Mainstream Booklet

Carrera: Profesorado Universitario de Ingls
Instancia curricular: Fontica y Diccin I
Cursada: anual
Curso: 1 ao
Carga horaria: 6 (seis) horas
Profesor: Malvina E. Massaro
Ao Lectivo: 2017
Mainstream
Booklet
Compiled by Malvina Massaro
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Handwritten IPA _________________________________
Well-drawn symbols are of paramount _________________________________
importance in a phonetic transcription. In _________________________________
this activity you will copy the shapes of _________________________________
the phonemes. _________________________________
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Source :
http://digidownload.libero.it/mgtund/Spelling%20New%20English%20File/Consonant%20sound%20l
ist.jpg from https://elt.oup.com/student/englishfile/preint/c_pronunciation/?cc=ca&selLanguage=en
Minimal
Pairs
cat cut
ankle uncle
ran run
i:
drank drunk : : ship sheep
match much work walk it eat
bird bored hit heat
fur for bin bean
shirt short live leave
sir saw
e
s hat hate
ship sip mad made
she sea lack lake
sure sore back bake
shoot suit cap cape
shy sigh
s z
t sip zip
tin thin sue zoo
true through place plays
tree three rice rise
taught thought ice eyes
boat both
s
r l sin thin
fry fly sum thumb
right light sank thank
grammar glamour sink think
wrong long saw thaw
wrist list
k
think thing d
sank sang doze those
bank bang day they
rink ring dare there
sunk sung den then
dough though
p b
pin bin w v
pest best wine vine
pig big west vest
pit bit while vile
poured bored wet vet
wary vary
e
bat bet p f
dad dead poor four
pack peck pair fair
sad said pine fine
tan ten pill fill
please fleas
: :
far four
tart taught
part port
farm form
barn born
t
shoes choose
sheep cheap
wash watch
mash match
cash catch
Spelling to Sound Correspondence
Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016
Guidelines for Phonemic Transcription

The following list is made up of a selection of tendencies that will surely help you transcribe. Although we
may sometimes refer to them as rules, you should always remember that there are very few 100%-safe
rules in English phonetics.
Its important for you not to panic! Youll be incorporating these concepts gradually as the course
develops, and you will be coming back to them regularly. However, its extremely useful to have a
compendium of guidelines.
Script conventions:
1. Phonemic script is enclosed by slant lines ... Make sure you do not write a slant after each word.
This is a phonemic transcription.
. CHr Hy ? e?!mh9lHj sqzm!rjqHoRm .

2. Phonetic or allophonic script is enclosed by square brackets.
tell .!sdk.+ Z!sd4\-

3. Ordinary spelling may be enclosed by angle brackets <> in order to avoid confusion.
<mess> .!ldr..
4. As stress is a property of the whole syllable, stress marks are placed before the syllable begins.
hotel .g?T!sdk. subsequently .!rUarHjv?mskh.
5. Do not use capital letters in transcriptions.

Irish .!`HqHR. August .!N9f?rs.
London .!kUmc?m. Wednesday .!vdmycdH.

6. Do not use punctuation marks in transcriptions.
a. You may use a single bar ({) to show pauses, such as most commas.
b. A double bar ({{) stands for a longer pause, such as full stops, semi-colons or colons.
Well, I guess youre wrong, Howard. Can you think it over?

. !vdk { `H !fdr iN9 !qPM !g`T?c {{ j?m it !SHMj Hs !?Tu? {{.
7. Do not confuse letters with phonetic symbols. Letters may be pronounced in a number of ways.
Phonetic symbols, however, always stand for the same sound.
<g> can be .f. or .cY.: go .!f?T.
gym .!cYHl.

.f. will always stand for a voiced velar plosive: give .!fHu.
goose .!ft9r.

8. The following symbols are not English phonemes: <c, , o, q, x, y>.
Phonemic inventory:
9. There is a limited inventory of phonemes in English. Stick to these conventions in other words,
dont create new combinations!!!
a. Vowels:
Pure vowels or monophthongs
1. Relatively long .h9+ @9+ N9+ t9+ 29.
2. Short .h+ H+ d+ z+ U+ ?+ P+ T+ t.
Diphthongs or glides
1. Closing .`H+ dH+ NH+ `T+ ?T.
2. Centring .H?+ d?+ T?.
b. Consonants
Plosives .o+ a+ s+ c+ j+ f.
Affricates .sR+ cY.
Fricatives .e+ u+ S+ C+ r+ y+ R+ Y+ g.
Nasals .l+ m+ M.
Approximants .k+ q+ v+ i.

10. Be neat! Make sure that you dont confuse these pairs in your handwritten transcriptions:
a. .d+ ?.
b. .?T+ `T.
c. .H+ h+ h9.
d. .T+ t+ t9.
e. .r+ R.
f. .`H+ `T+ @9.
g. .N9+ NH+ P.
11. Vowel sounds are difficult to pronounce and recognize at first. Also, they differ quite a lot
depending on the speakers accent. In order to help you, we can either call the vowels of the
General British accent by their number or standard lexical set.
Vowel Number Lexical Set Vowel Lexical Set

.h9. 1 FLEECE .h. Happy
.H. 2 KIT .t. Thank you
.d. 3 DRESS
.z. 4 TRAP Diphthong Lexical Set
.@9. 5 START .`H. PRICE
.P. 6 LOT .dH. FACE
.N9. 7 NORTH .NH. CHOICE
.T. 8 FOOT .d?. SQUARE
.t9. 9 GOOSE .H?. NEAR
.U. 10 STRUT .T?. CURE
.29. 11 NURSE .?T. GOAT
.?. 12 Schwa .`T. MOUTH
12. Miscellanea:
a. General British English is a non-rhotic accent. That is, the sound .q. is only found before
vowels. Therefore, letter <r> is not pronounced before consonants or silence.
British .!aqHsHR. red .!qdc.
German .!cY29l?m. hair .!gd?.

b. The velar nasal consonant .M. is never found in word-initial position.

c. The voiceless glottal fricative .g. is never found in word-final position.
d. The semivowels .i. and .v. can only occur before vowels.
when .!vdm. wow .!v`T.
youth .!it9S. yea .!idH.
e. Dont confuse .H?. with .i?+ id+ iU+ i@9+ iz.; or .T?. with .v?+ vU+ v@9+ vz.. They differ in
terms of which element in the sequence is the more prominent. Diphthongs have a more
prominent first element, whereas in the semivowel + vowel clusters it is the vowel that has
the more prominence.
ears .!H?y. Cf. yes .!idr.
sure .!RT?. Cf. schwa .!Rv@9.
f. Dont use the happy .h. and the thank-you .t. vowels in diphthongs. Diphthongs can only
end in .H+ T+ ?.-
My cow .l`H !j`T. (not .l`h !j`t.)

g. Diphthongs may be followed by other vowels, especially schwa. Make sure you dont use
semivowels here.
hour .!`T?. (not .!`v?.)
fire .!e`H?. (not .!eì?.)
player .!okdH?. (not .!okdi?.)
loyal .!kNH?k. (not .!kPi?k.)
lower .!k?T?. (not .!kPv?.)
h. DRESS .d., TRAP .z., LOT .P., FOOT .T. and STRUT .U. are checked vowels. This means
that they never occur word-finally.
i. FLEECE .h9., START .@9., NORTH .N9., GOOSE .t9. and NURSE .29. cant occur before the velar
nasal .M..
j. The velar nasal .M. is normally preceded by checked (i.e. short) vowels.
sang .!rzM. song .!rPM. sing .!rHM.
sung .!rUM. ginseng .!cYHmrdM.
k. NURSE .29. almost always occurs in stressed syllables.
l. Youre not supposed to use schwa .?. in stressed syllables.
m. GOOSE .t9. and FOOT .T. are extremely rare in word-initial position. Note the following
relatively frequent words (among some other rare words):
ooze .!t9y. oops .!Tor+ !t9or.
n. Stress has an impact on pronunciation. For example, we generally use .it9. in stressed
syllables, and .it+ i?. in unstressed syllables.
using .!it9yHM.
university .$it9mH!u29r?sh.
particular .o?!sHji?k?+ o?!sHjiTk?.

o. The sequences .h9q. and .t9q. dont occur in General British. Instead, you should use .H?. for
the former, and .T?. (or at times also .N9.) for the latter.
mysterious .lH!rsH?qh?r. hero .!gH?q?T.
curious .!jiT?qh?r+ !jiN9qh?r. plural .!okT?q?k+ !okN9q?k.

p. The spelling <oo>
Its generally GOOSE .t9.
It takes STRUT .U. just in blood and flood.
It takes FOOT .T. in foot, good, hood, stood, soot, woof, wood, wool.
It takes FOOT .T. in all <-ook> endings (except for spook).
q. The spellings for TRAP .z. and STRUT .U. are mutually exclusive. The spelling <a> never
takes STRUT .U.. The spellings <o, u, ou> never take TRAP .z..
fan .!ezm. Cf. fun .!eUm.
tan .!szm. Cf. ton .!sUm.
r. Some words whose spelling is <a> are called BATH words because they take .@9. in
General British instead of TRAP. Normally, the <a> is followed by:
Nasal (+consonant)
dance .!c@9mr. sample .!r@9lok.
Fricative (+consonant)
after .!@9es?. pass .!o@9r.
Transcribe your own voice:

13. Do not transcribe dictionary talk. You should consult a pronouncing dictionary but you should
transcribe the version of the word that you think is most suitable.
a. We will focus on the British version, not the American one. Also, if there are several
options, you should choose the first one (which is supposed to be the most frequent)1:
b. Omit raised sounds:

Dictionary: little .!kHs?k. You: .!kHsk.
sense .rdmsr. .rdmr.
c. Keep symbols in italics:

Dictionary: lunch .!kUmsR. You: .!kUmsR.
oral .!N9q?k. .!N9q?k.

d. Omit all symbols and spaces other than primary and secondary stresses:
Dictionary: Caribbean .$jzq ? !ah9 ^?m. You .$jzq?!ah9?m.
category .!jzs ?f ?q^{ h. .!jzs?f?qh.
14. You should transcribe a text in the way you would pronounce it, not necessarily the way it is
written:
e. We favour contractions in speech
We are late. .vH? !kdHs. You are right. .iN9 !q`Hs.
They are friends. .Cd? !eqdmcy. It has finished. .Hsr !eHmHRs.
f. We pronounce numbers and conventions fully

3 men .!Sqh9 !ldm. 2,000 .!st9 !S`Ty?mc !o`Tmcy.
g. We add words when we read dates

1st June, 1998 .C? !e29rs ?u !cYt9m { !m`Hmsh9m !m`Hmsh !dHs.
December 11th, 2002 .Ch H!kdu?mS ?u cH!rdla? { !svdmsh !?T !st9. or
.!st9 !S`Ty?mc ?m !st9.

h. We should be familiar with acronyms and abbreviations
iPhone .!`He?Tm. UNICEF .!it9m?rde. USB .$it9 dr !ah9.

The role of stress within the word

15. There are two stress marks: primary stresses .!. and secondary stresses .$.. It is the primary stress
of the word that can normally change the melody of intonation.

.$jPlo?!sHR?m. $Compe!tition! Vs. $Compe!tition?
.!jzoHs?$kHy?l. !Capita$lism! Vs. !Capita$lism?

16. The presence of stress has an impact on the choice of vowel sounds. There are two subsystems of
vowels (notice that .H+ T. belong to both groups):
a. Strong vowels They tend to occur in stressed syllables:
.h9+ H+ d+ z+ @9+ P+ N9+ T+ t9+ U+ 29+ dH+ `H+ NH+ `T+ ?T+ H?+ d?+ T?.
b. Weak vowels They only occur in unstressed syllables: .?+ h+ t+ H+ T.

i. .h. is used:
1. In the weak forms:
he .gh. she .Rh. we .vh.
me .lh. be .ah. the (+ vowel sound) .Ch.
2. In unstressed word-final position:

happy .!gzoh. phonology .e?!mPk?cYh.
Charlie .!sR@9kh. anybody .!dmh$aPch.
3. In unstressed syllable-final position before another vowel

react .qh!zjs. envious .!dmuh?r.
ii. .t. is used:

1. In the weak forms:
you .it. who .gt.
to (+ vowel sound) .st. do (+ vowel sound) .ct.
2. In unstressed syllable-final position before another vowel:

graduation .$fqzcYt!dHRm. silhouette .$rHkt!ds.
usual .!it9Yt?k. graduate .!fqzcYt?s.

17. Notice that unstressed syllables generally take schwa .?., not DRESS .d..
government .!fUu?ml?ms. (not .!fUudmldms.)
18. English, being a Germanic language, doesnt allow the occurrence of two unstressed syllables at
the beginning of a word. In other words, the Teutonic rule demands that either the first or second
syllable of every word should be stressed. If the primary stress falls later than either on the first or
second syllable, there will be a secondary stress either on the first or second syllable. The rule of
alternation helps us there: if we hear a strong (primary) stress on the third syllable, then there
may be a hidden secondary stress on the first syllable. If we perceive a strong prominence on the
fourth syllable, then there may be a prominence in the second syllable. The unstressed syllables
normally take weak vowels (especially schwa).
oven .!Uu?m. contain .j?m!sdHm.
preposition .$oqdo?!yHR?m. sophistication .r?$eHrsH!jdHR?m.
representative .$qdoq?!ydms?sHu. grammaticality .fq?$lzsH!jzk?sh.

19. Many unstressed endings are generally weak in English; therefore they take weak vowels. Some
words allow the optional use of either schwa or another weak vowel. Sometimes, its even possible
to elide a weak vowel altogether (possible elisions are shown in italics).
-able .,?ak. preferable .!oqdeq?ak.
-ace .,?r+ ,Hr. preface .!oqde?r.
-age .,HcY. village .!uHkHcY.
-ain .,?m. certain .!r29sm.
-al .,?k. special .!rodRk.
-an .,?m. American .?!ldqHj?m.
-ary .,?qh. secretary .!rdjq?sqh.
-ate .,?s+ ,Hs. (adjectives & nouns) certificate .r?!sHeHj?s.
-ed .,Hc. (past tense after final .s+ c.) planted .!ok@9msHc.
-edly .,Hckh+ ,?ckh. (adverbs) supposedly .r?!o?TyHckh.
-ed .,Hc. (adjectives) wicked .!vHjHc.
-en .,?m. tighten .!s`Hsm.
-eon .,?m. dungeon .!cUmcY?m.
-er .,?. (comparative) quicker .!jvHj?.
-es /-s .,Hy. (plurals, simple present, genitive after sibilants) Wells .!vdkyHy.
-est .,?rs+ ,Hrs. (superlatives) biggest .!aHf?rs.
-et .,Hs. circuit .!r29jHs.
-eth .,?S+ ,HS. twentieth .!svdmsh?S.
-ful .,eTk. (quantity nouns) spoonful .!rot9meTk.
-ful .,ek. (adjectives) beautiful .!ait9s?ek.
-ible .,?ak+ ,Hak. incredible .HM!jqdc?ak.
-ily .,Hkh+ ,?kh. happily .!gzo?kh.
-ion .,?m. invention .Hm!udmRm.
-less .,k?r+ ,kHr. timeless .!s`Hlk?r.
-ly .,kh. timely .!s`Hlkh.
-ment .,l?ms. moment .!l?Tl?ms.
-ness .,m?r+ ,mHr. careless .!jd?k?r.
-on .,?m.. Amazon .!zl?ym.
-ory .,?qh. laboratory .k?!aPq?sqh.
-ous .,?r. ridiculous .qH!cHji?k?r.
-some .,r?l. awesome .!N9r?l.
-ure .,?. temperature .!sdloq?sR?.
-y /-ey .,h. Tony .!s?Tmh.

20. Some of these endings are really words in their own right, but they have become unstressed and
weak because of these combinations are extremely frequent. We call this process monolithicity.
They take weak vowels.
-burgh /-borough .,a?q?. Edinburgh .!dcHlaq?.
-chester .,sRHrs?+ ,sR?rs?. Manchester .!lzmsR?rs?.
-ford .,e?c. Oxford .!Pjre?c.
-ham .,?l. Buckingham .!aUjHM?l.
-land .,k?mc. Scotland .!rjPsk?mc.
-man .,l?m. Gentleman .!cYdmskl?m.

-men .,l?m. Gentlemen .!cYdmskl?m.
-shire .,R?+ ,RH?. Yorkshire .!iN9jR?.
-son .,r?m. Smithson .!rlHSrm.

21. When the following word-beginnings are unstressed, they tend to take weak vowels.
ab- .?a,. abandon .?!azmc?m.
ad- .?c,. admire .?c!l`H?.
be- .aH,+ a?,+ ah,. before .aH!eN9.
col- .j?k,. collect .j?!kdjs.
con- .j?m,. control .j?m!sq?Tk.
de- .cH,+ c?,+ ch,. derive .cH!q`Hu.
em- .Hl,. employ .Hl!okNH.
en- .Hm,. entire .Hm!s`H?.
ob- .?a,. obtain .?a!sdHm.
pho- .e?,. photography .e?!sPfq?eh.
pre- .oqH,+ oq?,+ oqh,. prepare .oqH!od?.
pro- .oq?,. promote .oq?!l?Ts.
re- .qH,+ q?,+ qh,. remember .qH!ldla?.
sub- .r?a,. sublime .r?!ak`Hl.
sup- .r?,. support .r?!oN9s.
to- .s?,. today .s?!cdH.
Spelling and pronunciation:

predicting vowel sounds
22. There are only five pure-vowel contrasts in Spanish. In English, there are twelve contrastive pure
vowels. This means that it will be hard for Spanish speakers to discriminate between these sounds,
both in their production and in their perception. The English spelling system, however chaotic it
seems to be, can certainly help.
a. Vowel letters stand for a checked vowel sound (i.e. short vowel)
Basic Vowel Pattern (Consonant letters +) Vowel letter + Consonant letter (+consonant letters)
A single vowel letter needs at least to be followed by a consonant in a
monosyllable or in the stressed syllable of a longer word to keep the vowel sound
checked.
<a> = TRAP .z. at hat straps
<e> = DRESS .d. ex met stretch
 = KIT .H. if bin strict
<o> = LOT .P. off clog flocks
 = FOOT .T. put pushed
 = STRUT .U. up fun brushed
Doubling of consonant letters

The doubling of a consonant blocks the formation of a diphthong. A checked vowel
is normally found in these cases.
<a> = TRAP .z. added latter
<e> = DRESS .d. begging petted
 = KIT .H. written bidding
<o> = LOT .P. clogged floppy
 = FOOT .T. putting
 = STRUT .U. rubbing hubby
b. Vowel letters say their name

Two vowels together
Two vowel letters may be written together so as to break the Basic Vowel Pattern
and, as a result, represent a long vowel sound. In general, the first vowel letter
tends to say its name.
<a> = FACE .dH. paid
<e> = FLEECE .h9. sea see
 = PRICE .`H. die
<o> = GOAT .?T. load soul
 = GOOSE .'i(t9. fruit
Final silent <-e>

A final silent <-e> is added to the word to make the previous vowel letter say its
name.
<a> = FACE .dH. place
<e> = FLEECE .h9. Pete
 = PRICE .`H. hike
<o> = GOAT .?T. mode
 = GOOSE .'i(t9. duke
Final magic <y>

It makes the previous vowel say its name.
<a> = FACE .dH. baby

<e> = FLEECE .h9. Levy
 = PRICE .`H. shiny
<o> = GOAT .?T. Toby
 = GOOSE .'i(t9. ruby
c. Radical <r>
General British English is a non-rhotic accent, therefore, you should pronounce those <r>
letters in the spelling only when they are followed by a vowel sound. When theres no
vowel sound after a <r> in a strong syllable, then this consonant letter normally affects the
vowel letter before it by either lengthening it or turning it into a more open sound.
<ar> = START .@9. star
<er> = NURSE .29. hers
<ir> = NURSE .29. first
<or> = NORTH .N9. form
<ur> = NURSE .29. curse

The role of stress in connected speech
23. As you know by now, when you transcribe a word you need to focus on what syllables can be
potentially stressed. These syllables will always take a strong vowel. The same is true when you
transcribe connected speech, but in order to spot the stressed syllables in the chunk, you first need
to discriminate between content and grammar words.
Content words:
Grammar words: - They compete against other options
- Theyre the only possible The minister of agriculture
collocations The chairman of Shell
- They are predictable The president of Argentina
- They are frequent
- They have little semantic value
The secretary of education - Theyre less predictable
- They tend to be unstressed .C? !rdjq?sqh ?u $dcY?!jdHRm. - Theyre more semantically loaded
CAPPA - They tend to be stressed
conjunctions articles pronouns NAVA
prepositions auxiliaries nouns adverbs verbs - adjectives
a. Content words (NAVA: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) can potentially carry one or
several stresses. Content words are highlighted in speech by means of stress because they
are loaded with meaning and are not easily predictable in the context.
category .!jzs?fqh. representative .$qdoq?!ydms?sHu.
uselessness .!it9rk?rm?r. situation .$rHsRt!dHRm.
b. The following grammar words (CAPPA: conjunctions, auxiliaries, pronouns, prepositions,

articles) take a weak form as the norm.
Tip: if in doubt, choose a weak form over a strong form. These are the most frequent
words in the language and, therefore, they are highly predictable in the context in which
they appear. These words take weak vowels because they are not stressed. (See the notes
on weak and strong forms)
.?. .h. .t. .T. .H.

am .?l., are .?., was .v?y., were .v?.
do (+consonant sound) .c?., does .c?y., have .g?u., has could
.g?y., had .g?c. .jTc.
be .ah.
her .g?., us .?r., them .C?l.
he .gh. do (+vowel sound) .ct.
that .C?s., there .C?., some .r?l., the (+consonant sound) would
she .Rh. you .it. Will
.C?., a .?., an .?m. .vTc.
we .vh. to (+vowel sound) .st. .vHk.
of .?u., to (+consonant sound) .s?., from .eq?l., at .?s., for
me .lh., who .gt.
.e?. should
the (+vowel sound) .Ch. .RTc.
as .?y., and .?m., but .a?s., than .C?m.
must .l?rs., can .j?m., could .j?c., will .v?k., would
.v?c., should .R?c., shall .R?k.
c. Polysyllabic grammar words can potentially take a stress, too.

about .?!a`Ts. behind .aH!g`Hmc.
beyond .aH!iPmc. above .?!aUu.
24. If the grammar word youre looking for is not in the list above, dont turn it into a weak form.
Its on and off, till you break up, then.
.Hsr !Pm ?m !Pe { sHk it !aqdHj !Uo !Cdm.
25. Pre-consonantal vs. Pre-vocalic weak forms

The weak forms of to, do, the change depending on whether theyre followed by a consonant or a
vowel sound. They take schwa .?. before consonants and thank-you .t. or happy .h. before
vowels.
To eat .st !h9s. Cf. To drink .s? !cqHMj.
The east .Ch !h9rs. Cf. The west .C? !vdrs.
Do I eat? .ct `H !h9s. Cf. Do they eat? .c? CdH !h9s.

26. The verb to be is so frequent and predictable that it is almost always weak if its a monosyllable,
regardless of whether it functions as the main verb in a sentence.
We were tired. .vh v? !s`H?c.
The boys are late. .C? !aNHy ? !kdHs.
Youre being funny. .iN9 !ah9HM !eUmh. (Being is made up of two syllables)
27. Contractions:
a. Negative contractions are always strong, because they contain a negative adverb inside
them.
They werent scared. .CdH !v29ms !rjd?c.
b. Pronoun + auxiliary contractions are generally weak.

Hell be happy that shes back. .ghk ah !gzoh C?s Rhy !azj.
28. Confusable weak and strong forms:

a. That is strong when it works as a demonstrative, but its weak when it works as a
conjunction.
Im glad (that) that mans bad. .`Hl !fkzc 'C?s( '!(Czs !lzmy !azc.
b. There is strong when it works as a locative, but its weak when it denotes existence.
Theres a pear over there. .C?y ? !od?q !?Tu? !Cd?.
c. Be careful with us and as.

Tell us as much as you know. .!sdk ?r ?y !lUsR ?y it !m?T.
d. Be careful with of and off.

This friend of mines taken off. .CHr !eqdmc ?u !l`Hmy !sdHj?m !Pe.
e. Be careful with then and than.

Youre older than me, then. .iN9q !?Tkc? C?m lh !Cdm.

f. Be careful with hes and his.
Hes younger than his brother. .ghy !iUMf? C?m gHy !aqUC?.

Spelling and pronunciation:
Voice agreement
29. Regular plural nouns, the genitive and the 3rd person singular inflection of the simple present
tense:
a. If the final sound in the original word is voiceless .o+ s+ j+ e+ S., we add .r. to agree in voice
with it.
pops .!oPor. gets .!fdsr. kicks .!jHjr.
wifes .!v`Her. maths .!lzSr.
b. If the final sound in the original word is voiced .a+ c+ f+ u+ C+ k+ l+ m+ M., a vowel or a
diphthong, we add .y. to agree in voice.
Bobs .!aPay. hoods .!gTcy. digs .!cHfy.
arrives .?!q`Huy. bathes .!adHCy. Wills .!vHky.
comes .!jUly. means .!lh9my. Kings .!jHMy.
draws .!cqN9y. carries .!jzqhy. toys .!sNHy.

c. Exception: If the final sound in the original word is a sibilant consonant (i.e.
.r+ y+ R+ Y+ sR+ cY.), a new syllable (.Hy.) is added to the root. Notice that the two
phonemes in .Hy. agree in voice.
dresses .!cqdrHy. washes .!vPRHy. Mitchs .!lHsRHy.
Jamess .!cYdHlyHy. garages .!fzq@9YHy. bridges .!aqHcYHy.

d. IRREGULARITIES:
The spelling shows the change from .e. to .u., but not from .S. to .C.-
life .!k`He. lives .!k`Huy. (C.f. wives .!v`Huy. wifes .!v`Her.)
path .!o@9S. paths.!o@9Cy.

Theres one irregular root word:
house .!g`Tr. C.f. houses .!g`TyHy.
30. Regular verbs in the past tense <-ed> (and most adjectives):
a. If the final sound in the original word is voiceless .o+ j+ sR+ e+ S+ r+ R., we add .s. to agree in
voice with it.
hoped .!g?Tos. booked .!aTjs. watched .!vPsRs.
laughed .!k@9es. wished .!vHRs. passed .!o@9rs.
gap-toothed .$fzo!st9Ss.
b. If the final sound in the original word is voiced .a+ f+ cY+ u+ C+ y+ Y+ k+ l+ m+ M., a vowel or
a diphthong, we add .c. to agree in voice.
rubbed .!qUac. clogged .!jkPfc. ranged .!qdHmcYc.
arrived .?!q`Huc. breathed .!aqh9Cc. buzzed.!aUyc.
filled .!eHkc. skimmed .!rjHlc. cleaned .!jkh9mc.
longed .!kPMc. glued .!fkt9c. carried .!jzqhc.
played .!okdHc. camouflaged .!jzl?ek@9Yc.

c. Exception: If the final sound in the original word is either .s. or .c., a new syllable (.Hc.) is
added to the root. Notice that the two phonemes in .Hc. agree in voice.
decided .cH!r`HcHc. invented .Hm!udmsHc.
d. Notice:
Some adjectives always take .Hc..
naked .!mdHjHc. wicked .!vHjHc. ragged .!qzfHc.
The adverbial ending <-edly> is pronounced .Hckh.-

Supposedly .r?!o?TyHckh. allegedly .?!kdcYHckh.
Miscellanea
31. Be careful with the demonstratives:
a. Basic vowel pattern: this .'!(CHr. that .'!(Czs.
b. Silent <-e>: these .'!(Ch9y. those .'!(C?Ty.
32. <some> is strong in compounds
somebody .!rUla?ch. someone .!rUlvUm. somewhere .!rUlvd?.
something .!rUlSHM. sometimes .!rUls`Hly. somewhat .!rUlvPs.
33. Notice:
.!vd?. where wear ware
.v?. were (most frequent form weak)
.!v29. were (rarely strong form)
34. The word <use>. Compare:

Noun: The use .C? !it9r.
Verb: To use .s? !it9y.
Past habit: Used to .!it9rs s?. + consonant sound
.!it9rs st. + vowel sound
35. Inflecting:
a. Sometimes, a vowel is added after another vowel. You should keep both!
Vowel Final <-ing> Superlative <-est> Ordinal <-th>
FLEECE .h9. seeing .!rh9HM. freest .!eqh9Hrs.
happy .h. tidying .!s`HchHM. happiest .!gzohHrs. fortieth .!eN9shHS.
PRICE .`H. tying .!sq`HHM. shiest .!R`HHrs.
FACE .dH. saying .!rdHHM. grayest .!fqdHHrs.
CHOICE .NH. toying .!sNHHM. coyest .!jNHHrs.
b. Make sure you dont add an extra vowel in these cases. Just follow the rule!
Vowel Final <-ed> Final <-es>
FLEECE .h9. skied .!rjh9c. skies .!rjh9y.
happy .h. worried .!vUqhc. worries .!vUqhy.
PRICE .`H. dried .!cq`Hc. dries .!cq`Hy.
FACE .dH. played .!okdHc. plays .!okdHy.
CHOICE .NH. enjoyed .Hm!cYNHc. enjoys .Hm!cYNHy.
36. <-ng> vs. <-gn>

Final <-gn> is .m. (i.e. <g> is silent).
foreign .!ePqHm. reign .!qdHm.
Final <-ng> is .M. (i.e. <g> has fused with <n>).

king .!jHM. strong .!rsqPM.
37. Spelling <ng>

a. Word-internal <-ng->, when its not at morpheme boundaries, is .Mf.. The .f. belongs in
the word, therefore the nasal shows velar assimilation.
English .!HMfkHR. language .!kzMfvHcY. finger .!eHMf?.
anger .!zMfqh. hunger .!gUMf?. bingo .!aHMf?T.

b. Word-final and morpheme-final<-ng> is .M.. The letters <n> and <g> fuse.
sing .!rHM. sing|er .!rHM?. sing|ing .!rHMHM.
wrong .!qPM. wrong|ly .!qPMkh.
c. Exception: the comparative and superlative forms of <long>, and <young>
add .f..
Adjective Comparative <-er> Superlative <-est>
long .!kPM. longer .!kPMf?. longest .!kPMf?rs.
strong .!rsqPM. stronger .!rsqPMf?. strongest .!rsqPMf?rs.
young .!iUM. younger .!iUMf?. youngest .!iUMf?rs.
38. Spelling <x>

a. Its mostly found after a stressed vowel, and it .jr.. For example:
At the end of words
mix .!lHjr. text .!sdjrs. sex .!rdjr.

When its followed by an unstressed vowel sound
mixing .!lHjrHM. sexes .!rdjrHy.
toxic .!sPjrHj. toxicology .$sPjrH!jPk?cYh.
b. Its .fy. when followed by a stressed vowel sound

exist .Hf!yHrs. exhausted .Hf!yN9rsHc. exotic .Hf!yPsHj.
exam .Hf!yzl. anxiety .zM!y`H?sh. example .Hf!y@9lok.

c. Its .jR. in:
anxious .!zMjR?r. complexion .j?l!okdjRm.
luxury .!kUjRqh. sexual .!rdjRt?k.

d. Its .y. at the beginning of words.
xylophone .!y`Hk?e?Tm. Xavier .!ydHuh?. xenophobia .$ydm?!e?Tah?.

Strong word beginnings
39. Prefixes can be strong when they are stressed. They could take a primary stress, or a secondary
stress.
semivowel .!rdlhu`Tk. overcoat .!?Tu?j?Ts. understand .$Umc?!rszmc.
forecast .!eN9j@9rs. aftermath .!@9es?lzS. anticlockwise .$zmsh!jkPjv`Hy.
40. Negative <un-> takes a strong vowel, even if its not stressed.
undo .'$(Um!ct9. unhappy .'$(Um!gzoh. unabridged .$Um?!aqHcYc.

41. <de->
a. .!cd. when it takes either the primary or secondary stress
decorate .!cdj?qdHs. derivation .$cdqH!udHRm.
b. .ch9. when it means the opposite

devoice .'$(ch9!uNHr. detoxify .'$(ch9!sPjrHe`H.
c. .ch+ cH+ c?. before a stressed syllable

determine .cH!s29lHm. decide .cH!r`Hc.

42. <pre->
a. .!oqh9. when it takes either the primary stress in some words
pretext .!oqh9sdjrs. prefix .!oqh9eHjr.
b. .!oqd. when it takes a secondary stress (or primary stress in some words)
preferable .!oqdeq?ak. preparation .$oqdo?!qdHRm.

c. .$oqh9. when it means before
prejudge .$oqh9!cYUcY. pre-exist .$oqh9Hf!yHrs.
d. .oqh+ oqH+ oq?. before a stressed syllable

prepare .oqH!od?. preside .oqH!y`Hc.
43. <re->
a. .!qd. when it takes either a secondary or primary stress
represent .$qdoqH!ydms. resonate .!qdy?mdHs.

b. .qh9. when it means again
rewrite (noun) .!qh9q`Hs. rewrite (verb) .$qh9!q`Hs.
c. .qh+ qH+ q?. before a stressed syllable

repair .qH!od?. react .qh!zjs.
44. <pro->
a. .!oq?T+ !oqP. in stressed position (every word is different!)
pronoun .!oq?Tm`Tm. probable .!oqPa?ak.
b. .$oqP. in many words when the syllable takes a secondary stress

proclamation .$oqPjk?!ldHRm.

c. .oq?T. when it means in favour of, instead of
pro-abortion .$oq?T?!aN9Rm. proactive (verb) .$qh9!q`Hs.
d. .qh+ qH+ q?. before a stressed syllable

repair .qH!od?. react .qh!zjs.

45. The following prefixes take a strong vowel when theyre stressed:
a- .$z,. acquisition .$zjvH!yHRm.
ad- .$zc,. adaptation .$zc?o!sdHRm.
col- .$jPk,. collocation .$jPk?!jdHRm.
con- .$jPm,. confidential .$jPmeH!cdmRk.
de- .$cd,. derivation .$cdqH!udHRm.
en- .$dm,. entertaining .$dms?!sdHmHM.
ob- .$Pa,. obligation .$PakH!fdHRm.
pho- .$e?T,. photographic .$e?Ts?!fqzeHj.
pre- .$oqd,. preparation .$oqdo?!qdHRm.
pro- .$oq?T,. prohibition .$oq?TH!aHRm.
pro- .$oqP,. proposition .$oqPo?!yHRm.
re- .$qd,. representative .$qdoqH!ydms?sHu.
sub- .$rUa,.. sublimation .$rUakH!ldHRm.
sup- .$rUo,. supposition .$rUo?!yHRm.
46. The following prefixes are always strong:

anti- .$zmsh,. anticlimatic .$zmsHjk`H!lzsHj.
hom- .$gPl?, $g?Tl?.homorganic .$gPlN9!fzmHj.
hyper- .$z,. hyperactive .$g`Ho?q!zjsHu.
pseudo- .$rit9c?T,. pseudo-Marxist .$rit9c?T!l@9jrHrs.
psycho- .$r`Hj?T,. psycholinguistics .$r`Hj?TkHM!fvHrsHj.
super- .$rt9o?,. supermarket .!rt9o?$l@9jHs.
trans- .'$(sqzmr,. transcription .'$(sqzm!rjqHoRm.
ultra- .$r`Hj?T,. ultramodern .$Uksq?!lPcm.
Strong word endings

47. These endings are strong, especially when theyre stressed.
-ade .,!dHc. parade .o?!qdHc.
-ain .,!dHm. ascertain .$zr?!sdHm.
-ate .,dHs. (verbs) concentrate .!jPmr?msqdHs.
-gramme .,fqzl. programme .!oq?Tfqzl.
-graph .,fq@9e. photograph .!e?Ts?fq@9e.
-ice .,`Hr. advice .?c!u`Hr
-ile .,`Hk. agile .!szjs`Hk.
-ise/-ize .,`Hy. realize .!qH?k`Hy.
-oir(e) .,v@9. repertoire .!qdo?sv@9.
/s/ or /z/?
48. Its extremely difficult to know when to use .r. or .y.. Although the real answer is only found in a
pronunciation dictionary, the following tendencies are of great help:
a. The spelling <z> is never .r.
b. The beginning <s-> is never .y.
Sore .!rN9. strong .!rsqPM.
But: sure .!RN9. sugar .!RTf?.
c. You should never use .y. for the spelling <c>

face .!edHr. cinema .!rHm?l?.
d. The spelling <ss> is generally .r..

Mississippi .$lHrH!rHoh. class .!jk@9r.
Exceptions:
scissors .!rHy?y. possess .o?!ydr. dessert .cH!y29s.
dissolve .cH!yPku. hussar .g?!y@9.
e. In word-internal position, <-s-> is:

Almost always .y. between vowels
easy .!h9yh. present .!oqdyms.
Generally .y. before or after a vowel or voiced consonant

clumsy .!jkUlyh. husband .!gUya?mc.
Generally .y. before or after a voiceless consonant

test .!sdrs. tipsy .!sHorh.
f. The ending <-se> is normally:

Homographs tend to take .y. in verbs and .r. in adjectives and nouns
to excuse .st Hj!rjit9y. the excuse .Ch Hj!rjit9r.
to house .s? !g`Ty. the house .C? !g`Tr.
.r. in <-lse, -nse, -rse>

tense .!sdmr. pulse .!oUkr. horse .!gN9r.
g. The ending <-s> is normally:

.r. in most monosyllabic content words
bus .!aUr. yes .!idr.
.y. in most monosyllabic grammar words

does .c?y. is .Hy.
.y. after long vowels

yours .iN9y. series .!rH?qh9y.
Works consulted:
Jones, D. (2003). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (16th edition). Cambridge: CUP.
Ortz Lira, H. (2007). La transcripcin fonemtica del ingls: problemas y soluciones. Santiago de Chile:
UMCE.
1
Wells, J.C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd edition). Hong Kong: Longman.
Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016 1
How to go about a phonemic transcription

The objective of this course is to help you improve your pronunciation. We use phonemic transcription to address several
needs: to begin with, it helps you reflect on the pronunciation of English; it also provides you with a set of systemic choices
that will help you make sense of the chaotic nature of the English spelling system. Below, you will find a guide to help you cope
with this.
Steps to follow:
1. Chunk the text. Remember that each chunk constitutes a unit of information processing: your listener will
interpret what you mean chunk by chunk. We normally chunk main clauses, subordinate clauses and long phrases.
2. Spot the content words in the chunk. Stressing and meaning are closely connected in English. Listeners fish for
stresses so as to understand the message of what is being said.
3. Stress the prominent syllables in all the content words and in the polysyllabic grammar words in
the chunk. This will help you focus on what syllables are protected by stress and what syllables are likely to be
obscure. Stressed syllables take strong vowels, while weak syllables almost always take weak vowels (especially
.?+ h+ H. and sometimes .T+ t. remember that at times .?. can even be dropped!).
4. Strong forms: decide whether the grammar words in the text are strong or weak. They are likely to be
weak unless there are istances of:
a. Prominence: contrast /citation / emphasis

b. Position:
i. DO or HAVE used as main verbs.
ii. HAVE used as obligation (have to), or causative uses.
iii. Auxiliaries in short yes/no questions and short answers.
iv. Auxiliaries in full yes/no questions.
v. Negative contractions.
vi. Stranding of auxiliaries, the verb to be or prepositions.
vii. Buttressing of prepositions.
5. Choose the right vowel! Although the English consonant system presents some difficulty,it is the vowel system
that puzzles Spanish speakers. In order to decide what vowel to choose in each syllable, you should start by analyzing
these variables:
a. Monosyllabic content words:

i. Basic Vowel Pattern: (CC)V(CC)
ii. Silent <-e>
iii. Radical <-r>
iv. Exceptional words of frequent occurrence.
b. Polysyllabic words:
i. Magic <-y>
ii. Double consonants
iii. Suffixes and prefixes
6. Apply all the other rules you learn as the course develops (e.g. linking <r>, plural and past tenses, etc.)
Sample transcription
We clearly remember that there were some men at the table. They seemed to be very sad. One
of them was talking on his phone.
Chunk the text On average, there tend to be 7 syllables per chunk. Therefore, we
need to split this sentence. We chunk off the subordinate clause.
We clearly remember | that there were some men at the table.| They seemed to be very
sad. | One of them | was talking on his phone.|
We chunk here again to balance the number of
syllables. Here, we chunk off the subject from the
Spot the content words predicate.
We clearly remember | that there were some men at the table.| They seemed to be very
sad. | One of them | was talking on his phone.|
The verb to be is almost always weak, regardless of
whether it functions as a main verb or as an auxiliary
verb.
Stress the prominent syllables of each content word and polysyllabic

grammar words
We clearly remember | that there were some men at the table.| They seemed to
be very sad. | One of them | was talking on his phone.|
Sort out strong and weak forms

At the beginning of the course, we wont be using strong forms, as they are exceptional uses. There are no
strong forms in this text.
Choose the right vowel

Basic Vowel Pattern: when one vowel letter in the spelling
is blocked by consonants in a monosyllabic word, it takes a
We clearly remember | short vowel sound. This helps you choose between .d. and
.29.. Also, .?. is ruled out because this syllable is stressed.
. vh !jkH?kh q?!ldla? {
Silent <-e> makes the
previous vowel letter say
Most unstressed
that there were some men at the table.| its name.
syllables take a weak
vowel. Schwa is the most
C?s C? v? r?l !ldm ?s C? !sdHak {{
frequent one. When there are two vowel letters together,
the first one generally says its name. This
They seemed to be very sad. | word takes .h9., a long vowel, because this
doesnt follow the Basic Vowel Pattern.
CdH !rh9lc s? ah !udqh !rzc {{
All the stressed syllables
take a strong vowel. We This word of frequent occurrence doesnt follow the silent <-e>
can predict most of them
thanks to the spelling One of them | rule. However, as the spelling is <o>, this .`.-like sound must be
rules we study. .U.. Letter <o> cant take .z..
!vUm ?u C?l {
Many words, such as <walk> and <stalk> are
was talking on his phone.| examples of how the sequence <al> merged
into one sound, .N9. in this case. <l> is silent
v?y !sN9jHM Pm gHy !e?Tm . here.
Prof. Francisco Zabala 2014
Adapted from Prof. Mnica Terluk
Strong and weak vowels

Lets suppose you are in a room, and what people in a different room are saying gets muffled. It is possible that, even
without hearing intelligible words or accurate sounds, you will detect what language is being used. How is this
possible? It may be a question of rhythm.
Compare Bens quite fat now, Benny is very heavy at present, and Benjamin is particularly corpulent presently.
These three sentences are definitely different in size but similar in duration (i.e. time).
1st FOOT 2nd FOOT 3rd FOOT 4th FOOT
(4 stresses / 4 syllables)
Bens Quite Fat now
Benny is very Heavy at Present
Benjamin is par ticularly corpulent presently
How can this be possible? Although this is not scientifically accurate, for teaching purposes we say that English
rhythm tends to be isochronous .`H!rPjq?m?r., that is, beats tend to happen in a regular way. All the unstressed
syllables in a foot can be crammed together because they generally contain weak vowels.
? H h9 d z @9
P N9 t9 U
h `H dH NH
T H? d? T?
t ?T `T
1. Weak vowels can only occur in weak, unstressed syllables:

a. E.g. Benjamin .!admcY?lHm., carry .!jzqh., into .!Hmst+ !Hms?..
b. Sometimes .?. may even be dropped: apple .!zok., listen .!kHrm..
2. .H+ T.belong to both groups. They can occur either in stressed or unstressed syllables.
a. Stressed: book .!aTj., sit .!rHs., look .!kTj., win .!vHm., wood .!vTc..
b. Unstressed: catching .!jzsRHM., added .!zcHc., strongest .!rsqPMfHrs..
c. Sometimes .?. can replace them:
Particular .o?!sHjiTk?+ o?!sHji?k?. Endless .!dmckHr+ !dmck?r.
3. Strong vowels: they are obligatory in stressed syllables. They can also be found in some unstressed
syllables.
a. Stressed: time .!s`Hl., dollar .!cPk?., pronunciation .oq?$mUmrh!dHRm..
b. Unstressed: activity .zj!sHu?sh., context .!jPmsdjrs., dialogue .!c`H?kPf..
Word Stress
Due to rhythmical reasons, the vowels in Spanish and English words behave in a different way. Thus, it is important
for Spanish speakers to focus on some strong tendencies which will better their performance in English. Let us
compare the Spanish word entretenido and its English counterpart entertaining. In Spanish, the stress pattern is
Entretenido Zdms3dsd!mhCn\
The English pattern is quite different. There is a very strong syllable before the primary stress which should not be
overlooked. A stress, be it primary or secondary, requires a strong vowel.
Entertaining Z$dms?!sdHmHM\ (not *Z?ms?!sdHmHM\)
The Teutonic Rule

The Teutonic Rule asks for an obligatory stress in either the first or the second syllable, i.e., there cannot
be two initial unstressed syllables in English. This is challenging for Spanish speakers, whose language
allows several unstressed initial syllables.
Garden .!f@9cm. Person .!o29rm. Using .!it9yHM.
Believe .aH!kh9u. Decide .cH!r`Hc. Result .qH!yUks.
What happens with longer words? First of all, spot the primary stress. If it is neither on the first or second
syllable, we need to find the secondary stress. The next two rules come to our rescue!
The Rule of Alternation

The Rule of Alternation comes in handy at this stage. It can help the learner to predict the stressed syllables in a
polysyllabic word. There is a strong tendency to alternate strong and weak syllables, so if the primary
stress falls on the third syllable, the first one is likely to bear a secondary stress. Conversely, if the primary stress falls
on the fourth syllable, it is the second one that is likely to carry the secondary stress. Be on the alert: there are several
exceptions!
University .$it9mH!u29r?sh. Conversation .$jPmu?!rdHRm.

Adolescence .$zc?k!drmr. Demonstration .$cdl?m!rsqdHRm.
Pronunciation .oq?$mUmrh!dHRm. Abbreviation .?$aqh9uh!dHRm.
Enthusiastic .Hm$Sit9yh!zrsHj. Evaluation .H$uzkt!dHRm.

The Rule of Derivation

The Rule of Derivation can help you spot the secondary stress of a word. Many English words are derived from other
words. If the primary stress is moved more than one syllable when an affix is added, the stressed syllable in the
original word may be likely to become a secondary stress:
Pronounce .oq?!m`Tmr. Pronunciation .oq?$mUmrh!dHRm.

Generous .!cYdmq?r. Generosity .$cYdm?!qPr?sh.
Happy /i/
Happy /i/ is the name we give this vowel, because it is found in unstressed position
at the end of words such as happy, city, easy and silly. There is a lot of variation in terms
of its exact phonetic quality. Supposedly, the key factor is the speakers age. On the one hand,
older speakers tend to use the same vowel quality in the first and second syllables of the word
silly. On the other hand, younger people tend to use a similar vowel quality in both syllables in
easy. This means that older speakers seem to use a final .H., while younger speakers use a
shorter version of .h9.. This is why happy /i/ is as short as .H. but its quality
resembles .h9..
Compare:
Billy: Older speakers Z!aHkH\ Easy: Older speakers Z!h9yH\
Younger speakers Z!aHkh\ Younger speakers Z!h9yh\

Lets find examples!

This vowel is also present in a special group of monosyllabic grammar words. These are
normally said in a very weak as they are not normally stressed:
_____ .gh. _____ .Rh. _____ .vh.
_____ .lh. _____ .ah. _____ .Ch.

Weak Words
Have a look at this transcription. What is the text about?
/ma rni { hz lwez bn veri mptnt f mi {{ ma mz pernts { hu w frm tli |

spent m tam h { n n jrp {{ ma rnf pst we { meni jz { bt ma
rni { wl atlv s l {{ iz tn nanti et s me {{ ma rnp { hd hd i ad { v
km h {{ hi seld fst { n en hz waf kem v {{ vd { wz n n l p { t
lmst sk {{ a m { ts rizn { wa i nev tks bat t {{ z ju kn mdn {
e fled jrp { bkz v w {{ t bn { w sm prblmz h { tu {{ haev {
n wz ws { n wt e hd ksprinst { n e hmlnd {{ t wz hd f m { t liv
evri bhand { n tu dpt tu nju we v laf {{ ma mr n a { hv trad t ln bat
pst { bt grn lwez telz s { t wi d let banz bi banz {{ a rmembr n
epsd { wen i skt s { du a nid tu n pst { t mek ju hpi {{ a l nev fet
z jz {{ dz i stl fil pen { wen h memriz rikndld {{ a es s {{ a mst nt p
h {{ a wd lv tu sk { bt rivzt h pst { kd stl bi dnt {{ wt d ju k/
Classify all the weak words in the text according to the vowel they take.
.H. in:
.h. in: .t. in:
Frequent
grammar
words
.?. in:
.?. or .H. in: .?. or .T. in:

Strong & Weak Forms

Remember that the strong forms of the following words are used only under exceptional circumstances. Italics
indicate that a sound may be optional.
Auxiliaries & Verb to be

Weak Form Strong Form Conjunctions
Am /m .?l+ l. .zl. Weak Form Strong Form
Are/ re .?. .@9. And .?m'c(. .zm'c(.
Be .ah. .ah9. As .?y. .zy.
Been .ah9m+ aHm. But .a?s. .aUs.
Can .j'?(m. .jzm. Than .C'?(m. .Czm.
Could .j?c+ jTc. .jTc. That .C?s. .Czs.
.c?.+Consonant Prepositions
Do .ct9. Weak Form Strong Form
.ct.+Vowel
.c?y. .cUy. At .?s. .zs.
Does
.'g(?c+ c. .gzc. For .e?. .eN9.
Had/ d
From .eq'?(l. .eqPl.
Has/ s .'g(?y+ r+ y. .gzy.
.'g(?u+ u. .gzu. Of .?u. .Pu.
Have/ ve
Is /s .Hy+ r+ y. .Hy. .s?.+Consonant
To .st9.
Must .l?rs. .lUrs. .st. + Vowel
Shall .R'?(k. .Rzk. Others
Should .R?c+ RTc. .RTc. Weak Form Strong Form
Was .v?y. .vPy. There .C?. .Cd?.
Were /re .v?. .v29. Some .r'?(l. .rUl.
Will/ ll .vHk+ v'?(k+ k. .vHk.
Would .v?c+ vTc. .vTc.
Personal Pronouns Possessive Adjectives

Subjective Objective
Weak Form Strong Form Weak Form Strong Form Weak Form Strong Form
I .`H. Me .lh. .lh9. My .l`H.
You .it. .it9. You .it. .it9. Your .iN9.
He .'g(h. .gh9. Him .'g(Hl. .gHl. His .'g(Hy. .gHy.
She .Rh. .Rh9. Her .'g(?. .g29. Her .'g(?. .g29.
It .Hs. It .Hs. Its .Hsr.
We .vh. .vh9. Us .?r. .Ur. Our .`'T(?+ @9.
They .CdH. Them .C'?(l. .Cdl. Their .Cd?.
Articles
Indefinite Definite
Weak Form Strong Form Weak Form Strong Form
A .?. .dH. .Ch.+Vowel
The .Ch9.
An .?m. .zm. .C?.+Consonant
The English Pure Vowels

A vowel is a sound in the production of which the air-stream comes out through the mouth (and
nose), centrally over the tongue, and metes a stricture of open approximation (Finch & Ortz-Lira,
1982, p. 189).
Characteristics of vowels:
They can stand on their own. Some MONSYLLABIC WORDS illustrate this point: ear, or, out, err,
air, I, owe, etc.
They occur in the nucleus of the syllable, so they are CENTRAL. E.g. peas, ease, pee.
The air escapes freely through the mouth. This means that they are CONTINUANT because the
airflow does not stop. Also, they are FRICTIONLESS because the organs are sufficiently apart so
as not to produce turbulence.
They are normally VOICED because there is vibration of the vocal folds.
They are mainly ORAL because the air escapes through the ORAL cavity. However, they can be
NASALISED when they are in contact with .l+ m+ M.. Block your nostrils with your fingers and
compare the word reader with morning. Which of the two has a continuous nasal resonance?
They are better described AUDITORILY because it is difficult to see what happens inside your
mouth. Also, it takes a lot of practice to be able to manipulate your organs of speech at will!
The articulatory features that make vowels different from each other are: TENSENESS, the shape
of the lips, their relative length and QUALITY. Remember that the last feature is the most
transcendental.
The vowel chart is used as a visual aid for

understanding the quality of the vowel system in a
language. It is based on the cardinal vowel diagram,
devised by Daniel Jones. These cardinal vowels do not
exist in any language in particular; they are abstractions
which serve as a reference point to describe and
compare the vowels in a language, and also across
languages. The vertical axis of the chart indicates the
degree of opening of the jaw and its connection with the
raising or lowering of the tongue. The horizontal axis
shows the part of the tongue that is raised the most and
forms the narrowest stricture in the oral tract.
Vowel chart adapted from Cruttenden (2014)

.H. KIT Vowel N2

Listen to .H.
Trim (1995, p.15)

.H.
.H. KIT Vowel N2
DISTRIBUTION: Restricted
Initial Medial Final
inn .!Hm. shrink .!RqHMj.
SPELLINGS
BVP ill .!Hk. since
since .!rHmr.
Common <-ing> ending singing .!rHMHM. s setting .!rdsHM.
<e> plural & past churches .!sR29sRHy. added
added .!zcHc.
Less <e> women .!vHlHm. E English .!HMfkHR.
common <y> myth .!lHS. rrhythm .!qHCl.
village .!uHkHcY. certificate
certificate
<a>
.r?!sHeHjHs.
<o> women .!vHlHm.
Exceptions
 busy .!aHyh.
<ui> building .!aHkcHM. biscuit
biscuit .!aHrjHs.
<ie> sieve .!rHu.
Tips:
Basic vowel pattern in the spelling.
This is a checked vowel, this means that it cannot occur in word-final
word final position.
This is similar to the Spanish sound in the incredulous version of s, s (sometimes spelt se se)
se or
the words Sixto, mixto.
Think of Spanish /i/ and drop your jaws a bit more.
This sound can be stressed (e.g. sit
s .!rHs.) or unstressed (e.g. sitting .!rHsHM.). The following weak, and
extremely frequent words, contain this sound: in, is, it, its, its, if, this, with, his, him, etc.
Transcribe:
1. Phil is ill.
2. Is this fish English?
3. Will Miss Lynch live in this village?
4. Sit, Mrs. Swiss.
5. Miss Willis Smith is in this film.
Key:
1. .!eHk Hy !Hk.
2. .Hy CHr !eHR !HMfkHR.
3. .vHk !lHr !kHmsR { !kHu Hm CHr !uHkHcY
!kHu Hm CHr !uHkHcY.
4. .!rHs !lHrHy !rvHr.
5. .!lHr !vHkHr !rlHS { Hy Hm CHr !eHkl
!lHr !vHkHr !rlHS { Hy Hm CHr !eHkl.

.h9. FLEECE Vowel N1

Contrast .h9. with .H.
Trim (1995, p.16)

FLEECE Vowel N1
.h9. FLEECE
DISTRIBUTION: Full
Eve .!h9u. team .!sh9l. see = C= sea .!rh9.
SPELLINGS
Common All <ee> weep .!vh9o.
the vowel Most <e> Pete .!oh9s. tthese .!Ch9y.
says its
name Most <ea> mean .!lh9m. feast
feast .!eh9rs.
machine .l?!Rh9m.

kilo .!jh9k?T.
Less <ie> piece .!oh9r. believe
. believe .aH!kh9u.
common receive .qH!rh9u.
<ei>
conceit .j?m!rh9s.
<ey> key .!jh9.
Exceptions <eo> people .!oh9ok.
Tips:
Spellings: silent <-e>,
e>, magic <-y>,
< y>, two vowels together where the first one says its name.
name
This is similar to the Spanish sound in the the words ta, ma.
Think of Spanish /i/ and close your jaws a bit more. Smile a bit, this helps!
Transcribe:
1. Phoebe eats cream cheese.
2. Will we greet these people?
3. Feed these three beasts, please!
4. Leave these seats free, Jean.
5. Keep these green leaves clean.
Key:
1. .!eh9ah !h9sr !jqh9l !sRh9y
!eh9ah !h9sr !jqh9l !sRh9y.
2. .vHk vh !fqh9s Ch9y !oh9ok
vHk vh !fqh9s Ch9y !oh9ok.
3. .!eh9c Ch9y !Sqh9 !ah9rsr !okh9y
!eh9c Ch9y !Sqh9 !ah9rsr !okh9y.
4. .!kh9u Ch9y !rh9sr !eqh9 !cYh9m
!kh9u Ch9y !rh9sr !eqh9 !cYh9m.
5. .!jh9o Ch9y !fqh9m !kh9uy !jkh9m
!jh9o Ch9y !fqh9m !kh9uy !jkh9m.
.?. Schwa
Vowel N12
Focus on the stressed syllabes and .?. ocurring
ocurring everywhere else
else
Trim (1995, p.33)

Schwa Vowel N12

.?. Schwa
DISTRIBUTION: Full
ago .?!f?T. writers .!q`Hs?y. teacher .!sh9sR?.
SPELLINGS
<a> again .?!fdm. cancan .j?m.
<o> professional .oq?!edRmk. of of .?u.
Common
<e> achievement .?!sRh9ul?ms. the the .C?.
<er, re> singer .!rHM?
rHM?. centre
centre .!rdms?. herher .g?.
 easily .!h9y?kh.
 album .!zka?l. but .a?s.
<ar> particular .o?!sHji?k?.
Less
<or> actor .!zjs?. for
for .e?.
common
<our> neighbour .!mdHa?.
<ure> nature .!mdHsR?.
<ou> famous .!edHl?r.
Tips:
Its the Queen of English because its the most frequent vowel by far!
Most unstressed syllables take Schwa.
The following weak words take schwa: am, are, can, had, has, have, does, do (+consonant), must,
shall, was, were, her,
r, us, them, a, an, the (+consonant), and, as, but, than, that, at, for, from, of, to
(+consonant), some, there.
Make sure you cram and lower the volume of those syllables containing Schwa (E.g. There were
some professors at the conference .C? v? r?l oq?!edr?y ?s C? !jPme?q?mr.
Transcribe:
1. The fisher has visited the teacher.
2. My niece, Melissa, is from the south of England.
3. The old spinsters are eating at the local cinema.
4. Mr. Smithson and Miss Simpson are the winners.
5. An infamous but interesting sinner.
Key:
1. .C? !eHR? { g?y !uHyHsHc C? !sh9sR?
sHc C? !sh9sR?.
2. .l`H !mh9r { l?!kHr? { Hy eq?l C? !r`TS ?u !HMfk?mc
l`H !mh9r { l?!kHr? { Hy eq?l C? !r`TS ?u !HMfk?mc.
3. .Ch !?Tkc !roHmrs?y ?q !h9sHM ?s C? !k?Tj'?(k !rHm?l?
Ch !?Tkc !roHmrs?y ?q !h9sHM ?s C? !k?Tj'?(k !rHm?l?.
4. .!lHrs? !rlHSr'?(m { ?m !lHr !rHlor?m { ? C? !vHm?y
!lHrs? !rlHSr'?(m { ?m !lHr !rHlor?m { ? C? !vHm?y.
5. .?m !Hme?l?r { a?s !Hmsq?rsHM !rHm?.
.d. DRESS
Vowel N3
Listen to .d.
Trim (1995, p.17)

DRESS Vowel N3
.d. DRESS
L .!dk. said .!rdc.
SPELLINGS
Common BVP <e> leg .!kdf. w
. when .!vdm.
Less dead .!cdc.
<ea>
common steady .!rsdch.
<ie> friend .!eqdmc.
ate .!ds. lany
. any .!ldmh.
<a>
any .!dmh
!dmh. Thames
Thames .!sdly.
 bury .!adqh.
Exceptions
<ei> Leicester .!kdrs?.
says .!rdy. said
said /!rdc.
<ai, ay>
against
against .?!fdmrs.
<eo> Geoffrey .!cYdeqh.
Tips:
Think of Spanish /e// and drop your jaws a bit more. The English /e/ is more open than the Spanish
/e/. It may be found in Spanish words like perro, ley.
Transcribe:
1. Wednesday the 10th of September, 2012.
2. Geoffrey Reynolds has buried many dead men.
3. Helen, Melanie and Emily are from Reading.
4. Dreadful weather, isnt it Rebecca?
5. Why should I represent
ent her at the French embassy?
Key:
1. .!vdmycdH C? !sdmS ?u rdo!sdla? { !svdmsh !svdku
!vdmycdH C? !sdmS ?u rdo!sdla? { !svdmsh !svdku.
2. .!cYdeqh !qdm'?(kcy { g?y !adqhc !ldmh !cdc !ldm
!cYdeqh !qdm'?(kcy { g?y !adqhc !ldmh !cdc !ldm.
3. .!gdk?m { !ldk?mh { ?m !dl
!gdk?m { !ldk?mh { ?m !dlHkh { ? eq?l !qdcHM.
4. .!cqdcek !vdC? { !Hyms Hs q?!adj?
!cqdcek !vdC? { !Hyms Hs q?!adj?.
5. .!v`H R?c `H !qdoqH!ydms 'g(?q ?s C? !eqdmsR !dla?rh
!v`H R?c `H !qdoqH!ydms 'g(?q ?s C? !eqdmsR !dla?rh.
.29. NURSE Vowel N1111

Listen to .29.
Trim (1995, p.31)

NURSE Vowel N11

.29. NURSE
DISTRIBUTION:
IBUTION: Full
earth .!29S. word .!v29c. stir .!rs29.
SPELLINGS
All stressed, word
her .!g29. fir
fir, fur .!e29.
fir,
final <er, ir, ur>
Common alert .?!k29s. circle
circle .!r29jk.
All <er, ir, ur> +
Consonant curl .!j29k.
word .!v29c. world
world .!v29kc. wor
worth
worth
<w> + <or> .!v29S. wor
work .!v29j.
work
Less worse .!v29r. wor
worse worst .!v29rs.
worst
common
<our> journey .!cY29mh. courtesy
courtesy .!j29srh.
<ear> search .!r29sR. heard
heard .!g29c.
Exceptions Colonel .!j29mk.,, milieu .!lh9ki29.,, bleu .!ak29.
Tips:
Theress generally an <r> involved in the spelling.
spelling
This is similar to a long Schwa: e.g. but .a?s. vs. Burt .!a29s..
You should do NOTHING to produce this sound. Botox Bot effect: dontt spread your lips, dont
don round
your lips, dontt lower your jaw, and dont raise your jaw!
Transcribe:
1. Colonel Quirk has referred to Ernest Byrne.
2. Does Shirley still work for a Turkish firm?
3. HER word is worthless, sir.
4. Some Germans lived in the worst circumstances.
5. A 1st rate surgeon was murdered in Birmingham.
Key:
1. .!j29m'?(k !jv29j 'g(?y qH!e29c st !29m?rs !a29m. .q?!e29c+ !29mHrs.
.!j29m'?(k !jv29j 'g(?y qH!e29c st !29m?rs !a29m. .q?!e29c+ !29mHrs.
2. .c?y !R29kh !rsHk !v29j e?q ? !s29jHR !e29l. .!cUy.
.c?y !R29kh !rsHk !v29j e?q ? !s29jHR !e29l. .!cUy.
3. .!g29 !v29c Hy !v29Sk?r !r29. .!v29SkHr.
!kHuc Hm C? !v29rs !r29j?lrs?mrHy. .!r29j?lrs@9mrHy+ !r29j?lrszmrHy.
4. .!rUl !cY29l?my { !kHuc Hm C? !v29rs !r29j?lrs?mrHy. .!r29j?lrs@9mrHy+ !r29j?lrszmrHy.
5. . ? !e29rs !qdHs !r29cY'?(m v?y !l29c?c Hm !a29lHM?l.
!r29cY'?(m v?y !l29c?c Hm !a29lHM?l.

.z. Z`\
Z`\ TRAP Vowel N4
N
Listen to .z.
Trim (1995, p.18)

Z`\ TRAP Vowel N44

.z. Z`\
apple .!zok. sang .!rzM.
SPELLINGS
Common BVP <a> grab .!!fqza. add
add .!zc.
<ai> plaid .!okzc. plait
. plait .!okzs.
 timbre .!szla?.
Exceptions
<ei> reveille .q?!uzkh.
<ua> guarantee .$fzq?m!sh9.
guarantee
Notice!!! Letters <o> & > are never .z..
Tips:
This sound is very clear in American English (think of The Nanny).
You need to lower your jaw and spread
spre your lips. Smile!
Transcribe:
1. Thanks! That was really fantastic, Grandad!
2. Daniel Appleby has married Janet Atkinson.
3. The manager is having a massive salmon sandwich.
4. Antony and Gary fancy that activity.
5. That wild animal has attacked a lamb, maam.
Key:
1. .!SzMjr { Czs v?y !qH?kh ezm!szrsHj !fqzmczc
!SzMjr { Czs v?y !qH?kh ezm!szrsHj !fqzmczc.
2. .!czmi?k !zokah { g?y !lzqhc
!czmi?k !zokah { g?y !lzqhc !cYzmHs !zsjHmr?m.
3. .C? !lzmHcY?q Hy !gzuHM ? !lzrHu !rzl?m !rzlvHcY
C? !lzmHcY?q Hy !gzuHM ? !lzrHu !rzl?m !rzlvHcY.
4. .!zms?mh ?m !fzqh { !ezmrh Czs zj!sHu?sh
!zms?mh ?m !fzqh { !ezmrh Czs zj!sHu?sh.
5. .Czs !v`Hkc !zmHlk { g?y ?!szjs ? !kzl !lzl
mHlk { g?y ?!szjs ? !kzl !lzl.
.U. STRUT Vowel N10

Contrast .z. with .U.
Trim (1995, p.21)

STRUT Vowel N10

.U. STRUT
under.!Umc?.
under front .!eqUms.
SPELLINGS
Common BVP up .!Uo. fun
fun .!eUm.
<o> oven .!Uum. worry
. worry .!vUqh.
Less southern .!rUCm.
<ou>
common country .!jUmsqh.
<ou> + <gh> tough .!sUe. enough
enough .?!mUe.
<oo> blood .!akUc. flood
flood .!ekUc.
Exceptions does .!cUy.
<oe>
doesnt .!cUyms.
Notice!!! Letter <a> is never .UU..
Tips:
It may be spelt with <o> or but never <a>.
You need to look miserable when you produce this sound, as you need to lower your jaw and
avoid smiling.
Transcribe:
1. Are the buns in the oven, Duncan?
2. Cousin Humphrey has just rung up the company.
3. They may come to London for lunch this Monday.
4. Southern Russia has been flooded.
5. Justin and Dustin are in front of the judges.
Key:
1. .? C? !aUmy Hm Ch !Uu'?(m !cUMj?m. .!@9 C? !aUmy Hm Ch !Uu'?(m !cUMj?m.
.? C? !aUmy Hm Ch !Uu'?(m !cUMj?m. .!@9 C? !aUmy Hm Ch !Uu'?(m !cUMj?m.
2. .!jUy'H(m !gUl'o(eqh 'g(?y cY?r's( !qUM !Uo C? !jUlo'?(mh. .!jUy'?(m+ !cYUr's(.
.!jUy'H(m !gUl'o(eqh 'g(?y cY?r's( !qUM !Uo C? !jUlo'?(mh. .!jUy'?(m+ !cYUr's(.
3. .CdH ldH !jUl s? !kUmc?m e? !kUmsR CHr !lUmcdH.
4. .!rUC'?(m !qUR? 'g(?y aHm !ekUcHc. .ah9m.
5. .!cYUrsHm ?m !cUrsHm ?q Hm !eqUms ?u C? !cYUcYHy.
.!cYUrsHm ?m !cUrsHm ?q Hm !eqUms ?u C? !cYUcYHy.

.@9.
@9. BATH Vowel N5
Contrast .@9. with .U.
Trim (1995, p.23)

.@9. BATH Vowel N5

DISTRIBUTION: Full
art .!@9s. bath .!a@9S. spa .!ro@9.
SPELLINGS
Most <ar> hard .!g@9c. bar
bar .!a@9.
Some <a> + nasal answer .!@9mr?.
Common + consonant chance .!sR@9mr.
Some <a> +
past .!o@9rs. after
after .!@9es?.
voiceless fricative
<ear> heart .!g@9s. hearth
hearth .!g@9S.
clerk .!jk@9j. Derby
Derby .!c@9ah.
Less <er>
sergeant .!r@9cY?ms.
common
<au> laugh .!k@9e. aunt
aunt .!@9ms.
<al> calm .!j@9l. half
half .!g@9e.
reservoir .!qdy?uv@9.
reservoir
<oir>
Exceptions memoir .!ldlv@9.
<oire> repertoire .!qdo?sv@9.
Tips:
Note that some BATH words take .@9. in British English and .z. in American English
Engl (e.g. class,
grass, pass, answer, laugh,, etc.).
etc.) (See BATH WORDS overleaf.)
This vowel is produced at the back of your oral cavity and you need to lower your jaws a lot.
lot This
is similar to the sound you produce when you yawn.
Transcribe:
1. Are the Parkers from Argentina?
2. Charles and Charlotte arent in France now.
3. Martin Grant cant pass his drama class, Francis.
4. Our aunt married a bank clerk from Derby.
5. The dance can start after half past one.
Key:
1. .!@9 C? !o@9j?y eq?l !@9cY?m!sh9m?
!@9 C? !o@9j?y eq?l !@9cY?m!sh9m?.
2. .!sR@9ky ?m !R@9k?s { !@9ms Hm !eq@9mr !m`T
!sR@9ky ?m !R@9k?s { !@9ms Hm !eq@9mr !m`T.
3. .!l@9sHm !fq@9ms { !j@9ms !o@9r 'g(Hy !cq@9l? !jk@9r !eq@9mrHr
!fq@9ms { !j@9ms !o@9r 'g(Hy !cq@9l? !jk@9r !eq@9mrHr.
4. .@9q !@9ms { !lzqhc ? !azMj !jk@9j { eq?l !c@9ah
@9q !@9ms { !lzqhc ? !azMj !jk@9j { eq?l !c@9ah.
5. .C? !c@9mr j?m !rs@9s { !@9es? !g@9e !o@9rs !vUm
C? !c@9mr j?m !rs@9s { !@9es? !g@9e !o@9rs !vUm.
BATH words
Collins, B. & Mees, I. (2013) Practical phonetics and phonology.

phonology Oxon: Routledge. Page 105.
.P.
P. LOT Vowel N6
Contrast .@9. with .P.
Trim (1995, p.26)
.P.. LOT Vowel N6

off .!Pe. God .!fPc..
SPELLINGS
BVP <o> boss .!aPr. snog
snog .!rmPf.
Common
All <-ock> sock .!rPj. clock
clock .!jkPj.
Less <a> after <w, wh, wallet .!vPkHs. quality .!jvPk?sh.
common qu> quantity .!jvPms?sh. what
what .!vPs.
because .aH!jPy. laurel .!kPq?k.
sausage .!rPrHcY.
<au>
cauliflower .!jPkHek`T?.
Exceptions bureaucracy .aiT?!qPjq?rh.
cough .!jPe. knowledge
knowledge .!mPkHcY.
<ow, ou>
Gloucester .!fkPrs?.
Gloucester
<a> quarrel .!jvPq?k. ya cht .!iPs.
yach
yacht
Tips:
This is similar to the Spanish sound in Hola when people try out a microphone in a sound test.
test
Think of Spanish /o// and drop
dro your jaws a bit more.
Transcribe:
1. The fashion
on model lost her horror novel in Florence.
2. What a common officer Thomas was!
3. Those socks have cost me five dollars.
4. Nonsense! This is not a monotonous song, Oliver.
5. The Austins got us a horrible orange coffee pot.
Key:
1. .C? !ezR'?(m !lPc'?(k !kPrs 'g(? !gPq? !mPu'?(k Hm !ekPq?mr.
2. .!vPs ? !jPl?m !PeHr? !sPl?r !vPy.
.!vPs ? !jPl?m !PeHr? !sPl?r !vPy.
3. .C?Ty !rPjr 'g(?u !jPr's( lh !e`Hu !cPk?y.
.C?Ty !rPjr 'g(?u !jPr's( lh !e`Hu !cPk?y.
4. .!mPmr'?(mr {{ CHr Hy !mPs ? l?!mPs?m?r !rPM !PkHu?.
.!mPmr'?(mr {{ CHr Hy !mPs ? l?!mPs?m?r !rPM !PkHu?
5. .Ch !PrsHmy !fPs ?r ? !gPq?a'?(k !PqHmcY !jPeh !oPs. .!N9rsHmy+ !Pq?mcY.
.Ch !PrsHmy !fPs ?r ? !gPq?a'?(k !PqHmcY !jPeh !oPs. .!N9rsHmy+ !Pq?mcY.

.N9. THOUGHT Vowel N7

N
Contrast .N9. with .P.
Trim (1995, p.28)

THOUGHT Vowel N77

.N9. THOUGHT
DISTRIBUTION: Full
we, oar, or .!N9.
awe, taught .!sN9s. law, lore .!kN9.
SPELLINGS
All <aw> saw .!rN9. hawk
hawk .!gN9j.
war .!vN9. more

more .!lN9.
Common Most <or, ore>
born, borne .!aN9m.
born,
Most <oar> board .!aN9c.
Most <au> cause .!jN9y. daughter
daughter /!cN9s?.
<a> + <l> talk .!sN9j. all
all .!N9k.
<ar> after <w, qu> war .!vN9. quarter
quarter .!jvN9s?.
Less
<oor> door .!cN9. floor
floor .!ekN9.
common
<our> court .!jN9s. four
four .!eN9.
<ough> + cons. bought .!aN9s. ought
ought .!N9s.
<oa> broad .!aqN9c.
Exceptions <a> water .!vN9s?.
<ure> sure .!RN9. pure
pure .!oiN9.
Tips:
Spellings with <or> or a combination of several vowels (e.g. <au, our, oa, aw, etc.).
etc.)
This is similar to the Spanish sound found in the speech of elderly seoras
seoras paquetas
paquetas (e.g. la
seooooora de Ochoooooa,, Graciela Booooorges,)) and the idiosyncratic Ooooocho as spoken
by Riverito.
Place your lips in the shape of a Spanish .t. but say a Spanish .n. sound. .N9. is
.N9. 80% .t. and 20%
.n..
Transcribe:
1. Sean saw the thunderstorm from the shore.
2. Your daughter is drawing a white horse.
3. George ordered some more port from the store.
4. Walk with me. We need to talk, Laura.
5. Theres some chalk in the top drawers.
Key:
1. .!RN9m !rN9 C? !SUmc?rsN9l eq'?(l C? !RN9.
.!RN9m !rN9 C? !SUmc?rsN9l eq'?(l C? !RN9.
2. .iN9 !cN9s?q Hy !cqN9HM ? !v`Hs !gN9r.
.iN9 !cN9s?q Hy !cqN9HM ? !v`Hs !gN9r.
3. .!cYN9cY !N9c?c r'?(l !lN9 !oN9s eq'?(l C? !rsN9.
.!cYN9cY !N9c?c r'?(l !lN9 !oN9s eq'?(l C? !rsN9.
4. .!vN9j vHC lh {{ vh !mh9c s? !sN9j !kN9q?.
.!vN9j vHC lh {{ vh !mh9c s?
5. .C?y r'?(l !sRN9j Hm C? !sPo !cqN9y.
.C?y r'?(l !sRN9j Hm C? !sPo !cqN9y.
.T. FOOT Vowel N8

Contrast .t9. with .T.
Trim (1995, p.29)

.T. FOOT Vowel N8

oops .!Tor.((rare)
rare) push .!oTR.
push
SPELLINGS
Some (BVP & put .!oTs. butcher .!aTsR?.
put
others) cushion .!jTRm. sugar
sugar .!RTf?.
Common Most <-ook> book .!aTj. look
look .!kTj.
good .!fTc. wood
wood .!vTc.
Some <oo>
wool .!vTk. h
wool hood .!gTc.
could .jTc. should
should
<ou>
Less .RTc. w
would .vTc.
common bosom .!aTyl. wolfwolf .!vTke.
<o>
woman .!vTl?m.
woman
Exceptions worsted .!vTrsHc., Worcester .!vTrs?.
Tips:
Basic vowel pattern in the spelling & <-ook>.
This is similar to the Spanish sound in burro, curro.
Modern .T. is somewhat a mixture of .n., .t. and .?.-
Transcribe:
1. Robin Bush is reading a good cookery book.
2. You shouldnt look at that woman.
3. Mr Brooks, the butcher,
butche is wearing a woolen hood.
4. Has Mrs Fulton really got a wooden foot?
5. This cushion is stained with Worcestershire sauce.
Key:
1. .!qPaHm !aTR Hy !qh9cHM ? !fTc !jTj'?(qh !aTj.
.!qPaHm !aTR Hy !qh9cHM ? !fTc !jTj'?(qh !aTj.
2. .it !RTc'?(ms !kTj ?s !Czs !vTl?m.
3. .!lHrs? !aqTjr { C? !aTsR? { Hy !vd?qHM ? !vTk?m !gTc.
4. .!gzy !lHrHy !eTks'?(m !qH?kh !fPs ? !vTc'?(m !eTs.
'?(m !qH?kh !fPs ? !vTc'?(m !eTs.
5. .CHr !jTR'?(m Hy !rsdHmc vHC !vTrs?R? !rN9r. .!vTrs?RH?.
.CHr !jTR'?(m Hy !rsdHmc vHC

.t9. GOOSE Vowel N99

Listen to .t9.
Trim (1995, p.30)

GOOSE Vowel N9
.t9. GOOSE
DISTRIBUTION: Full
ooze .!t9y. food .!et9c. grew .!fqt9.
SPELLINGS
+Cons+silent<e> cute .!jit9s. tune
tune .!sit9m.
Most <ew> crew .!jqt9. bbrew .!aqt9.
crew
Common Many <oo> shoot .!Rt9s. loose
loose .!kt9r.
Susan .!rt9ym. music
music .!lit9yHj.
Many 
crucial .!jqt9Rk.
<o> do .!ct9. move
move .!lt9u.
Less <ou> group .!fqt9o. through
through .!Sqt9.
common <ui> juice .!cYt9r. cruise
cruise .!jqt9y.
<ue> blue .!akt9. queue
queue .!jit9.
Exceptions <eau> beauty .!ait9sh.
Tips:
Spellings: silent <-e>
e> & two vowel letters to show its
it a long vowel.
This may be similar to the Spanish /u/ in pa, ganza.
Transcribe:
1. Is Andrew in the queue with you, too?
2. Whose menu did YOU choose, Ruth?
3. Jude Lewis is a gloomy fool.
4. Most universities are huge in the USA.
5. Susan and Bruce are in the nude
n by the pool!
Key:
1. .Hy !zmcqt9 Hm C? !jit9 vHC it { !st9.
.Hy !zmcqt9 Hm C? !jit9 vHC it { !st9.
2. .!gt9y !ldmit9 cHc !it9 !sRt9y !qt9S.
.!gt9y !ldmit9 cHc !it9 !sRt9y !qt9S.
3. .!cYt9c !kt9Hr Hy ? !fkt9lh !et9k.
.!cYt9c !kt9Hr Hy ? !fkt9lh !et9k.
4. .!l?Trs $it9mH!u29r?shy ? !git9cY Hm C? !it9 !dr !dH. .$it9m?!u29r?shy.
.!l?Trs $it9mH!u29r?shy ? !git9cY Hm C? !it9 !dr !dH.
5. .!rt9y'?(m ?m !aqt9r ?q Hm C? !mit9c a`H C? !ot9k.
.!rt9y'?(m ?m !aqt9r ?q Hm C? !mit9c a`H C? !ot9k.

Aspiration
Aspiration is a associated with the voiceless English plosives .o+ s+ j. when they occur initially in the
stressed syllable of a word. Aspiration, which is felt as an extra puff of air, really consists of the DELAYED
VOICE ONSET TIME of the following vowel i.e. .o+ s+ j+ sR. may be followed by a brief period of
voicelessness, which makes the voicing of the vowel start later than it does in Spanish. This salient English
feature constitutes the most decisive clue for the native English ear to distinguish the voiceless plosives
.o+ s+ j. from their voiced counterparts .a+ c+ f.. Communication is indeed impaired if aspiration is
lacking. For example, if the learner does not aspirate the initial .o. in pet, a native English listener would
certainly understand bet.
Pet Zods\ Bet Zads\

Ten Zsdm\ Den Zcdm\
Came ZjdHl\ Game ZfdHl\
The following graphic shows the full aspiration of the word car. Voiceless plosives are aspirated if
they are both stressed and initial in the syllable.
The following graphic shows the lack of aspiration produced by the presence of .r. before the
voiceless plosive in the word scar. The voiceless plosive is no longer syllable-initial. Notice that
whenever .r. is followed by a voiceless plosive, the syllable begins right before .r.. E.g.: respect
.qH!rodjs., mistake .lH!rsdHj., discuss .cH!rjUr..
Activity 1:
Decide whether the following words are strongly aspirated or not.

1 tear 2 gas 3 occurring 4 gape 5 marker
KEY:
1. Yes. .s. is in stressed syllable initial position and is followed by a vowel.
2. No. Only the voiceless plosives .o+ s+ j. can be aspirated. Voiced plosives, such as .f., cant.
3. Yes. The double <cc> stands for a pre-vocalic .j. in stressed syllable initial position. Stressed
syllables need not be at the beginning of the word!!!
4. No. This .o. is in syllable-final position.
5. No. This .j. is in syllable final position, and its followed by an unstressed vowel.
Degrees of aspiration:
(1) STRONG OR FULL ASPIRATION Z\

RULE EXAMPLES
Syllable-initial Z!o\ Pen Z!odm\ Oppose Z?!o?Ty\ Appeal Z?!oh9k\
& Z!s\ + Vowel Talk Z!sN9j\ Attend Z?!sdmc\ Intense ZHm!sdmrd\
Stressed Z!j\ Celt Z!jdks\ Accord Z?!jN9c\ Achilles Z?!jHkh9y\
(2) WEAK OR PARTIAL ASPIRATION
RULE EXAMPLES
ZoG\ Leopard Z!kdo?c\ Wrap it Z!qzo Hs\
Syllable-final
ZsG\ + Vowel Outer Z!`Ts ?\ Eat it Z!h9s Hs\
or Unstressed
ZjG\ Working Z!v29jHM\ Work out Z!v29j !`Ts\
(3) LACK OF ASPIRATION Z = \
RULE EXAMPLES
Spear Z!ro=H?\
.ro. = Zro=\
Crispy Z!jqHro=h\
Stay Z!rs=dH\
.rs. = Zrs=\ + Vowel
Misty Z!lHrs=h\
Ski Z!rj=h9\
.rj.=Zrj=\
Husky Z!gUrj=h\
Activity 2:
Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Use the diacritical mark Z\ to indicate those instances
where the voiceless plosives are fully aspirated. (Zo+ s\ and Zj\). Use the diacritical mark Z=\ to indicate
those instances where the voiceless plosives are unaspirated. (Zro=+ rs=\ and Zrj=\). Colour the diacritical
marks you use.
1. Thomas Stone speaks perfect Polish.

2. Rebecca Skinner could come to town if she wanted to.
3. The misty mountains are located in a remote area of Canada.
4. Isnt it a bit controversial to cheat at exams, Kevin?
5. The mysterious tale of the Scottish kingdom.
6. What a stale piece of bread! Cant we get any butter to put on top?
7. The next station is Tottenham Court Road, right Ann?
8. Winston took a cab from St Pauls to the Houses of Parliament.
9. Mister Parker couldnt call the Portuguese teacher today.
10. Tonight youll have the possibility to get two expensive opera tickets for free.
KEY:
1. Z!sPl?r !rs=?Tm { !ro=h9jr !o29eHjs !o?TkHR\
2. ZqH!adj? !rj=Hm? { jTc !jUl s? !s`Tm { He Rh !vPmsHc st9\
3. ZC? !lHrs=h !l`TmsHmy { ? k?!jdHsHc Hm ? qH!l?Ts !d?qh? ?u !jzm?c?\
4. Z!Hyms Hs ? !aHs $jPmsq?!u29Rk { s? !sRh9s ?s Hf!yzly !jduHm\
5. ZC? lH!rs=H?qh?r !rs=N9qh { ?u C? !rj=PsHR !jHMc?l\
6. Z!vPs ? !rs=dHk !oh9r ?u !aqdc {{ !j@9ms vh !fds !dmh !aUs? s? !oTs Pm !sPo\
7. ZC? !mdjrs !rs=dHRm { Hy !sPsm?l !jN9s !q?Tc { !q`Hs !zm\
8. Z!vHmrs=?m !sTj ? !jza { eq?l rm !oN9ky { s? C? !g`TyHy ?u !o@9k?l?ms\
9. Z!lHrs=? !o@9j? { !jTcms !jN9k C? $oN9sR?!fh9y !sh9sR? s?!cdH\
10. Zs?!m`Hs { itk !gzu C? $oPr?!aHk?sh { s? !fds !st9 Hj!ro=dmrHu !Po?q? !sHjHsr e? !eqh9\


Activity 3:
Transcribe the following text phonemically. Use the diacritical mark Z\ to indicate those instances where
the voiceless plosives are fully aspirated. (Zo+ s\ and Zj\). Use the diacritical mark Z=\ to indicate those
instances where the voiceless plosives are unaspirated. (Zro=+ rs=\ and Zrj=\). Colour the diacritical marks
you use.
Notice: Focus on the past tense. Study the irregular cases and focus on the pronunciation of the regular <-
ed> form.

Caged in a lift
An English teacher almost died after she wasted 10 hours trapped in a tiny lift. Pamela
Thompson, aged 52, wanted to get to her college lecture on time so she took the lift to the tenth
floor. The doors closed and she moved up. There was a terrible metallic noise. The lift stopped
but she couldnt leave. She pushed the alarm button, but it was damaged. When she attempted
to use her mobile phone the signal failed. It couldnt be fixed. She cried, screamed, banged the
doors, tapped and stomped on the floor, but nothing happened. She was so exhausted that she
eventually passed out. Catherine Spark, reporting from Johnstone - Scotland, KPT News.
KEY:
Z!jdHcYc Hm ? !kHes {{

?m !HMfkHR !sh9sR?q !N9kl?Trs !c`Hc { !@9es? Rh !vdHrs=Hc !sdm !`T?y { !sqzos Hm ? !s`Hmh !kHes {{ !ozl?k? !sPlor?m
{ !dHcYc !eHesh !st9 { !vPmsHc s? !fds { s? g? !jPkHcY !kdjsR?q Pm !s`Hl { r?T Rh !sTj C? !kHes { s? C? !sdmS !ekN9 {{
C? !cN9y !jk?Tyc { ?m Rh !lt9uc !Uo {{ C? v?y ? !sdq?ak l?!szkHj !mNHy {{ C? !kHes !rs=Pos { a?s Rh !jTcms !kh9u {{
Rh !oTRs Ch ?!k@9l !aUsm { a?s Hs v?y !czlHcYc {{ vdm Rh ?!sdlosHc s? !it9y g? !l?Ta`Hk !e?Tm { C? !rHfmk !edHkc
{{ Hs !jTcms ah !eHjrs {{ Rh !jq`Hc { !rjqh9lc { !azMc C? !cN9y { !szos ?m !rs=Plos Pm C? !ekN9 { a?s !mUSHM !gzo?mc
{{ Rh v?y !r?T Hf!yN9rs=Hc { C?s Rh H!udmsRt?kh !o@9rs !`Ts {{ !jzSqHm !ro=@9j { qH!oN9sHM eq?l !cYPmrs=?Tm {
!rj=Psk?mc {{ !jdH !oh9 !sh9 !mit9y\

Devoicing of approximants
/l, r, w, j/
When stressed syllable-initial .o+ s+ j. are followed by the approximants .k+ q+ v+ i. there is no aspiration
as such: instead, the extra puff of air merges with these approximants, which become fricative and lose
their original voice. Cruttenden (2014; personal correspondence) and OConnor (1973, 1980) suggest that
in strongly accented positions, it is the local friction rather than the voicelessness that show the effect of
the previous stressed voiceless plosive. Learners can profit from the idea that the resulting sounds have
to show a lot of turbulence. The approximants .k+ q+ v+ i. become the voiceless fricatives ZJ+ + V+ B\
respectively. However, for simplicitys sake, devoicing is often shown just by keeping the original
phonemic symbol with the devoicing diacritical mark underneath Z \.
FULLY DEVOICED & FRICATIVE after syllable-initial stressed .o+ s+ j.1

RULE EXAMPLES
.k. = Zk\ Z!ok\ Playing Z!!okdHHM\ - Plot Z!okPs\ , Imply ZHl!ok`H\
voiceless alveolar
Z!jk\ Clean Z!jkh9m\ - Class Z!jk@9r\ , Include ZHM!jkt9c\
lateral fricative
Z!oq\ Proud Z!oq`Tc\ - Prince Z!oqHmr\ , Comprise Zj?l!oq`Hy\
.q. = Zq\
voiceless post-alveolar Z!sq\ Trees Z!sqh9y\ - Trade Z!sqdHc\ , Intrusive ZHm!sqt9rHu\
fricative Z!jq\ Christ Z!jq`Hrs\ - Crumbs Z!jqUly\ - Increase ZHM!jqh9r\
Z!ov\ Poirot Z!ov@9q?T\ - Puerto Rico Z!ov29s? !qh9j?T\
.v. = Zv\
voiceless labio-velar Z!sv\ Twelve Z!svdku\ - Entwine ZHm!sv`Hm\ , Twin Z!svHm\
fricative Z!jv\ Queen Z!jvh9m\ - Enquire ZHM!jv`H?\ , Quick Z!jvHj\
Z!oi\ Pure Z!oiT?\ , Computer Zj?l!oit9s?\ , Purity Z!oiT?q?sh\

.i. = Zi\
voiceless palatal Z!si\ Tune Z!sit9m\ Constitution Z$jPmrsH!sit9Rm\ , Tube Z!sit9a\
fricative Z!ji\ Cute Z!jit9s\ , Accuse Z?!jit9y\ , Cure Z!jiT?\
Notice:
The sequence .sq. is always treated as an affricate (i.e. a plosive element followed by a fricative element),
therefore, it will be Zsq\ even if its not stressed. E.g.: attribute Z!zsqHait9s\.
1
The sequence .sk. cannot be syllable-initial in English. E.g. Atlas .!zs-k?r., Atlantic .?s!kzmsHj..
Activity 1:
Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Use the diacritical mark Z\ to indicate those instances
where the voiceless plosives are fully aspirated. (Zo+ s\ and Zj\). Use the diacritical mark Z=\ to indicate
those instances where the voiceless plosives are unaspirated. (Zro=+ rs=\ and Zrj=\). Use the diacritical
mark Z \ to show devoicing. Colour the diacritical marks you use.
1. Patricia Cranford loves cruising the Caribbean.

2. Tracy Stuart travels by tube every Tuesday.
3. Chris Queen questioned our treacherous plan.
4. Princeton McKenzie went to Cuba and practised scuba diving.
5. Clint climbed a cliff and found a cute crane.
6. Is it true that Claire Price has just quit college?
7. I pray for a quick presentation of the project at Kings Cross St. Pancras tube station.
8. Practically all these tropical plants should be transferred from the trellis.
9. I am pleased with Claudias splendid explanation of the problems in Springfield.
10. The clay factory closed down quite quickly. Its crystal clear! They played a tremendous
trick on us all, Mr. Trump.
KEY:
1. Zo?!sqHR? !jqzme?c { !kUuy !jqt9yHM C? $jzqH!ah9?m\
2. Z!sqdHrh !rs=it9?s { !sqzuky a`H !sit9a { !duqh !sit9ycdH\
3. Z!jqHr !jvHm { !jvdrsR?mc @9 !sqdsR?q?r !okzm\
4. Z!oqHmrs?m l?!jdmyh !vdms s? !jit9a? { ?m !oqzjsHrs !rj=t9a? $c`HuHM\
5. Z!jkHms !jk`Hlc ? !jkHe { ?m !e`Tmc ? !jit9s !jqdHm\
6. ZHy Hs !sqt9 { C?s !jkd? !oq`Hr g?y cY?rs !jvHs !jPkHcY\
7. Z`H !oqdH { e?q ? !jvHj $oqdy?m!sdHRm ?u C? !oqPcYdjs { ?s !jHM !jqPr r?ms !ozMjq?r !sit9a $rs=dHRm\
8. Z!oqzjsHj?kh !N9k Ch9y !sqPoHjk !ok@9msr { RTc ah sqzmr!e29c eq?l C? !sqdkHr\
9. Z`Hl !okh9yc vHC !jkN9ch?y !ro=kdmcHc $djro=k?!mdHRm { ?u C? !oqPak?ly Hm !ro=qHMeh9kc\
10. ZC? !jkdH !ezjsqh !jk?Tyc !c`Tm !jv`Hs !jvHjkh {{ Hsr !jqHrsk !jkH? {{ CdH !okdHc ? sq?!ldmc?r !sqHj
Pm ?r !N9k { !lHrs=? !sqUlo\


Activity 2:
Transcribe the following text phonemically. Use the diacritical mark Z\ to indicate those instances where
the voiceless plosives are fully aspirated. (Zo+ s\
( and Zj\). Use the diacritical mark Z=\ to indicate those
( =+ rs=\ and Zrj=\). Use the diacritical mark Z \
instances where the voiceless plosives are unaspirated. (Zro
to show devoicing. Colour the diacritical marks you use.
Travelling
How about a trip to a tropical island? Do you crave for adventure? Clive Quinn has
some practical clues to give us. He claims that there are plenty of cute places off the
beaten track. You can find clean and friendly hostels for a small price. If you book well
in advance, you may apply for discounts on plane tickets and tube or train fares. Try to
steer clear of touristy package holidays: youll be spending money like crazy and
queuing a lot. Besides, youll get treated like cattle. Avoid cruises at Christmas,
Christm theyre
crowded! Cuba is a no-nono in summer: the climate will cripple your plans! Got curious?
Clive will answer your questions. Visit www.quicktrip.co.uk
KEY:
Z!sqzukHM {{
!g`T ?!a`Ts ? !sqHo st ? !sqPoHjk !`Hk?mc {{ cYt !jq
PoHjk !`Hk?mc {{ cYt !jqdHu e?q ?c!udmsR? {{ !jk`Hu !jv
`Hu !jvHm { !gzy r?l !oqzjsHjk
!jkt9y s? !fHu ?r {{ gh !jkdHly { C?s C?q? !ok
dHly { C?s C dmsh ?u !jit9s !okdHrHy { !Pe C? !ah9sm !sq
dHrHy { !Pe C? !ah9sm !sqzj {{ it j?m !e`Hmc
!jkh9m ?m !eqdmckh !gPrsky e?q ? !rlN9k !oq `Hr {{ He it !aTj !vdk Hm ?c!u@9mr { it ldH ?!ok`H e? !cHrj=`Tmsr
q ? !rlN9k !oq`Hr {{ He it !aTj !vdk Hm ?c!u@9mr { it ldH ?!ok
t9a N9 !sqdHm !ed?y {{ !sq`H s? !rs=H? !jkH?q ?u !sT?qHrs=h !ozjHcY !gPk?cdHy {{
{ Pm !okdHm !sHjHsr { ?m !sit9a N9 !sq
=
itk ah !ro dmcHM !lUmh k`Hj !jqdHyh { ?m !ji
dHyh { ?m !jit9HM ? !kPs {{ aH!r`Hcy { itk !fds !sqh9sHc k`Hj !jzsk {{ ?!uNHc
h9sHc k`Hj !j
!jqt9yHy ?s !jqHrl?r {{ Cd? !jq`TcHc {{ !ji
`TcHc {{ !jit9a? { Hy ? !m?T !m?T Hm !rUl? {{ C? !jk
t9a? { Hy ? !m?T !m?T Hm !rUl? {{ C? !jk`Hl?s { vHk !jqHok iN9
!okzmy {{ !fPs !jiT?qh?r {{ !jk`Hu vHHk !@9mr? iN9 !jvdrsRmy {{ !uHyHs { !cUakit9 !cUakit9 !cUakit9 { !jv
drsRmy {{ !uHyHs { !cUakit9 !cUakit9 Hj
!sqHo { !cPs !j?T { !cPs !it9 !jdH\

<-s, -es>:
Plural Countable Nouns, Nouns in the Genitive, and Verbs in the
3rd Person Singular Simple Present Tense
RULE: There is voice agreement.
1. The voiceless alveolar fricative .r. is added to words ending in a voiceless sound (other than
sibilants see exception).
[-v] + .r.
.o. mops .!lPor. raps .!qzor. bishops .!aHR?or.
.s. Brits .!aqHsr. nets .!mdsr. Pats .!ozsr.
.j. bricks .!aqHjr. lurks .!k29jr. Patricks .!ozsqHjr.
.S.1 maths .!lzSr. Smiths .!rlHSr.
2
.e. handkerchiefs .!gzMj?sRHer. Ralphs .!qzker.
2. The voiced alveolar fricative .y. is added to words ending in a voiced sound (other than sibilants
see exception).
[+v] + .y.
.a. ribs .!qHay. clubs .!jkUay. Bobs .!aPay.
.c. deeds .!ch9cy. reads .!qh9cy. Davids .!cdHuHcy.
.f. mugs .!lUfy. logs .!kPfy. Gregs .!fqdfy.
.C. booths .!at9Cy. breathes .!aqh9Cy. Blythes .!ak`HCy.
.u. lives .!k`Huy. lives .!kHuy. Eves .!h9uy.
.k. dolls .!cPky. feels .!eh9ky. Bells .!adky.
.l. combs .!j?Tly. climbs .!jk`Hly. Malcolms .!lzkj?ly.
.m. tins .!sHmy. runs .!qUmy. Helens .!gdk?my.
.M. songs .!rPMy. rings .!qHMy. Kings .!jHMy.
Vowels peas .!oh9y. draws .!cqN9y. Sues .!rt9y.
Diphthongs fairs .!ed?y. tries .!sq`Hy. Joes .!cY?Ty.
EXCEPTION: After the sibilants .r+ y+ R+ Y+ sR. and .cY. an extra syllable .Hy. is added. In turn, .H. and
.y. agree in voice, too.
Sibilants + .Hy.
.r. Boxes .!aPjrHy. increases .HM!jqh9rHy. Bruces .!aqt9rHy.
.y. Bruises .!aqt9yHy. buzzes .!aUyHy. Joness .!cY?TmyHy.
.R. Brushes .!aqURHy. bushes .!aTRHy. Marshs .!l@9RHy.
.Y. Garages .f?!q@9YHy. camouflages .!jzl?ek@9YHy.
.sR. Churches .!sR29sRHy. belches .!adksRHy. Finchs .!eHmsRHy.
.cY. Bridges .!aqHcYHy. sandwiches .!rzmvHcYHy. Marges .!l@9cYHy.
1
Most words ending in .S. normally take an irregular plural .Cy.. For example, the words paths and baths look
regular in the spelling, but are irregular in their pronunciation .!o@9S = !o@9Cy: !a@9S = !a@9Cy..
2
Most singular words ending in <f> have irregular plurals: loaf loaves; half halves; life lives; etc. The
genitive, in contrast, does not become voiced: wife .!v`He. wives .!v`Huy. wifes .!v`Her. wives .!v`Huy..
Morphemes & Pronunciation:

Plurals, the Genitive & 3rd Person Singular
Simple Present
Read this text. Focus on the pronunciation of plural countable nouns, nouns in the genitive and
verbs in the simple present, 3rd person singular. Transcribe the endings inside the slanted bars.
Ganeshs Job
/ /
Ganesh Ray works for a computer company in Los Angeles, California.

/ / / /
He writes computer programs. But he doesnt go to LA every day. In fact, he
/ / / /
doesnt live in the United States. He lives in India.
/ / / /
Every day he takes the bus into Bombay and he goes to an office there.
/ / / /
The computer company delivers information to him by e-mail. He analyses
/ / / /
the information on a computer and then he sends the program back to
/ /
California.
The company doesnt do the work in the US because it costs less to do it in

/ /
Asia, as salaries there are much lower. Also, India is twelve hours ahead of
/ / / /
LA. This means that the computer company transfers information at the
/ / / /
end of the day and Ganesh uses it when its night time in the USA. When
/ /
he sends the programs back, they arrive in California before the company
starts in the morning.

/ /
Adapted from Hutchinson, T. (1999) Lifelines elementary. Workbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press (page 33).
The <-ed>
ed> form of verbs
The morpheme used to indicate the past tense of regular verbs is pronounced in three ways:
RULE: There is voice agreement.
1. The voiceless alveolar plosive .s. is added to words ending in a voiceless sound (other than .s. see
exception).
[-v] + .s.
.o. stopped .!rsPos. clapped .!jkzos.
.j. kicked .!jHjs. looked .!kTjs.
.sR. watched .!vPsRs. launched .!kN9msRs.
1
.S. betrothed .aH!sq?TSs. bequeathed .aH!jvh9Ss.
.e. laughed .!k@9es. puffed .!oUes.
.r. passed .!o@9rs. missed .!lHrs.
.R. crushed .!jqURs. fished .!eHRs.
2. The voiced alveolar plosive .c. is added to words ending in a voiced sound (other than .c. see
exception).
[+v] + .c.
.a. Dubbed .!cUac. stabbed .!rszac.
.f. Logged .!kPfc. dragged .!cqzfc.
.cY. Managed .!lzmHcYc. arranged .?!qdHmcYc
?!qdHmcYc.
.C. Teethed .!sh9Cc. clothed .!jk?TCc.
.u. Lived .!kHuc. arrived .?!q`Huc.
.y. Organized .!N9f?m`Hyc. cruised .!jqt9yc
!jqt9yc.
.Y. Camouflaged .!jzl?ek@9Yc.
.k. Called .!jN9kc. sailed .!rdHkc.
.l. Bombed .!aPlc. climbed .!jk`Hlc.
.m. Cleaned .!jkh9mc. phoned .!e?Tmc.
.M. Longed .!kPMc. wronged .!qPMc.
Vowels Skied .!rjh9c. remembered .qH!ldla?c
qH!ldla?c.
Diphthongs Enjoyed .Hm!cYNHc. towed .!s?Tc.
EXCEPTION: After the alveolar plosives .s. and .c. an extra syllable .Hc. is added. In turn, .H. and .c.
agree in voice, too.
Alveolar plosive + .Hc.

.s. Potted .!oPsHc. started .!rs@9sHc.
.c. Decided .cH!r`HcHc. loaded .!k?TcHc.
1
Verbs ending in <th> normally take .C..
.C. However, some may vary between .C. and .S.,, such as these ones.
Betrothed (to promise in marriage) .aH!sq?TCc+ aH!
aH!sq?TCc+ aH!sq?TSs., bequeathed (to
to leave personal belongings by will)
will
.aH!jvh9Cc+ aH!jvh9Ss..
<-ed> Endings: Past Tense Inflections or Adjectives?
Regular verbs in the simple past or past participle

Rule: voice agreement
1. Final voiced sound + .c.
2. Final voiceless sound + .s.
3. Exception: final .s. or .c. + .Hc., i.e. they add an extra syllable!
Can you transcribe these endings in the following text?
1 It all started ed on New Years Eve. I arrived ed from work and decided ed that enough was enough! I picked ed the
. . . . . . . .
2 phone up, dialled ed my boyfriends number and talked ed to him. I had already ended ed several relationships, but
. . . . . .
3 never on the phone! Anyway, he deserved ed it! John had showed ed he cared ed about nobody, so why should I get
. . . . . .
4 worrieded about him? We werent married ed,
ed we werent even engaged ed!
ed He was self-centred ed,
ed big-headed ed,
ed thick-
. . . . . . . . . .
5 skinned ed...
ed He was a total prick and I loathed ed myself for not having realised ed earlier. I knew I was being wicked ed!
ed
. . . . . . . .
6 And... I just enjoyed ed it!
. .
What happens to the word wicked? Whats special about it?
Adjectives and Adverbs

Theres a small group of adjectival words whose <-ed> ending is pronounces .Hc., namely:
aged cursed naked
(NOT middle-aged) dogged ragged
beloved jagged rugged
blessed learned sacred
crabbed -legged wicked
crooked (e.g. four-legged) wretched
E.g.: Adjective + noun

An aged professor .?m !dHcYHc oq?!edr?. My beloved husband .l`H aH!kUuHc !gUya?mc.
The adverbial ending <-edly> is pronounced .Hckh+ ?ckh., namely:

Advisedly Deservedly
Allegedly Designedly
Assuredly Fixedly
Confessedly Markedly
supposedly
Linking /r/
In General British, people do not pronounce the sound .q. either when it is followed by a consonant or
silence. To put it differently, the consonant .q. is only pronounced before vowels. This makes this accent
non-rhotic (.!mPm !q?TsHj.), unlike Spanish or other varieties of English, such as General American or
Standard Scottish.
E.g.:
store .!rsN9. carpark .!j@9o@9j. Vs. very .!udqh. Rome .!q?Tl.
Now, this .q. sound emerges again when there is a final <r> in the spelling or a word and the next word
starts with a vowel. We call this linking .q.. Compare:
My car is red. .l`H !j@9q Hy !qdc. Vs. For your son. .e? iN9 !rUm.
For Easter. .e?q !h9rs?. For one day. .e? !vUm !cdH.
Can you tell us why the examples on the right do not take a linking .q.?
The only vowels that allow a linking .q. to occur before another vowel sound are:
.?.: Her eyes .g?q !`Hy. .N9.: Poor aunt .!oN9q !@9ms.
.H?.: Here and there .!gH?q ?m !Cd?. .@9.: Far away .!e@9q ?!vdH.
.d?.: There it is .!Cd?q Hs !Hy. .29.: Blur it .!ak29q Hs.
.H?.: Poor aunt .!oT?q !@9ms.
Decide whether the shaded areas are examples of linking .q.:
Peter Adder is a London lawyer.{{ He works for a big firm, { Walter M. Brooks, {
which has branches in other UK cities. {{ He wants his brother Edgar { to get a
position there. {{ However, { Edgar is not interested. {{ Hes more into parties {
than into applying for a job. {{ Anyway, { Peter has made arrangements { for his
brother. {{ Edgar is meeting the manager in four hours. {{ Their father is
enthusiastic about it, { but their mother is more intelligent. {{ Although she loves
her younger son, { shes sure its a waste of time. {{

Intrusive /r/
Words ending with a final letter <r> are linked to a following word beginning with a vowel. This use, which
is justified by the spelling, is called linking .q..
By analogy, however, some speakers extend this linking phenomenon to situations where there is indeed a
final .?+ H?+ @9+ N9+ 29. sound followed by a vowel but without an <r> letter in the spelling: this is called
intrusive .q.. Although many consider this to be typical of sloppy speech, even they themselves tend to use
intrusive .q. without being aware of this.
Compare:
Context Linking .q. Intrusive .q.

.,?. Dr. Allen .!cPjs?q !zk?m. China and Japan .!sR`Hm?q ?m cY?!ozm.
.,H?. Dear Ellen .!cH?q !dk?m. The idea of it .Ch `H!cH?q ?u Hs.
.,N9. + vowel More ice .!lN9q !`Hr. Law and order .!kN9q ?m !N9c?.
.,@9. Star Alliance .!rs@9q ?$k`H?mr. The Shah of Persia .C? !R@9q ?u !o29R?.
.,29. Transfer it .sqzmr!e29q Hs. Richelieu is mad .!qh9Rki29q Hy !lzc.
Transcribe these phrases and decide whether there may be linking .q., intrusive .q. or neither.
Justify your choices.
LINKING INTRUSIVE
PHRASE TRANSCRIPTION NEITHER WHY?
.q. .q.
I could never have imagined.
There you are
Our enemies
Heir apparent
Vodka and tonic
India and Pakistan
Three elephants
Two oclock
Four X-rays
More useful
I saw it
Your Honour
Do it for her
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS IN DETAIL
A thorough description of a speech sound needs more than three epithets (i.e. voicing, place and manner of articulation). The
following guide focuses on the decisive and salient choices that constitute a consonantal sound:
1. What organs are used to set the airstream in motion?

In normal speech, all English and Spanish sounds are PULMONIC. It is the diaphragm that compresses the lungs so that the air
contained in them is pushed out.
2. What direction does the airstream take?

In English and Spanish, the airstream is pushed outwards, so the sounds are EGRESSIVE.
3. How do the vocal folds work?

a. The vocal folds may be set in motion by the airstream that passes through them. The air-pressure is built up
behind the closed vocal folds till it forces them to open; when the pressure is released, the flaps come together
again. This process, which is repeated hundreds of times per second, is called PHONATION or VOICING.
b. The glottis may be held wide open (i.e. the vocal folds are not in contact) so that the airstream passes freely
through them without vibration. There is no phonation, so this is the position the vocal folds take for the
production of VOICELESS sounds.
c. The vocal folds may be held firmly together so that the air coming from the lungs is held below them. This is
the position the vocal folds take for the production of the GLOTTAL STOP Z>\.
4. What position does the velum take?
a. If the velum is raised, then the nasal resonator is shut off. The airstream is forced to escape through the
mouth. These sounds are ORAL.
b. If the velum is lowered, then the nasal resonator is open. If there is a complete obstruction to the
airstream in the mouth, the air will escape through the nose. These sounds are NASAL.
c. If the velum is lowered, then the nasal resonator is open. If the airstream can escape through the mouth
and nose at the same time, the resulting sounds are NASALIZED.
5. What articulators are at play?

The articulators that intervene the most in the production of a sound determine its PLACE OF ARTICULATION. The articulators that
are movable are considered to be ACTIVE, while the ones that cannot move are called PASSIVE.
Label Passive articulator Active articulator Examples

.o+ a+ l+ v.
1. Bilabial ---- both lips
2. Labiodental upper front teeth lower lip .e+ u.
.S+ C.
3. Dental upper front teeth tongue tip
tongue tip
4. Alveolar alveolar ridge .s+ c+ m+ k+ r+ y.
5. Postalveolar rear of the alveolar ridge tongue tip .q.
6. Palatoalveolar front of the hard palate blade/front of the tongue .R+ Y+ sR+ cY.
7. Palatal hard palate front of the tongue .i.
8. Velar soft palate/velum back of the tongue .j+ f+ M+ v.
9. Glottal ---- vocal folds .g. Z>\
6. How do the articulators interact?
The behaviour of the articulators determines the MANNER OF ARTICULATION.
a. A PLOSIVE consonant shows an articulation of complete oral closure. Its made up of three stages: (1) a closing stage, where
the active articulator approaches a passive articulator (or where both active articulators move towards each other), thus
blocking the air passage; (2) a compression stage, where the airstream coming from the lungs builds up pressure behind the
oral closure; and (3) the release stage, in which the abrupt separation of the articulators lets the pent up air escape with a
burst noise called plosion.
Articulator
airstream
Articulator
Closing Compression Abrupt release

stage stage stage
b. A FRICATIVE consonant consists of an articulation of narrow stricture that produces turbulence as the air coming from the
lungs fights its way out of the oral cavity. The active articulator comes close to the passive articulator and forms a narrow
channel.
Articulator
airstream
Articulator
c. An AFFRICATE consonant is a unit that made up of two elements: an initial plosive element and a fricative second element. It
consists of three stages: (1) a closing stage, (2) a compression stage, and (3) a slow fricative release stage. Its this last one
that differentiates an affricate from a plosive. The release is not abrupt this time: the organs separate so as to let the
compressed air out, but they are quite close to each other so that this narrow passage forces the airstream to cause friction.
Articulator
airstream
Articulator
Closing Compression Slow fricative release

stage stage stage
d. An APPROXIMANT sound consists of the two articulators coming towards each other, but they are not close enough to produce
friction. The air escapes freely through this wide stricture.
Articulator
airstream
Articulator
e. For the production of a nasal consonant the velum is lowered so that the passage to the nasal cavity is open.
Two articulators come in contact in the oral cavity and block it so that the air that cant escape through the
mouth is forced out through the nasal cavity.
The Vowel Chart
h9 t9

H
T

d
N9

z
P
The English Diphthongs

A diphthong is a vowel sound where the tongue glides from one vowel position in the direction of another, within the same
syllable (Finch & Ortz-Lira, 1982: 186). Each of them is a unique contrastive phoneme made up of two elements. The first
element is clearly articulated, while the second element is never actually reached. As a result, it is the first element that can
be affected by clipping. In contrast, the second element may even be lost when a vowel follows (see smoothing and
levelling).
Classification of diphthongs:
1. According to their prominence, they have traditionally been classified as either falling or rising. A falling diphthong
is, as described above, a vowel glide whose more prominent element is the first one. All the English diphthongs are
falling. In the past, authors referred to the weak sequence .h-?+ t-?. as a rising diphthong, whose second element was
more prominent than the first. Nowadays, these sequences can be analysed as either made up of a .h-?+ t-?. vowel
hiatus (i.e. two vowels that belong to different syllables) or as a sequence of a semi-vowel followed by schwa (i.e.
.i?+ v?.). To illustrate this point, we can see a falling diphthong in words such as fear .!eH?. and poor .!oT?., and
alternatively, a possible hiatus in easier .!h9y-h-?.and usual .!it9Y-t-?k. or their corresponding compressed versions
.!h9y-i?+ !it9Y-v?k..
2. According to the direction of the glide, diphthongs can be either centring or closing. Centring diphthongs are those
whose gliding movement goes in the direction of the central vowel .?.. Closing diphthongs are vowel glides that move
towards a close position, either front-closing .H. or back-closing .T..
3. According to the distance of the glide, diphthongs can be either wide or narrow. Wide diphthongs are those that
entail a wide tongue movement inside the mouth, while narrow diphthongs are those that show a gentler movement.
.dH+ `H+ NH+ `T+

Falling
?T+ H?+ d?+ T?.
Prominence
.h-?=i?.
Rising .t-?=v?.
.H?+ d?+ T?.

Centring
The English Direction Front

.dH+ `H+ NH.
Diphthongs Closing
Back
.`T+ ?T.
Distance Wide
.`H+ `T+ NH.
Narrow .dH+ ?T+ H?+

d?+ T?.

Vowel chart:
References:
Finch & Ortz-Lira, 1982
Clear and dark /l/

The lateral phoneme may have different types of resonance in General British. When it is CLEAR, it sounds
almost like a vowel similar to .d., as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge and the
back of the tongue is lowered (practise saying a long Spanish Zd9\ sound and then touch the alveolar ridge
with the tip of the tongue). This is the typical alveolar lateral sound found in Spanish (E.g. lila, Alma). In
contrast, its DARK allophone sounds like a back vowel similar to a Spanish .n. or English .T.+ as the back of
the tongue is raised towards the velum. Because of this, DARK .k. sound can also be called VELARIZED .k..
These allophones occur in COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION (i.e. they cannot be interchanged, as the context
determines which one should be used).
ALVEOLAR LATERAL RESONANCE: CLEAR Zk\ AND DARK Z4\

RULE EXAMPLES
Well see. Zvh4 !rh9\
Consonant
He will. Zgh !vH4\
Silence .k. = Dark Z4\
Will we? Z!vH4 vh\
.v.
Build Z!aH4c\
.k. * Well eat. Zvhk !h9s\
Well yawn. Z!`Hk?mc\
Vowel
.k. = Clear Zk\ Island Z!sH?ek !`Hy\
.i.
Tearful eyes Zvhk !iN9m\
Alice Z!zkHr\
Cruttenden (2014: 217-8), however, states that dark .k. may occasionally occur before a vowel. This
seems to happen either when the speaker wants to emphasise a stressed syllable or when an inflection is
added to a word that has syllabic dark .k. in its base form:
In General American, clear /l/ is darker than in General British. Compare:
Youll please Lilly.

General British Zit4 !okh9y !kHkh\
General American Zi?4 !o4h9y !4H4h\
Activity 1:
Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Colour both dark Z4\ and clear Zk\.
1. All the beautiful places were clearly polluted.

2. Michael Noble is a critical thinker.
3. These horrible people will never fool me.
4. Those pleasant milkmen were always willing to help us.
5. We shall get some apples, lemons, and several vegetables for our meal.
6. Itll cost us a small fortune to install everything we need for July.
7. Dont splash! Will you let me rest, please, Nelson?
8. Listen, children... youll need a black pencil now and something to scribble on.
9. Dont mumble! We want clarity! Its your final test
10. The bull was seriously ill.
KEY:
1. Z!N94 C? !ait9s?e4 !okdHrHy { v? !jkH?kh o?!kt9sHc\
2. Z!l`Hj4 !m?Ta4 Hy ? !jqHsHj4 !SHMj?\
3. ZCh9y !gPq?a4 !oh9o4 vH4 !mdu? !et94 lh\
4. ZC?Ty !okdyms !lH4jl?m { v?q !N94vdHy !vHkHM s? !gd4o ?r\
5. Zvh R4 !fds r?l !zo4y { !kdl?my { ?m !rduq?4 !udcYs?a4y e?q @9 !lh94\
6. ZHs4 !jPrs ?r ? !rlN94 !eN9sRm { st Hm!rsN9k !duqhSHM vh !mh9c e? cY?!k`H\
7. Z!c?Tms !rokzR {{ vHk it !kds lh !qdrs !okh9y !md4rm\
8. Z!kHrm !sRH4cq?m {{ it4 !mh9c ? !akzj !odmr4 !m`T { ?m !rUlSHM s? !rjqHak Pm\
9. Z!c?Tms !lUla4 {{ vh !vPms !jkzqHsh {{ Hsr iN9 !e`Hm4 !sdrs\
10. ZC? !aT4 v?y !rH?qh?rkh !H4\
Activity 2:
Transcribe the following text phonemically. Colour both dark Z4\ and clear Zk\.
Rachel and Phil
Rachel Williams is married to Phillip Mills. They live in little flat in Melbourne, Australia. Rachel
is 32 years old and works as a lawyer in a building company. She was born in Wales, in the UK,
but she left for Australia when she was a young girl. Phil is a bit older than his wife. He will be
40 in April. Phil and his family were from Florida in the USA. Now he works as a civil servant in
the city council. Their daughters called Bella and she is still a toddler. They are all lovely!
KEY:
Z!qdHsRk ?m !eH4 {{
!qdHsR4 !vHki?ly { Hy !lzqhc s? !eHkHo !lH4y {{ CdH !kHu Hm ? !kHs4 !ekzs Hm !ld4a?m { P!rsqdHkh? {{ !qdHsR4 { Hy !S29sh !st9
!iH?y !?T4c { ?m !v29jr ?y ? !kN9i? { Hm ? !aH4cHM !jUlo?mh {{ Rh v?y !aN9m Hm !vdH4y { Hm C? !it9 !jdH { a?s Rh !kdes
e?q P!rsqdHkh? { vdm Rh v?y ? !iUM !f294 {{ !eH4 { Hy ? !aHs !?T4c? C?m gHy !v`He {{ gh vH4 ah !eN9sh { Hm !dHoq?4 {{ !eHk ?m
gHy !ezl?kh { v? eq?l !ekPqHc? { Hm C? !it9 !dr !dH {{ m`T gh !v29jr ?y ? !rHu4 !r29ums { Hm C? !rHsh !j`Tmr4 {{ Cd?
!cN9s?y !jN94c !adk? { ?m Rhy !rsHk ? !sPck? {{ Cd?q !N94 !kUukh\
Pre-fortis clipping
Quantity is a relevant feature in English. Vowels are classified into relatively long vowels and relatively
short vowels. What is relative about their length? The former group are noticeably longer than the later
provided they occur in a similar context (e.g. bin .!aHm. vs. bean .!ah9m.). In this section we will discuss the
factors that affect the length of vowels and sonorants.
PRE-FORTIS CLIPPING is most evident when it affects a diphthong or long vowel, especially in stressed
positions. In this case, there is a reduction in the quantity of the vowel or the vowel-sonorant cluster
when the syllable is closed by a fortis .o+ s+ j+ sR+ e+ S+ r+ R.. In contrast, these vowels are fully long when
they are final in a stressed open syllable, or when the syllable is closed by a lenis consonant. The following
diacritics show length distinctions: (1) fully long vowels take Z9\; (2) clipped long vowels take just one dot
Z\; (3) and Z \ is placed on top of clipped .l+ m+ M+ k ., short vowels, and the first element of a diphthong
(Tench, 2011; Roach 2009).
Compare:
See Seed Seat Z!rh9 !rh9c !rhs\
Rue Rude Route Z!qt9 !qt9c !qts\
Ray Raid Rate Z!qdH !qdHc !qdHs\

Lend Lent Z!kdmc !kdms\
Send Sent Z!rdmc !rdms\
Build Built Z!aHkc !aHks\ The snapping of your
fingers is the best unit to
judge how clipped your
sounds are. If the syllable
Vowel length is approximately the same in the following cases fits within the snapping,
Seat Sid Zrhs rHc\ thats clipped. If it
Hoot Hood Zgts gTc\ exceeds the snapping,
thats full length!
Compare: Same quality Same quality
Core Cord Court Cod Cot

ZjN9 jN9c jNs jPc jPs\
Same quantity Similar quantity
Although long vowels are reduced approximately by half, make sure you just clip one quarter of the
length of .@9. and .29.. Remember that their quality is very similar to .U. and .?. respectively, so work hard
not to lose their contrast.
Card Cart Cud Cut Bird Burt But Commerce Commas

Z!j@9c !j@s !jUc !jUs\ Z!a29c !a2s a?s\ Z!jPl2r !jPl?y\
Activity 1:
Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Decide whether the shaded sections show pre-fortis clipping. Use Z\ instead
of Z9\ to show that a long vowel has been clipped. Place Z \ to show the clipping of the first element of a diphthong, short
vowels, or Zk+ l+ m+ M\. Colour the diacritics you use.
1. The Lord saw Christ.

2. Jane builds towers. Jake built moats.
3. Sheila sends her niece to a cheap school.
4. Your house needs some paint, mate!
5. Steve likes beer. His wife hates it.
6. Stephen has just bought some coke.
7. Mike is on a diet. He cant eat cheese, meat, or wheat.
8. Jean is dreaming about her new beach resort.
9. You might have a choice.
10. Teach your child how to read and write.
KEY:
1. ZC? !kN9c !rN9 !jq`Hrs\
2. Z!cYdHm !aHkcy !s`T?y {{ !cYdHj !aHks !l?Tsr\
3. Z!Rh9k? !rdmcy g? !mhr { st ? !sRho !rjt9k\
4. ZiN9 !g`Tr !mh9cy r?l !odHms !ldHs\
5. Z!rsh9u !k`Hjr !aH? {{ gHy !v`He !gdHsr Hs\
6. Z!rsh9um g?y cY?rs !aNs r?l !j?Tj\
7. Z!l`Hj Hy Pm ? !c`H?s {{ gh !j@ms !hs !sRh9y { !lhs { N9 !vhs\
8. Z!cYh9m Hy !cqh9lHM ?!a`Ts g? !mit9 !ahsR qH!yNs\
9. Zit !l`Hs !gzu ? !sRNHr\
10. Z!shsR iN9 !sR`Hkc { !g`T s? !qh9c ?m !q`Hs\

Activity 2:
Transcribe the following text phonemically. Decide whether the underlined sections show pre-fortis clipping. Use Z\ instead of
Z9\ to show that a long vowel has been clipped. Place Z \ to show the clipping of the first element of a diphthong, short vowels,
or Zk+ l+ m+ M\. Colour the diacritics you use.
Joyces Routine
Joyce Price is a busy woman. She wakes up at 5.30 a.m. every day. She gets up five minutes
later, goes to the loo, has a shower and brushes her teeth. She has breakfast while she listens
to Frank Fleets phone in show. Then, she leaves for work. Joyce is a maths teacher at school.
She starts her first class at 8 sharp. She gets back home at half past seven in the evening. She
marks her students papers, and cooks supper. Grace and Mike, her best friends, usually come
round at about 8. They love talking and laughing! After the guys leave, she goes to bed and
watches Ellens show. Shes fast asleep by midnight.
Z!cYNHrHy !qt9!sh9m {{
!cYNHr !oq`Hr { Hy ? !aHyh !vTl?m {{ Rh !vdHjr !Uo ?s !e`Hu !S2sh { !duqh !cdH {{ Rh !fdsr !Uo !e`Hu !lHmHsr
!kdHs? { !f?Ty s? C? !kt9 { !gzy ? !R`T? { ?m !aqURHy g? !shS {{ Rh !gzy !aqdje?rs { v`Hk Rh !kHrmy s? !eqzMj
!ekhsr !e?Tm Hm !R?T {{ !Cdm { Rh !kh9uy e? !v2j {{ !cYNHr Hy ? !lzSr !shsR? { ?s !rjt9k {{ Rh !rs@sr g? !e2rs
!jk@r { ?s !dHs !R@o {{ Rh !fdsr !azj !g?Tl { ?s !g@e !o@rs !rdum { Hm Ch !h9umHM {{ Rh !l@jr g? !rsit9cmsr
!odHo?y { ?m !jTjr !rUo? {{ !fqdHr ?m !l`Hj { g? !adrs !eqdmcy { !it9Yt?kh !jUl !q`Tmc { ?s ?!a`Ts !dHs {{
CdH !kUu !sNjHM ?m !k@eHM {{ !@es? C? !f`Hy !kh9u { Rh !f?Ty s? !adc { ?m !vPsRHy !dk?my !R?T {{ Rhy !e@rs
?!rkho a`H !lHcm`Hs\
Buttressing
Buttressing
In unemphatic sentences, the nucleus should go on the last lexical item (normally a noun or a verb). The speaker
can choose to keep the final preposition and pronoun in their weak form. Without changing the meaning of the
utterance, the speaker can also choose to apply buttressing .!aUsq?rHM. (i.e.
(i.e. to strengthen the preposition).
preposi If the
preposition is buttressed, its strong form should be used.
E.g. a. Ive been WAITing ing for you. .`Hu aHm !vdHsHM e? it. No No buttressing
b. Ive been WAITing

ing for you. .`Hu aHm !vdHsHM /eN9 it. Buttressing
Buttressing
If the pronoun gets stressed, then the sentence becomes contrastive. This is possible only if the context
requires a contrast. We have got to fight the Spanish tendency of stressing the last word so as not to
create unnecessary contrasts, which may confuse the listener.
E.g. Ive been waitinging for YOU. Contrastive: not her .`Hu aHm !vdHsHM e? !it9.
.`Hu aHm !vdHsHM e? !it9.

Practise!
Read out these sentences. You should be able to read them with and without buttressing. Pay special attention not to
change the nucleus!
Preposition + Pronoun
No buttressing Buttressing
1. What was Ben DOing in that picture?
pic a. He was LOOKing at you. He was LOOKing at you.
b.He was TALKing to her. He was TALKing to her.
c. He was SCREAMing at them He was SCREAMing at them
2. What about Shawns eXAM? a. Hes reVISing for it. Hes reVISing
re for it.
b.Hes having a GO at it. Hes having a GO at it.
c. Hes setting his MIND to it. Hes setting his MIND to it.
Pronoun + Preposition + Pronoun

No buttressing Buttressing
3. What about these SCONES? a. Shes BROUGHT them for you. Shes BROUGHT them for you.
b.Marys COOKed them for me. Marys

ys COOKed them for me.
4. What shall I do with this BALL? a. GIVE it to me. GIVE it to me.
b.THROW it at them THROW it at them
5. What did Fiona do with the rePORT

PORT? a. She corRRECTed it for me. She corRRECTed
cor it for me.
b.She MAILED it to them. She MAILED it to them.
6. What did Robby say about the BOX?

BOX a. He ASKED me for it. He ASKED me for it.
b.He SENT you for it. He SENT you for it.

Adapted from Prof. Mnica Terluk
... Stranding
Stranded Prepositions
Complete the questions and answer B for the following sentences based on the example below.
Make sure your sentence ends in a stranded preposition. Then, transcribe ALL the sentences.
1. What are they waiting for?

a. Theyre waiting for the manager.
b. Its the manager (that) theyre waiting for.
2. What_____________________________________________________?
a. Patricia dreams of starting her own company.
b. Starting her own company ______________________________.
3. Where____________________________________________________?
a. My grandmother came from Germany.
b. Germany ____________________________________________.
4. What______________________________________________________?
a. My daughter is looking at that gorgeous Persian carpet.
b. That gorgeous Persian carpet ____________________________.
Stranded Auxiliaries
Rewrite the following sentences so that they contain a stranded auxiliary verb. If there are two
sentences, join them into one. Then, transcribe ALL the sentences.
1. I am really young. You arent so young, Ian.

a. Im younger ________________________________________ .
b. You arent as _______________________________________ .
2. The weather is good today. It wasnt so good yesterday.
The weather is much better ___________________________ .
3. Vanessa works hard. The other students work hard.
a. Vanessa works as hard as _____________________________ .
4. The Greeks were really creative. The Romans werent so creative.
a. The Greeks ________________________________________ .
b. The Romans werent as _______________________________ .
Prof. Francisco Zabala 2014 1
Strong and Weak forms In Detail

The following guidelines will help you choose whether a weak form or a strong form is
appropriate in a given context. Remember to refer back to the general rule and the list
of weak and strong forms provided in the set of notes.
Notice: The nucleus has been underlined in each example and is the last primary stress .!.. All
post-nuclear stresses are given a secondary stress mark .$.-
ARTICLES & DETERMINERS
Definite article the1
Strong Form:
1. Citation:
The strong form .Ch9. is used for citation, although some speakers also use a strongly stressed
weak form .!C?. (Wells: 2008).
E.g.: Lets analyse the uses of the.
.!kdsr !zm?k`Hy C? !it9rHy ?u !Ch9.
2. Hesitation:
.Ch9. can also be found when the speaker is fishing for words, i.e. before a hesitation or a
pause.
E.g: Bens the... the... the manager.
.!admy Ch9 { Ch9 { C? !lzmHcY?.
3. Emphasis & particularisation:

The strong form .Ch9. is also used to particularise. Its meaning could be paraphrased as the
most outstanding, the one and only.
E.g.: The pronunciation dictionary | is the tool for transcriptions.

.C? oq?!mUmrh!dHRm< $cHjR?mqh { Hy !Ch9 $st9k e? $sqzm$rjqHoRm<y.
Weak Form:
The weak form is the norm. There are two variants:
1. .Ch. + vowel sound
.Ch. is necessary before vowel sounds (be careful to distinguish between initial vowel sounds
and initial vowel letters).
E.g.: The elephant and the ostrich |are the attractions in this park.
.Ch !dkHe?ms ?m Ch !PrsqHsR { ? Ch ?!sqzjRmy Hm CHr $o@9j.
The heir2 to this kingdom | is the ambassador of the Indies.
1
Wells (2008) explains that not all native speakers follow this rule, although he advices foreign learners to do so.
For example, many native speakers use the weak form .C?. before a word that starts with a vowel, especially if
there is glottal reinforcement (i.e. hard attack). E.g.: Tell me the answer .!sdk lh C? !>@9mr?.-
.Ch !d? s? CHr !jHMc?l { Hy Ch zl!azr?c?q ?u Ch !Hmchy.
The MP3 players dead.

.Ch !dl !oh9 !Sqh9 $okdH?q Hy $cdc.

2. .C?. + consonants/semivowels
.C?. is necessary before consonants and semivowels. Be wary of the spelling!
E.g.: This is the uniform2 we give the workers.
.CHr Hy C? !it9mHeN9l vh $fHu C? $v29j?y.
The UK3 is famous | for the great economic power it has.

.C? !it9 !jdH Hy !edHl?r { e? C? !fqdHs !h9j?!mPlHj !o`T?q Hs $gzy.

Indefinite articles a and an
Strong Form:
The strong forms .dH. and .zm. are extremely rare. They can be used, however, for citation, to
create contrast or in rhetorical speech.
E.g.: A: Shes got two sons, right?
B: Shes got a son. (Contrast: a means only one, not two)
.Rhy !fPs !dH rUm.
Do we use a | or an before the word herb? (Citation and contrast)

.c? vh !it9y !dH { N9q !zm aH$eN9 C? $v29c $g29a.
Weak Form:
The weak form is the norm.
1. A .?. before consonants.
E.g.: A strange customer came this morning.
.? !rsqdHmcY !jUrs?l? $jdHl CHr $lN9mHM.
A cat and a dog.

.? !jzs ?m ? !cPf.
A Euro2.
.? !iT?q?T.
2. An .?m. before vowels.

E.g.: An old friend of mine
.?m !?Tkc !eqdmc ?u $l`Hm.
An honourable2 cause.
.?m !Pm?q?ak !jN9y.
An X-ray2.
.?m !djrqdH.
2
These examples illustrate that sometimes words begin in a vowel sound but not in a vowel letter or
vice versa.
Some3
Strong Form:
The strong form is used in the following situations:
1. Citation:
E.g.: The word some | can take a weak form.
.C? !v29c !rUl { j?m !sdHj ? !vh9jeN9l.
2. Stranded and/or pronominal:

E.g.: A: More meat? Ill put some on your plate.
.!lN9 !lh9s {{ `Hk !oTs rUl Pm iN9 !okdHs.
B: Thank you. Ive still got some.
.!SzMj it {{ `Hu !rsHk !fPs rUl.
3. Contrast: As opposed to others or to all.
E.g.: Some of my students| might pass the exam.

.!rUl ?u l`H $rsit9cmsr { l`Hs !o@9r Ch Hf!yzl.
I believe some models | are clever and learned.

.`H aH!kh9u !rUl $lPcky { ? !jkdu?q ?m !k29mHc.
Some varieties of English | are rhotic.

.!rUl u?!q`H?shy ?u !HMfkHR { ? !q?TsHj.
4. When it means a considerable amount of:

E.g.: I havent talked to her | for some years.
.`H !gzums !sN9js st ? { e? !rUl !iH?y.
Its been some time | since she moved to LA.

.Hsr ah9m !rUl !s`Hl { rHmr Rh !lt9uc st !dk !dH.
5. When it means some or other and it is followed by a singular countable noun.

E.g.: Some day Ill conquer her heart.
.!rUl !cdH { `Hk !jPMj?q ? !g@9s.
Some student or other | has forgotten to finish this test.

.!rUl !rsit9cms N9q $UC? { g?y e?!fPsm s? !eHmHR CHr $sdrs.
6. When it is an exclamatory some, meaning very remarkable; it is followed by a

singular countable noun.
E.g.: That was 'some 'kiss!
.Czs v?y !rUl !jHr.
Some friend you turned out to be!

.!rUl !eqdmc it $s29mc $`Ts s? ah.
3
Wellss Blog entry Some http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/blog.htm Wednesday 28 May 2008
Weak Form:
The weak form .r?l+ rl. is used before uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns.
E.g.: I want some milk, please.
.`H !vPms rl !lHkj $okh9y.
I need some participants.

.`H !mh9c rl o@9!sHrHo?msr.
Would you care for some more?

.vTcYt !jd? e? rl !lN9.
Wells provides this comparison:
He put some 'fruit on the pizza. (as well as cheese, ham etc.)
.gh !oTs rl !eqt9s Pm C? $oh9sr?.
He put some 'fruit on the pizza. (I cant identify which/It was a remarkable fruit)
.gh !oTs !rUl !eqt9s Pm C? $oh9sr?.

AUXILIARIES & THE VERB TO BE
The verb to be
Attention!!!
The verb to be is almost invariably weak, even in full affirmative sentences, regardless of
whether it functions as an auxiliary or a main verb.
The strong forms am, are, be, was and were4 .zl+ @9+ ah9+ vPy+ v29. can be used for
emphasis, contrast, or citation as any other weak form. However, these forms can also be
used in other positions: they are obligatory when there is stranding, or when they occur in a
short yes-no question or a short answer, as they are loaded with the meaning of the
elements that have been elided. The strong form is optional in full yes-no questions without
expressing contrast.

Obligatory strong form:
1. Citation
E.g.: Is the verb was the correct answer?
.Hy C? !u29a !vPy C? j?$qdjs $@9mr?.

2. Contrast
E.g.: They were rich... ages ago!
.CdH !v29 $qHsR {{ !dHcYHy ?$f?T.
4
Caution: The strong form of the verb were is pronounced .!v29. by the great majority of
speakers. Conversely, the form .!vd?. is the pronunciation of the pronoun where, the verb
wear and the noun ware.
3. Emphasis
E.g.: These cupcakes are marvellous!
.Ch9y !jUojdHjr { !@9 !l@9uk?r.
4. Stranding (complement movement)

E.g.: To be | or not to be. (Emphasis-contrast and stranding.)
.s? !ah9 { N9 !mPs s? $ah9.
I dont remember who they are, Mr. Reynolds.

.`H !c?Tms qH!ldla? !gt9 CdH !@9 $lHrs? $qdm<kcy.
Guess how old I am now5.

.!fdr g`T !?Tkc `H zl $m`T.
5. Short yes-no questions and short answers (the verb to be stands for the elements
that have been elided)
E.g.: A: The Smiths are murderers. B: Are they? A: Yes, they are.
.C? !rlHSr ? !l29c?q?y. .!@9 CdH. .!idr CdH !@9.
A: My parents were doctors. B: Were they? A: Yes, they were.

.l`H !od?q?msr v? !cPjs?y. .!v29 CdH. .!idr CdH !v29.
A: You are gorgeous! B: Am I? Yes, I am!

.iN9 !fN9cY?r. .!zl `H {{ !idr `H !zl.
A: My brother was a catholic. B: Was he? A: Yes, he was.

.l`H !aqUC? v?y ? !jzS?kHj. .!vPy h. .!idr h !vPy.
Optional strong form:

1. Full yes-no questions
E.g.: Were they evaluated?
.v? CdH H!uzkitdHsHc.
.!v29 CdH H!uzkitdHsHc.

Was Andrew against capitalism?
.v?y !zmcqt9 ?!fdmrs !jzoHs?kHyl.
.!vPy !zmcqt9 ?!fdmrs !jzoHs?kHyl.
Am I coordinating them?
.?l `H j?T!N9cHmdHsHM C?l.
.!zl `H j?T!N9cHmdHsHM C?l.
5
Stranding (i.e. the dislocation of the complement) cannot always be equated with placing the verb to
be in final position in the chunk. In this case this word is not final, but it is stranded anyway because the
following word is not its complement.
Weak Form:
Weak forms are the norm. Remember, also, that regardless of whether the written text shows
a contraction or not, speakers normally choose the most reduced form.
1. Present tense:
a. Am is .?l.. Its contraction m is .l..
E.g.: I am a cowardly person.
.`H '?(l ? !j`T?ckh !o29rm<.
b. Is is .Hy.. Its contraction s agrees invoice with the previous sound: .y. after
voiced sounds, and .r. after voiceless sounds.
E.g.: Dave is here. Daves here.
.!cdHu 'H(y $gH?.
Its too much. (Cf. It is too much.)

.Hsr !st9 !lUsR {{ Hs Hy !st9 !lUsR.
The books missing. (C.f. The book is missing.)

.C? !aTjr $lHrHM {{ C? !aTj Hy $lHrHM.
c. Are takes .?.. Linking .q. is inserted if the next word starts with a vowel.
Note that the contractions youre, were, and theyre take a
special monosyllabic form .i<N9+ vH?. and .Cd?. respectively.
E.g.: My cousins are really young.
.l`H !jUyHmy ? !qH?kh !iUM.
Pronoun and preposition are categories | not functions.

.!oq?Tm`Tm ?m !oqdo?!yHRm< ? !jzs?fqhy { !mPs !eUMjRm<y.

Youre a reliable guy. You are a reliable guy.
.iN9q ? !qHk`H?ak< !f`H.
Theyre there with their Mayor. They are there with their Mayor.
.Cd? !Cd? vHC Cd? !ld?.
Were weary after this weird journey. Were weary after this weird journey.
.vH? !vH?qh !@9es? CHr !vH?c !cY29mh.
2. Past tense
a. Was is .v?y.. According to Windsor Lewis (1997)6, the form .vy. is a
suitable target for the foreign learner, especially before consonants.
6
Retrieved from the blog Weakform Words and Contractions for the Advanced EFL User
http://www.yek.me.uk/wkfms.html
E.g.: Mary was anxious.
.!ld?qh v?y !zMjR?r.
The donkey was tired | but the monkey was full of energy.
.C? !cPMjh v?y !s`H?c { a?s C? !lUMjh v?y !eTk ?u !dm?cYh.
b. Were is .v?.. Linking .q. is inserted if the next word starts with a vowel.
E.g.: They were robbed | by kids that were carrying knives.

.CdH v? !qPac { a`H !jHcy C?s v? !jzqhHM !m`Huy.
3. Past participle been: Some speakers make a distinction between .ah9m. for the
strong form and .aHm. for the weak form. According to Wells (2008) the strong form
.ah9m. is favoured by 92% of the speakers surveyed.
E.g.: Ive been working. (Weak)
.`Hu aHm !v29jHM . `Hu ah9m !v29jHM.
Where have you been? (Strong stressed)

.!vd?q ?u it !ah9m. !vd?q ?u it !aHm.
Can
Strong Form:
1. Content word: If it means to store things in a tin it functions as a main verb and, thus,
it is .!jzm.-
E.g.: I dislike canned tuna.
.`H cHr!k`Hj !jzmc !sit9m?.

2. The strong form .jzm.of the auxiliary is used for:
a. citation
E.g.: We use can| to express possibility.
.vh !it9y !jzm { st Hj!roqdr !oPr?!aHk?sh.

b. contrast
E.g.: I can go| but I dont want to.
.`H !jzm $f?T { a?s `H !c?Tms !vPms st9.

c. stranding
E.g.: Ill finish this report | if I can.
.`Hk !eHmHR CHr qH$oN9s { He `H !jzm.
d. negative: cant .!j@9ms. & cannot .!jzmPs+ !jzm?s.

E.g.: I cant stand your questions!
.`H !j@9ms !rszmc iN9 !jvdrsRmy.
It cant be true!
.Hs !j@9ms ah !sqt9.
We cannot dismiss this opportunity.
.vh !jzmPs cHr!lHr CHr !Po?!sit9m?sh.
e. short yes-no questions and short answers:

E.g.: A: Can we? B: Yes you can.
.!jzm vh. .!idr it !jzm.
f. full yes-no questions: it can be either weak or strong

E.g.: Can you increase the speed of your computer?
.j?m it HM!jqh9r C? !roh9c ?u iN9 j?l!oit9s?.
.!jzm it HM!jqh9r C? !roh9c ?u iN9 j?l!oit9s?.

Can we leave, sir?
.j?m vh !kh9u $r29 .
.!jzm vh !kh9u $r29 .
Weak Form:
Can is normally weak in statements and in wh-questions. It is pronounced .jm. or sometimes
.j?m. before vowels (Windsor Lewis, 1997).
E.g.: We can purchase food.
.vh jm !o29sR?r !et9c.
Where can Anthony go on holiday?

.!vd? j?m !zms?mh !f?T Pm !gPk?cdH.

Have
Strong Form:
The strong forms have .gzu., has .gzy. and had .gzc. occur in the following cases:
1. citation
E.g. The past tense of have | is had.
.C? !o@9rs !sdmr ?u !gzu { Hy !gzc.

2. contrast
E.g. I have tried| but it was useless. (have vs. havent)
.`H !gzu $sq`Hc { a?s Hs v?y !it9rk?r.
3. obligation:
E.g.: I had to kill her.
.`H !gzc s? !jHk ?.
4. causative use or misfortune:

E.g.: I had my hair dyed.
.`H !gzc l`H !gd? $c`Hc.
Shes had her house broken into.

.Rhy !gzc g? !g`Tr $aq?Tjm $Hmst9.
5. main verb: it is semantically loaded
E.g.: Francis has a puppy. (= possess)
.!eq@9mrHy !gzy ? !oUoh.
We can have a shower? (= take)

.vh j?m !gzu ? !R`T?.
What about having some tea? (= drink)

.!vPs ?!a`Ts !gzuHM r?l !sh9.
Ill have a hamburger, please. (= eat)

.`Hk !gzu ? !gzla29f? $okh9y.
6. short yes-no questions and answers

E.g.: A: Have you? B: Yes I have.
.!gzu it. .!idr `H !gzu.
A: Has she? B: Yes she has.

.!gzy Rh. .!idr Rh !gzy.
7. full yes-no questions: it can take either a strong or a weak form

E.g.: Have you finished?
.g?u it !eHmHRs.
.!gzu it !eHmHRs.
Had they left before you arrived?

.g?c CdH !kdes aH!eN9 it ?!q`Huc.
.!gzc CdH !kdes aH!eN9 it ?!q`Huc.
Weak Form:
Have, has and had are weak when they work as the auxiliary verb for the present and
past perfect tenses and for the possessive construction have got. Unless these words occur
after a pause, they can elide .g. (C.f.: Have you left? .g?u it !kdes. vs. You have left
.it g?u !kdes+ it ?u !kdes+ itu !kdes..)
1. Have .'g(?u. ~ ve .u.

E.g.: I have got some friends in Chicago.
.`H 'g?(u !fPs r?l !eqdmcy Hm RH!j@9f?T.
Weve never done it.

.vhu !mdu? !cUm Hs.
2. Has .'g(?y. ~ s (it takes .y. after voiced sounds and .r. after voiceless sounds)
E.g.: She has seen them.
.Rh 'g(?y !rh9m C?l.
Sheilas divorced.
.!Rh9k?y cH!uN9rs.
Pats done it.

.!lzsr !cUm Hs.
3. Had .'g(?c. ~ d (.c., but .?c. after .s+ c.)

E.g.: He had failed three times | before he finally got his licence .
.gh 'g(?c !edHkc !Sqh9 !s`Hly { aH!eN9q h !e`Hm?kh !fPs Hy !k`Hrmr.
Itd been great | before the police arrived.

.Hs?c aHm !fqdHs { aH!eN9 C? o?!kh9r ?$q`Huc.
4. Perfect modals reduce have to .?u. as a rule:

E.g. Susan must have left Harry.
.!rt9ym !lUrs ?u !kdes !gzqh.
Harry cant have left Susan.

.!gzqh !j@9ms ?u !kdes !rt9ym.
I could have married her.

.`H !jTc ?u !lzqhc ?.
I shouldnt have let her go.

.`H !RTcms ?u !kds ? !f?T.
We would have been happy together.

.vh !vTc ?u aHm !gzoh s?$fdC?.
We might have had kids.

.vh !l`Hs ?u !gzc !jHcy.

Do ~ Does
Strong Form:
The strong forms are used in the following cases:
1. citation
E.g.: The right answer is does, not makes
.C? !q`Hs !@9mr?q Hy !cUy { !mPs !ldHjr.

2. emphasis
E.g.: They do look gorgeous.
.CdH !ct9 !kTj !fN9cY?r.
3. contrast
E.g.: She tried to behave like a lady before, | but now she does behave like one.
.Rh !sq`Hc s? aH!gdHu k`Hj ? !kdHch aH$eN9 { a?s !m`T Rh !cUy aH!gdHu k`Hj $vUm.
E.g.: A: Do they? B: Yes they do
.!ct9 CdH. .!idr CdH !ct9.
5. semantically loaded: main verb meaning to perform.

E.g.: After doing the washing, | dont forget to do my homework, Mum.
.!@9es? !ct9HM C? !vPRHM { !c?Tms e?!fds s? !ct9 l`H !g?Tlv29j $lUl.
6. stranding
E.g.: I dont know what to do, Peter!
.`H !c?Tms !m?T !vPs s? !ct9 $oh9s?.

E.g.: Do you understand me?
.!ct9 it !Umc?!rszmc lh.
.c? it !Umc?!rszmc lh.
Does Pamela ride horses?

.!cUy !ozl?k? !q`Hc !gN9rHy.
.c?y !ozl?k? !q`Hc !gN9rHy.
Weak Form:
The weak forms .c?y. and .ct+ c?. are the norm in wh-questions. Roach (2011) recommends
the form .c?. before consonants and .ct. before vowels.
E.g. Why do you still date him?
.!v`H c? it !rsHk !cdHs Hl = !v`H cit !rsHk !cdHs Hl = !v`H cYt !rsHk !cdHs Hl.
Where do Alice and Aaron live?

.!vd? ct !zkHr ?m !zq?m !kHu.
When does the aeroplane take off?

.!vdm c?y Ch !d?q?okdHm $sdHj $Pe .
Must
Strong Form:
1. citation
E.g.: The modal must | is the best option in this case.
.C? !l?Tck !lUrs { Hy C? !adrs !PoRm Hm CHr $jdHr.

2. emphasis
E.g.: We must meet soon.
.vh !lUrs $lh9s $rt9m.
3. contrast
E.g.: I dont care whether you want to do it | you must do it.
.`H !c?Tms !jd? !vdC? it !vPms s? $ct9 Hs { it !lUrs $ct9 Hs.
E.g.: A: Must I? B: Yes you must.
.!lUrs `H. .!idr it !lUrs.
5. stranding
E.g.: Im afraid you must, darling.
.`Hl ?!eqdHc it !lUrs $c@9kHM.

E.g.: Must I return the novel myself?
.!lUrs `H qH!s29m C? !mPuk l`H!rdke.
.l?rs `H qH!s29m C? !mPuk l`H!rdke.
7. deduction: to show deduction in the present, the modal verb must is followed by the
main verb; to indicate deduction in the past, the perfect modal must have is used,
followed by the main verb.
E.g.: You must be joking! (Are you really dating an 80-year-old man?)
.it !lUr's( ah !cY?TjHM.
Jennifer must have left by now. (Her computers off).

.!cYdmHe? !lUrs ?u !kdes a`H $m`T.
Weak Form:
The weak form .l?rs. is used to express obligation, provided there is no contrast, emphasis,
stranding or any of the reasons mentioned above.
E.g.: I must be off now.
.`H l?r's( ah !Pe $m`T.
You must take good care |of this little dog of yours.
.it l?r's( !sdHj !fTc !jd?q { ?u CHr !kHsk !cPf ?u $iN9y.
Could Would Should Will

According to Ortz Lira (2008)7 the weak forms of these words are not essential, as the strong
form can be used in any context. This is possible because their strong forms take either
.T. '.jTc+ vTc+ RTc( or .H. 'vHk(, which are sometimes members of the weak vowel system
together with .?.. However, some other authors do mention the use of strong and weak forms
with .?. or without a vowel.
Strong Form:
1. citation
E.g.: Can we use either could | or should here?
.j?m vh !it9y !`HC? !jTc { N9 !RTc $gH?.

7
Ortz Lira, H (2008). The 37 essential weak form words.
2. Emphasis or contrast
E.g.: I dont think I will help you| although I definitely could.
.`H !c?Tms !SHMj `H !vHk $gdko it { N9k!C?T `H !cdeHmHskh !jTc.

E.g.: A: Will they? B: Yes they will.
.!vHk CdH. .!idr CdH !vHk.
4. stranding
E.g.: I dont think you should.
.`H !c?Tms !SHmj it !RTc.

E.g.: Will you push the door, please?
.!vHk it !oTR C? !cN9 $okh9y.
.v'?(k it !oTR C? !cN9 $okh9y.
Would you mind?

.!vTcYt !l`Hmc.
.v?cYt !l`Hmc.
6. semantically loaded: main verb meaning to urge, to desire.

E.g.: She was willing to travel.
.Rh v?y !vHkHM s? !sqzuk.
Weak Form:
The weak forms .j?c+ v?c+ R?c+ v'?(k. are possible in affirmative sentences and wh-
questions. The auxiliary verb would can be contracted to d, whose pronunciation is .c. but
.?c. after .s. or .c.
E.g. Why will you go to Cambridge | instead of Oxford?

.!v`H v'?(k it !f?T s? !jdHlaqHcY { Hm!rsdc ?u !Pjre?c.
I will never forgive you.

.`H 'v?(k !mdu? e?!fHu it.
Molly should move to the suburbs.

.!lPkh R?c !lt9u s? C? !rUa29ay.
Itd be better to leave everything as is.

.Hs?c ah !ads? s? !kh9u !duqhSHM ?y !Hy.
PRONOUNS & POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
You He She We Me Her Us Our Their
Strong Form:
The strong forms of these words are used when they are cited, emphasized or contrasted.
They remain weak even before a pause because they cannot be stranded: as they do not
require a complement, they cannot be followed by a syntactic gap.
E.g.: The pronouns she and we| are subjective.

.C? !oq?Tm`Tmy !Rh9 ?m !vh9 { ? r?acYdjsHu.
It was you who let the cat escape. (Emphasis)

.Hs v?y !it9 gt $kds C? $jzs H$rjdHo.
He wanted to get divorced, | but she didnt. (Contrast)

.!gh9 !vPmsHc s? !fds cH!uN9rs { a?s !Rh9 !cHcms.
Are you talking to me | or to them? (Contrast)

.? it !sN9jHM s? !lh9 { N9 s? !Cdl.
Weak Form:
The weak form is the norm. Remember that the weak form is used even before a pause. Pay
special attention to the following features:
The weak forms of he, him, her, his, himself and herself can elide .g. in any context
except when they occur after a pause. Relative who can also drop .g.-
E.g.: Tell him that you knew the judge who raped her | and then killed himself.
.!sdk Hl C?s it !mit9 C? !cYUcY t $qdHos ? { ?m Cdm !jHkc Hl$rdke.

The words them and themselves usually elide schwa:
E.g.: Wed better stop them | before they hurt themselves.
.vhc !ads? !rsPo Cl { aH!eN9 CdH !g29s Cl$rdkuy.
Wells (2008) says that the word our presents great variation. Some speakers use
.!`T?. as the strong form and .@9.as the weak form; some other speakers only use
either one or the other. However, since smoothing of .`T?. to .@9. is frequent, the
latter can be found in any context. What is more, if we stick to .@9. the Spanish
transfer .!`v`. will not emerge.
The word their is normally .Cd?.. Some speakers have an occasional weak form only
when a vowel follows this word, but this is not obligatory.
E.g.: On their own
.Pm Cd?q !?Tm ~ Pm C?q !?Tm = Pm Cq !?Tm.
Examples: Do you love me?

.cYt !kUu lh.
Brian told his sister Chloe| that her daughter should tell me about her marks.
.!aq`H?m !s?Tkc Hy !rHrs? !jk?Th { C?s ? !cN9s? R?c !sdk lh ?!a`Ts ? !l@9jr.
Will she tell them | that they can give us our tickets |before we leave?
.vk Rh !sdk Cl { C?s CdH jm !fHu ?r @9 !sHjHsr { aH!eN9 vh !kh9u.
The man who sold us this mobile phone | has lost his wallet.
.C? !lzm t !r?Tkc ?r CHr !l?Ta`Hk !e?Tm { g?y !kPrs Hy !vPkHs.
CONJUNCTIONS
According to Windsor Lewis (1997) these by their nature virtually never end sentences.
Beginning sentences they usually sound only slightly less fluent in their strongforms than in
their weakforms. That is, the use of a strong form when a conjunction is the first word in a
chunk is possible, but stylistically marked.
And
Strong Form:
The strong form .zmc. is used for citation and when the speaker wants to express the
contrasting idea not only but also. Windsor Lewis states that the strong forms .zm. or .zmc.
are often used sentence initially but usually with a fairly marked deliberate or hesitant effect,
unless quickly uttered.
E.g.: The conjunction and | expresses addition.

.C? j?m!cYUMjRm !zmc { Hj!roqdrHy ?!cHRm.
I am blond and smart.

.`Hl !akPmc !zm !rl@9s.
And, he continued, | you will be fired.

.!zmc gh j?m$sHmit9c { itk ah !e`H?c.
And another thing,

.zm ?!mUC? $SHM.
Weak Form:
The weak form is the norm. .?m. is normally used, regardless of the phonetic context.
E.g.: Sarah and Mary love pop.
.!rd?q? ?m !ld?qh !kUu !oPo.
I came in |and opened the drawer.

.`H jdHl Hm { ?m !?Tomc C? !cqN9.
The elision of schwa is frequent after the alveolar plosives .s+ c.+ the fricatives
'.e+ u+ S+ C+ r+ y+ R+ Y. or even after a consonant cluster provided there are no nasals involved:
E.g.: I want it in black and white.
.`H !vPms Hs Hm !akzj m !v`Hs.
Lets go to Marks and Spencers.

.!kdsr !f?T s? !l@9jr m !rodmr?y.
(C.f. We need to mend and sell them.)

.vh !mh9c s? !ldmc ?m !rdk Cl.

But
Strong Form:
The strong form .aUs. is used for citation, or sentence initially to show a deliberate or hesitant
effect. Note that this is an adversative conjunction, which means that but is used to contrast
two elements (normally, two elements other than itself!). We use the weak form in these
cases. Very exceptionally, however, the contrast is placed on itself. In this case, a strong form
is necessary.
E.g.: Im going out with him tonight | and well do everything but!
.`Hl !f?THM !`Ts vHC Hl s?$m`Hs { ?m vhk !ct9 !duqhSHM !aUs.
No buts: | you do as you are told!

.!m?T !aUsr { it !ct9 ?y iN9 !s?Tkc.
I didnt say but, | I said putt.

.`H !cHcms !rdH !aUs { `H !rdc !oUs.
But, | what about the deposit?

.aUs { !vPs ?!a`Ts C? cH!oPyHs.
Weak Form:
The weak form .a?s. is the norm.

E.g.: We know hes coming, | but when?
.vh !m?T hy $jUlHM { a?s !vdm.
I like her| but I dont love her.

.`H !k`Hj ? { a?s `H !c?Tms !kUu ?.
That
Strong Form:
The demonstrative that (be it a pronoun or an adjective) is always used in the strong form
.Czs..
E.g.: Whats that?
.!vPsr !Czs.
Whats that thing?

.!vPsr Czs !SHM.
I think (that) that woman | is a spy.

.`H !SHMj 'C?s( !Czs !vTl?m { Hy ? !ro`H.
Weak Form:
The conjunction that .C?s. has no strong form. It is used even when there is a pause
because the speaker is fishing for words. It is translated as que.
E.g.: He said that she was sexy.

.gh !rdc C?s Rh v?y !rdjrh.
I think that its just crazy.

.`H !SHMj C?s { Hsr cY?rs !jqdHyh.
As
Strong Form:
The strong form .zy. is used when the word is cited, when it is stranded and many times
when it is found in sentence-initial phrases (Windsor Lewis, 1997).
E.g.: Whats the difference between as | and ass?

.!vPsr C? !cHeq?mr aH!svh9m !zy { ?m !zr.
Such as?
.!rUsR !zy.
As a rule, |he never seems to be satisfied.

.!zy ? !qt9k { gh !mdu? !rh9ly s? ah !rzsHre`Hc.
As I say, | extremism is abhorrent.

.zy !`H $rdH { Hj!rsqh9lHyl Hy ?a!gPq?ms.
Weak Form:
The word as which can work as a conjunction, preposition or adverb is normally weak .?y..
E.g.: John is as tall as Toby.
.!cYPm Hy ?y !sN9k ?y !s?Tah.
As I was saying | we should hire this model | as soon as possible.

.?y !`H v?y $rdHHM { vh R?c !g`H? CHr $lPck { ?y !rt9m ?y !oPr?ak.
Than
Strong Form:
The strong form .Czm. is used when the word is cited and when it is stranded. It is rare.
E.g.: We need the conjunction than | to form comparative structures.

.vh !mh9c C? j?m!cYUmjRm !Czm { s? !eN9l j?l!ozq?sHu !rsqUjsR?y.
Who is Sean bigger than?

.gt Hy !RN9m !aHf? Czm.
Weak Form:
The weak form .C'?(m. is the norm. It can drop schwa, especially before consonants.
E.g.: English is easier than Spanish | because its grammar is much simpler.
.!HMfkHR Hy !h9yh? Cm !rozmHR { aH!jPy Hsr !fqzl?q Hy !lUsR !rHlok?.
Californians | are more committed to politics | than southerners.

.!jzkH!eN9mh?my { ? !lN9 j?!lHsHc s? !oPkHsHjr { Cm !rUCm?y.
EXISTENTIAL THERE
Weak Form:
The constructions that denote existence generally take weak .C?. followed by the verb to be
in the weak form. It should not be confused with the adverb of place which is spelt identically
but is always pronounced .Cd?.. In these structures, the nucleus normally falls on the object to
which we are directing our attention.
E.g.: There is a bug over there.

.C?y ? !aUf !?Tu? $Cd?.
Theres a man waiting for you.

.C?y ? !lzm !vdHsHM $eN9 it.
There are some books on the carpet.

.C?q ? rl !aTjr Pm C? $j@9oHs.
There were loads of demonstrators in the streets.

.C? v? !k?Tcy ?u !cdl?mrsqdHs?y Hm C? $rsqh9sr.
When there is in final position in interrogative sentences, either the weak or the strong forms
are possible (Roach:2009)
E.g.: Is there?
.!Hy C? ~ !Hy $Cd?.
How many guests were there?

.!g`T !ldmh !fdrsr v? C? ~ !g`T !ldmh !fdrsr v? $Cd?.
In negative constructions, the word there remains weak, while the operator is used in the
strong form.
E.g.: There arent any seats free.

.C?q !@9ms dmh !rh9sr $eqh9.
There isnt a doctor in the ward.

.C?q !Hyms ? !cPjs?q Hm C? $vN9c.
There wasnt a teacher in the classroom.

.C? !vPyms ? !sh9sR?q Hm C? $jk@9rqt9l.
PREPOSITIONS
At For From Of To
The words in this group behave in a similar way, so they are grouped together here.
Strong Form:
The strong forms .zs+ eN9+ eqPl+ Pu+ st9. can be used under the following circumstances:
1. Citation
E.g.: The prepositions at, | for, | from, | of | and to |are normally weak.
.C? !oqdo?!yHRmy !zs { !eN9 { !eqPl { !Pu { ?m !st9 { ? !mN9l?kh !vh9j.
2. Stranding
E.g.: What are you looking at, Sweetie?
.!vPs ? it !kTjHM zs $rvh9sh.
What is this made of?

.!vPs Hy CHr !ldHc Pu.
Where do you come from?

.!vd? cYt !jUl eqPl.
Whoever youre writing to | is a very lucky person.

.!gt9du? iN9 !q`HsHM st9 { Hy ? !udqh !kUjh !o29rm.
What Im waiting for is a secret?

.!vPs `Hl !vdHsHM eN9 { Hy ? !rh9jq?s.
3. Buttressing
This is the optional strengthening of a preposition so as to avoid stressing a pronoun. If a
pronoun is stressed, then it is made contrastive. Remember that the nucleus is not placed on
the preposition, but on the last lexical item as usual. Buttressing is more likely to occur if there
are unstressed syllables between the strong syllables.
E.g.: Why are you shouting at me?
.!v`H ? it !R`TsHM $zs lh ~ !v`H ? it !R`TsHM ?s lh.
Would you like a portion of it?

.vTcYt !k`Hj ? !oN9Rm $Pu Hs ~ vTcYt !k`Hj ? !oN9Rm ?u Hs.
Snatch it from them.

.!rmzsR Hs $eqPl Cl ~ !rmzsR Hs eq?l Cl.
Send it to him.
.!rdmc Hs $st9 gHl ~ !rdmc Hs s? gHl.
Are you waiting for us?

.? it !vdHsHM $eN9q ?r ~ ? it !vdHsHM e?q ?r.
4. Coordinated prepositions
E.g.: Ian | loves travelling to | and from work.
.!h9?m {!kUuy !sqzukHM !st9 { ?m !eqPl !v29j.
Our forefathers |worked for | and with the common people.

.@9 !eN9e@9C?y { !v29js !eN9 { ?m !vHC C? $jPl?m $oh9ok.
5. According to Windsor Lewis (1997), sentence-initial prepositions in particular are

often stressed not to emphasize them but to raise the level of animation of the whole
phrase.
E.g.: At the moment, | I am on the computer.

.!zs C? !l?Tl?ms ~ ?s C? !l?Tl?ms { `Hl !Pm C? j?l!oit9s?.
For the present, |well leave it as is.

.!eN9 C? !oqdyms ~ e? C? !oqdyms { vhk !kh9u Hs ?y !Hy.
From a distance, | you can see the city skyline.

.!eqPl ? !cHrs?mr ~ eq?l ? !cHrs?mr { it j?m !rh9 C? !rHsh !rj`Hk`Hm.
Weak Form:
The weak forms .?s+ eq?l+ e?+ ?u+ s?+ st9. are the norm. From elides schwa easily, especially
when a consonant follows. For can elide schwa when linking .q. is at play. The word to takes
.?. before consonants and semivowels and .t. before vowels.
E.g.: Sarah and Sara | work for a small company| from Asia.
.!rd?q? ?m !r@9q? { !v29j eq ? !rlN9k !jUlo?mh { eq?l !dHY?.
At weekends, | our family loves going to a local pub | for a drink.

.?s vh9j!dmcy { @9 !ezlkh !kUuy !f?THM st ? !k?Tjk !oUa { eq ? !cqHMj.
Do you want to go to Edinburgh| or to Warwik?

.cYt !vPms s? f? st !dcHlaq? { N9 s? !vPqHj.
REFERENCES:
th
Jones, D. (2011). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. (18 ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Ortz Lira, H. (2008). The 37 essential weak form words. Retrieved from
http://www.hectorortiz.cl/articulos/weak_forms_may_2008.swf
th
Roach, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology. A practical course. (4 ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
rd
Wells, J.C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3 ed.). Hong Kong: Longman.
Wells, J.C. (May 28, 2008). John Wells's Phonetic Blog. Some. Retrieved December 20, 2011, from
http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/blog.htm
Windsor Lewis, J. (1997). Weak form Words and Contractions for the Advanced EFL User. In The Home
"Page" of Jack Windsor Lewis. Retrieved December 29, 2011, from
http://www.yek.me.uk/wkfms.html.
The Glottal Stop

The glottal stop Z>\ is produced when the airflow is stopped abruptly by closing the vocal folds. No voicing
is produced, therefore it is considered to be a fortis sound. Like all other fortis consonants, it clips a
preceding vowel when it replaces or reinforces the syllable-final voiceless stops .o+ s+ j+ sR..
Cruttendens description (2014) is summarized below.
1. Regular glottal reinforcement of vowels in General British

a. It marks a vowel hiatus, especially when the second syllable is stressed:
Evaluation ZH$uzkit!>dHRm\ Pronunciation Zoq?$mUmrh!>dHRm<\
Geography ZcYh!>Pfq?eh\ Seattle Zrh!>zsk\
Day after day Z!cdH >@9es? !cdH\
b. Used to avoid intrusive .q. by some careful speakers:

Law and order Z!kN9 >?m !N9c?\ Idea of Z`H!cH? >?u\

c. Used instead of linking .q. by some speakers:
Here and there Z!gH? >?m !Cd?\ Easter Island Z!h9rs? $>`Hk?mc\

d. To emphasize a word starting with an accented vowel:
I said Ann, not Ian. Z`H !rdc !>zm { !mPs !>h9?m\
2. Extended glottal reinforcement of .o+ s+ j+ sR. in General British: This is a widespread

phenomenon in GB, though not in Conspicuous GB (i.e. conservative speech). Glottalization of
.>o+ >s+ >j+ >sR. occurs in syllable final position when they are preceded by a vowel or obstruent
consonant (nasal or lateral) provided a pause or a consonant follows (and when a vowel follows
.sR.+ too, because its second element is considered to be consonantal). Reinforcement is more
likely to occur at the end of accented syllables. The closure and release of the glottal stop may
precede the oral closure for .o+ s+ j+ sR..
GLOTTALIZATION: GLOTTAL REINFORCEMENT OF .o+ s+ j+ sR.

RULE EXAMPLES
rap Z!qz>o\
Z'!(>o-\ limp Z!kHl>o\
help Z!gdk>o\
Pause cant Z!j@9m>s\
Vowel Z'!(>s-\
Consonant melt Z!ldk>s\
Nasal + +
peak Z!oh9>j\
Lateral
Z'!(>j-\ stink Z!rsHM>j\
silk Z!rHk>j\
such Z!rU>sR\
Z'!(>sR-\ Any sound
lunch Z!kUm>sR\
3. Glottal replacement of .o+ s+ j+ sR. in General British: Some GB speakers replace syllable final
.o+ s+ j. and the first element of .sR. by Z>\; in other words, there is a glottal closure instead of an
oral closure.
GLOTALING: GLOTTAL REPLACEMENT OF .o+ s+ j+ sR.

RULE EXAMPLES
'(
. ! o-.=Z>-\ homorganic consonant Soap powder, cap badge
.'!(j-.=Z>-\ (though infrequent) Back garden, bookcase
Get down, great job, Atlas
non-syllabic consonant
Football, Network, Exactly
Vowel
.m.or word initial vowel
Nasal + + Cotton, get away
.'!(s-.=Z>-\ (London RGB)
Lateral
vowel within the word
Water writing
(substandard)
syllabic .k. (substandard) Bottle, little
'(
. ! sR-.=Z>R-\ Any sound Butcher, Lunch, Crunchy
Activity 1:
Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Use Z>o+ >j+ >sR\ to show the possible glottal
reinforcement of .o+ j+ sR. and Z's(>\ to show the possible glottal reinforcement or replacement of .s..
1. The beach is not that far away, Richard.

2. What time did Pat say she would pop up?
3. Peter and Dexter are very doubtful about mixing with that lot.
4. Is that the right choice do you think?
5. Matt was about to punch Mike when the teacher arrived back from the break.
6. Ive got great news for you, mate!
7. Im not feeling quite well. Can you call a doctor for me, Nick?
8. What most people hate about reality shows is that they are fake.
9. Absolutely! That guy cant do much now. You should give him the sack!
10. The cat got crazy when it saw the rat fall in the trap!
KEY:
1. ZC? !ah9>sR { Hy !mP>'s( Cz>'s( !e@9q ?!vdH !qH>sR?c\
2. Z!vP>'s( !s`Hl cHc !oz>'s( !rdH Rh vTc !oPo !U>o\
3. Z!oh9s?q ?m !cd>jrs?q ? !udqh !c`T>'s(ek { ?!a`T>'s( !lH>jrHM vHC !Cz>'s( !kP>'s(\
4. ZHy !Cz>'s( C? !q`H>'s( !sRNHr { cYt !SHM>j\
5. Z!lz>'s( v?y ?!a`T>'s( s? !oUm>sR !l`H>j { vdm C? !sh9>sR?q ?!q`Huc !az>j eq?l C? !aqdH>j\
6. Z`Hu !fP>'s( !fqdH>'s( !mit9y e? it !ldH>'s(\
7. Z`Hl !mP>'s( !eh9kHM !jv`H>'s( !vdk {{ j?m it !jN9k ? !cP>js? e? lh !mH>j\
8. ZvP>'s( !l?Trs !oh9>ok !gdH>'s( { ?!a`T>'s( qh!zk?sh !R?Ty { Hy C?>'s( Cd? !edH>j\
9. Z$zar?!kt9>'s(kh {{ Cz>'s( !f`H !j@9m>'s( !ct9 !lU>sR !m`T {{ it RTc !fHu gHl C? !rz>j\
10. ZC? !jz>'s( !fP>'s( !jqdHyh { vdm H>'s( !rN9 C? !qz>'s( !eN9k Hm C? !sqz>o\
Activity 2:
Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Use Z>o+ >j+ >sR\ to show the possible glottal
reinforcement of .o+ j+ sR. and Z's(>\ to show the possible glottal reinforcement or replacement of .s..
What not to wear
Rupert Grint, the famous actor, went to a wedding with his sister, Janet. It took place in an
elegant church in a remote village in Scotland. Janet wore a light pink dress that covered her
knees, a white fluffy hat, black cotton gloves and a dark red silk scarf tied to her thick neck.
She looked ghastly! I wonder what she was thinking of when she bought these mismatching
items...
Ruperts style left much to be desired, as well. To start with, the suit looked shabby and quite
dirty, to be honest. Its fabric seemed to be good quality linen, but he chose an old fashioned
check pattern: fine pink lines that create large, open white squares. As regards his shirt, the
fabric and colours were great, but not its shape. His black tie could have been a right choice, if
it hadnt had a picture of Donald Duck. His shoes, however, were really smart and expensive.
Z!vP>'s( !mP>'s( s? !vd? {{

!qt9o?>'s( !fqHm>'s( { C? !edHl?r !z>js? { !vdm>'s( st ? !vdcHM vHC gHy !rHrs? { !cYzmH>'s( {{ H>'s( !sT>j
!okdHr Hm ?m !dk?f?m>'s( !sR29>'s(R { Hm ? qH!l?T>'s( !uHkHcY Hm !rjP>'s(k?mc {{ !cYzmH>'s( { !vN9q ? !k`H>'s(
!oHM>j !cqdr { C?>'s( !jUu?c g? !mh9y { ? !v`H>'s( !ekUeh !gz>'s( { !akz>j !jPsm !fkUuy { ?m ? !c@9j !qdc
!rHk>j !rj@9e { !s`Hc s? g? !SH>j !md>j {{ Rh !kT>js !f@9rskh {{ `H !vUmc? { vP>'s( Rh v?y !SHMjHM Pu { vdm
Rh !aN9>'s( Ch9y !lHr!lz>'s(RHM !`Hs?ly {{

!qt9o?>'s(r !rs`Hk { !kdes !lU>'s(R s? ah !cHy`H?c { ?y !vdk {{ s? !rs@9>'s( vHC { C? !rt9>'s( { !kT>js !Rzah ?m
!jv`H>'s( !c29sh { s? ah !Pm?rs {{ Hsr !ezaqH>j { !rh9lc s? ah !fTc !jvPk?sh !kHm?m { a?s h !sR?Ty ?m !?Tkc
!ezRmc !sRd>j !ozsm {{ !e`Hm !oHM>j !k`Hmy { C?>'s( jqh!dH>'s( !k@9cY { !?To?m !v`H>'s( !rjd?y {{ ?y qH!f@9cy
gHy !R29>'s( { C? !ezaqHj ?m !jUk?y v? !fqdH>'s( { a?>'s( !mPs Hsr !RdH>o {{ gHy !akz>j !s`H j?c ?u aHm ?
!q`H>'s( !sRNHr { He H>'s( !gzcm>'s( !gzc ? !oH>jsR?q ?u !cPmkc !cU>j {{ gHy !Rt9y { g`T!du? { v? !qH?kh
!rl@9s ?m H>j!rodmrHu\
Assimilation
Speakers may be careful enough so as to keep the citation form of a word, or they may simplify the
transition between sounds by adapting some of them to the environment in which they occur. It is
important to note that there is a restriction in terms of the number of changes that can occur at any given
time. In general, a phoneme will change only one of its distinctive features: for example, if the place of
articulation changes, the voicing and manner of articulation tend to remain untouched. The most
frequent type is regressive assimilation of place. For example, in the phrase bad person the final voiced
alveolar plosive .c. may be influenced by the following bilabial consonant .!azc !o29rm = !aza !o29rm.. It
is interesting to note that although its place of articulation is altered, its voicing and manner of
articulation are not.
Speakers normally want to make the least possible effort to articulate. Although some assimilatory
patterns may seem extreme to foreign speakers, they are actually so frequent and normal that native
speakers are unaware of their existence. So much so, that certain combinations of sounds may be
subjected to a chain or domino assimilation. The phrase He didnt come may show the bilabialisation
of the alveolar sequence .cms. and the elision of the final plosive .s.:
.gh !cHcm's( !jUl = gh !cHfM'j( !jUl.. It is worth noticing that the .j. sound affects neither the manner
of articulation nor voicing of the alveolar sequence .cm's(.. According to Cruttenden (2014: 313), either
all of the alveolars change, or none.
1. DIRECTION:
1.1. Regressive assimilation ( right-to-left, A B ):

Regressive assimilation is the most common by far. It occurs when a sound changes one of its
characteristics under the influence of a following sound.
Ten men . !sdm !ldm = !sdl !ldm . Un peso .!tm !odrn = !tl !odrn.

This type of assimilation is thoroughly explained below, under ASSIMILATION OF PLACE.
1.2. Coalescence ( A + B = C ):
Coalescence is the process by which two sounds merge together and result in a different one. Wells
(2008: 52) states that YOD COALESCENCE normally affects the words you and your. It may also be found
before unstressed year, yet and other words of frequent use.
YOD COALESCENCE
RULE EXAMPLES
Wont you .!v?Tms it =!v?TmsRt.
.s. = .sR.
Dont you .!c?Tms it =!c?TmsRt.
Would you? .!vTc it = !vTcYt.
Did you? .!cHc it =!cHcYt.
.c. * .i. = .cY.
Should you? .!RTc it =!RTcYt.
Could you? .!jTc it = !jTcYt.
.r. .R. I miss you .`H !lHr it = `H !lHRt.
.y. .Y. As you can .?y it !jzm = ?Yt !jzm.
Activity 1:
Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Show the cases of assimilation in colour.
1. Have I told you lately that I hate you?

2. Why dont you create your own story?
3. Hasnt your sister finished yet?
4. I suppose you can do it.
5. Does your boyfriend need you so much?
6. Did you make her use your books? How could you!
7. Did you read your magazine?
8. Has your father let you down?
9. Last year, I visited you. Do you remember?
10. I understand your point, but I havent passed yet!
KEY:
1. Zg?u `H !s?TkcYt !kdHskh C?s `H !gdHsRt\
2. Z!v`H !c?Tmst jqh!dHsRN9q !?Tm !rsN9qh\
3. Z!gzymsRN9 !rHrs? !eHmHRsRds\
4. Z`H r?!o?TYt j?m !ct9 Hs\
5. Zc?YN9 !aNHeqdmc !mh9cYt r?T !lUsR\
6. ZcHcYt !ldHj g? !itYN9 !aTjr {{ !g`T !jTcYt\
7. ZcHcYt !qh9cYN9 $lzf?!yh9m\
8. Zg?YN9 !e@9C? !kdsRt !c`Tm\
9. Z!k@9rsRH? { `H !uHyHsHcYt {{ cYt qH!ldla?\
10. Z`H $Umc?!rszmcYN9 !oNHms { a?s `H !gzums !o@9rsRds\
1.3. Progressive assimilation
This type of change takes place when there is elision of .?. due to a process called SYLLABIC
CONSONANT FORMATION. If .?. is omitted, the resulting syllabic nasal may be influenced by the place
of articulation of the previous sound:
Happen .!gzo?m = !gzol<. Bacon .!adHj?m = !adHjM.
2. TYPES OF CHANGE
2.1. Voicing
Unlike many other languages, English does not frequently favour assimilation of voice. In Spanish, on the
contrary, voiceless sounds tend to become voiced in the vicinity of voiced sounds. This does not happen
in English, so Spanish speakers should be careful never to voice voiceless sounds:
E.g. Tecnolgico .$sdfmn!knwhjn. tnico .!dcmhjn.

Technologic .$sdjm?!kPcYHj. Ethnic .!dSmHj.

However, the opposite may be true in English. A final voiced sound might become voiceless in a few close-
knit English phrases. This is of restricted occurrence because when a final sound is voiceless there is PRE-
FORTIS CLIPPING. (Note that ALLOPHONIC DEVOICING occurs anyway, as explained below):
1. Used to (semi modal, obligatory .!it9r's( s?.)
E.g. I used to work here. Z`H !itrs s? !v2j gH?\
Used (past tense of to utilize)
E.g. I used two bags. Z`H !it9yc !st9 !azfy\
2. Of course Z?u !jN9r = ?e !jN9r\
E.g. Of course you can. Z?u !jN9r it !jzm = ?e !jN9r it !jzm\

3. Have to (semi modal)
E.g. I have to do it. Z`H !gz9u s? !ct9 Hs = `H !gze s? !ct9 Hs\
Has to (semi modal)
E.g. She has to study. ZRh !gz9y s? !rsUch = Rh !gzr s? !rsUch\
Activity 2:
1. I used to love her, but I have to kill her now.

2. She used me as if I were worthless.
3. Of course I used to play with wooden swords.
4. I used two of these, and I will use some more.
5. She has to admit that she has used it all.
6. Did you use to go out with my cousin?
7. Did you use my notebook?
8. She used that card to pay for the tickets.
9. We used to collect unusual objects.
10. Youll have to get used to it.
KEY:
1. Z`H !it9rs s? !kUu g? { a?s `H !gze s? !jHk g?\
2. ZRh !it9yc lh { ?y He `H v? !v29Sk?r\
3. Z?e !jN9r `H !it9rs s? !okdH vHC !vTcm !rN9cy\
4. Z`H !it9yc !st9 ?u !Ch9y { ?m `H vHk !it9y r?l !lN9\
5. ZRh !gzr st ?c!lHs { C?s Rh g?y !it9yc Hs !N9k\
6. ZcHcYt !it9r s? !f?T !`Ts vHC l`H !jUyHm\
7. ZcHcYt !it9y l`H !m?TsaTj\
8. ZRh !it9yc !Czs !j@9c s? !odH e? C? !sHjHsr\
9. Zvh !it9rs s? j?!kdjs $Um!it9Yt?k !PacYHjsr\
10. Zitk !gzu s? fds !it9rs st Hs\
2.2. Place of articulation

Alveolar sounds are the most unstable in English (.r+ y+ m. and especially .s+ c.). Not only are they very
frequent, but they are also articulated in the middle of the oral cavity. This position enables them to be
assimilated into a more advanced or retracted place of articulation. This phenomenon is often referred to
as DE-ALVEOLAR ASSIMILATION.
Phonemic changes
2.2.1. Bilabial assimilation

The alveolar .s+ c+ m. may become bilabial before a bilabial sound. Notice, however, that the assimilation
of .s. into .o. is not as frequent as its replacement by a glottal stop*.
ALVEOLAR + BILABIAL = BILABIAL

RULE EXAMPLES
That pen Z!Cz> !odm\ nq .!Czs !odm = !Czo !odm.
That boy Z!Cz> !aNH\ nq .!Czs !aNH = !Czo !aNH.
.s.* .s.= .o.
That man Z!Cz> !lzm\ nq .!Czs !lzm = !Czo !lzm.
.o. That wind Z!Cz> !vHmc\ nq .!Czs !vHmc = !Czo !vHmc.

Bad pain .!azc !odHm = !aza !odHm .
.a.
Bad boy .!azc !aNH = !aza !aNH .
.c. * .c.= .a.
Bad men .!azc !ldm = !aza !ldm .
.l.
Bad wine .!azc !v`Hm = !aza !v`Hm .

.v. 1 In Brighton .Hm !aq`Hsm< = Hl !aq`Hsm<.
In pairs .Hm !od?y = Hl !od?y.
.m. .m.= .l.
In Miami .Hm l`H!zlh = Hl l`H!zlh.
In Wales .Hm !vdHky = Hl !vdHky.
Activity 3:
1. Can we eat a sandwich in bed, Brenda?

2. You told me you would be in bed by midnight, Becky!
3. In Worcester, my dad bought a great painting. It was a great bargain.
4. In my opinion, this country cant be such a bad place to live in, Bruce.
5. Matt paid a lot more than Paul for that bread and breakfast hotel in Baker Street.
6. Can Brian decide when to come back home? Can he put it in black and white?
7. That beautiful bust needed more than ten men to be carried back to the hall.
8. That worksheet would bring Ben many ideas.
9. Did Polly and Pamela grind much coffee?
10. Youd better start pulling up your socks right before the test.
KEY:
1. Zj?l vh !h9s ? !rzlvHcY Hl !ada !aqdmc?\
2. Zit !s?Tka lh { it vTa ah Hl !ada a`H !lHcm`Ho !adjh\
3. ZHl !vTrs? { l`H !cza !aN9s ? !fqdHo !odHmsHM {{ Ho v?y ? !fqdHo !a@9fHm\
4. ZHl !l`H ?!oHmh?m { CHr !jUmsqh !j@9lo ah !rUsR ? !aza !okdHr { s? !kHu Hl !aqt9r\
5. Z!lzo !odHc { ? !kPo !lN9 C?l !oN9k { e? !Czo !ada l !aqdje?rs g?T!sdk { Hl !adHj? !rsqh9s\
6. Zj?l !aq`H?m cH!r`Ha !vdm s? !jUl !azj !g?Tl {{ j?m gh !oTs Hs Hl !akzj ?l !v`Hs\
7. ZCzo !ait9s?ek !aUrs { !mh9cHa !lN9 C?m !sdl !ldm { s? ah !jzqha !azj s? C? !gN9k\
8. ZCzo !v29jrh9o vTa !aqHM !adl !ldmh `H!cH?y\
9. ZcHa !oPkh ?l !ozl?k? !fq`Hla !lUsR !jPeh\
10. Zita !ads? !rs@9o !oTkHM !Uo iN9 !rPjr { q`Ho aH!eN9 C? !sdrs\
1
This type of change is only mentioned by Wells (1992).
2.2.2. Velar assimilation
The alveolar .s+ c+ m. may become velar before a velar sound. Notice, however, that the assimilation of
.s. into .j. is not as frequent as its replacement by a glottal stop*.
ALVEOLAR + VELAR = VELAR

RULE EXAMPLES
That case Z!Cz> !jdHr\ nq .!Czs !jdHr = !Czj !jdHr.
.s.* .s.= .j.
That game Z!Cz> !fdHl\ nq .!Czs !fdHl = !Czj !fdHl.
.j.
Red carpet .!qdc !j@9oHs = !qdf !j@9oHs.
.c. * .c.= .f.
Red glove .!qdc !fkUuy = !qdf !fkUuy.
.f.
Ann can .!zm !jzm = !zM !jzm.
.m. .m.= .M.
Ann got it .!zm !fPs Hs = !zM !fPs Hs.
Activity 4:
1. The problems in Greece can get much worse if Britain gains power.
2. We cant go on climbing!
3. She couldnt cope with it, Greg.
4. Did Gimson call you?
5. She made great contributions.
6. I need Kate Goldstein, Gladys.
7. Brad got goose pimples.
8. In contrast with what Glenn claims, Ill demand greater interest rates.
9. Ben couldnt cope with it, Granny.
10. Ted Green called Alan Gray. He said Garys in Canada.
KEY:
1. ZC? !oqPak?ly HM !fqh9r { j?M !fdo !lUsR !v29r { He !aqHs?M !fdHmy !o`T?\
2. Zvh !j@9Mj !f?T !PM !jk`HlHM\
3. ZRh !jTfMj !j?To vHC Hj !fqdf\
4. ZcHf !fHlr?M !jN9k it\
5. ZRh !ldHf !fqdHj $jPmsqH!ait9Rmy\
6. Z`H !mh9f !jdHj !f?Tkcrs`HM !fkzcHr\
7. Z!aqzf !fPj !ft9r !oHloky\
8. ZHM !jPsq@9rs vHC vPj !fkdM !jkdHly { `Hk cH!l@9Mf !fqdHs?q !Hmsq?rs $qdHsr\
9. Z!adM !jTfMj !j?To vHC Hj !fqzmh\
10. Z!sdf !fqh9M !jN9kc !zk?M !fqdH {{ gh !rdf !fzqhy HM !jzm?c?\
2.2.3. Palatoalveolar assimilation
The alveolar .r+ y. may become palatoalveolar before a palatoalveolar sound.
ALVEOLAR + PALATOALVEOLAR = PALATOALVEOLAR

RULE EXAMPLES
This year .!CHr !iH? = !CHR !iH?.
.i.
This shop .!CHr !RPo = !CHR !RPo.

.r. .r.= .R. Miss Jacques .!lHr !Yzj = !lHR !Yzj.
.R.
This church .!CHr !sR29sR = !CHR !sR29sR.
This job .!CHr !cYPa = !CHR !cYPa.
* .Y.
These years .!Ch9y !iH?y = !Ch9Y !iH?y.

These shops .!Ch9y !RPor =!Ch9Y !RPor.
.sR.
.y. .y.= .Y. Please Jacques .!okh9y !Yzj = !okh9Y !Yzj.

These churches .!Ch9y !sR29sRHy = !Ch9Y !sR29sRHy.
.cY.
These jobs .!Ch9y !cYPay = !Ch9Y !cYPay.
Activity 5:
1. Is she Miss Jones?

2. Does Sheila please George?
3. Has she corrected his short story?
4. Maurice Johnson has just changed his job.
5. This gym is just what she needs.
6. Alice Joyce has joined the armed forces, Sean.
7. Bruce Sheridan has shot his sheep.
8. Has Janet heard the news, Shirley?
9. What a nice chap! Shes chosen a wise gentleman to be her future husband.
10. This is jolly good! This judge is sure to give us just what we want!
KEY:
1. ZHY Rh !lHR !cY?Tmy\
2. Zc?Y !Rh9k? !okh9Y !cYN9cY\
3. Zg?Y Rh j?!qdjsHc gHY !RN9s !rsN9qh\
4. Z!lPqHR !cYPmr?m { g?Y !cYURs !sRdHmcYc gHY !cYPa\
5. ZCHR !cYHl { HY !cYUrs vPs Rh mh9cy\
6. Z!zkHR !cYNHr { g?Y !cYNHmc Ch !@9lc !eN9rHY !RN9m\
7. Z!aqt9R !RdqHcm { g?Y !RPs gHY !Rh9o\
8. Zg?Y !cYzmHs !g29c C? !mit9Y !R29kh\
9. Z!vPs ? !m`HR !sRzo {{ RhY !sR?Tym ? !v`HY !cYdmskl?m {s? ah g? !eit9sR? !gUya?mc\
10. ZCHr HY !cYPkh !fTc {{ CHR !cYUcY { HY !RN9 s? !fHu ?Y !cYUrs vPs vh !vPms\
Chameleonic phonemes: Assimilation

Some phonemes change one of its three distinctive features to resemble a neighbouring sound.
As a result, they turn into another phoneme. In English, its mostly the frequent syllable-final
alveolar .s+ c+ m. that adopt the place of articulation of a following consonant.
.s.
1. Can become bilabial .__ . before a bilabial .o+ a+ l. (or even .v. for some people).
2. Can become velar .__ . before a velar .j+ f+ M..
3. Can coalesce (i.e. merge) with a following .i. and the result is .__ ..
.c.
.m.
.r.
1. Can become palato-alveoalar .__ . before a palato-alveolar .R+ Y+ sR+ cY+ i..
.y.
1. Can become palato-alveoalar .__ . before a palato-alveolar .R+ Y+ sR+ cY+ i..
Transcribe these sentences and find possible cases of assimilation. Colour them.
1. It was a great game.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Theyd been playing for hours when it began to rain.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
3. In my opinion, she did quite well in Maths and Chemistry.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Did you understand what your Dad proposed?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
5. It wasnt my brother who pulled you!
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
6. This show cant be cancelled yet.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
7. This year, the board members havent made much progress.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
8. They cant be in bed by now.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
9. In contrast with what you have said, I dont believe John could kill me.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
10. I miss your hilarious jokes.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
11. Does she understand Greek?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
12. Was she in court, by the way?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
The Release Stage of Plosives:

The literature is clear with regard to the complex nature of plosive sounds. Although some writers
(Cruttenden: 2014) postulate that there are three stages in the production of a plosive sound, we will
follow a more thorough analysis (Arnold: 1971; Wells & Colson: 1971; Roach: 2009) that adds a fourth
stage (something implicit in Cruttenden, though).
Plosive sounds are made up of three stages:

1. The CLOSING STAGE: the articulators come together to produce a complete oral closure that
prevents the airflow from escaping (since plosive sounds are oral sounds, it is understood that the
velum is raised so that the airflow does not escape through the nose, either).
2. The COMPRESSION STAGE: the air coming from the lungs is built up behind the oral closure. This
raises the pressure inside the oral chamber.
3. The RELEASE STAGE: the articulators separate abruptly, thus removing the blockage.
4. PLOSION: the auditory effect produced by the noise that the compressed air makes as it escapes.
Learners should be aware of the fact that some or several of these stages may not always be present due
to contextual reasons. The aim of the following section is to help you distinguish between COMPLETE
PLOSIVE sounds that are exploded (i.e. you can hear their plosion) from MASKED PLOSIVES (i.e. you cannot
hear either the release or the plosion).
1. COMPLETE ORAL RELEASE AND PLOSION: the articulators separate abruptly and the air escapes freely
through the mouth producing its characteristic explosive noise. This is typical when a vowel sound
follows a plosive. It may also be possible before silence or, in extremely careful or declamatory
speech, in a sequence of a plosive sound followed by another plosive, a lateral or a nasal. Although
there is no diacritical mark for this, the latter case may be indicated by the use of aspiration or
affrication when suitable:
Baboon Za?!at9m\ Daddy Z!czch\
Told me Z!s?Tkc'y( lh\ Bag Z!azf {{\
'g(
That person Z!Czs !o29rm\ Z!Czs'r( !o29rm\

2. MASKED PLOSIVES: The plosive is felt to be incomplete because it lacks its characteristic explosive
noise. Learners should aim at mastering this feature, since it is only in over-careful or declamatory
speech that plosives are always exploded. By the same token, failing to mask plosives can both
hinder learners fluency as well as distract their listeners attention.
a. PLOSIVE + NASAL: there is true nasal release when a plosive is followed by a homorganic
nasal. The oral closure is kept, so the contact made between the articulators should not be
removed. Consequently, the air escapes through the nose when the soft palate is lowered
and the nasal cavity is opened. The Spanish tendency to insert an intrusive vowel should be
repressed: not now *Z!mPs? !m`T\. (For teaching purposes, some writers extend label to
any sequence of a plosive followed by a heterorganic nasal sound in order to remind the
student that no intrusive vowel should be heard. The oral closure required by the nasal
sound anticipates the release of the plosive, so no oral plosion should be heard. C.f. NO
PLOSION.)
At night Z?s^ !m`Hs\ Button Z!aUs^m\

Bad news Z!azc^ !mit9y\ Sudden Z!rUc^m\
Ribbon Z!qHa^m\ Happen Z!gzo^m\
Organ Z!N9f^m\ Bacon Z!adHj^m\
b. LATERAL RELEASE: there is true lateral release when a plosive is followed by a homorganic
lateral sound. This occurs only in the sequences .sk+ ck. as the tongue tip contact made
against the alveolar ridge is not removed, so the plosive is released by the lowering of one
or both sides of the tongue. The important point that the foreign learner should bear in
mind is that no vowel is to be heard. Spanish speakers should, for instance, try to avoid
pronunciations such as not light *Z!mPs? !k`Hs\). (Since what is sought is the omission of an
intrusive vowel in these cases, the concept of lateral release is also extended by some
writers to sequences of heterorganic plosive and lateral sounds. The alveolar closure
required by the lateral anticipates the release of the plosive, so no oral plosion should be
heard. C.f. NO PLOSION.)
Bottle Z!aPs^k\ Middle Z!lHc^k\

Subtly Z!rUs^kh\ Mildly Z!l`Hkc^kh\
At last Z?s^ !k@9rs\ Bad luck Z!azc^ !kUj\
Big lake Z!aHf^ !kdHj\ Bubble Z!aUa^k\
c. NO RELEASE & GEMINATION: when a plosive is followed by a homorganic plosive or affricate,

its third and fourth stages will not take place. The second stop consonant, at the same
time, will lack its closing stage, due to the pre-existing homorganic closure made for the
plosive. To put it simply, the stop cluster is made up of (1) a closing stage; (2) a
compression stage that is twice as long since it comprises the first plosives compression
stage and the second stop consonants compression stage; (3) and a release stage (and
plosion, if suitable) for the second consonant. Learners should be careful not to think that
the plosive disappears altogether: its presence is manifested by means of the extra length
of the compression stage. The diacritical mark used for this type of release is the same that
is used for non-audible release, since the auditory effect is similar (i.e. no plosion is heard).
If the two plosives are geminates (that is, both are exactly the same sound) the cluster is
perceived as just one long plosive sound. Again, the Spanish tendency to insert an intrusive
vowel should be avoided: e.g. bad day *Z$azc? !cdH\.
Bad dog Z!azc^ !cPf\ Pete died Z!oh9s^ !c`Hc\

Big girl Z!aHf^ !f29k\ Jack Gray Z!cYzj^ !fqdH\
Black cat Z!akzj^ !jzs\ David chokes Z!cdHuHc^ !sR?Tjr\

d. NO PLOSION & NO AUDIBLE RELEASE: the third and fourth stages will not normally be heard
when a plosive is followed by a heterorganic plosive, affricate, lateral or nasal. The closing
stage of the forthcoming stop consonant, or the lateral or nasal approach, is finished
before the first plosive is released. Therefore, when the first plosive is finally released
there is no plosion. This is also possible before silence in colloquial speech. The diacritical
mark used for this type of release is the same that is used for no release, since the auditory
effect is similar (i.e. no plosion is heard). What the learner should be careful about is not to
produce an intrusive vowel in these sequences: act*Zzj?s\.
It can ZHs^ !jzm\ Rubbed Z!qUa^c\

Bob jumps Z!aPa^ !cYUlor\ Great! Z!fqdHs^\
Bad men Z!azc^ !ldm\ Happen Z!gzo^m\
Activity 1:
Focus on the plosive sounds in the following sentences and transcribe them phonemically. Then, use [ ^ ]
to show that the plosives are not exploded (i.e. masked) when they are followed by another plosive, an
affricate, a nasal or .k..
1. Ted Darcy went to the Great Lakes in Scotland.

2. Not now, my little boy. I need to write to your grandparents.
3. What time did Daisy call?
4. Rob Nelson put many people in trouble.
5. That gate doesnt face the front door.
6. Did Chester like my grand tour?
7. That taut rope cannot cope with all that tension.
8. Greg Gibson said many bad things about Luke Gardner.
9. That gig Peter invited me to was great, girls!
10. David Pollard bought two little bottles of beer and a carton of apple juice.
KEY:
1. Z!sdc^ !c@9rh { !vdms^ s? C? !fqdHs^ !kdHjr Hm !rjPs^k?mc\
2. Z!mPs^ !m`T l`H !kHs^k !aNH {{ `H !mh9c^ s? !q`Hs^ s? iN9 !fqzmcôd?q?msr\
3. Z!vPs^ !s`Hl cHc^ !cdHyh !jN9k\
4. Z!qPa^ !mdkr?m !oTs^ !ldmh !oh9o^k Hm !sqUa^k\
5. ZCzs^ !fdHs^ !cUyms !edHr C? !eqUms^ !cN9\
6. ZcHc^ !sRdrs? !k`Hj^ l`H !fqzmc^ !sT?\
7. ZCzs^ !sN9s !q?To !jzmPs^ !j?To vHC N9k Czs^ !sdmRm\
8. Z!fqdf^ !fHar?m { rdc^ !ldmh !azc !SHMy { ?!a`Ts^ !kt9j^ !f@9c^m?\
9. ZCzs^ !fHf^ !oh9s? Hm!u`HsHc^ lh st9 v?y !fqdHs^ !f29ky\
10. Z!cdHuHc^ !oPk?c^ !aN9s^ !st9 !kHs^k !aPsk^y ?u !aH? { ?m ? !j@9s^m ?u !zo^k !cYt9r\
Activity 2:
Focus on the plosive sounds in the following text and transcribe them phonemically. Then, use [ ^ ] to
show that the plosives are not exploded (i.e. masked) when they are followed by another plosive, an
affricate, a nasal or .k..
Gossip Girl
Janet Park is not a bad person, but people dont like her because she cant keep her mouth
shut. If you tell a secret to her, she wont be able to keep it to herself. I think Ms. Park battles
against her nosy nature, but it destroys her heart not to rush out to let ladies know about a
new juicy piece of good gossip. Now, if you do want people to learn about something, be it true
or not true, you just give her a quick call, and the rumour is out. You can spread terrible
rumours about someone without damaging your own name.
Z!fPrHo^ !f29k {{
!cYzm?s^ !o@9j { Hy !mPs ? !azc^ !o29rm { a?s^ !oh9o^k !c?Tms^ !k`Hj g? { aH!jPy Rh !j@9ms^ !jh9o g? !l`TS
!RUs {{ He it !sdk ? !rh9jq?s^ !st9 g? { Rh !v?Tms^ ah !dHa^k s? !jh9o Hs^ s? g?!rdke {{ `H !SHMj^ !lHr !o@9j^ {
!azs^ky ?!fdmrs g? !m?Tyh !mdHsR? { a?s Hs^ cH!rsqNHy g? !g@9s^ { !mPs^ s? !qUR !`Ts^ s? !kds^ !kdHchy !m?T {
?!a`Ts ? !mit9 !cYt9rh !oh9r { ?u !fTc^ !fPrHo^ {{ !m`T { He it !ct9 !vPms^ !oh9o^k s? !k29m ?!a`Ts !rUlSHM {
ah Hs^ !sqt9 N9 !mPs^ !sqt9 { it cY?rs^ !fHu g?q ? !jvHj^ !jN9k { ?m C? !qt9l?q Hy !`Ts^ {{ it j?m !roqdc^
!sdq?a^k !qt9l?y ?!a`Ts !rUlvUm { vH!C`Ts^ !czlHcYHM iN9q !?Tm !mdHl\
Devoicing of obstruents
Lenis sounds are normally fully voiced when they occur between other voiced sounds. However, voiced
plosives, fricatives and affricates (i.e. obstruent consonants) are fully devoiced before silence or a
voiceless sound. If you fail to do so, an intrusive vowel off-glide may be heard.
E.g.: Has Sue? Z!gzy rt9\ vs. *Z!gzy? rt9\
It is very important to remember that although a devoiced allophone may just sound like a voiceless
sound, it does not become fortis because:
a) it does not take up as much muscular effort and, above all,
b) it does not reduce the length of the preceding vowels or sonorants (i.e. nasals & approximants).
They remain lenis, therefore, there is no PRE-FORTIS CLIPPING.
A very good example is the word newspaper. It is special because it can be pronounced either with .r. or
.y.. Neither sound will be voiced, so the distinction is perceived through the length of the vowel
immediately before.
Newspaper Z!mit9yodHo?\ or Z!mitrodHo?\

DEVOICING OF OBSTRUENTS ( PLOSIVES , AFFRICATES & FRICATIVES )
Allophone Before silence Before a fortis sound
Za\ Web Z!vda {{\ Bob Finch Z!aPa !eHmsR\
Zc\ Head Z!gdc {{\ Read slowly Z!qh9c !rk?Tkh\
Zf\ Plague Z!okdHf {{\ Big problem Z!aHf !oqPak?l\
ZcY\ Cambridge Z!jdHlaqHcY {{\ George Smith Z!cYN9cY !rlHS\
Zu\ Above Z?!aUu {{\ 5:30 Z!e`Hu !S29sh\
ZC\ Breathe Z!aqh9C {{\ Loathsome Z!k?TCr?l\
Zy\ Please Z!okh9y {{\ Is she? Z!Hy Rh\
ZY\ Prestige Z!oqdr!sh9Y {{\ Is she? Z!HY Rh\
Activity 1:
Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Use Z \ to show devoicing. Colour the diacritical marks
you use.
1. Ladies first. Please sit down.

2. Was Karen Jones talking to George Ferguson?
3. Eve Ford couldnt leave town before twelve.
4. Has Peter decided to close his shop?
5. Niles has chosen to apply to Cambridge.
6. Rose Sellers spoke with Simon Mills.
7. Brussels is perfect for our holidays, Honey!
8. Jill drives to school, leaves her daughter and heads for work.
9. Charles sips his coffee while he reads from the screens.
10. Does Jules smoke his pipe in front of his sisters, Steve?
KEY:
1. Z!kdHchy !e29rs {{ !okh9y !rHs !c`Tm
m\
2. Zv?y !jzq?m !cY?Tmy { !sN9jHM M s? !cYN9cY !e29f?r?m\
3. Z!h9u !eN9c !jTcms !kh9u !s`Tm aHH!eN9 !svdku\
4. Zg?y !oh9s? cH!r`HcHc s? !jk?Ty gHy !RPo\
5. Z!m`Hky g?y !sR?Tym st ?!ok`H s?? !jdHlaqHcY\
6. Z!q?Ty !rdk?y !ro?Tj vHC !r`Hl l?m !lHky\
7. Z!aqUrky Hy !o29eHjs e?q @9 !gPk??cdHy !gUmh\
8. Z!cYHk !cq`Huy s? !rjt9k { !kh9uy g? !cN9s? { ?m !gdcy
e? !v29j\
9. Z!sR@9ky !rHor gHy !jPeh v`Hk ghh !qh9cy eq?l C? !rjqh9my\
10. Zc?y !cYt9ky !rl?Tj gHy !o`Ho o Hm !eqUms ?u gHy !rHrs?y !rsh9u\

Activity 2:
Transcribe the following text phonemically. Use Z \ to show devoicing. Colour the diacritical marks you
use.
Resenting these Changes
James Smith was hired by a Japanese company in the 90s.. His position was fantastic! He had
a good salary, fabulous perks and loads lo of holidays. However, everythings
everything changed for the
worse. He always phones to tell me how sad he is. is. His company seems to be facing fatal
financial difficulties, so theyre closing all the UK branches. He thought the end was coming,
but the CEOs
Os thought differently. His performance is so high that the big bosses
bosse consider that
James should move to Tokyo.. Eve, his wife, is scared, of course. His is children, Emma and
an
George, hate the idea of settling down in Asia.
Asia
ZqH!ydmsHM Ch9y !sRdHmcYHy {{

!cYdHly !rlHS { v?y !g`H?c a`H ? !cYzo?!mh9
?c a`H ? !cYzo?!mh9y !jUlo?mh Hm C? !m`Hmshy {{ gHy o?!yHRm v?y
o?!yHRm v? !ezm!szrsHj {{
gh !gzc ? !fTc !rzk?qh { !ezai?k?r !o29jr { ?m !k?Tcy ?u !gPk?cdHy
!rzk?qh { !ezai?k?r !o29jr { ?m !k?Tcy ?u !gPk?cdH {{ g`T!du? { !duqhSHM !sRdHmcY
{{ g`T!du? { !duqhSHM !sRdHm c e? C?
!v29r {{ gh !N9kvdHy !e?Tmy { s? !sdk lh g`T !rzc
!e?Tmy { s? !sdk lh g`T !rz gh Hy {{ gHy !jUlo?mh { !rh9ly s? ah !edHrHM { !edHsk
s? ah
e`H!mzmRk !cHeHj?kshy { r?T Cd? !jk?TyHM !N9k C? !it9 !jdH !aq@9msRHy
{ r?T Cd? !jk?TyHM !N9k C? !it9 !jdH {{ gh !SN9s Ch !dmc v? !jUlHM {
{{ gh !SN9s Ch !dmc v?y
a?s C? !rh9 !h9 !?Ty !SN9s !cHeq?mskh {{ gH
skh {{ gHy o?!eN9l?mr Hy !r?T !g`H { C?s C? !aHf !aPrHy
!r?T !g`H { C?s C? !aHf !aPrH j?m!rHc? {
C?s !cYdHly R?c !lt9u s? !s?Tjh?T {{ !h9 { gHy !v`He { Hy !rjd?c ?u !jN9r {{ gHy !sRHkcqm { !dl?q ?m
C?s !cYdHly R?c !lt9u s? !s?Tjh?T {{ !h9u !sRHkcqm { !dl?q ?m
!cYN9cY { !gdHs Ch `H!cH?q ?u !rdskHM !c`Tm Hm !dHY?\
{ !gdHs Ch `H!cH?q ?u !rdskHM !c`Tm Hm
Elision
Elision has been traditionally defined as the omission of sounds in connected speech (Crystal, 2008 p.
166). Roach (2001: 61) is of the opinion that:
From the point of view of coarticulation studies, elision is not a separate process from assimilation. It is simply an
extreme result of coarticulation, whereby two sounds are articulated so closely in time to each other that a
sound or sounds between them are completely obscured.
In spite of the great number of cases of elision that occur in English, some authors of pronunciation
manuals agree on what kinds of elision are recommended for the foreign learner to adopt (Cruttenden,
2014; Garca Lecumberri & Maidment, 2000). Elisions can take place both within the word or at word
boundaries. It is interesting to note that most cases affect syllable-final sounds.
1.1. Elision of .s. & .c.
The alveolar plosives .s. and .c. are extremely common in word final and syllable-final position. They are
readily elided provided they are preceded by a consonant with which they agree in voice and followed by
another consonant. Since .c. is always preceded by a voiced sound, it is safe to state that it can always be
elided if it is sandwiched by consonants. As regards .s., the only two clusters where there is voice
disagreement are .ms. and .ks.. The literature seems to differ in terms of which sounds prevent the elision
of a previous .s. or .c.: such elisions seem to be blocked by a following .g. (Cruttenden, 2014; Ortz Lira,
2007; Tench, 2011), while they seem to be disfavoured by a following .v. (Mott, 2005; Ortz Lira, 2007;
Tench, 2011), .i. (Cruttenden, 2014; Ortz Lira, 2007), .k. and .q. (Tench, 2011).
ELISION OF FINAL .s+ c.

RULE EXAMPLES
Blond man .!akPm'c( !l`m.
Voiced
* '.c.( * World Cup .!v29k'c( !jUo.
consonant Any consonant other than:
Arrived late .?!q`Hu'c( !kdHs.
.g. (forbidden)
Last summer .!k@9r's( !rUl?.
Voiceless .v+ i+ k+ q. (infrequent)
* '.s.( * Mashed potatoes .!lzR's( o?!sdHs?Ty.
consonant
Cleft palate .!jkde's( !ozk?s.
Exceptions:
Negative contractions: the voice disagreement found in the cluster .ms. is overridden, as well as
the constraint on the following sound.
E.g.: Isnt it? .!Hym's( Hs.
I cant go. .`H !j@9m's( !f?T.
You shouldnt allow it. .it !RTcm's( ?!k`T Hs.
The conjunction and almost always drops its final sound, provided it is not followed by silence.
E.g.: Ben and I .!adm ?m `H.
Europe and Asia .!iT?q?o ?m !dHY?.

1.2. Elision of .g.
The initial consonant in the weak forms of grammatical words he, him, his, himself, her, herself, have, had
and has can be dropped provided they are not initial in the intonation phrase.
Compare:
I have told him what I thought of his wife and her lover.
.`H 'g(?u !s?Tkc 'g(Hl { vPs `H !SN9s ?u 'g(Hy !v`He { ?m 'g(? !kUu?.

Vs.
He cant flee the country. His father would die if he did.

.gh !j@9ms !ekh9 C? !jUmsqh {{ gHy !e@9C? v?c !c`H He 'g(h cHc.
Perfect modal verbs customarily elide .g. in the weak form of the word have:
PERFECT MODALS
RULE EXAMPLES
Must She must have been late. .Rh !lUrs ?u aHm !kdHs.
Cant It cant have happened. .Hs !j@9ms ?u !gzomc.
Should You should have told me. .it RTc ?u !s?Tkc lh.
.?u.
May It may have occurred. .Hs ld'H( ?u ?!j29c.
Might You might have guessed. .it l`Hs ?u !fdrs.
Neednt You neednt have come. .it !mh9cms ?u !jUl.
Ought to .st ?u+ sv?u+ stu+ s?u. You ought to have resigned. .it !N9s st ?u qH!y`Hmc.
1.3. Elision of .k.
The dark allophone of .k. shares its back resonance with the back vowel .N9.. It is because of this similarity
that .k. can be elided when it is preceded by this vowel and followed by a consonant.
E.g.:
Altogether .$N9'k(s?!fdC?.
Also .!N9'k(r?T.
Although .!N9'k(C?T.
All the citizens .!N9'k( C? !rHsHymy. Brown (1990, 69)
1.4. Elision of fricatives in clusters
According to Cruttenden (2014), consonantal clusters in syllable final position may be extremely difficult
to articulate. The maximal cluster allowed by the phonotactics of English is VCCCC (e.g. thousandths). The
third consonant is normally lost.
E.g.: Thousandths .!S`Ty?m'c(Sr.
Texts .!sdjr's(r.
Sixths .!rHjr'S(r+ !rHjS'r(.
Wells (2008) mentions the simplification of .,'C(y+ ,'S(r. in moths .!lUm'S(r. and clothes .!jk?T'C(y..
1.5. Elision of Schwa & Syllabic Consonant Formation
English is varisyllabic, as long words do not always have a fixed number of syllables (Wells, 2009). If a
weak vowel, such as schwa, is completely elided a syllable is lost (e.g.: gardening
.!f@9c-?m-HM = !f@9c-mHM.). However, some consonants are capable of absorbing the syllabic status of
schwa and, therefore, become syllabic themselves gardening .!f@9c-?m-HM = !f@9c-m<-HM.). The latter
process is called SYLLABIC CONSONANT FORMATION (Garca Lecumberri & Maidment, 2000).
Nasal syllabicity:
The sequence .?m. may become syllabic when it is preceded by a consonant, especially an alveolar.
However, this is not possible if the preceding consonant is a nasal or if the consonant is in turn preceded
by .r.-
E.g.: Listen .!kHr?m = !kHrm<.
Pardon .!o@9c?m = !o@9cm<.
Golden .!f?Tkc?m = !f?Tkcm<.
London .!kUmc?m = )!kUmcm<.
Woman .!vTl?m = )!vTlm<.
Boston .!aPrs?m = )!aPrsm<.

Lateral syllabicity:
The sequence .?k. may become syllabic when it is preceded by an obstruent consonant, especially an
alveolar.
E.g.: Bottle .!aPs?k = !aPsk<.
Medal .!ldc?k = !ldck<.
Uncle .!UMj?k = !UMjk<.
Pencil .!odmr?k = !odmrk<.

Finch & Ortiz-Lira (1982, 80) proposed the following categorization:
ELISION OF SCHWA & SYLLABIC CONSONANT FORMATION

RULE EXAMPLES
.,sm., .,sm.+Cons, .,cm.+Cons, certain, importance,
student, absent, passion,
Syllabic .m. .,rm.+Cons, .,Rm., .,Rm.+Cons, .,Ym.,
patient, vision,
.,qm.+Cons occurrence.
local, peaceful, arrival,
.,jk., .,ek., .,uk., .,rk., .,yk., .,Rk., .,lk.,
Syllabic .k. cancel, nasal, special,
.,qk.
animal, oral.
totally, gracefully,
Syllabic or no-syllabic .k. .,skh., .,ekh., .,Rkh., .,lkh., .,mkh., .,qkh. socially, normally,
externally, orally.
Syllabic or non-syllabic secretary, lottery,
-Cons+.qh.
.q. strawberry
admiralty, optional,
Poly-syllabicity .,'?(q'?(k., .,'?(m'?(k., .,'?(m'?(q'?(k.
ordinarily.
Phonemes and Variants

The following tables show the correspondence between each English phoneme and its main allophonic variants.
Consonants:
.o. voiceless bilabial plosive

Variant Environment & description Feature
Strong or full aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is in initial position in stressed
g syllables and followed by a vowel. The plosive is followed by strongly expelled glottal
Zo \ breath. E.g.: pen Z!ogdm\, appear Z?!ogH?\- (Its also possible to say that the plosive is
followed by a voiceless vowel. E.g.: pen Z!oddm\, appear Z?!oHH?\).
Weak or partial aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is before a vowel in either syllable- Aspiration
Zo\ final position, or initial position in unstressed syllables. The plosive is followed by weakly
expelled breath. E.g.: police Zo?!kh9r\, upper Z!Uo?\-
Lack of aspiration or unaspirated: It occurs when the plosive is preceded by a .r. in the
Zo=\ same syllable and is followed by a vowel. E.g.: spend Z!ro<=dmc\-
Affrication: It isnt very common but its useful as a tool to learn (and teach) how to
Zo\ produce strong aspiration. This plosive is followed by a short and weak voiceless bilabial Affrication
fricative transition. E.g.: pen Z!odm\, appear Z?!oH?\-
Weakening of plosives: If the speaker doesnt complete the closure needed for the
Z\ plosive, a homorganic fricative may replace an unstressed intervocalic .o. in rapid speech. Fricativation
It isnt advisable for non-native speakers. E.g.: upper Z!U?\-
Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: clipboard
Zo\ Z!jkHoaN9c\+ top prize Z!sPo !oq`Hy\-
No audible release: As the oral closure of the second stop consonant (plosive, affricate,
or heterorganic nasal) or lateral is produced before the closure of .o. is released, no burst
Zo\ noise is heard. Also, its optional before silence. E.g.: trapdoor Z$sqzo!cN9\, hypnotic
ZgHo!mPsHj\, simple Z!rHlok\, cop Z!jPo {{\-
True Nasal release: The plosive is released through the nose when followed by a
homorganic nasal .l.. E.g.: topmost Z!sPoml?Trs\.
Extended Nasal release: For simplicitys sake, we may also use this symbol when this
Zom\ plosive is followed by a heterorganic nasal, although this is not true nasal release, as the Release &
air escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: hypnotic ZgHom!mPsHj\ (c.f. plosion
ZgHo!mPsHj\(-
Extended lateral release: For simplicitys sake, we may also use this symbol when this
plosive is followed by a heterorganic .k., although this is not true lateral release, as the air
Zok\ escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: simple Z!rHlokk\ (c.f.
Z!rHlok\(-
No audible plosion: The linking symbol indicates that theres no audible burst noise. This
can be used as an umbrella symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:
Zo^\ trapdoor Z$sqzo^!cN9\, hypnotic ZgHo^!mPsHj\, simple Z!rHlo^k\, clipboard
Z!jkHoâN9c\-
Glottal reinforcement or glottalization: A glottal closure is produced before or
simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed syllables.
Z>o\ A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by either
silence or another consonant. E.g.: captain Z!jz>osHm\-
Glottal stop
Glottal replacement or glottalling: A glottal closure is produced instead of the plosive.
The plosive must be final, especially in stressed syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must
Z>\ precede the plosive and it must be typically followed by a homorganic consonant (i.e.
.o+a+l.). Its not very frequent in GB. E.g.: top prize Z!sP> !oq`Hy\-
Change of
Labiodentalization: This plosive may become labiodental to resemble a forthcoming
Zo\ labiodental .e+ u.. You need to bite your lower lip. E.g.: cupful Z!jUoeTk\-
place of
articulation
.s. voiceless alveolar plosive

syllables and followed by a vowel. The plosive is followed by strongly expelled glottal
Zsg\ breath. E.g.: tore Z!sgN9\, attend Z?!sgdmc\- (Its also possible to say that the plosive is
followed by a voiceless vowel. E.g.: tore Z!sN9N9\, attend Z?!sddmc\).
Weak or partial aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is before a vowel in either Aspiration
Zs\ syllable-final position, or initial position in unstressed syllables. The plosive is followed by
weakly expelled breath. E.g.: today Zs?!cdH\, utter Z!Us?\-
Zs=\ same syllable and is followed by a vowel. E.g.: stay Z!rs<=dH\-
Affrication: Its quite common in London English and its useful as a tool to learn (and
teach) how to produce strong aspiration. This plosive is followed by a short and weak
Zsr\ voiceless alveolar fricative. It is also common in unstressed and final positions. E.g.: toss
Affrication
Z!srPr\, right Z!q`Hsr\, better Z!adsr?\-
Zr\ nq Zs\ plosive, a homorganic slit fricative may replace an unstressed intervocalic .s. in rapid Fricativation
speech. It isnt advisable for non-native speakers. E.g.: better Z!adr?+ !ads?\-
Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: great day
Zs\ Z!fqdHs !cdH\+ not today Z!mPs s?!cdH\-
No audible release: As the oral closure of the second stop consonant (plosive, affricate,
or heterorganic nasal) is produced before the closure of .s. is released, no burst noise is
Zs\ heard. Also, its optional before silence. E.g.: football Z!eTsaN9k\, utmost Z!Usl?Trs\,
right Z!q`Hs {{\-
Release &
homorganic nasal .m.. E.g.: Britain Z!aqHsmm\.
Zsm\ Extended Nasal release: The plosive is released through the nose when followed by a
plosion
heterorganic nasal Zl+ M+ E\. E.g.: atmosphere Z!zsml?reH?\.
Lateral release: The plosive is released through the sides of the tongue when followed by
Zsk\ a homorganic lateral .k.. E.g.: little Z!kHskk\.
Zs^\ can be used as an umbrella symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:
great day Z!fqdHs^!cdH\, football Z!eTsâN9k\, Britain Z!aqHs^m\, little Z!kHs^k\.
simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed
Z>s\ syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by
either silence or another consonant. Its very frequent in GB. E.g.: football Z!eT>saN9k\-
Glottal stop
Z>\ precede the plosive and it must be followed by either silence or another consonant. E.g.:
football Z!eT>aN9k\-
Dentalization: The tip of the tongue is placed between the teeth or behind the upper
Zs\ teeth when .s. is followed by ZS+ C+ c+ s+ m+ k\. E.g.: right there Z!q`Hs !Cd?\-
Change of
place of
Zo\ labiodental .e+ u.. You need to bite you lower lip. E.g.: rightful Z!q`Hoek\-
articulation
Post-alveolar affricate: The close-knit cluster .sq. becomes a voiceless post-alveolar
Zs\ 'Zsq\( affricate, especially noticeably in stressed position. Although the accurate transcription is
Zs\, we normally use Zsq\ for practical reasons. E.g.: transitory Z!sqzmrHsqh\-
Tap or flap: The tip of the tongue quickly hits the back part of the alveolar ridge once. Its
<r> in Spanish caro .!j`3n.. It is mandatory as unstressed, generally intervocalic, .s+ c. Change of
manner of
in General American English. E.g.: writer/rider Z!`H3?\+ Betty Z!ad3h\+ party
articulation
Z3\ Z!o@93h\ 'this use is also frequent in Australian English). In General British, it can
occasionally stand for unstressed intervocalic .s+ c. at word boundary in phrases of
frequent use or internally in words of frequent use. E.g.: whatever Z!vP3du?\+ British
Z!aH3HR\+ take it easy Z$sdHj H3 !h9yh\-
Bilabialization: The alveolar sound can become bilabial to resemble a following bilabial
.o. .o+ a+ l+ v.. E.g.: Great Britain .!fqdHo !aqHsm.- Assimilation of
Velarization: The alveolar sound can become velar to resemble a following velar .j+ f.. place
.j. E.g.: latecomer .!kdHjjUl?.-
.j. voiceless velar plosive

syllables and followed by a vowel. The plosive is followed by strongly expelled glottal
Zjg\ breath. E.g.: kiss Z!jgHr\, occur Z?!jg29\- (Its also possible to say that the plosive is
followed by a voiceless vowel. E.g.: kiss Z!jHHr\, occur Z?!j2929\).
Weak or partial aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is before a vowel in either syllable- Aspiration
Zj\ final position, or initial position in unstressed syllables. The plosive is followed by weakly
expelled breath. E.g.: connect Zj?!mdjs\, baker Z!adHj?\-
Zj=\ same syllable and is followed by a vowel. E.g.: school Z!rj<=t9k\-
Affrication: It isnt very common but its useful as a tool to learn (and teach) how to
Zjw\ produce strong aspiration. This plosive is followed by a short and weak voiceless velar Affrication
fricative (i.e. a Spanish jota). E.g.: kiss Z!jwHr\, occur Z?!jw29\-
plosive, a homorganic fricative (i.e. a Spanish jota) may replace an unstressed
Zw\ intervocalic .j. in rapid speech. It isnt advisable for non-native speakers. E.g.: baker
Fricativation
Z!adHw?\-
Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: bookcase
Zj\ Z!aTjjdHr\+ rock gig Z!qPj $fHf\-
No audible release: As the closure of the second stop consonant (plosive, affricate, or
heterorganic nasal) or lateral is produced before the closure of .j. is released, no burst
Zj\ noise is heard. Also, its optional before silence. E.g.: blackboard Z!akzjaN9c\,
thickness Z!SHjm?r\, cycle Z!r`Hjk\, hook Z!gTj {{\-
homorganic nasal .M.. E.g.: bacon Z!adHjMM\.
Extended Nasal release: For simplicitys sake, we may also use this symbol when this Release &
Zjm\ plosive is followed by a heterorganic nasal, although this is not true nasal release, as the plosion
air escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: thickness Z!SHjmm?r\ (c.f.
thickness Z!SHjm?r\(-
Zjk\ plosive is followed by a heterorganic .k., although this is not true lateral release, as the air
escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: cycle Z!r`Hjkk\ (c.f. Z!r`Hjk\(-
Zj^\ can be used as an umbrella symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:
bookcase Z!aTj^jdHr\, thickness Z!SHj^m?r\, cycle Z!r`Hj^k\, bacon Z!adHj^M\-
simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed syllables.
Z>j\ A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by either
silence or another consonant. E.g.: rock star Z!qP>rs@9\-
Glottal stop
Z>\ precede the plosive and it must be typically followed by a homorganic consonant (i.e.
.j+ f+ M.). Its not very frequent in GB. E.g.: rock climber Z!qP>jk`Hl?\-
.a. voiced bilabial plosive

Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: subplot
Za\ Z!rUaokPs\+ web browser Z!vda aq`Ty?\-
heterorganic nasal) or lateral is produced before the closure of .a. is released, no burst
Za\ noise is heard. Also, its optional before silence. E.g.: cab driver Z!jza cq`Hu?\,
abnormal Z$za!mN9lk\, able Z!dHak\, rib Z!qHa {{\-
homorganic nasal .l.. E.g.: submit Zr?am!lHs\.
Extended Nasal release: For simplicitys sake, we may also use this symbol when this Release &
Zam\ plosive is followed by a heterorganic nasal, although this is not true nasal release, as the plosion
air escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: abnormal Z$zam!mN9lk\ (c.f.
Z$za!mN9lk\(-
Zak\ plosive is followed by a heterorganic .k., although this is not true lateral release, as the air
escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: able Z!dHakk\ (c.f. Z!dHak\(-
Za^\ can be used as an umbrella symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:
Z!vdaâq`Ty?\, able Z!dHa^k\, submit Zr?a^!lHs\.
Devoicing: This plosive is fully devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless
Za\ consonant or silence. E.g.: website Z!vdar`Hs\, verb Z!u29a {{\-
Voice
Change of
Za\ labiodental .e+ u.. You need to bite your lower lip. E.g.: obvious Z!Pauh?r\-
place of
articulation
.c. voiced alveolar plosive

Affrication: Its quite common in London English. This plosive is followed by a short and
Zcy\ weak voiced alveolar fricative. It is also common in unstressed and final positions. E.g.: Affrication
do Z!cyt9\, good Z!fTcy\, ready Z!qdcyh\-
Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: guard dog
Zc\ Z!f@9c !cPf\+ red jacket Z!qdc !cYzjHs\-
heterorganic nasal) is produced before the closure of .c. is released, no burst noise is
Zc\ heard. Also, its optional before silence. E.g.: bedbug Z!adcaUf\, admit Z?c!lHs\,
head Z!gdc {{\-
Release &
Nasal release: The plosive is released through the nose when followed by a homorganic
Zcm\ nasal .m.. E.g.: garden Z!f@9cmm\.
plosion
Lateral release: The plosive is released through the sides of the tongue when followed by
Zck\ a homorganic lateral .k.. E.g.: medal Z!ldckk\.
Zc^\ can be used as an umbrella symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:
red jacket Z!qdc^!cYzjHs\, admit Z?c^!lHs\, garden Z!f@9c^m\, medal Z!ldc^k\.
Devoicing: This plosive is fully devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless
Zc\ consonant or silence. E.g.: godson Z!fPcrUm\, word Z!v29c {{\-
Voice
Zc\ teeth when .c. is followed by a dental sound ZS+ C+ c+ s+ m+ k\. E.g.: did they Z!cHc CdH\-
Change of
place of
Za\ labiodental .e+ u.. You need to bite you lower lip. E.g.: adverb Z!zau29a\-
articulation
Post-alveolar affricate: The close-knit cluster .cq. becomes a voiced post-alveolar
Zc\ 'Zcq\( affricate, especially noticeably in stressed position. Although the accurate transcription is Change of
Zc\, we normally use Zcq\ for practical reasons. E.g.: domedary Z!cqPlHcqh\- manner of
articulation
Z3\ Tap or flap: (See Z3\ under .s.). E.g.: did it Z!cH3 Hs\-
Bilabialization: The alveolar sound can become bilabial to resemble a following bilabial
.a. .o+ a+ l+ v.. E.g.: goodbye .$fTa!a`H.- Assimilation of
Velarization: The alveolar sound can become velar to resemble a following velar .j+ f.. place
.f. E.g.: broadcast .!aqN9fj@9rs.-
.sR. voiceless palato-alveolar affricate

st
Glottal reinforcement or glottalization of the 1 element: A glottal closure is produced
before or simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed
Z>sR\ syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by
any sound, as the second element is consonantal in nature. Its extremely frequent in GB.
E.g.: lunch Z!kUm>sR\-
st Glottal stop
Glottal replacement or glottalling of the 1 element: A glottal closure is produced before
or simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed
Z>R\ syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by
any sound, as the second element is consonantal in nature. Its less frequent than
glottalization (i.e. glottal reinforcement). E.g.: lunch Z!kUm>R\-
st
Elision of the 1 element when preceded by .m.: In .msR. endings, the first element of the
affricate may be lost, especially in stressed position. This happens because the oral
Zm's(R\ alveolar closure needed for .m. is very similar to the closure needed for .s.. The affricate
Elision
must be final, especially in stressed syllables. E.g.: lunch Z!kUmR\-
.cY. voiced palato-alveolar affricate

Devoicing: The second element of this affricate (or, at times, the whole affricate) is fully
ZcY\ devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless consonant or silence. E.g.: Voicing
vegetable Z!udcYs?ak\, spinach Z!roHmHcY {{\-
st
Elision of the 1 element when preceded by .m.: In .mcY. endings, the first element of the
affricate may be lost, especially in stressed position. This happens because the oral
Zm'c(Y\ alveolar closure needed for .m. is very similar to the closure needed for .c.. The affricate
Elision
must be final, especially in stressed syllables. E.g.: orange juice Z!PqHmY $cYt9r\-
.u. voiced labio-dental fricative

Devoicing: The consonant is fully devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless
Zu\ consonant or silence. E.g.: gravestone Z!fqdHurs?Tm\, twelve Z!svdku {{\-
Voicing
.C. voiced dental fricative

ZC\ consonant or silence. E.g.: loathsome Z!k?TCrl\, with Z!vHC {{\-
Voicing
.y. voiced alveolar fricative

Regressive assimilation of place: When final .y. is followed by a palatal .i+ sR+ cY+ R+ Y.
(or sometimes even post-alveolar .q.), it may become palatal so as to resemble the
forthcoming sound. E.g.: these judges ZCh9Y !cYUcYHy\, miserable Z!lHYq?ak\+ these
.Y. years ZCh9Y !iH?y\- Assimilation
Coalescent assimilation: When final .y. is followed by the palatal semi-vowel .i., these
two sounds may fuse into .cY.. E.g.: these years Z!Ch9YH?y\, (c.f.
ZCh9Y !iH?y\(+ luxurious ZkUf!YT?qh?r\-
Zy\ consonant or silence. E.g.: newspaper Z!mit9yodHo?\, please Z!okh9y {{\-
Voicing
Devoicing of the assimilated form: The resulting consonant .Y. is fully devoiced under the
ZY\ influence of a following voiceless consonant. E.g.: these shops ZCh9Y !RPor\-
.r. voiceless alveolar fricative

Regressive assimilation of place: When final .r. is followed by a palatal .i+ sR+ cY+ R+ Y. (or
sometimes even post-alveolar .q.), it may become palatal so as to resemble the
.R. forthcoming sound. E.g.: question Z!jvdRsRm\, grocery Z!fq?TRqh\+ miss you Z!lHR it\- Assimilation
Coalescent assimilation: When final .r. is followed by the palatal semi-vowel .i., these
two sounds may fuse into .sR.. E.g.: miss you Z!lHRt\, (c.f. Z!lHR it\(+ issue Z!HRt9\-
.Y. voiced palato-alveolar fricative

ZY\ consonant or silence. E.g.: garage sale Z!fzq@9Y rdHk\, camouflage Z!jzl?ek@9Y {{\-
Voicing
.g. voiceless glottal fricative

Voicing: The consonant is fully voiced when it occurs between vowels. This sounds as a
Z\ weak vowel sound. E.g.: ahead Z?!dc\-
Voicing
.k. voiced alveolar lateral approximant

Clear .k.: This variant of .k. has a front vowel resonance similar to .d.. It occurs before
Zk\ vowels and .i. within the word or at word boundary. E.g.: late Z!kdHs\, sell it Z!rdk Hs\+
William Z!vHki?l\-
Dark .k.: This variant of .k. has a back vowel resonance similar to .n+ T.. It occurs before
Z4\ consonants, silence and .v. within the word or at word boundary. E.g.: milk Z!lH4j\,
Resonance
sell them Z!rd4 Cl\+ fill Z!eH4 {{\-
Vocalization of /l/: the contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge is
removed, thus a back vowel Zn\ or ZT\ is produced. It is in free variation with Z4\ in
Zn+ T\ London speech. E.g.: milk Z!lHTj+ !lHnj\, sell them Z!rdT Cl+ !rdn Cl\+ fill
Z!eHT {{+ !eHn {{\-
teeth when .k. is followed by a dental sound ZS+ C+ c+ s+ m+ k\. In this way, .k. changes its Place of
Z4\ place of articulation to resemble the following dental sound. E.g.: sell them Z!rd4 Cl\, articulation
build them Z!aH4c Cl\-
Fully devoiced and fricative: The aspiration of strongly stressed, syllable initial .o+ j. is
manifested through the devoicing and frication of .k.. The former voiced approximant Voicing and
ZJ+ k\ becomes a fully voiceless fricative ZJ\. For simplicitys sake, we may use the symbol Zk\ to manner of
indicate this. E.g.: play Z!oJdH+ !okdH\, clean Z!jJh9m+ !jkh9m\- Note: The sequence .sk. is articulation
never part of the same syllable. E.g.: Atlantic Z?s!kzmsHj\-
Syllabic: This approximant consonant can absorb a preceding weak vowel and become
Zk+ 4\ the centre of the syllable. E.g.: apple juice Z!zo4 cYt9r\+ w Z!cUak it9\-
Syllabicity
.i. voiced palatal approximant

Fully devoiced and fricative: The aspiration of strongly stressed, syllable initial .o+ s+ j. is
manifested through the devoicing and frication of .i.. The former voiced approximant
ZB+ i\ becomes a fully voiceless palatal fricative ZB\. For simplicitys sake, we may use the Voicing and
symbol Zi\ to indicate this. E.g.: computer Zj?l!oBt9s?+ j?l!oit9s?\, tune manner of
Z!sBt9m+ !sit9m\, cute Z!jBt9s+ !jit9s\- articulation
Coalescence: The cluster .gi. fuses into a voiceless palatal fricative ZB\. E.g.: huge
ZB\ Z!Bt9cY\, human Z!Bt9l?m\-
.v. voiced labio-velar approximant

Voicing and
manifested through the devoicing and frication of .v.. The former voiced approximant
manner of
ZV+ v\ becomes a fully voiceless palatal fricative ZV\. For simplicitys sake, we may use the
articulation
symbol Zv\ to indicate this. E.g.: queen Z!jVh9m+ !jvh9m\, twelve Z!sVdku+ !svdku\,
Puerto Rico Z$oV29s?T !qh9j?T+ $ov29s?T !qh9j?T \-
.q. Z\ voiced post-alveolar approximant

Roll or trill: The symbol Zq\ in the International Phonetic Alphabet stands for a rolled
sound, however, its familiar shape is borrowed in English to stand for its typical voiced
post-alveolar approximant. The rolled variant Zq\ is the sound that typically corresponds
Zq\ to Spanish <rr> in carro .!j`qn.. The tip of the tongue hits the back part of the alveolar
ridge several times at great speed. In English, it is found in the pronunciation of some
rural Scottish accents, but its becoming rare. Also, traditional actors sometimes use this
pronunciation on the stage. E.g.: Edinburgh Z!dcHmaq?\, Romeo Z!q?Tlh?T\-
Tap or flap: The tip of the tongue quickly hits the back part of the alveolar ridge once.
This sound typically corresponds to intervocalic <r> in Spanish caro .!j`3n.. In English, it
is an allophone of unstressed intervocalic .q. in either old fashioned conservative English
Z3\ Received Pronunciation or current rural speech. It can also be heard in quite conservative
speakers after .S+ a+ f.. These uses are not recommended for foreign speakers of English. Manner of
E.g.: veri Z!ud3h\+ far away Z$e@93 ?!vdH\+ three green branches articulation &
Z$S3h9 $f3h9m !a3@9msRHy\- (C.f. Z3\ as .s+ c.). regional-
social
Approximant: The most frequent realization in General British is a voiced post-alveolar
variants
approximant Z\. The tip of the tongue is raised to a position quite close to the back part
of the alveolar ridge, without causing friction. Although the real symbol is Z\, we
Z\ 'Zq\( normally borrow the symbol .q. to represent this phoneme, as the trill Zq\ is not in
contrast with Z\ in General British. The approximant is used everywhere, except after
stressed .o+ j. or any .c+ q. (as they turn it into a fricative). E.g.: really sorry
Z$H?kh !rPh\ = .$qH?kh !rPqh.-
Retroflex approximant: Some speakers of American English may use a retroflex Z\
instead of a regular post-alveolar Z\. Auditorily, its perceived as a stronger or more
Z\ marked .q. sound. Articulatorily, the tip of the tongue is curled further back, and the
approximation is made between the post-alveolar part of the palate and the lower side of
the tongue. E.g.: bright red Z$a`Hs !dc\ vs. Z$a`Hs !dc\-
Voicing
manifested through the devoicing and frication of .q.. The former voiced approximant
and/or
Z\ becomes a fully voiceless fricative Z\. For simplicitys sake, we may use the symbols Zq+ \
manner of
to indicate this. E.g.: prince Z!oHmr+ !oHmr+!oqHmr\, try Z!s`H+ !s`H+!sq`H\, crew
articulation
Z!jt9+ !jt9+!jqt9\-
Voiceless post-alveolar affricate: The cluster .sq., whether stressed or unstressed,
becomes a voiceless unit. .s. is retracted to a post-alveolar regional under the influence of
Zs\ 'Zsq\( .q., and .q. becomes voiceless and fricative under the influence of .s.. For simplicitys
sake, we may use the symbols Zsq+ s\ to indicate this. E.g.: true Z!st9+ !st9+!sqt9\,
secretary Z!rdjq?sh+ !rdjq?sh+!rdjq?sqh\-
Affricates
Voiced post-alveolar affricate: The cluster .cq., whether stressed or unstressed, becomes
a voiced unit. .c. is retracted to a post-alveolar regional under the influence of .q., and .q.
Zc\ 'Zcq\( becomes fricative under the influence of .c.. For simplicitys sake, we may use the
symbols Zcq+ c\ to indicate this. E.g.: draw Z!cN9+ !cN9+ !cqN9\, android
Z!zmcNHc+ !zmcNHc+ !zmcqNHc\-
.l. voiced bilabial nasal

Labiodentalization: The lower lip is bitten by the upper teeth when .l. is followed by a
Place of
ZE\ labiodental sound Ze+ u+ a+ o\. In this way, .l. changes its place of articulation to
articulation
resemble the following labiodental sound. E.g.: comfort Z!jUEe?s\-
Zm\ the centre of the syllable. E.g.: ribbon Z!qHal\-
Syllabicity
.m. voiced alveolar nasal

teeth when .m. is followed by a dental sound ZS+ C+ c+ s+ m+ k\. In this way, .m. changes its
Zm\ place of articulation to resemble the following dental sound. E.g.: sent them Z!rdms Cl\,
sand them Z!rzmc Cl\- Place of
articulation
Labiodentalization: The lower lip is bitten by the upper teeth when .m. is followed by a
ZE\ labiodental sound Ze+ u+ a+ o\. In this way, .m. changes its place of articulation to
resemble the following labiodental sound. E.g.: infant Z!HEe?ms\, invention ZHE!udmRm\-
Zm\ the centre of the syllable. E.g.: garden Z!f@9cm\-
Syllabicity
.M. voiced velar nasal

ZM\ the centre of the syllable. E.g.: bacon grinder Z!adHjM fq`Hmc?\-
Syllabicity
Pure vowels
Phoneme Variant Environment & description Feature
A diphthong is the most common realization, especially in final position. The
ZHh\ vowel gets tenser towards the end-point. E.g.: tea for me Z$sHh e? !lHh\-
Diphthongization
A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.

Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
.h9. Zh\ The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: seat Z!rhs\- Clipping
Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
meaningless Z!lhmHMk?r\-
When a weak vowel follows .h9., the second element of the diphthongized
ZH'h(\ version may be lost. E.g.: Ian Z!Hh?m+ !H?m\+ three oclock Smoothing
Z$SqHh ?!jkPj+ $SqH ?!jkPj\-
.d. Zd\ The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: sex Z!rdjr\- Clipping
separateness Z!rdoq?sm?r\-
A very open front Z`\ is heard in modern General British English. For
simplicitys sake, we keep the traditional .z. symbol (which is typical of most
Z`\ other accents of English, such as General American, and which is a good Lowering
reminder that this sound is very different from the Spanish .`.). E.g.: bad
.!azc. Z!azc+ !a`c\-
.z. Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
Zz\ The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: back Z!azj\- Clipping
blackening Z!akzj?mHM\-
The vowel is generally longer in monosyllables ending in a voiced sound. Its
Zz9\ not clear what words admit this more readily. E.g.: bad Z!az9c+ !a`9c\-
Lengthening

The allophone is never extremely short, so as not to confuse it with .U.,
whose quality is quite close to .@9..
.@9. Z@\ Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound. Clipping
The vowel loses 25% of its length. E.g.: heart Z!g@s\-
gardening Z!f@c?mHM\-
.P. ZP\ The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: lot Z!kPs\- Clipping
sorrowfulness Z!rPq?Tekm?r\-
.N9. ZN\ The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: force Z!eNr\- Clipping
formalism Z!eNl?kHyl\-
ZT\ The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: push Z!oTR\- Clipping
.T. Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
Pulitzer Z!oTkHsr?\-
A somewhat centralized and unrounded vowel is becoming quite common in
Z6\ General British, especially in frequent words. E.g.: good Z!fTc+ !f6c\
Centralization
A diphthong is a common realization, especially in final position. The vowel
.t9. ZTt\ gets tenser towards the end-point [Tt\. It may also be unrounded [6L\- E.g.: Diphthongization
two Z!sTt+ !s6L\-
Another common realization is a centralized back rounded vowel Zt9\ or even
Zt9\ unrounded ZL9\. The centralization is greatest after the palatal .i.. E.g.: two Centralization
Z!st9+ !sL9\+ you Z!it9+ !iL9\-
A back vowel quality is found before dark [4], which has a back resonance as
Zt9\ well. E.g.: fool Z!et94\-
Retraction

.t9. Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
Zt\ The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: root Z!qts\- Clipping
foolishness Z!etkHRm?r\-
When a weak vowel follows .t9., the second element of the diphthongized
ZT't(\ version may be lost. E.g.: Ewan Z!iTt?m+ !iT?m\+ two oclock Smoothing
Z$sTt ?!jkPj+ $sT ?!jkPj\-
.U. ZU\ The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: front Z!eqUms\- Clipping
ultimate Z!UksHl?s\-
The allophone is never extremely short, so as not to confuse it with .?.,
whose quality is quite close to .29..
.29. Z2\ Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound. Clipping
The vowel loses 25% of its length. E.g.: thirst Z!S2rs\-
Birmingham Z!a2lHM?l\-
Diphthongs
Phoneme Variant Environment & description Feature
A monophthongal variety is becoming quite common in General British,
ZH9+ H?\ especially before .q.. E.g.: dear Z!cH9\+ material Zl?!sH9qh?k\-
Monophthonging

The first element is the one showing the clipping, as the second element is
.H?. aimed at but never reached.
ZH?\ Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound. Clipping
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: fierce Z!eH?r\-
seriously Z!rH?qh?rkh\-
A monophthongal variety has become the standard in General British,
ZD9+ D?\ especially before .q.. E.g.: pair Z!oD9+ !oD?\+ Mary Z!lD9qh+ !lD?qh\-
Monophthonging
aimed at but never reached. Although the first element is an open vowel
.d?. ZD\+ Zd\ may sometimes be used for simplicitys sake.
ZD?+ d?\ Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
Clipping
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: scarce Z!rjD?r\-
scarily Z!rjD?q?kh\-
A monophthongal variety has become quite common in General British,
ZT9+ T?\ especially before .q.. E.g.: poor Z!oT9+ !oT?\+ plural Z!okT9q?k+ !okT?q?k\-
Most words allow the monophthonging to ZN9\- Speakers can choose what Monophthonging
ZN9\ version to use. This monophthonging competes with the previous one. E.g.:
.T?. sure Z!RN9+ !RT?\-
ZT?\ aimed at but never reached. Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed
Clipping
syllables follow. E.g.: furiously Z!eiT?qh?rkh\-
aimed at but never reached.
ZdH\ Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound. Clipping
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: late Z!kdHs\-
.dH. Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
famously Z!edHl?rkh\-
The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence ZdH?\.
Zd9?\ E.g.: player Z!okd9?+ !okdH?\-
Smoothing
Before dark Z4\, the second element is absorbed into a weak transitional
Zd9?4\ .?.- The effect may be subjected to smoothing. E.g.: sure Z!od9?4+ !odH?4\-
Darkening

ZNH\ Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound. Clipping
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: choice Z!sRNHr\-
.NH. Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
loitering Z!kNHs?qHM\-
The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence ZNH?\.
ZN9?\ E.g.: ejoyable ZHm!cYN9?ak+ Hm!cYNH?ak\-
Smoothing
ZN9?4\ .?.- The effect may be subjected to smoothing. E.g.: oil Z!N9?4+ !oNH?4\-
Darkening

.`H. Z`H\ Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound. Clipping
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: write Z!q`Hs\-
widening Z!v`Hc?mHM\-
The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence Z`H?\.
Z`9?\ E.g.: tire Z!s`9?+ !s`H?\-
Smoothing
A further step is the monophthonging of the sequence Z`H?\ to Z`9\, or even Levelling or
Z`9+ @9\ Z@9\, especially in conservative British English. E.g.: tire Z!s`9+ !s@9\- monophthonging
Z`9?4\ .?.- The effect may be subjected to smoothing. E.g.: isle Z!`9?4+ !`H?4\-
Darkening

Z`H\ Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound. Clipping
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: out Z!`Ts\-
.`T. countering Z!j`Tms?qHM\-
The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence Z`T?\.
Z`9?\ E.g.: tower Z!`9?+ !`H?\-
Smoothing
A further step is the monophthonging of the sequence Z`T?\ to Z`9\, or Levelling or

Z`9+ @9\ even Z@9\, especially in conservative British English. E.g.: tower Z!s`9+ !s@9\- monophthonging
Z`9?4\ .?.- The effect may be subjected to smoothing. E.g.: owl Z!`9?4+ !`T?4\-
Darkening

aimed at but never reached. The symbol Z2T\ represents more accurately
the idea that .29. is a strong vowel, unlike schwa.
Z?T+ 2T\ Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
Clipping
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: goat Z!f?Ts+ !f2Ts\-
.?T. Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
countering Z!l?Tkc?qHM\-
The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence Z?T?\. Smoothing &
Z?9+ 29\ E.g.: lowering Z!k29qHM+ !k?9qHM+ !k?T?qHM\- monophthonging
Before dark Z4\, the first element is generally retracted to .P.+ as the whole
ZPT4\ sequence has a back vowel resonance. E.g.: goal Z!fPT4\-
Darkening
1 Prof. Francisco Zabala 2012
Comparison between the English and Spanish Consonants

The following list will help you compare the sounds of English and Spanish. This is useful because we,
Spanish-speakers, tend to transfer our pronunciation habits into our spoken English. The phonemes are
listed according to the English system, which is the content of this course.
Voiceless Plosives:
The greatest difficulties in this group are:
1. The aspiration of syllable-initial, stressed .o+ s+ j. when a vowel follows.
2. The devoicing and fricativation effect of stressed .o+ s+ j. on a following .k+ q+ v+ i..
3. The absence of word-final .o+ s+ j. in Spanish.
4. The different place of articulation of .s.+ which is dental Zs\ in Spanish but alveolar Zs\ in English.
VOICELESS PLOSIVES
Phoneme English Spanish
Phonemic status: Phonemic Phonemic status: Phonemic
Description: fortis bilabial voiceless plosive
Zo\
Distribution: full Distribution: restricted (not word final)
Pen appeal up. Pan Copa
Main allophones: Main allophones:
Fully aspirated in stressed syllable-initial Theres no aspiration in Spanish.
position when a vowel follows.
pass Z!o@9r\ impose ZHl!o?Ty\
Its full aspiration turns a following
.k+ q+ v+ i. into a voiceless fricative
ZJ+ + V+ B\
please Z!oJh9y\ prayZ!odH\ pukeZ!oBt9j\
Unaspirated after .r.- Unaspirated in all contexts.
.o. spin Z!ro=Hm\ disposeZcH!ro=?Ty\
No audible-release in stop clusters and
(English pan Z!ozm\ Vs. Spanish pan Z!o=`m\)
No audible-release in stop clusters.
probably before silence. apto Z!òsn\ capta Z!jòs`\
apt Z!zos\ jumped Z!cYUlos\
rap Z!zo{{\
Glottal reinforcement. Theres no glottal reinforcement or
Loop Z!kt9>o\ replacement in Spanish.
Glottal replacement.
Soap powder Z!r?T> !o`Tc?\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <p, pp> ripe, upper
Tip: Make sure you aspirate it fully when needed. Think about the devoicing effect it has on
.k+ q+ v+ i..
Rating: Difficult.
VOICELESS PLOSIVES
Description: fortis alveolar voiceless plosive Description: fortis dental voiceless plosive
Zs\ Zs\
Teen Install Goat. Tez Gata
tall Z!sN9k\ canteen Zjzm!sh9m\
.q+ v+ i. into a voiceless fricative Z+ V+ B\
twin Z!sVHm\ trod Z!sPc\ tube Z!sBt9a\
Unaspirated after .r.- Unaspirated in all contexts.
.s. (English tan Z!szm\ Vs. Spanish tan Z!s=`m\)

= =
stood Z!rs Tc\ mistakeZlH!rs dHj\
probably before silence.
at times Z?s !s`Hly\ plait Zokzs{{\
great jeep Z!fqdHs !cYh9o\
fat Z!ez>s\ replacement in Spanish.
Sit down Z!rH> !c`Tm\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <t, tt> tart, matter. Few exceptions (e.g.
Anthony, Theresa, Thames, Tompson, etc.)
Tip: Remember that Spanish .s. has a different place of articulation. Make sure you aspirate
it fully when needed. Think about the devoicing effect it has on .k+ q+ v+ i..
Rating: Very difficult.
VOICELESS PLOSIVES
Description: fortis velar voiceless plosive
Zj\
Kill accuse rock. Caso pacto
king Z!jHM\ record Zq?!jN9c\
.k+ q+ v+ i. into a voiceless fricative
ZJ+ + V+ B\
clown Z!jJ`Tm\ Christ Z!j`Hrs\
cuteZ!jBt9s\ quick Z!jVHj\
.j. Unaspirated after .r.-

school Z!rj=t9k\ unskilled Z$Um!rj=Hkc\
Unaspirated in all contexts.
(English can Z!jzm\ Vs. Spanish can Z!j=`m\)
No audible-release in stop clusters.
probably before silence. acto Z!`jsn\ cactus Z!j`jstr\
act Z!zjs\ cooked Z!jTjs\
flock Z!ekPj{{\
luck Z!kU>j\ replacement in Spanish.
Rock concert Z!qP> $jPmr?s\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. Mainly <c, k, ck, qu, ch> come, kick,
quest, architect.
Tip: Make sure you aspirate it fully when needed. Think about the devoicing effect it has on
.k+ q+ v+ i..
Rating: Difficult.
Voiced Plosives:
1. Spanish .a+ c+ f. are realized as approximant in most phonetic environments.
2. The infrequent occurrence of word-final .a+ c. in Spanish.
3. The different place of articulation of .c.+ which is dental Zc\ in Spanish but alveolar Zc\ in
English.
VOICELESS PLOSIVES
Description: lenis bilabial voiced plosive Description: lenis bilabial voiced
approximant
Za\ ZA\
Distribution: full Distribution: full (final only in loan words)
boot abound pub. van rabo club
In rapid or casual speech it can be It is mostly an approximant sound. It
weakened to a lenis bilabial fricative. becomes a plosive after a nasal sound and
Foreigners shouldnt attempt this. sometimes after silence.
about Z?!A`Ts\ lobby Z!kPAh\ Plosive Za\:
Fully voiced especially between voiced Ben Z!adm\ viento Z!aidmsn\
sounds ambos Z!`lanr\ en Brasil Zdl a3`!rhk\
about Z?!a`Ts\ Cambridge Z!jdHlaHcY\ un vino Ztl !ahmn\
Partially or fully devoiced before silence
.a. or a voiceless sound
Gibson Z!fHarm\ grab two Z!fza !st9\
Approximant ZA\:
avin Z`!Ainm\ ubico Zt!Ahjn\
pub Z!oUa{{\ albino Z`k!Ahmn\ rbol Z!`3Ank\
Labiodental Za\ before .e+ u+ o+ a+ E.
obvious Z!Pauh?r\ Rob Finch Z!Pa eHmsR\
No audible-release in stop clusters and No audible-release in stop clusters (if the
probably before silence. speaker makes it plosive in self-conscious
clubbed Z!jkUac\ cab Z!jza{{\ speech)
lab practice Z!kza $ozjsHr\ obtenga Zna!sdMf` ~ nA!sdMf`\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <b, bb> Bobby.
Tip: Make sure you always realize it as a plosive sound. Focus on producing a complete
closure by pressing your lips. Remember to distinguish between English .a. and .u.- In
Spanish, letters <v> and are pronounced ZA ~ a\
Rating: Difficult.
VOICELESS PLOSIVES
Description: lenis alveolar voiced plosive Description: lenis dental voiced
approximant
Zc\ ZC\
Distribution: full Distribution: full (final only in few words in
gland India blood. self-conscious speech)
dan radio juventud
weakened to a lenis dental fricative. becomes a plosive after a nasal or lateral
Foreigners shouldnt attempt this. sound. Sometimes it is plosive after silence.
muddy Z!lUyh\ Adam Z!zy?l\ Plosive Zc\:
Fully voiced especially between voiced den Z!cdm\ duende Z!cvdmcd\
sounds Andes Z!`mcdr\ un da Ztm !ch`\
adore Z?!cN9\ London Z!kUmc?m\ Aldo Z!`kcn\ del dato Zcdk !c`sn\
Partially or fully devoiced before silence
or a voiceless sound Approximant ZC\:
.c. sandstone Z!rzmcrs?Tm\ toad Z!s?Tc{{\
bed time Z!adcs`Hl\
adhiero Z`!Cid3n\ nudo Z!mtCn\
audaz Z`v!C`r\ Abdul ZÀ!Ctk\
Labiodental Za\ before .e+ u+ o+ a+ E. Approximant ZC\ or zero:

advice Z?a!u`Hr\ godfather Z!fPae@9C?\ ciudad Zrit!C`'C(\ usted Ztg!sd'C(\
bedclothes Z!adcjk?TCy\ mad Z!lzc{{\ speech)
adquiere Z`c!jid3d ~ `C!jid3d\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <d, dd> Daddy.
closure by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. Remember to
distinguish between English .C. and .c.- In Spanish, letter <d> can be ZC ~ c\. This means
that it is always pronounced at a different place of articulation (i.e. dental) and is
sometimes an approximant.
Rating: Very difficult.
VOICELESS PLOSIVES
Description: lenis velar voiced plosive Description: lenis velar voiced approximant
Zf\ Z\
Distribution: full Distribution: restricted (not word-final)
goose ago fog gas ruego
weakened to a lenis bilabial fricative. becomes a plosive after a nasal sound and
Foreigners shouldnt attempt this. sometimes after silence.
ago Z?!F?T\ logging Z!kPFHM\ Plosive Zf\:
Fully voiced especially between voiced gol Z!fnk\ grasa Z!f3`r`\
sounds ngulo Z!`Mftkn\ en Ginea ZdM fh!md`\
ago Z?!f?T\ English Z!HMfkHR\
Partially or fully devoiced before silence Approximant Z\:
.f. or a voiceless sound
drugstore Z!cUfrsN9\ big sum Z!aHf !rUl\
agudo Z`!tCn\ algo Z`k!n\
rasguo Zq`r!tIn\
Greg Z!fdf{{\

clogged Z!jkPfc\ drag Z!czf{{\ speech)
log cabin Z!kPf !jzaHm\ Magdalena Zl`fc`!kdm` ~ l`c`!kdm`\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <g, gg> go, beggar.
closure by pressing the back of the tongue against the soft palate. Remember that <g> is
silent in the ending <-ng> .M. and <-gn> .m.. Compare: sing .rHM. sign .r`Hm.-
Rating: Difficult.
Affricates:
1. Although .sR. exists in Spanish in words like chancho, this sound is shorter in the River Plate area.
Some River Plate speakers tend to produce a weak .R. element, so their .sR. phoneme becomes
ZsR\, which sounds like a fully affricated .s. (=Zsr\) to an English ear. Tip: Can you show a
distinction between two and chew? If you cant, you should aim at an extra long fricative
element, i.e. aim at ZsRRR\.
2. Most River Plate Spanish speakers do not have a .cY. sound. The same problem mentioned
above affects the realization of English .cY. in their speech. Make sure your .cY. does not sound
like ZcY\, which the English ear takes as Zcy\. Tip: Can you show a distinction between dust and
just? If you cant, you should aim at an extra long fricative element, i.e. aim at ZcYYY\.
3. In Spanish, we simplify consonant-clusters, especially those at the end of words. Make sure you
articulate both instances of .sR. and .cY. in phrases such as these:
a. .sR. + .sR.: much cheaper .!lUsR !sRh9o?. not *.!lU !sRh9o?.-
b. .sR. + .cY.: Mitch Jones .!lHsR !cY?Tmy. not *.!lH !cY?Tmy .-
c. .cY. + .cY.: village judge .!uHkHcY !cYUcY. not *.!uHkH !cYUcY ..
d. .cY. + .sR.: large jeep .!k@9cY !cYh9o. not *.!k@9 !cYh9o ..
AFFRICATES
Description: fortis palato-alveolar voiceless affricate
ZsR\
chain Inches beach Chile macho
.sR. teach Z!sh9>sR\

teach Z!sh9>R\
replacement in Spanish.
Spelling and distribution: Pretty straightforward rules. <ch, tch, ti, tu, c> chain, watch,
question, actual, cello.
Tip: Remember to keep a long period of friction. Aim at ZsRRR\ to produce a proper .sR..
Avoid ZsR\
Rating: Not difficult.
AFFRICATES
Phonemic status: Phonemic Phonemic status: Allophonic. Not frequent.
Description: lenis palato-alveolar voiced affricate
ZcY\
Jane engine manage Yo inyeccin
Fully voiced when surrounded by voiced This is an allophone of .R.. Some upper
sounds: class people use if after silence or after a
Bridget Z!aHcYHs\ manage it Z!lzmHcY Hs\ nasal.
Yo Z{{ cYn\. Cnyuge Z!jnmcYtwd\.
.cY. Full or partial devoicing before voiceless
sounds or silence.
Sponge. ZroUmcY\
George Smith Z!cYN9cY !rlHS\
Spelling and distribution: Pretty straightforward rules. <j, g, dge, ge, di, dj> judge, bridge,
George, soldier, adjunct.
Tip: Remember to keep a long period of friction. Aim at ZcYYY\ to produce a proper .cY..
Avoid ZcY\- Do not confuse .cY. with .R..
Rating: Extremely difficult.
Fricatives:
1. Spanish does not exploit fricatives as much as English. English has 9 fricative phonemes
.e+ u+ S+ C+ r+ y+ R+ Y+ g. while Spanish has only .e+ r+ R+ w..
2. Unlike English, Spanish does not allow certain consonants to occur in syllable final position.
Spanish speakers who learn English tend to simplify final consonant clusters in un-English ways.
E.g.: laughs .k@9er., lives .kHuy., myths .lHSr., etc.
3. River Plate Spanish systematically aspirates .r. (i.e. .r. becomes Zg\) when it is followed by a
consonant. This is a serious mistake in English, since final .r. is loaded with a lot of information: it
indicates plural nouns, nouns in the genitive and the verb inflection for the third person singular
in the simple present tense. Compare: mismo Z!lhgln\ vs mystery Z!lHrsqh\; mis perros
Z!lHg !oDqnr\ vs Miss Perry Z!lHr !odqh\.
FRICATIVES
Description: fortis labio-dental voiceless fricative
Ze\
Distribution: full Distribution: restricted (not word-final)
faint refuse sniff fe afuera
Main allophones:
.e. This sound does not present any major allophones.

Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <f, ff, ph, gh, fe> foam, fluff, graphic,
laugh, life.
Tip: In Spanish this sound is not found in final position. This means that sometimes,
learners of English drop it when it is not possible: E.g. life problems .!k`He oqPak?ly. (not *
.!k`H oqPak?ly.). Also, it seems to be articulated in a stronger manner in English.
Rating: Easy. Problematic in word final position, though.
FRICATIVES
Phonemic status: Phonemic Phonemic status: Allophonic
Description: lenis labio-dental voiced fricative
Zu\
Distribution: full Distribution: exceptional cases where .e. is
vice convey - live voiced
Dafne
Fully voiced when surrounded by voiced This sound is not a phoneme in Spanish. It
sounds: can be heard under two circumstances,
Evening Z!h9umHM\ love them Z!kUu Cl\ though:
.u. In the speech of people who
Full or partial devoicing before voiceless labiodentalize because they have protruding
sounds or silence. teeth. E.g.: Mi beb ZEh ud!ud\
Five. Ze`Hu{{\
Live concert Z!k`Hu !jPmr?s\ Some speakers voice /f/ when surrounded
by voiced sounds: Dafne Z!cùmd\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <v, vv, ve> vile, savvy, Clive.
Tip: Produce a .e. sound and add voice to it. Always remember to bite your lower lip, but
not too strongly. A feeble contact will produce greater friction.
Rating: Very difficult. Students find it hard to articulate and also they forget to distinguish
.a. from .u.-
FRICATIVES
Phonemic status: Phonemic Phonemic status: Phonemic in Castillian.
Non-existent in River Plate Spanish (lisp).
Description: fortis labio-dental voiceless fricative
ZS\
Distribution: full Distribution: full
three enthusiasm bath zorra cancin - voraz
.S.
Main allophones:
This sound does not present any major allophones.
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <th> think, enthral, through.
Tip: Make sure you do not confuse .S. with .r.. The word something .!rUlSHM. typically
presents difficulties, because River Plate Spanish speakers tend to confuse these
phonemes. In clusters, go slowly: This theory .CHr !SH?qh., Maths .!lzSr..
Rating: Difficult, especially in clusters.
FRICATIVES
Phonemic status: Phonemic Phonemic status: Allophone of .c.
Description: lenis dental voiced fricative Description: lenis dental voiced approximant
ZC\ ZC\
Distribution: full Distribution: full (final only in few words in
vice convey - live self-conscious speech)
dan radio juventud
Fully voiced when surrounded by voiced This sound is not a phoneme in Spanish. It is
sounds: the most frequent realization of .c. in all
either Z!`HC?\ love them Z!kUu Cl\ contexts except in the clusters Zmc\ and [kc\,
.C. Full or partial devoicing before voiceless
or after silence.
adhiero Z`!Cid3n\ nudo Z!mtCn\
sounds or silence. audaz Z`v!C`r\ Abdul ZÀ!Ctk\
Breathe. Zah9C{{\
With care Z!vHC !jd?\ Approximant ZC\ or zero:
ciudad Zrit!C`'C(\ usted Ztg!sd'C(\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <th, the> they, blithe.
Tip: Remember that when you see <th> in the spelling, you should stick your tongue out
and produce lots of friction.
Rating: Very difficult. Students find it hard to articulate it with friction, because it is an
approximant in Spanish. Also they forget to distinguish .C. from .c.-
FRICATIVES
Description: fortis alveolar voiceless fricative
Zr\
son oyster price sal cancin - voraz
This sound does not present any major This sound is the one that shows the greatest
allophones. variability in River Plate Spanish.
It is Zr\ before vowels, semivowels and
silence
SusanaZrt!r`m`\ siempre Z!ridlo3d\
sueo Z!rvdIn\ dos Zcnr\

It is aspirated, i.e. it becomes Zg\ before
consonants.
a. It can be either Zg\ or Z\ before .a+ c+ f.
esboza Zdg!Anr`+ d!Anr` \
desde Z!cdgCd+ !cdCd\
esgrima Zdg!3hl`+ d!3hl`\
.r. b. It can be either Zg\ or ZR\ before .R.

los llevo Zkng !RdAn+ knR !RdAn\
c. It can be either Zg\ or assimilated before

.r+ w+ e.
los sobres Zkng !rnA3dr+ knr !rnA3dr\
los jarros Zkng !w`qnr+ knw !w`qnr\
fsforo Z!engen3n+ !engen3n\
d. It can be either It can be either Zg\ or Zw\

before .j.
asco Z!`gjn+ !`wjn\
e. The sequence .hr. can be either Zhg\ or

ZhB\ before a consonant
misterio Zlhg!sd3in+ lhB!sd3in\
Spelling and distribution: There are some rules, but the spellings <s, ss, se> can also be
.y.. <s, ss, c, sc, se> some, miss, ceiling, science, tense.
Tip: Make sure you neither drop nor aspirate pre-consonantal .r. in English.
Rating: Very difficult. Students tend to confuse .r. with .y., aspirate it or drop it.
FRICATIVES
Phonemic status: Phonemic Phonemic status: Allophonic (not in Riv. Pl.)
Description: lenis alveolar voiced fricative Zy\
Distribution: full Distribution: restricted (before voiced
zoo easy because consonants)
desde los guantes
Fully voiced when surrounded by voiced This sound is not a phoneme in Spanish. It
sounds: can be heard in many varieties of Spanish
crazy Z!jdHyh\ as though Z?y !C?T\ before voiced consonants. In the River Plate
.y. Full or partial devoicing before voiceless .r..
area, we do not use Zy\ because we aspirate
sounds or silence. Desde Z!cdyCd\

Please. Zokh9y{{\ Musgo Z!ltyn\
These shows Z!Ch9y !R?Ty{{\ Los lados Zkny !k`Cnr\
Spelling and distribution: There are some rules, but the spellings <s, se, ss> can also
represent .r.. <z, zz, ze, s, se, ss> zinc, buzz, craze, easy, ease, scissors.
Tip: Do not aspirate .y..
Rating: Very difficult. Students sometimes find it hard to articulate and also they forget to
distinguish .y. from .r.-
FRICATIVES
Description: fortis palatoalveolar voiceless fricative
ZR\
Distribution: full Distribution: restricted (not final)
she mission fish yendo calle
This sound does not present any major Traditionally, this sound used to be
allophones. voiced, i.e. ZY\. However, ZR\ is found in the
.R. speech of most middle and working class

people, and some upper-class speakers too.
The elderly of all classes tend to keep ZY\.
Some upper-class people also use ZcY\
after silence or a nasal.
Yo Z{{cYn\ en llamas Zdm !cY`l`r\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <sh, ch, sch, sc, ti, ci, s> shame, chef,
schedule, nation, excruciate, sure.
Tip: Make sure you neither drop it in clusters.
Rating: Relatively easy.
FRICATIVES
Description: lenis palato-alveolar voiced fricative
ZY\
Distribution: full Distribution: restricted (not final)
genre usual garage Yendo calle
Fully voiced when surrounded by voiced This sound is found in the speech of the
sounds: elderly or in the upper-classes.
usual Z!it9Yt?k\
.Y. Full or partial devoicing before voiceless
Yendo Z!Ydmcn\ calle Z!j`Yd\
sounds or silence.
garage. Z!fz@9Y{{\
beige paint Z!adHY !odHms\
Spelling and distribution: This is a sound found mostly in foreign words. <si, su, ge>
vision, usual, genre.
Tip: Make sure you can contrast .Y. with .R..
Rating: This does not seem to be very difficult, it is of infrequent occurrence.
FRICATIVES
.w.- 'Allophonic Zg\ can stand for pre-
consonantal .r., see above).
Description: voiceless glottal fricative Description: fortis velar voiceless fricative
Zg\ Zw\
Distribution: restricted (not final) Distribution: full
ham - behind Juan ajo - reloj
.g. Zg\ is voiceless provided it is not

intervocalic
here ZgH?\ at homeZ?s !g?Tl\
Zw\ is found especially in the vicinity of
back vowels, i.e. .n+ t. and .`..
jarro Z!w`qn\ ojo Z!nwn\ lujo Z!ktwn\
Voiced Z\ occurs in intervocalic position ZB\ can be found in the vicinity of front
ahead Z?!dc\ vowels, i.e. .d+ h.-
fije Z!ehBd\ elegir Zdkd!Bh3\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <h, wh> here, who.
Tip: Make sure you do not use Spanish .w. instead of English .g..
Rating: Difficult for some speakers who tend to produce .w. or .W..
Nasals:
1. The occurrence of pre-vocalic .M..
2. The production of final .m+ l., which is neutralized in Spanish: e.g. Miriam, Mirian.
NASALS
Description: voiced velar nasal
ZM\
Distribution: restricted (not initial) Distribution: restricted (medial, before
anger - sing .j+ f.)
hongo - banco
This sound does not present major This sound is an allophone of .m.. It occurs
allophones. in the clusters ZMj+ Mf\
.M. tanque Z!s`Mjd\ - tanga Z!s`Mf`\

This allophone can occur when /n/ is in
final position.
bien Z!aidm+ !aidM+ !aidl\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <ng> or <n> when followed by <k, g>
ring, longer, monkey
Tip: Make sure you do not change the point of articulation of prevocalic .M. to an alveolar
Zm\.
Rating: Very difficult when followed by a vowel.
NASALS
Description: voiced bilabial nasal
Zl\
Distribution: full Distribution: full (final in foreign words)
mist amend - whim mal amo - Miriam
This sound can become labiodental This sound may become .m. when it is
.l. before .e+ u.

comfort Z!jUEe?s\
word-final
Miriam Z!lh3i`l+ !lh3i`m\
Sam Vince Z!rzE !uHmr\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <m, mm, me, mb, mn> man, mummy,
come, bomb, hymn.
Tip: Make sure you do not change the point of articulation of final .l.. E.g. Where are you
from? Z!vd? ? it !ePl\ not *Z!vd? ? it !ePm\
Rating: Easy, except for some speakers when it is in final position
NASALS
Description: voiced alveolar nasal
Zm\
net annoy - seen no andes - san
This sound can become labiodental This sound can become labiodental ZE\
ZE\ before .e+ u. before .e.
inflame ZHE!ekdHl\ infame ZHE!e`ld\
inventory Z!HEu?msh\
This sound becomes dental Zm\ before
dental Zs+ c\
ando Z!`mcn\ - canto Z!j`msn\
.m.
This sound becomes bilabial .l. before
.o+ a+ l.
amplio Z!`lokin\ - en Brasil Zdl !a3`rhk\

This sound becomes velar ZM\ before
.j+ f.
hongo Z!nMfn\ - manco Z!l`Mjn\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <n, nn, ne, gn> no, beginning, wine, reign
Tip: Make sure you do not change the point of articulation of final .m. unless it can be
assimilated phonemically or allophonically. E.g.: seen Zrh9m\ not *Zrh9l+ rh9M\.
Rating: Easy, except for some speakers when it is in final position
Lateral:
The greatest difficulties in here are:
1. The occurrence of dark or velarized Z4\ in English.
2. The devoicing effect of stressed .o+ s+ j. on .k., which also makes it fricative ZJ\.
LATERAL APPROXIMANT
Description: voiced alveolar lateral approximant
Zk\
loot gloomy - stool lazo ala - sal
This sound is clear when followed by a .k. is always clear Zk\.
vowel or .i. Loco Z!knjn\ alma Z!`kl`\ sol Zrnk\
Late ZkdHs\ William Z!vHki?l\
.k. can be dentalized Zk\ before Zs+ c\.
A velarized Z4\ is used before consonants, alto Z!`ksn\ falda Z!e`kc`\
silence and .v..
held Zgd4c\ always Z!N94vdHy\ full ZeT4\
A fully voiceless and fricative ZJ\ is used
.k. after stressed .o+ s+ j.. This is the result of

the aspiration of these voiceless plosives.
Clear ZjJH?\ apply Z?oJ`H\
A partially devoiced Zk\ is used after

unstressed .o+ s+ j. the sequences
.ro+ rs+ rj. and after .e+ r..
Deeply Z!ch9okh\ Aptly Z!zoskh\
Buckle Z!aUjk\
Mostly Z!l?Trskh\ Exclaim ZHj!rjkdHl\
Splash ZrokzR\
Fly Zek`H\ Sly Zrk`H\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <l, ll, le> lice, hilly, vile.
Tip: Try to blow a lot of air when you produce ZJ\- If you find it difficult to produce a
velarized Z4\ you can vocalize it and produce Zn+ T\. Compare: table Z!sdHan\, peopleZ!oh9on\
Rating: Clear .k. is easy. Dark .k. is harder for some people. ZJ\ is difficult.
Approximant /r/:
1. The fact that RP English is non-rhotic, so /r/ is not pronounced before silence or consonants.
2. The devoicing effect of stressed .o+ s+ j. on .q., which also makes it fricative Z\.
approximant /r/
Description: voiced post-alveolar Description: There are two phonemes in
approximant Spanish: a) the voiced alveolar trill or roll
Z\ .q. in rey .qdh., perro.!odqn..
b) the voiced alveolar tap .3. or in trazo
.!s3`rn., pero .!od3n..
Distribution: restricted (not final) Distribution:
room marry a. .q. is restricted (not final)
red carro
b. .3. is restricted (not initial)

aro amor

Unless followed by .o+ s+ j+ c., this is a .3. may have different qualities, the tap
voiced post-alveolar approximant Z\ being the most frequent one. An
green Zfh9m\ road Z?Tc\ approximant Z\ softer than the English
variant can be heard, especially in the speech
.q. A fully voiceless and fricative Z\ is used

after stressed .o+ s+ j.. This is the result of
of the young, especially before consonants.
Irma Z!h3l`+ !hl`\
the aspiration of these voiceless plosives. ir bien Zh3 !Aidm+ h !Aidm \
Cream Zjh9l\ price Zo`Hr\
Attract Z?!szjs\ There seems to be a neutralization in final
position. Some speakers use Zq\ while others
A voiced fricative Z\ is used after .c. use Z3\or Z\.
Dry Z!c`H\ Children Z!sRHkcm\ amar Z`!l`3+ `!l`+ `!l`q\
vivir Zah!Ah3{{ ah!Ah{{ ah!Ahq\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <r, rr, wr, rh> red, marry, wrist, rhetoric.
Tip: Make sure you do not touch your palate, which is what we do in Spanish (once for
.3. and many times for .q.). Also, you should be able to produce both fricatives variants, the
voiced Zc\ and voiceless Zo+ s+ j\.
Rating: Very difficult. Some speakers have trouble even in Spanish and they substitute
.q. for ZQ\ and .3. for ZC\ among other possibilities. Some people tend to use the Spanish
trill or tap in English. Most learners, however, are able to use the approximant variant Z\
without problems. The sounds that are more problematic are the fricative variants,
especially in the combination Zc\-
Semivowels:
1. Not be tempted to pronounce ZR\ instead of Zi\ in words such as yes, mayor, York.
2. The devoicing effect of stressed .o+ s+ j. on .i+ v., which also makes them fricative ZB+ V\.
3. The distribution of these sounds when they are not evident in the spelling. E.g.: hue, quite.
SEMIVOWEL
Description: voiced palatal approximant
Zi\
Distribution: restricted (followed by Distribution: restricted (followed by vowels,
vowels, so it cannot be final) so it cannot be final)
you avenue hierve cielo
This sound is fully voiced unless it is There are no major allophonic variants in
preceded by a voiceless consonant, River Plate Spanish.
especially .g+ o+ s+ j.
yellow Z!idk?T\ William Z!vHki?l\
A fully voiceless and fricative ZB\ is used

the aspiration of these voiceless plosives.
cute ZjBt9s\ tube ZsBt9a\
computer Zj?l!oBt9s?\
.i. A fully voiceless and fricative ZB\ results

after the merging of the sequence .gi.-
Hugh ZBt9\ human Z!Bt9l?m\
A partially devoiced Zi\ is used after

.ro+ rs+ rj. and after .e+ r..
copular Z!jPoi?k?\ attitude Z!zsHsit9c\
accurate Z!zji??s\
stew Z!rsit9\ excuse ZHj!rjit9r\
dispute ZcH!roit9s\
few Zeit9\ consume Zj?m!rit9l\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <y, u, eau> you, universe, beautiful.
Tip: Try to blow a lot of air when you produce ZB\- This sound is present in Spanish as an
allophone of .r. in words such as misterio ZlhB!sd3in\.
Rating: The voiced variant Zi\ is easy. However, ZB\ is difficult.
SEMIVOWEL
Description: voiced labio-velar approximant
Zv\
Distribution: restricted (followed by Distribution: restricted (followed by vowels,
vowels, so it cannot be final) so it cannot be final)
when always huebo risueo
This sound is fully voiced unless it is There are no major allophonic variants in
preceded by a voiceless consonant, River Plate Spanish.
especially .o+ s+ j.
Walter Z!vPks?\ rewind Z$h9!v`Hmc\
A fully voiceless and fricative ZV\ is used

.v. the aspiration of these voiceless plosives.

quick ZjVHj\ Dupuytren ZcT!oVh9sm\
twist ZsVHrs\
A partially devoiced Zv\ is used after

.ro+ rs+ rj. and after .r..
upward Z!Uov?c\ Gatwick Z!fzsvHj\
awkward Z!N9jv?c\
Westwood Z!vdrsvTc\ squat Z!rjvPs\
Swiss ZrvHr\
Spelling and distribution: Straightforward rules. <w, wh, u> web, when, quite.
Tip: Try to blow a lot of air when you produce ZV\-
Rating: The voiced variant Zv\ is easy. However, ZV\ is difficult.
COMPARISON: GRAPHICS
These charts have been adapted from Phonetics: the sounds of spoken language, a cite created by the
University of Iowa. Retrieved 27 february 2012. http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/#
Spanish Zs\ and Zc\ English Zs\ and Zc\
Spanish ZC\ English ZC\
Spanish ZA\ English and Spanish Za\

Spanish Z\ English and Spanish Zf\
Spanish Zw\ English and Spanish Zg\
Spanish Zq+ 3\ English Z\

Tips to Better your Pronunciation and Help

your Students
Adapted from Prof. Laura Aza
Code Correction
1. .U. Just drop your jaw. Your lips should be in a neutral position. This sound
may be quite back, and it may be similar to your Spanish <a> in encaje
2. .z. Remember this is called the smiling <a>. It is different from Spanish. You
should spread your lips more. Smile! This is a front sound, so this should
be more similar to an /e/ than to an .P.-
3. .@9. This is a long sound and most importantly back sound. This is what you say
when you go to the doctors to have your throat examined:
aaaaaahhhhhhhh.
4. Aspiration You need to produce more aspiration (i.e. an extra puff of air). Remember
to use the techniques we practiced at the workshop, i.e., holding a piece
of paper and moving it with your breath, etc.
- /p/ Think that youre blowing a candle. This friction that occurs between
the lips is necessary after a strong /p/.
- /t/ Think that you have a little /s/ after the /t/. Think of the word pizza
in Spanish well, that is a kind of aspirated /ts/.
- /k/ Think that you have a jota sound after it. Say jamn. Now insert a
/k/ before it (thus, kjamn). If you managed to do so, any English speaker
would understand the order Come on! So, a good aspirated /k/ must
always contain a kind of Spanish jota sound.
TIP: Your aspiration will be more audible if you produce a very tiny
narrowing in your mouth. If you open a lot, you will waste all your air and
nothing will be heard!
5. .a. This sound is plosive, as opposed to the Spanish /b/, which is usually
approximant. Think in terms of a /p/ sound and add voice. We have a
plosive /b/ in Spanish in the words ambo, combo, Rambo. Tip: Close your
lips completely with your fingers as if they were pegs and release the
closure suddenly. A mirror can help you visualize these movements: if
your lips dont touch, thats the Spanish .A.
6. Choppy It sounds too chunky. Make sure you pause at the right time and not in
between words which should go together. Youve got to be careful with
your sounds, but you should never forget that MEANING is essential!
7. .c. This sound is plosive, as opposed to the Spanish /d/, which is usually
approximant. Therefore, you should make sure there is a complete closure
between the tip of your tongue and the alveolar ridge. Tip: Imitate /t/ and
then add voice. Now does it really sound English? Test it! Say Cuando
ando con Armando these are dental plosives in Spanish. Now, put on an
English accent and say that phrase remember that in Spanish a larger
area of the tongue touches the palate, in English it is just the tip that
touches a more internal part of the palate: the alveolar ridge.
8. .C. There are two important factors to bear in mind when producing this
sound. First, place your tongue between your teeth so that you can see it
with a mirror. At the same time, it should be produced with an incredible
amount of friction. That is, you should feel tickles in your tongue when the
air passes through it. Exaggerate the <d>, as if you were really angry, in
Qu TARADDDO!!!
9. .cY. You should avoid producing this sound like a .R.- It is much stronger.
Remember it is a mixture between a fricative and a plosive. You should try
producing a .sR. and then add voice. This sound is found in the speech of
people from Paraguay, Corrientes and Misiones in words such as ayer, a
Jessica, inyecto.
10. Dark Z4\ This takes dark L. You should curl back your tongue. Produce an /o/.
Now, while you are saying an /o/, touch the alveolar ridge with the tip of
your tongue. Yes! Thats a dark /l/: you articulate a /l/ that resonates like
an /o/.
11. Dropping of final You are dropping consonants. Think that this final consonant is part of the
Consonants next word. E.g.: End it should sound like .!dm cHs.: Daddy did it, Ann
should be .cz ch !cH cH szm.
12. Dropping of A cluster is a combination on consonants. This is very difficult to

sounds in pronounce for Spanish speakers, especially when it happens in final
Consonant position or together with a word beginning with another cluster.
Examples: /nes kls/ instead of /nekst kls/ and /a hv tu
Clusters
test tWmrW/ instead of /a hv tu tests tWmrW/
Now youre dropping one of these consonants so that its easier to
pronounce the phrase. Avoid doing this, as this may lead to grammar
mistakes or meaning.
13. .d. This vowel is much opener than in Spanish. You should spread your lips
and open you mouth a lot more. It occurs in Spanish before <rr>. Compare
the degrees of opening in your Spanish pero and perro the latter is
really open, identical to the English one.
14. .29. This is like a schwa but longer. Your lips must be in a neutral position. It is
the first sound that comes out when you open your mouth. Dont round
your lips, dont open your mouth much, dont produce tension just do
NOTHING! Its a very lazy sound!
15. .f. This sound is plosive, as opposed to the Spanish g, which is usually
approximant. Therefore, you should make sure there is a complete closure
between the back of your tongue and the velum. Youve got to think of it
as a kind of soft /k/. We have it in Spanish in the words tango, rango,
mango, pongo, sunga.
16. .g. When you produce this sound, you should avoid producing a scraping
sound that is typical of the Spanish jota. The place of articulation for /h/
is glottal. That means that the tongue does not touch any articulator. The
air escapes freely once it passes the glottis. Tip: Use a mirror and produce
words with /h/. If you are pronouncing them correctly, the mirror should
mist all over. In Spanish we produce a phoneme that resembles the sound
produced when we are going to spit, in English it resembles the sound we
use to clean a mirror or glasses.
17. .H. This vowel should not sound like the Spanish /i/, but rather closer to an
/e/, otherwise, it is confused with the English /i:/. It occurs in Spanish
before <rr>. E.g. birra- You can also hear it in Spanish when we say Se,
se instead of s.
18. .H?+ T?. We tend to transfer our .h`. and .t`. into English. So, if you hear that your
diphthongs in hear and tour rhyme with the Spanish ta and pa it is
because you are not saying .H?+ T?. but .h9?+ t9?.. Pay particular attention
to the starting point in each one.
19. .h9. /i/ You need to produce more tension in your tongue (not your throat!).
Make sure your lips are spread out and your tongue is so high that is
almost touching the palate. You can find this sound in Spanish in the
phrase mi ta maria coma todo el da.
20. Linking /r/ Go over the concept of linking r. You are not using it here.
21. Mispronuciation This word is mispronounced. Look it up in the pronunciation dictionary

and pronounce it accordingly.
22. .Mf. Final /g/ is not pronounced in English. Make sure it is a very nasal sound. If
you keep the velum lowered so that the airflow escapes through the nose,
you will not produce an oral /g/. Touch the tip of your tongue: it will
vibrate a lot when you produce nasals!
23. .N9. This is a long sound and it requires a lot of tension. Your lips should be
closely rounded. Start by producing /u:/. Keep the closely rounded lip
position, but open your jaw as if to produce an /o/. If you keep these two
features, you produce a good, rounded .N9..
24. .P. Your .P.is not rounded enough. In American English, many words take
.@9. when .P. is the norm in British English. Whats the difference? They
are practically the same sound! Just make sure that you round your lips
for .P..
25. Onglide Vowel Onglide. Avoid adding a non-existent schwa before a word
beginning with an s-cluster. Example: stupid, smoke, snake, etc. Tip: Count
the number of syllables. If you see that you say an extra syllable it means
you are producing an onglide (.!roh9j. one syllable, Vs. .d!roh9j. two
syllables(- If your /s/ is very strong and long, you will not produce an
onglide.
26. Past tense You need to over the past tense rule.
27. Plurals You need to go over the plurals rule.
28. Present simple You need to go over the third person singular rule for the present simple.
3rd person
29. Rhoticity r-colouring. Remember that British English is a non-rhotic accent. This
means that /r/ before silence or consonants is not pronounced. Avoid
curling your tongue back. Make sure that the tip of your tongue is down,
behind the lower teeth.
30. Rhythm Rhythm. Remember that English rhythm is stress-timed, that is, many
syllables are shortened. You should focus on the strong syllables and on
making them stand out. You should rush through the unimportant ones.
31. .r. /s/ In Spanish we mask all our <s> when they come before a
consonant, we just produce them as breath, a kind of [h] sound. This is not
the case in English. So, in Spanish we say Este Z!dgsd\, Misterio
Zlh!gsdqin\, Asco Z!`gjn\, but in English it must always be East .h9rs.,
Mystery .!lHrs?qh., Ask .@9rj., with a full-blown /s/. Compare the Spanish
pronunciation of /s/ that Mexicans or Bolivians have: /s/ is ALWAYS
present in their speech, as in English.
32. .T. This vowel should not sound like the Spanish /u/, but rather closer to a
Spanish /o/, otherwise, it is confused with long .t9.- We have it in Spanish
before /rr/: Burro Z!aTqqn\, Curro Z!jTqqn\, Susurro Zrt!rTqqn\- TIP: Dont
round your lips much!
33. .u. /v/ You need to bite the inside of your lower lip, but not so strong, as you
need to leave an opening through which the air flows, thus producing
friction. Try producing /f/ and then add voice. Tip: Make sure that you bit
the very internal part of your lower lip, not the visible exterior. Try to feel
34. .v. /w/ This sound plus an .T. sound can be difficult. Tip: /w/ is more closely
rounded than .T., so youve got to make sure that you are opening your
mouth, no closing it when you pronounce this cluster. Avoid adding a /g/
before /w/. So wood and good should be pronounced differently. Try
saying wa, we, wi, wo, wuuuuu. You should feel air coming out of your
mouth.
35. Weak Forms Remember function words are usually weak
36. Weak .sR+ cY. .sR+ cY.- In Spanish we are nowadays changing .sR. women, especially,
reduce the second element, making it really weak and short. For example
Mechas Z!ldsR`r\, chocolate ZsRnjn!k`sd\, chuchi Z!sRtsRh\. So, in order to
have a good .sR. and .cY.+ in English we should think of the second
element as a really long and strong one. Imagine it is a kind of:
ZsRRRR\ nq ZsR9\ .. ZcYYYY\ nq ZcY9\-
37. Weaken vowels! Syllable weakening. Try eliminating schwa whenever you can, because
otherwise, it sounds very Spanish-like. Examples: Children, Curtain, didnt,
kitchen.
Sometimes, you may be tempted to produce quite a strong vowel instead

of /?/: avoid doing so! August and album are .!N9fTrs+ !zkaTl. and not
.!N9f?rs+ !zka?l..
38. Word Stress Wrong stress. Check in what syllable this word bears the stress
39. .y. This word takes / z /. Remember it sounds like a mosquito or a bee. Place
your fingers on your Adams apple and feel how it vibrates. Hold it for a
long time. Once you have achieved the production of that sound start
shortening it until you have the normal length. Say: Busy Lizzy is dizzy.
40. .S. Your tongue should stick out between your teeth. Tip. You should try to
imitate Spanish people when saying zapato
41. .Y. This sound is voiced. Try producing it in isolation and place your fingers on
your Adams apple. Now say shhhhhhhh. Then add voice and notice how
your vocal folds start vibrating. You can also try imitating a posh Spanish
.R. as when they say yo.
Glossary of Technical Terms
Finch & Ortiz Lira (1982: 185- 189)
1
2
3
4
5
References:
https://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/
http://digidownload.libero.it/mgtund/Spelling%20New%20English%20File/Consonant%20sound
%20list.jpg from https://elt.oup.com/student/englishfile/preint/c_pronunciation/?
cc=ca&selLanguage=en
http://fonologiauba.blogspot.com.ar/p/phonology-i.html

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Carrera: Profesorado Universitario de Ingls

Instancia curricular: Fontica y Diccin I

Carga horaria: 6 (seis) horas

Profesor: Malvina E. Massaro

Guidelines for Phonemic Transcription

5. Do not use capital letters in transcriptions.

Well, I guess youre wrong, Howard. Can you think it over?

Vowel Number Lexical Set Vowel Lexical Set

b. The velar nasal consonant .M. is never found in word-initial position.

k. NURSE .29. almost always occurs in stressed syllables.

l. Youre not supposed to use schwa .?. in stressed syllables.

Transcribe your own voice:

b. Omit raised sounds:

c. Keep symbols in italics:

f. We pronounce numbers and conventions fully

g. We add words when we read dates

.!jzoHs?$kHy?l. !Capita$lism! Vs. !Capita$lism?

b. Weak vowels They only occur in unstressed syllables: .?+ h+ t+ H+ T.

2. In unstressed word-final position:

3. In unstressed syllable-final position before another vowel

ii. .t. is used:

2. In unstressed syllable-final position before another vowel:

-man .,l?m. Gentleman .!cYdmskl?m.

Spelling and pronunciation:

Doubling of consonant letters

b. Vowel letters say their name

Final silent <-e>

Final magic <y>

<a> = FACE .dH. baby

b. The following grammar words (CAPPA: conjunctions, auxiliaries, pronouns, prepositions,

.?. .h. .t. .T. .H.

c. Polysyllabic grammar words can potentially take a stress, too.

25. Pre-consonantal vs. Pre-vocalic weak forms

b. Pronoun + auxiliary contractions are generally weak.

28. Confusable weak and strong forms:

c. Be careful with us and as.

d. Be careful with of and off.

e. Be careful with then and than.

The adverbial ending <-edly> is pronounced .Hckh.-

34. The word <use>. Compare:

36. <-ng> vs. <-gn>

Final <-ng> is .M. (i.e. <g> has fused with <n>).

37. Spelling <ng>

38. Spelling <x>

b. Its .fy. when followed by a stressed vowel sound

b. .ch9. when it means the opposite

c. .ch+ cH+ c?. before a stressed syllable

d. .oqh+ oqH+ oq?. before a stressed syllable

c. .qh+ qH+ q?. before a stressed syllable

b. .$oqP. in many words when the syllable takes a secondary stress

d. .qh+ qH+ q?. before a stressed syllable

46. The following prefixes are always strong:

Strong word endings

c. You should never use .y. for the spelling <c>

d. The spelling <ss> is generally .r..

e. In word-internal position, <-s-> is:

Generally .y. before or after a vowel or voiced consonant

Generally .y. before or after a voiceless consonant

f. The ending <-se> is normally:

.r. in <-lse, -nse, -rse>

g. The ending <-s> is normally:

.y. in most monosyllabic grammar words

.y. after long vowels

How to go about a phonemic transcription

___ .gh. _ .Rh. ___ .vh.

___ .lh. _ .ah. ___ .Ch.