 As the world population continues to grow geometrically, great pressure is being placed on
arable land, water, energy, and biological resources to provide an adequate supply of food
while maintaining the integrity of our ecosystem. According to the World Bank and the
United Nations, from 1 to 2 billion humans are now malnourished, indicating a
5
combination of insufficient food, low incomes, and inadequate distribution of food. This is
the largest number of hungry humans ever recorded in history. In China about 80 million
are now malnourished and hungry. Based on current rates of increase, the world
population is projected to double from roughly 6 billion to more than 12 billion in less
10 than 50 years (Pimentel et al., 1994). As the world population expands, the food problem
will become increasingly severe, conceivably with the numbers of malnourished reaching
3 billion.
15 Based on their evaluations of available natural resources, scientists of the Royal Society
and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences have issued a joint statement reinforcing the
concern about the growing imbalance between the world's population and the resources
that support human lives (RS and NAS, 1992).
20
Reports from the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, numerous
other international organizations, and scientific research also confirm the existence of this
serious food problem. For example, the per capita availability of world grains, which make
up 80 per cent of the world's food, has been declining for the past 15 years (Kendall and
25 Pimentel, 1994). Certainly with a quarter million people being added to the world
population each day, the need for grains and all other food will reach unprecedented levels.
More than 99 per cent of the world's food supply comes from the land, while less than 1
30 per cent is from oceans and other aquatic habitats (Pimentel et al., 1994). The continued
production of an adequate food supply is directly dependent on ample fertile land, fresh
water, energy, plus the maintenance of biodiversity. As the human population grows, the
requirements for these resources also grow. Even if these resources are never depleted, on
a per capita basis they will decline significantly because they must be divided among more
people.
 Passive voice, Passsive voice + infinitives.
 Conjunctions: as, while.
 Tenses: Simple Present, Simple Future, Present Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous.
 Relative Clauses.
Responder o traducir según corresponda:
01).- ¿Dónde se realizó esta presentación?

02).- ¿Por qué, en el comienzo del texto, se hace mención a la existencia de una presión
considerable?
03).- ¿Qué fundamenta la inclusión de las referencias al Banco Mundial y a la ONU?
04).- ¿A qué problemática nos enfrentaremos en un lapso menor a medio siglo?
05).- Traducir el segmento subrayado — renglones 13 a 16.
06).- ¿Qué disminución inquietante se verifico en los últimos 15 años?
37
THE BASIS OF POLITICS: ARISTOTLE AND THE SCIENTISTS

By Geoffrey Barraclough
British historian Geoffrey Barraclough is considered one of the pillars of modern history.
1 There is so much truth in the conception of the state as a natural organism and of
man as a political animal, as commonly contrasted with the various theories of the state as
an artificial formation based on contract, or implied contract, that Aristotle’s proposition
is rarely criticized from any other standpoint. When Aristotle said that man was a political
5
animal, that is, that political life was his nature, and consequently that the state, as the
ultimate development of his nature, was a natural institution, or, as we should say, an
organism, he was, we may say with a good deal of certainty, speaking in the light of this
contrast. But his theory must be judged on its own merits, and not on the demerits of that
10 which he was attacking. We may grant that the state is natural, but we may nevertheless
mean by “natural” something other than Aristotle means. And if our conception of nature
is different from his, it will follow that our agreement about the state is one of words only.
15 Aristotle in his treatise on Physics uses the word “Nature” in three ways. It is (I) “the
primary material which is the substratum of all things possessing in themselves an
impulse towards movement.” (II) “Nature”, when the name is applied in the sense of
development, is the path towards nature in the sense of form. (III) “Nature” is form —that
is End, or as he says, full development “For what each thing is when fully developed we
20 call its nature, whether we are speaking of a man, a horse, or a family.” It is important,
however, to see that these three conceptions are really one. What differentiates Aristotle's
first conception, that of Nature as primary matter, from the ordinary scientific theory, is
that he postulates in the material “an impulse towards movement”. Nature is really this
immanent energy. When he conceives of Nature as End, Aristotle is in fact saying that
this immanent energy has worked itself out. And here again he differs from the scientists,
who regard Nature simply as Process: he limits the process by an object.
 Tenses: Simple Present, Simple Past, Present Perfect.

 Passive voice.
 Verbos modales: should, may, must, etc.
 Conditionals type 1.
 Relative clauses.

02).- ¿Qué se afirma en la segunda oración?
03).- ¿Cómo debe analizarse la teoría aristotélica?
04).- ¿Qué significados atribuye Aristóteles al término “naturaleza”?
05).- ¿En qué difieren las posturas científicas de las de Aristóteles?
38
EXPERT: HEALING THE OFFENDER IS KEY TO REDUCING DOMESTIC

VIOLENCE INCIDENTS
By Ashley K. Speed for daily press
1 NEWPORT NEWS — Ending the domestic violence cycle shouldn't only include reaching
the victim but also the offender, a local counselor said Wednesday.
"You learn by what you see, what you hear and what you witness," Darla L. Timberlake, a
5
certified batterer's intervention facilitator at the Center for Child and Family Services in
Hampton said. "No one is born aggressive… another way of helping the victim, as well as
helping other people, is healing the domestic violence offender."
10 Timberlake spoke at the "Heal the Offender" luncheon hosted by the Newport News
Domestic Violence Taskforce.
Getting to the root of why people become abusers is often hidden in their childhood
15 experiences, Timberlake said.
"A lot of them come in like they haven't done anything," said Charles Ralph, of the
Newport News Department of Human Services. "We don't deal with surface stuff. Surface
is punishment. We deal with the inner child. We try to patch the holes in their life so when
20
they walk out, the risk of re-offending is very low because now they have coping skills."
Timberlake said in most cases the offender has experienced some type of trauma as a
child, which affects how they treat others as adults. Timberlake says she forces them to
25 face the childhood trauma and turn the situation into a positive behavior.
"The core self of every single child born is precious, lovable, sweet and good — every
single child," Timberlake said. "This is permanent and never leaves you. I don't care
30 what's been done to you. I don't care what you've done … it may be buried under life
experiences… buried under things that have happened, but this is the core of who you are.
It is still there."
Timberlake says close to 90 percent of her clients are court-ordered to attend the offender
35
programs. She says the programs have a 5 percent to 6 percent recidivism rate, compared
with a national average of 25 percent.
"Hurting people hurt people," Timberlake said. "Their problem of violence and power and
control issues in a domestic violence perpetrator is actually their solution to their own
unresolved pain and trauma in life. Everyone deserves healing, and relationships, families,
and communities benefit."
 Palabras terminadas en –ing.

 Verbos modales.
 Terminología legal.
 False friends.
 Tiempos verbales.
39
I. Responder las siguientes preguntas:
01).- ¿En qué país se publicó el articulo?

02).- ¿Qué coincidencia conceptual se verifica en el título y el primer párrafo?
03).- ¿Qué función desempeña Darla Timberlake en el Centro de Ayuda para el Niño y la
Familia de Hampton?
04).- ¿Quién organizó el encuentro en el que Timberlake hizo uso de la palabra?
05).- ¿Qué datos considera claves Timberlake para el tratamiento de quien maltrata?
06).- ¿Qué propone en reemplazo del castigo a quien maltrata?
07).- ¿Qué cambio se espera en el maltratador una vez finalizado el tratamiento?
08).- ¿Qué demuestran los porcentajes a los que alude el texto?
09).- ¿Qué interpretación admite la expresión Hurting people hurt people (renglón 34)?
II: Subrayar las palabras terminadas en –ing que aparecen en las siguientes oraciones tomadas
del texto y establecer su función. Traducir cada una de las oraciones.
1. Ending the domestic violence cycle shouldn't only include reaching the victim but also the
offender.
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. No one is born aggressive…another way of helping the victim, as well as helping other
people, is healing the domestic violence offender.
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Getting to the root of why people become abusers is often hidden in their childhood
experiences.
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. We try to patch the holes in their life so when they walk out, the risk of re-offending is very
low because now they have coping skills.
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Everyone deserves healing, and relationships, families, and communities benefit.
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
40
FOUNDATIONS OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
NEWTON, K., VAN DETH, J. W., Foundations of Comparative Politics, Cambridge, CUP,
2010 (2nd Edition).
1 WHY COMPARATIVE POLITICS?

Why do we bother to study comparative politics and government? There are many good reasons
but three of the most important are: (1) we cannot understand our own country without a
knowledge of others; (2) we cannot understand other countries without a knowledge of their
5 background, institutions and history; and (3) we cannot arrive at valid generalizations about
government and politics without the comparative method.
UNDERSTANDING OUR OWN COUNTRY

To understand our own country we must study other countries as well. This may sound like a strange
10 statement, but it has some powerful logic to support it. We often take the political institutions, practices and
customs in our own country for granted, assuming that they are somehow natural and inevitable. Only when
we start looking around at other countries do we understand that our own ways of doing things are
sometimes unique, even odd or peculiar. It is said that fish will be the last form of life on earth to realize the
existence of water: since they spend their whole life in water with no experience of anything else, they have
15 no reason even to imagine that anything else exists. For this reason the writer Rudyard Kipling wrote, ‘What
knows he of England, who only England knows?’, making the point that people who have no knowledge of
other countries cannot begin to understand their own.
UNDERSTANDING OTHER COUNTRIES

20 It is obvious that we cannot begin to understand the politics of other countries unless we know
something about their history, culture and institutions. And this, in turn, is important because what
these countries do often affects us directly or indirectly: they impose import duties on our goods,
refuse to sign trade agreements or agree to pollution controls, do not contribute to international
25 peacekeeping forces, threaten us with military force, or are unhelpful in trying to solve
international economic problems. Why do they act this way? Knowing their history, culture and
institutions helps us to understand and explain their actions and perhaps change the situation for
the better. Ignorance is a recipe for complication and failure; knowledge can help us improve
matters.
30
CONTRUCTING VALID GENERALISATIONS
The purpose of science is to arrive at valid generalizations about the world. Such generalizations
take the form of ‘if–then’ statements — if A then B, but if X then Y. Aeroplane designers need to
know that if their planes exceed the speed of sound they will break the sound barrier, affecting how
35 the planes handle the stress on their structures. Doctors need to know that if a certain drug is
administered then a patient’s disease is likely to be cured. Chemists need to know that if two
substances are mixed then a third substance may be produced that is useful to us. To arrive at these
if–then statements, scientists carry out systematic experiments in their laboratories, comparing
40 what happens under different circumstances. […]
What political scientists can do, however, is compare things that happen ‘naturally’ in the real world. For
example, different countries have different voting systems and we can compare them to estimate their
effects. “We note that countries with voting system A have a higher voting turnout than countries using
system B. However, we cannot immediately conclude that A causes a higher voting turnout than B until we
45
are sure that this effect is not caused by factors other than voting systems.” Perhaps system A countries
happen to be smaller, wealthier or better educated than system B countries and it is size, wealth or education
that influences voting turnout. We cannot control (hold constant) all other variables, as laboratory scientists
do, but we can use methods to simulate the holding constant of variables. In this way we can make
statements such as: ‘All other things being equal (size, wealth, education), if a country has a type A voting
50 system, then it will tend to have a higher voting turnout than countries with type B voting systems.’
It would be unwise to try to make general ‘if–then’ generalizations based on a study of only one
country, or even a small handful of them. It is easy to jump to false conclusions when studying one
55 or a handful of cases. In fact, this frequently happens when people with an inadequate
understanding of the subject conclude that something must be true based on their limited
experience of what happens in their own country. What we need to do is compare a range of
countries of different size, wealth and education to estimate the independent effects of these and
voting systems on turnout. Studying one or a few countries might not be enough; we need a range
60 of countries with a spread of characteristics that we think might influence voting turnout.
40
 Verbos modales.
 Palabras terminadas en –ing.
 Inversion of order.
 Conjunctions: since, unless, however,
 Anticipatory subject “it”.
 Relative clauses.
 Conditionals type 1.
 Passive voice.
 Comparatives.
 Phrasal verbs.
01).- ¿Qué rol desempeña en el ámbito de la ciencia política el método comparativo en la

investigación?
02).- ¿Por qué las personas suelen pensar que las practicas e instituciones políticas de su país
responden a los parámetros de lo normal o habitual?
03).- ¿Cómo respalda el autor su afirmación respecto de la utilidad del estudio de la historia y
realidad cultural e institucional de otros países para un conocimiento solido de estos y de su
relación con nuestro país de origen?
04).- ¿Qué diferencia se verifica entre el método de estudio de un diseñador de aviones y el de
un investigador de la ciencia política?
05).- ¿Qué significa “voting turnout”?
06).- ¿La siguiente afirmación en bastardilla es verdadera o falsa? Cuando el autor habla del
método comparativo hace referencia a la comparación de dos o tres países para la elaboración
de conclusiones generales respecto de un cierto fenómeno.
II: Traducir el fragmento subrayado (renglones 13-18).

41
TOO MANY HUMAN TRAFFICKERS ESCAPE JUSTICE IN UK, SAYS SOLICITOR

GENERAL
There were 1,180 victims of trafficking in 2012, and 39 people were prosecuted the previous
year, says Oliver Heald.
Antes de continuar leyendo, responder:
01).- ¿Qué se señala sobre el tráfico de personas?

02).- ¿Quién lo afirma?
1 Too few of the human traffickers who force women to work in the sex trade and children
to labour in cannabis farms are being prosecuted in the UK, according to the solicitor
general, Oliver Heald QC.
5 More than 1,180 victims of trafficking were identified last year, and in the previous year
only 39 people were prosecuted for trafficking offences, he said.
"We can see that there is work to be done to support the proper investigation of these
crimes," Heald told a meeting of the social and economic think-tank Politeia. "Make no
10
mistake, we are constantly reviewing how we in government tackle this evil which
threatens the liberties of millions and is a new form of slavery."
As a global industry, human trafficking is worth in excess of $32bn (£20bn) a year. The
15 means to prevent it must also be global, Heald said. The UK currently pays for criminal
justice advisers — who are Crown Prosecution Service prosecutors — to be stationed in
17 countries overseas.
Nigeria is one of the main sources of those trafficked into Britain. Last year 205 Nigerian
20 victims were identified in the UK.
"Victims are primarily women and girls who are exploited in the sex industry and
domestic servitude, not always here in the UK but sometimes pass through en-route to the
25 sex trade in Europe," he said.
"These may have paid as much as €70,000 [£60,000] for their passage to Europe, a debt
which enforces their enslavement. A significant means of controlling these women and
girls is through a form of witchcraft which is common in some communities across west
30 Africa.
"A ceremony serves as a blessing on the trip abroad, and at the same time the victim also
promises to repay their debts for the cost of the trip."
35 Vietnamese youths are trafficked into cannabis farms to cultivate the plants, often with
street value of hundreds of thousands of pounds, Heald added.
"The first time it comes to the attention of the authorities is when the victims themselves
are arrested, charged and prosecuted.
40
"The CPS has issued legal guidance to advise prosecutors of the steps they should take to
ensure that full enquiries are made in these cases and, if information shows that they have
been trafficked, the case against them should be discontinued."
45
The Court of Appeals recently examined a case in which five victims of trafficking had
been convicted of growing cannabis. At the initial trial prosecutors were unaware that they
were victims of trafficking.
CPS: Crown Prosecution Service (UK criminal justice system).
QC: Queen’s Counsel.
42
 Lectura del paratexto.

 Tiempos verbales: Present Simple; Past Simple (verbos regulares e irregulares); Present Perfect;
Past Perfect.
 Verbos modales: must; can; may; should.
 Voz pasiva.
 Preposición + verbo en –ing.
 Infinitivo de propósito (…to ensure that full enquiries are made…).
 Falsos cognados: correspondent; solicitor; support; billion; stationed; offences.
 Afijación: prefijos dis (discontinued); un (unaware).
 Pronombres reflexivos.
 Terminología legal.
01).- ¿Qué rendimiento monetario anual arroja el tráfico de personas como industria global?
02).- ¿Qué medidas toma el gobierno británico respecto del tráfico de personas según Oliver
Heald?
03).- ¿Qué se afirma acerca de Nigeria?
04).- ¿En qué sentido se hace referencia a la brujería?
05).- ¿Cuál es el destino de los jóvenes vietnamitas?
06).- ¿Cuándo se enteran las autoridades de su situación?
07).- ¿Qué dispone el sistema judicial penal británico (CPS) cuando se descubre que un acusado
ha sido víctima del tráfico de personas? ¿Qué ejemplo se menciona en el último párrafo?
43
CLIMATE CHANGE WILL STIR ‘UNIMAGINABLE’ REFUGEE CRISIS, SAYS

MILITARY
Unchecked global warming is greatest threat to 21st century security where mass migration
could be ‘new normal’, say senior military
Damian Carrington (The Guardian). Thursday 1st December 2016
1 Climate change is set to cause a refugee crisis of “unimaginable scale”, according to senior
military figures, who warn that global warming is the greatest security threat of the 21 st
century and that mass migration will become the “new normal”.
5
The generals said the impacts of climate change were already factors in the conflicts
driving a current crisis of migration into Europe, having been linked to the Arab Spring,
the war in Syria and the Boko Haram terrorist insurgency.
10 Military leaders have long warned that global warming could multiply and accelerate
security threats around the world by provoking conflicts and migration. They are now
warning that immediate action is required.
15 “Climate change is the greatest security threat of the 21 century,” said Maj. Gen. Munir
st
Muniruzzaman, chairman of the Global Military Advisory Council on climate change and
a former military adviser to the president of Bangladesh. He said one metre of sea level
rise will flood 20% of his nation. “We’re going to see refugee problems on an
unimaginable scale, potentially above 30 million people.”
20
Previously, Bangladesh’s finance minister, Abul Maal Abdul Muhith, called on Britain
and other wealthy countries to accept millions of displaced people.
25 Brig. Gen. Stephen Cheney, a member of the US Department of State’s foreign affairs
policy board and CEO of the American Security Project, said: “Climate change could lead
to a humanitarian crisis of epic proportions. We’re already seeing migration of large
numbers of people around the world because of food scarcity, water insecurity and
extreme weather, and this is set to become the new normal.
 Futuros: will; going to.

 Afijación. Prefijos in, un y dis: insecurity; unchecked; unimaginable; displaced.
 Grado superlativo de adjetivos: the greatest.
 Verbo + partícula (phrasal verb): call on.
 Caso posesivo: Bangladesh’s finance minister.
 Bloque nominal con sustantivo adjetivado como premodificador del núcleo: climate
change; refugee crisis; security threat; sea level rise; finance minister; food scarcity; water
insecurity.
01).- ¿Qué se afirma en el título y en la bajada?

02).- ¿Quién es Munir Muniruzzaman? ¿Cuál es su rango militar? ¿Qué señaló respecto del
cambio climático?
03).- ¿Qué cargo ocupa Stephen Cheney? ¿Cuál es su rango militar? ¿Qué afirmó?
II: Traducir el fragmento subrayado.

44
UNDERSTANDING A COMPANY'S SOCIAL IMPACT IS CRUCIAL TO

SUSTAINABILITY
Source: The Guardian - Author: Adrian Henriquez
1 Industries such as agriculture have a huge impact on the environment and communities that live
near their operations.
Sustainability has three dimensions: environmental, economic and social, which are all inter-
5 linked. For example, the protection of natural systems requires good social conditions and is
unlikely to happen during war.
Similarly the survival of society needs a supportive natural environment, not one ravaged by climate
change. But neither will happen unless we manage scarce resources at our disposal more successfully in
10 both financial and environmental terms. And in terms of social impact.
Many companies have social goals: they do something that others in society find useful and are willing to
pay for. But what is 'social'? How do we factor the social impact of companies and their contribution to
sustainability?
15
Companies also impact on communities. Particularly those that have a significant direct impact on
the natural environment, such as mining or oil extraction, agriculture or heavy manufacturing. It
matters greatly to those living near their operations how they are carried out and what degree of
20 care is taken over impacts on health for example.
Some companies, particularly mining and oil firms, may even create communities in order to operate. The
living conditions of such workers are an inescapable part of the social responsibility of the company. The
social impacts of removing communities or clearing land in order to operate are even more powerful. So the
25 social impact of a large dam or other major infrastructure projects may be profound. At its worst, it can
destroy lives; at best it will destroy a way of life.
Human rights and labour relations also matter. Companies of all kinds have a role to play in
ensuring that there is no discrimination in the way their staff are managed, promoted and trained,
30
and that they have decent conditions of work.
All these impacts are much easier to identify than measure. Measurement of social impact is hard because to
reduce human experience to numbers is to fail to capture some part of it. This does not mean that any kind of
35 measurement is useless. But it does mean that complacent reliance on a set of numbers is bound to seem
unsatisfactory.
There are a number of important social impacts that are much easier to measure, but about which companies
are reluctant to be transparent. One of these is tax. The payment of tax is one of the most important
40 contributions to society that most companies make. It is also one that they can be most secretive about -
mainly because the countries in which they add value through their operations often bear little relationship to
those where they are liable for taxes.
However the social impacts of companies go far beyond even the kinds of substantive consequences listed
45 above. At its broadest, social impact includes anything that affects company-stakeholder relationships: from
how much and how reliably suppliers are paid (think supermarkets), to how a product affects lives (think
Facebook). From how small shareholders may be treated to the impact of alcohol on health and
communities.
50 Nevertheless companies don't run our lives. Or do they? One of the stakeholder relationships that companies
cultivate with great care is that with government and the state. This can be legal or illegal. In countries where
corruption is most prevalent, the distortion of economic life has some of the most devastating social
consequences possible.
55 But where it is legal, and takes the form of lobbying, it raises questions about the role of companies in
society. In a democracy, one would expect that people, rather than companies, should be the key influence
on government. Yet the very phrase 'corporate citizenship' challenges that assumption. Changing the rules by
which society operates leverages social impact beyond measure.
60 Companies have always been part of society. They should not be seen as a separate power that
must be 'balanced' with society in a zero-sum kind of way in order to achieve sustainability. They
should be seen more as the locus of productive activities that must be harnessed for the greater
good of society as a whole. Understanding their social impact is an essential step in that process.
65
Adrian Henriques is professor of accountability and CSR at Middlesex University and author of
'Corporate Impact - measuring and managing your social footprint'
45
 Bloques nominales.
 Conjunctions.
 Indirect questions.
 CSR terminology.
 Passive voice.
 Dummy structures: fail + infinitive.
 Emphasis (auxiliaries in affirmative sentences).
 Semi-modals: be bound to.
 Comparatives and superlatives.
 Modal verbs.
01).- ¿Qué se afirma en la primera oración del artículo?

02).- ¿Cuántas dimensiones de sustentabilidad existen según el texto? ¿Cuáles son y qué las
caracteriza?
03).- Referirse al impacto social de las empresas según el texto.
04).- ¿Qué se afirma con respecto a los derechos humanos y las relaciones laborales?
05).- ¿Por qué resulta difícil medir los impactos?
06).- ¿Por qué se hace referencia a los impuestos?
07).- ¿Qué señala el autor sobre el impacto social de las empresas en el sentido más amplio?
08).- ¿Qué se afirma sobre la relación entre las empresas y el estado?
09).- ¿Cómo debería considerarse a las empresas según el texto? ¿Qué se señala como
importante en este proceso?
10).- Traducir los conectores en negrita según el contexto en el que aparecen.
11).- Subrayar las palabras en grado comparativo y encerrar en un círculo las que están en grado
superlativo.
12).- Proponer equivalentes en castellano para las siguientes palabras terminadas en ing en
función de su contexto:
 living (renglón 18)
 manufacturing (renglón 17)
 living (renglón 22)
 removing (renglón 23)
 clearing (renglón 23)
 understanding (renglón 63)
13).- Traducir los siguientes bloques nominales que aparecen en el texto:
 a significant direct impact (renglón 16)

 mining and oil firms (renglón 21)
 the living conditions (renglón 22)
 other major infrastructure projects (renglón 24)
 corporate citizenship (renglón 56)
46
EMERGING TRENDS IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
By Rituparna Banerjee
1 NEW TRENDS IN HR
Human resource management is a process of bringing people and organizations together so

that the goals of each other are met. The role of HR manager is shifting from that of a
5
protector and screener to the role of a planner and change agent. Personnel directors are
the new corporate heroes. The name of the game today in business is personnel. Nowadays
it is not possible to show a good financial or operating report unless your personnel
relations are in order.
10
Over the years, highly skilled and knowledge based jobs are increasing while low skilled
jobs are decreasing. This calls for future skill mapping through proper HRM initiatives.
15 Indian organizations are also witnessing a change in systems, management cultures and
philosophy due to the global alignment of Indian organizations. There is a need for multi
skill development. The role of HRM is becoming all the more important.
Some of the recent trends that are being observed are as follows:
20
• The recent quality management standards ISO 9001 and ISO 9004 of 2000 focus
more on people centric organizations. Organizations now need to prepare themselves in
order to address people centered issues with commitment from the top management, with
25 renewed thrust on HR issues, more particularly on training.
• Charles Handy also advocated future organizational models like Shamrock, Federal
and Triple I. Such organizational models also refocus on people centric issues and call for
30 redefining the future role of HR professionals.
• To leapfrog ahead of competition in this world of uncertainty, organizations have

introduced six- sigma practices. Six- sigma uses rigorous analytical tools with leadership
from the top and develops a method for sustainable improvement. These practices improve
organizational values and help in creating defect free product or services at minimum cost.
 Tiempos verbales: Present Simple; Present Continuous; Present Perfect; Past Simple.
 Reconocimiento de la voz pasiva.
 Vocabulario relacionado con Recursos Humanos: management; human resources;
personnel; skill; report; development; training; organizational models; leadership;
sustainable improvement; goals.
 Localización de información.
I: Señalar ejemplos de Present Simple, Present Continuous, Present Perfect and Past Simple.
II: Señalar los ejemplos de voz pasiva que aparecen en el texto.
III: Completar
a) Definición de gestión de Recursos Humanos:

b) El rol del Gerente de Recursos Humanos:
c) Cambios en la India (nuevas necesidades):
d) Motivo de dichos cambios:
e) Nuevas tendencias:
47
ONE IN THREE WOMEN SUFFER VIOLENCE, GLOBAL STUDY FINDS

WHO research reveals shocking extent of attacks on women, the vast majority of which are
carried out by male partners
1 More than a third of all women worldwide — 35.6% — will experience physical or sexual violence in their
lifetime, usually from a male partner, according to the first comprehensive study of its kind from the World
Health Organisation (WHO). The report reveals the shocking extent of attacks on women from the men with
whom they share their lives, with 30% of women being attacked by partners. It also finds that a large
5 proportion of murders of women — 38% — are carried out by intimate partners.
"These findings send a powerful message that violence against women is a global health problem
of epidemic proportions," said Dr Margaret Chan, director general of the WHO. "We also see that
the world's health systems can and must do more for women who experience violence."
10
The highest levels of violence against women are in Africa, where nearly half of all women —
45.6% — will suffer physical or sexual violence. In low- and middle-income Europe, the
proportion is 27.2%. Yet wealthier nations are not necessarily always safer for women — a third of
women in high-income countries (32.7%) will experience violence at some stage in their life.
15
Of the women who suffer violence, 42% sustain injuries, which can bring them to the attention of
healthcare staff. That, says the report, is often the first opportunity for the violence in the home to
be detected and for the woman to be offered help.
20 Violence has a profound effect on women's health. Some arrive at hospital with broken bones,
while others suffer pregnancy-related complications and mental problems.
The two reports from the WHO — one on the prevalence of violence, the other offering guidelines
to healthcare staff on helping women — are the work of Dr Claudia Garcia-Moreno, lead specialist
25 in gender, reproductive rights, sexual health and adolescence at WHO, and Professor Charlotte
Watts, an epidemiologist who specialises in gender, violence and health from the London School
of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
"For the first time we have compared data from all over the world on the magnitude of partner
30 violence and sexual violence by non-partners and the impact of these sorts of violence on health,"
said Garcia-Moreno. These included HIV and other sexually transmitted infections, depression,
women turning to alcohol, unwanted pregnancies and low-birthweight babies.
There were variations in the rates of violence against women in different regions of the world but,
35
said Garcia-Moreno, "in whatever region we looked at, it is unacceptably high".
Even in high-income countries, 23.2% of women will suffer physical and/or sexual violence from
a partner in their lives, their data from 81 countries shows. The global figure for women attacked
by partners was 30%.
40
More sexual assaults and rapes by acquaintances or strangers are reported in high-income countries
than elsewhere — the report says that 12.6% of women in wealthy countries will be sexually
attacked by a non-partner in their life, which is higher than the African rate of 11.9%. But the data
45 on such crimes is not well collected in all regions.
The authors say that their previous research shows that better-educated women are less likely to
suffer violence, as are those who have jobs, although not in all regions.
50 “There is a need to tackle social norms,” said Watts. "What are society's attitudes concerning the
acceptability of certain forms of violence against women?" she asked. "In some societies it is not
OK — but not all."
"I think the numbers are a wake-up call for all of us to pay more attention to this issue," said
55 Garcia-Moreno. “Over the past decade there had been increasing recognition of the problem, she
said, but "one has to recognise that it is a complex problem. We don't have a vaccine or a pill."
The new WHO clinical and policy guidelines recommend training for healthcare staff in recognising the
signs of domestic violence and sexual assault, but they rule out general screening — there is not a case for
asking every woman who arrives in a clinic whether she has been subjected to violence.
60
"But if you see a woman coming back several times with undisclosed injuries, you should be
asking about domestic violence," said Garcia-Moreno. "When I was training in medical school, it
wasn't something you learned or knew about. Years later, I was sometimes in a situation where I
65 could tell there was something else going on in the woman I was interviewing, but didn't have any
sense that domestic violence was the issue. Now I think I would handle the interview very
differently."
48
 Grados comparativo y superlativo.

 Caso posesivo.
 Falsos cognados: extent; comprehensive; figure; assaults; injuries.
 Tiempo verbal Past Continuous: was training; was interviewing.
 Condicional (I would handle…).
 Voz pasiva.
 Demostrativos: this; that; these; those.
 Conectores: yet; but; while.
 Plurales irregulares: men; women.
 Verbo + partícula: carry out.
 Adjetivos compuestos: pregnancy-related; high-income.
01).- Consignar la información solicitada:

Resultado de la investigación de la OMS (incluir datos estadísticos):
Opinión de la Dra. Margaret Chan:
Niveles más altos de violencia contra la mujer:
Situación en los países más ricos:
Efectos de la violencia en la salud de la mujer:
Los dos informes de la OMS:
Violencia ejercida por alguien que no es la pareja:
Reconocimiento del problema en décadas recientes:
02).- Traducir el párrafo subrayado.
03).- Resumir lo expresado por la Dra. García Moreno en el último párrafo.

49
WHAT IS A FANDOM?
Source: wiseGEEK
The term “fandom” is used to refer to the collective fans of something such as a sport, hobby, or
series of books. Typically, the members of a fandom feel interconnected by their common
interest, and a fandom can often be a subculture as well. Only the most devoted fans are
included in a fandom, separating them from people who may casually enjoy the thing in
question. The term is very closely associated with both the fantasy and science fiction genres,
with many well-known examples of each having very dedicated fandoms.
Although some people think that the term sprung to life when the use of the Internet became
widespread, “fandom” is actually an old word. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the
first recorded use of it was in 1903, to describe sports fans. Throughout the twentieth century,
fandoms expanded to include people obsessed with particular musical groups, films, movie
stars, books, and hobbies like model building. In some cases, someone may identify as a
member of multiple fandoms.
Members of a fandom tend to be very interested in all of the details of their object of interest.
Many people, for example, could be “fans” of Star Trek, meaning that they enjoy the series and
they may be familiar with some Star Trek trivia. Fewer people could list all of the actors in the
series, discuss continuity errors, or argue passionately that Picard was the better Captain. These
fans will drink in any available information about their hobby, and they are often extremely
knowledgeable. Their dedication also tends to make them an object of derision, with many
people poking fun at deeply committed fans.
Often, members of a fandom connect with each other through things like conventions and zines.
They may also organize games and conferences, or compose art related to their hobby. Fan
fiction and art are common among fandoms, and some people also compose music, make
sculptures, or create tribute films and shorts. These pursuits indicate how passionate enthusiasts
can become.
With the rise of the Internet, many fandoms have taken their interest online. Numerous websites
are built and maintained by committed fans of everything from Harry Potter to model trains,
and these sites may network extensively with each other. Fans can gather information,
participate in conversations, or post their original artwork and writing to community forums.
These sites have made it much easier for members of a fandom to connect, even if they never
meet in the real world.
 Localización de información.
 Afijación: el sufijo -dom.
 Distintos usos de will.
 Falsos cognados o falsos amigos: casually; actually.
 Revisión de la voz pasiva.
I: Consignar la información que se solicita.

Uso del término fandom.
Condiciones para ser aceptado en un fandom.
Origen de la palabra.
Evolución de la palabra durante el siglo XX.
Idea principal del tercer párrafo.
Manera de conectarse entre los miembros de un fandom. Cambios por la llegada de internet.
Los fandoms y el arte.
50
II: Realizar las siguientes actividades:

01).- ¿Recuerda otras palabras en inglés que incluyan el sufijo dom? Menciónelas. ¿A qué
categoría gramatical pertenecen?
02).- ¿Con qué propósito se utiliza will en el renglón 17 (will drink in any available
information…)? ¿Considera que en este caso expresa una acción futura?
03).- Marcar los ejemplos de voz pasiva que aparecen en el texto. Proponer un equivalente en
castellano.
04).- Falsos cognados: casually (renglón 4) / actually (renglón 8). ¿Qué significan en el
contexto en el que aparecen?
51
PAST
PAPERS
SARTRE’S EXISTENCE AND ESSENCE, RADICAL FREEDOM AND ANGUISH
One of Sartre’s most important metaphysical assertions is his denial of the existence of God.
(He does not take over the mystical or quasi-religious dimension of Heidegger’s concept of
“being”.) Sartre claims that we all fundamentally desire to be God in the sense that we want to
“be our own foundation,” that is, we would like to be perfectly complete and self-justifying.
Like Nietzsche, Sartre holds the absence of God to be of the utmost significance: the atheist
does not merely differ from the theist on a point of metaphysics, he holds a profoundly different
view of human life. There are no transcendent objective values set for us —neither
commandments of God nor a Platonic Form of the Good. Nor is there any intrinsic meaning or
purpose in human existence. In this sense, our life can be described as “absurd”: we are
“forlorn” or “abandoned” in this world. There is no Heavenly Father to tell us what to do or
help us do it; as grown-up people, we have to decide for ourselves and look after ourselves.
Sartre repeatedly insists that the only foundation for values lies in our own choices; there can be
no external or objective justification for the values, projects and way of life that anyone chooses
to adopt.
In one sense, Sartre would deny that there is any such thing as human nature for there to be
theories about. Sartre expresses it in his formula “man’s existence precedes his essence”. He
means that we have no “essential” nature: we have not been created for any particular purpose,
either by God or evolution or anything else; we simply find ourselves existing by no choice of
our own and have to decide what to make of ourselves, so each of us must create his or her own
nature or “essence.” Sartre thinks there are no general truths about what human beings want to
be: the project of becoming God is only the abstract form of our particular desires, which are
many and various.
An existentialist philosopher, however, has to make some general statements about the human
condition. Sartre’s central assertion is human freedom. We are “condemned to be free”; there is
no limit to our freedom except that we cannot cease being free. Anguish, the consciousness of
our freedom, is mentally painful, and we typically try to avoid it. Sartre thinks we would all like
to achieve a state in which there are no choices left open for us, so that we would feel like
inanimate objects and would not be subject to anguish. But such escape from responsibility is
illusory, for conscious beings are necessarily free. Such is Sartre’s diagnosis of the human
condition; hence his gloomy description of our life as “a useless passion”.
A crucial concept in Sartre’s philosophy is that of “bad faith” (mauvaise foi, sometimes
translated as “self-deception”). Bad faith is the attempt to escape anguish by trying to represent
one’s attitudes and actions as determined by one’s situation, character, relationship to others,
employment, or social role —anything other than one’s own choices. Sartre believes bad faith is
the characteristic mode of most human life. He gives a famous example of bad faith, a scene
from the Parisian cafés that were his favorite haunts. He pictures a young girl sitting with a man
who, she has every reason to suspect, would like to seduce her. But when he takes her hand, she
tries to avoid a decision to accept or reject his advances by seeming not to notice: she carries on
their intellectual conversation while leaving her hand in his as if she were not aware of his
holding it. In Sartre´s interpretation, the girl is in bad faith because she somehow pretends —not
just to her companion, but to herself— that she can be distinguished from her body, that her
hand is a passive object, a mere thing; whereas she is, of course, a conscious person who knows
perfectly well what is going on and is responsible for her actions —or lack of reaction, in this
case. (675 words)
Realizar las siguientes actividades:
01).- ¿Qué se afirma en el primer párrafo sobre el pensamiento de Sartre respecto de la existencia de
Dios?
02).- ¿Por qué nuestra existencia es “absurda”?
03).- Explicar la formula de Sartre “la existencia precede a la esencia”.
04).- Traducir el fragmento subrayado.
05).- ¿Qué se afirma en el último párrafo sobre el concepto de “mala fe”? ¿Qué ejemplo da Sartre?

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 MATERIA: Inglés

 CÁTEDRA: Dr. Raúl Narváez / T.P. Eric Salceek

PROFESOR JORGE CONVERSO

- Lic. en Educación. Orientación: Diseño, coordinación y

- Lic. en Educación. Orientación: Gestión – Universidad Nacional

SILVIA MARGARITA PARISE

- Master of Arts in English Language Teaching and Applied

- Lic. en Lengua Inglesa – Universidad del Salvador.

MARIA EMMA RAMOS

- Profesora en la especialidad Inglés – Inst. Nacional Superior del

 Favorecer la construcción de sentidos a partir del abordaje sistematizado de textos con

La especificidad de estos objetivos estará perfilada en:

 Integrar significativamente conocimientos lingüísticos propios de la retórica de los

Significativamente se integraran estrategias de lectura que afianzaran las competencias del

 BARTHES, Roland (1990): La aventura semiológica. Ediciones Paidos. Buenos Aires.

Carácter: Asignatura cuatrimestral

Carga horaria: 4 horas semanales

Metodología de la enseñanza: Clases teórico-practicas

Promoción: Directa o por examen final

Discurso. Géneros y tipología de discurso. Funciones.

 Elementos no verbales que acompañan al texto – gráficos, tablas, formatos, tipografía,

 Coherencia y cohesión. Referencia (anafórica, catafórica, personal, demostrativa,

Los temas se abordaran progresivamente desde la perspectiva de la gramática comunicativa con

La oración: partes, tipos.

La construcción nominal básica y compleja: estructuración y función comunicativa (el

La construcción verbal: funciones comunicativas; verbos regulares e irregulares (de estado,

Falsos cognados (actual, actually, candis, candidly, ability, etc.).

 Predicción: exploración de elementos paratextuales –título, subtítulos, fuentes, etc.

 Lectura global y analítica.

Corpus de material de lectura seleccionado por la cátedra.

 GRIJALBO (2004): Collins-Diccionario Pocket-Inglés/Español, Español/Inglés.

Carácter: Examen final escrito (libre).

Calificación: “aprobado” o “desaprobado”.

Su carácter de “Global” implica la aprobación de los tres niveles correlativos de la asignatura

 Proveer de un mecanismo que permita la aprobación de Inglés-Nivel I, Inglés-Nivel II e

Consistirá en la realización de actividades de lecto-comprensión aplicadas al material textual

La extensión y la complejidad del material seleccionado se ajustarán a los objetivos propuestos.

Ídem Inglés-Nivel I, II y III.

REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA

MARÍA LORENA COOK AND HARRY C. KATZ, EDITORS

The Transformation of U.S. Industrial Relations —An

Industrial Democracy, Total Quality, and Mexico's Changing

Current Developments in Canadian Industrial Relations,

The Mexican Model of Labor Regulation and Competitive

Economic Integration and Labor Law Policy in Canada,

The Social Dimension of Freer Trade, Roy J. Adams and

How will the North American Free Trade Agreement Affect

The Mexican Dual Transition: State, Unionism and the

Free Trade and Its Implications for Industrial Relations and

Industrial Relations in the Maquiladora Industry:

 Paratexto. Lectura de un índice.

Leer el texto en su totalidad. A continuación incluir en la segunda columna la información que

MATERIAL QUE CONTIENE

DISERTACIÓN QUE DESEARÍA LEER

DISERTACIÓN QUE NO LEERÍA POR

Incluir en la segunda columna la información que se solicita en la primera.

Labor EEUU/Gran Bretaña Colour EEUU/Gran Bretaña Honour EEUU/Gran Bretaña

Labour EEUU/Gran Bretaña Color EEUU/Gran Bretaña Honor EEUU/Gran Bretaña

Theatre EEUU/Gran Bretaña Center EEUU/Gran Bretaña Meter EEUU/Gran Bretaña

Theater EEUU/Gran Bretaña Centre EEUU/Gran Bretaña Metre EEUU/Gran Bretaña

1) Tiempo verbal Present Simple.

1) Lea ambas definiciones de la sociología y reflexione. ¿Son parecidas o diferentes?

2) Consigne en español los siguientes bloques nominales: