Biología II

José Antonio Castillo, Ph.D.

jcastillo@yachaytech.edu.ec
 Biología II

Lunes 13:00 a 14:30 en Antigua Biblioteca B-104

Martes 13:00
Miércoles a 14:30
14:00 en en
a 15:30 Antigua Biblioteca
Antigua B-104
Biblioteca B-104

Google classroom: knk6skn

 Evaluación
TEORÍA (75%)/ ELEMENTO PORCENTAJE
LABORATORIO
(25%)
Teoría Gestión del aprendizaje (pruebas, presentación de 15%
trabajos de investigación)
Teoría Examen 1 de medio semestre (MIDTERM 1) 20%
Teoría Examen 2 de medio semestre (MIDTERM 2) 20%
Teoría Examen FINAL (acumulativo) 20%
Laboratorio Practicas, cuaderno, informes, pruebas pre-lab, 25%
examen
TOTAL NOTA FINAL 100%
Reglas del curso:
 Las pruebas escritas (quiz) serán cada 2 semanas para todos los estudiantes.
 Se utilizará el sistema D2L, Google Classroom (código: knk6skn) y email como vía formal
de comunicación del profesor a los alumnos y viceversa.
 Un estudiante puede llegar máximo 5 minutos tarde a clase. Pasado dicho tiempo, no se
le permitirá la entrada.
 Bajo ninguna circunstancia una evaluación, tarea u otro tipo de trabajo puede ser
anulado o postergado.
 Bajo ninguna circunstancia una tarea o trabajo puede entregarse tarde o reemplazarse
por otro.
 Bajo ninguna circunstancia se generarán trabajos o evaluaciones de cualquier índole para
obtener puntos extras.
 Se prohíbe el uso de celular durante el período de clase, aunque podría utilizarse el
Internet a través del celular para fines de la clase.
 Todo acto de deshonestidad académica será sancionado de acuerdo a lo que estipula el
Reglamento de Régimen Académico de la Universidad.
 Tema 1. Biología II
http://www.nature.com/principles

Clase 1. Historia de la genética. Objeto de estudio de la genética y la

genómica. Revisión de conceptos básicos: estructura del ADN,
cromatina, cromosoma, definición y funciones del gen, ¿un gen: una
proteína?, origen de la variación genética: mutación y recombinación,
importancia de la diversidad genética para la evolución.
Trio gets chemistry Nobel 2015 for figuring out DNA repair

The 2015 Nobel Prize in

chemistry was awarded to
Tomas Lindahl (left), Aziz
Sancar (center) and Paul
Modrich (right) for their work
on DNA repair.
Historia de la genética
La herencia.
Los caracteres hereditarios

Noooooo, no te descargamos de
Internet, tú naciste...
 Genética y herencia

Cromosoma A.D.N.

Representación de
la Primera Ley de
Mendel.
Gregorio Mendel El material genético se reparte a
El “padre” de la Genética las células hijas durante la división
celular.
El asesoramiento
médico puede prevenir
Este insecto ha
la aparición de algunas
sido muy
enfermedades
utilizado en
genéticas en los bebés
investigaciones
de una pareja.
genéticas.
Drosophila melanogaster
Genetics is the study
of genes, heredity, and genetic
variation in living organisms. It is
generally considered a field of biology,
but it intersects frequently with many of
the life sciences and is strongly linked
with the study of information systems.
Genomics is a discipline in genetics that
applies recombinant DNA, DNA
sequencing methods, and bioinformatics to
sequence, assemble, and analyze the
function and structure
of genomes (the complete set of DNA
within a single cell of an organism).

The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian friar. Mendel studied 'trait inheritance', patterns in the
way traits were handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of
inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene.
 DNA
Many scientists and technological advances contributed to the discovery of DNA structure and function.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

DNA is shaped like a twisted ladder, a structure commonly known
as a double helix. Within this ladder are specific pairings of
nitrogenous bases, denoted here as A, T, G, and C. How did we
discover this complex helical structure?
 Beginning in 1907, the laboratory work of Thomas Hunt Morgan and his colleagues using
a species of fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, provided convincing evidence that
chromosomes are the cellular structures that carry Mendel's heritable factors. Additionally,
Morgan's studies provided strong support for the idea that the hereditary information for a
specific trait was located on a specific chromosome. Morgan's studies also provided direct
evidence for a gene as a specific unit of genetic material located on a specific
chromosome.

Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism in many genetic studies. In fruit flies, the dominant trait for eye
color is red. The discovery of a male fruit fly with white eyes in the laboratory of Thomas Hunt Morgan played
an important role in the eventual identification of DNA as the carrier of genetic material
How did scientists discover a "transforming principle" that could be acquired
by cells and transmitted to offspring?

The bacterium Streptococcus

pneumoniae exists in two strains,
a relatively harmless R (rough)
strain and a highly virulent S
(smooth) strain.
How did scientists discover a "transforming principle" that could be acquired
by cells and transmitted to offspring?

Griffith's experiment:
Mice injected with R bacteria develop a mild
illness but then recover to full health, but mice
injected with S bacteria die from the infection.
Injection of S bacteria that were killed with heat
does not kill the mice. However, if the heat-
killed remnants of S bacteria are combined with
live R bacteria and injected, the mice die.
Postmortem analysis of these mice reveals S
bacteria — not R bacteria — in their tissues.
Griffith's experiment provided evidence that a
chemical substance from heat-killed bacteria
could "transform" living bacteria. All the
offspring of the living bacteria inherited the
transforming principle.
The Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment

In 1944, Oswald Avery and his colleagues

sought to identify the chemical nature of the
transforming principle from the Griffith
experiment. In their experiment, S bacteria
were killed by heat, producing cell debris
containing DNA, RNA, and protein. To
determine which of these components were
necessary for transformation, the debris was
treated with enzymes to specifically remove
each component: protease to destroy protein,
RNAse to destroy RNA, or DNAse to destroy
DNA. The enzyme-treated debris were then
mixed with R strain bacteria to determine
whether it could still transform them into S
bacteria. Only the DNAse-treated debris
failed to transform the R bacteria into S
bacteria, showing that DNA was necessary
for transformation to occur.
Hershey and Chase ruled out proteins.

This figure shows the steps that occur

when a bacteriophage infects an E.
coli cell. Experiments by Hershey and
Chase showed that the head, sheath
and tail fibers of a bacteriophage are
composed of protein and that the
material injected into the host bacterial
cell is DNA.

T2 virus infecting a bacterial cell.

The Hershey-Chase experiment.

Using radioactive isotopes of sulfur and phosphorus,

Hershey and Chase concluded that proteins were
not the chemical substance of genetic material.
Their experiments provided evidence that DNA was
the carrier of genetic information.

Identifying the Structure of the DNA Molecule

The Hershey-Chase experiment provided evidence that
DNA is the carrier of genetic information. Scientists also
knew the basic components of the DNA molecule. Still
unknown was the structure of the DNA molecule. How are
the components of the DNA molecule arranged and
bonded together? How does the structure of the DNA
molecule relate to the function of storing and transmitting
genetic information?
By the early 1950s, scientists knew that DNA
consists of repeating units, or monomers,
called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of
a nitrogenous base, a deoxyribose sugar and a
phosphate group. There are two types of
nitrogenous bases in
DNA: pyrimidines and purines. The two
pyrimidine bases in DNA are cytosine (C)
and thymine(T). The two purine bases
are adenine (A) and guanine (G). The phosphorus
in the phosphate group explains why the
radioactive phosphorus in the Hershey-Chase
experiment was associated with the genetic
material of the bacteriophage.

A DNA molecule is a polymer made up of nucleotide monomers. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base
that is either a pyrimidine or a purine, along with a deoxyribose sugar and a phosphate group.
 Organism %A %G %C %T A/T G/C %GC %AT
In 1950, two years before the results of the
Hershey-Chase experiment were published, Erwin
Chargaff published two significant findings about φX174 24.0 23.3 21.5 31.2 0.77 1.08 44.8 55.2
the nucleotide composition of DNA known Maize 26.8 22.8 23.2 27.2 0.99 0.98 46.1 54.0
as Chargaff's rule. In the first finding, Chargaff
stated that the nucleotide composition of DNA Octopus 33.2 17.6 17.6 31.6 1.05 1.00 35.2 64.8
varies between species. He found that not only did
the combination of nucleotides vary but also the Chicken 28.0 22.0 21.6 28.4 0.99 1.02 43.7 56.4
proportion of specific nucleotides varied between
species. For example, the DNA of one species Rat 28.6 21.4 20.5 28.4 1.01 1.00 42.9 57.0
may contain 30% cytosine, but another species Human 29.3 20.7 20.0 30.0 0.98 1.04 40.7 59.3
may have DNA containing only 28% cytosine. This
finding provided evidence for genetic diversity Grasshop
29.3 20.5 20.7 29.3 1.00 0.99 41.2 58.6
between species. Chargaff's second finding per
showed that DNA maintains certain properties
across all species. He found that the total amount Sea
32.8 17.7 17.3 32.1 1.02 1.02 35.0 64.9
of pyrimidines (C and T) nearly always equals the Urchin
total amount of purines (A and G) in a given
Wheat 27.3 22.7 22.8 27.1 1.01 1.00 45.5 54.4
sample of DNA. Furthermore, the total amount of
cytosine (C) is always equal to the total amount of Yeast 31.3 18.7 17.1 32.9 0.95 1.09 35.8 64.4
guanine (G), and the total amount of thymine (T) is
always equal to the total amount of adenine (A). E. coli 24.7 26.0 25.7 23.6 1.05 1.01 51.7 48.3
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick published a
one-page report in the journal Nature in which they
described their now-famous double-helix model of the
DNA molecule. In developing their model, Watson and
Crick took advantage of chemical knowledge of DNA,
recent advances in three-dimensional molecular model
building, Chargaff's findings about base equivalencies,
precise measurements of DNA subunits, and X-ray
diffraction analysis of DNA, which reveals the structure of
materials based on the scattering of X-rays from the
electron clouds of atoms in a sample. In 1962, Watson,
Crick and a third researcher, Maurice Wilkins, received the
Nobel Prize for the discovery of the structure of the DNA
molecule. It is important to note that Watson and Crick did
not discover DNA or the function of DNA. Instead, they Lab rats ... James Watson, above left, and
developed a model for the structure of the DNA molecule Francis Crick weren't going to let Rosalind
that matched all of the known data about DNA and its Franklin get in the way of scientific glory.
components; and this model could be used to explain how Photo-illustration: Harry Afentoglou
DNA functions in storing and transmitting genetic
information.
British scientist Rosalind Franklin
provided data that were key to
discovering the structure of DNA.
Rosalind Franklin provided
exceptional quality data from X-ray
diffraction patterns of purified
DNA. Her data allowed Crick and
Watson to derive the molecule's
double helix structure.

Crick and Watson obtained Franklin's

unpublished X-ray diffraction patterns of
DNA from Maurice Wilkins, without
Franklin's permission or knowledge. They
then used this information and Franklin's
interpretation of the data to propose their
new model, the subject of their landmark
paper published in 1953. Franklin died in
1958 at the age of 38 and did not share in
the Nobel Prize, which is not awarded
posthumously. There is no doubt, however,
that Franklin's work was a key to unlocking
the puzzle of DNA structure.
Alternate DNA structures

A-DNA, B-DNA, Z-DNA

 Alternate DNA structures

The i-motif is a four-stranded 'knot' of DNA. Scientists aren't yet sure why this
structures exist, but some factors suggest they may play a role in regulating gene
expression.
In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged by
proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin. This
allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell
nucleus. The structure of chromosomes and chromatin
varies through the cell cycle. Chromosomes are even
more condensed than chromatin and are an essential unit
for cellular division. Chromosomes must be replicated,
divided, and passed successfully to their daughter cells so
as to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of their
progeny. Chromosomes may exist as either duplicated or
unduplicated. Unduplicated chromosomes are single
linear strands, whereas duplicated chromosomes contain
two identical copies (called chromatids or sister
chromatids) joined by a centromere.
Chromatin is a complex of macromolecules found in cells, consisting of DNA, protein and RNA. The
primary functions of chromatin are
1) to package DNA into a smaller volume to fit in the cell,
2) to reinforce the DNA macromolecule to allow mitosis,
3) to prevent DNA damage, and
4) to control gene expression and DNA replication. The primary protein components of chromatin
are histones that compact the DNA. Chromatin is only found in eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclei).
The structure of a eukaryotic protein-coding gene
The structure of a prokaryotic operon
Genetic diversity

Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the

genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability,
which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary.
Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing
environments. With more variation, it is more likely that some individuals in a
population will possess variations of alleles that are suited for the
environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce
offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for more
generations because of the success of these individuals.
Genetic diversity
Fin de la clase