Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
COMUNICACIN SOCIAL
RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES
INGLS
CONTENIDOS TERICOS GENERALES
Patricia R. Allen
NDICE
Pgina
1. EL INGLS INSTRUMENTAL EN LA UNIVERSIDAD
12
2.1. FORMA
2.1.1 Afijos del sustantivo
2.1.1.1. Sufijos
2.1.1.2. Prefijos
2.1.2. Formas del plural
2.2. GNERO
2.3. CLASIFICACIN
2.3.1. Propios
2.3.2. Comunes
2.3.3. Colectivos
2.3.4. Pluralia Tantum
2.3.5. Contables e incontables
2.4. INTERPRETACIN DE LOS SUSTANTIVOS COMPUESTOS
2.5. POSICIN
2.6. CASO POSESIVO
2.7. LA COMPARACIN EN LOS SUSTANTIVOS
2.8. INTERPRETACIN DEL SUSTANTIVO SEGN CONTEXTO
3. LOS ARTCULOS
19
3.1. A / AN
3.1.1. Usos
3.2. THE
3.2.1. Usos
3.2.2. Omisin
4. EL ADJETIVO
21
4.1. FORMA
4.1.1. Afijos de adjetivos
4.1.1.1. Sufijos
4.1.1.2. Prefijos
4.2. POSICIN
4.3. EL SUSTANTIVO EMPLEADO COMO ADJETIVO
4.4. ADJETIVOS SIMPLES Y COMPUESTOS
4.5. LA COMPARACIN EN LOS ADJETIVOS
5. ADJETIVOS Y ADVERBIOS
24
27
6.1. NOMINATIVOS
6.2. ACUSATIVOS
6.3. REFLEXIVOS
6.4. POSESIVOS
7. ADJETIVOS Y PRONOMBRES DEMOSTRATIVOS
29
30
8.1. ADJETIVOS
8.2. PRONOMBRES
9. SOME / ANY / NO / EVERY Y SUS COMPUESTOS
37
10. LA PREPOSICIN
39
43
11.1. EL VERBO BE
11.1.1. Formas
11.1.2. El verbo be y sus diferentes traducciones
11.1.3. Usos
11.2. EL VERBO DO
11.2. 1.Formas
11.2.2. Usos
11.3. EL VERBO HAVE
11.3.1. Formas
11.3.2. Usos
12. VERBOS ATPICOS
48
53
13.1. FORMACIN
13.1.1. La tercera persona del singular
13.2. USOS
14. PRESENTE CONTINUO
55
14.1. FORMACIN
14.2. USOS
15. PRESENTE SIMPLE VERSUS PRESENTE CONTINUO
57
15.1. USOS
15.2. VERBOS QUE DENOTAN ESTADOS
16. PASADO SIMPLE
59
16.1. FORMACIN
16.2. VERBOS IRREGULARES
16.3. USOS
16.4. EXPRESIONES DE TIEMPO CON PREPOSICIONES
17. PASADO CONTINUO
60
17.1. FORMACIN
17.2. USOS
18. PRESENTE PERFECTO
62
18.1. FORMACIN
18.2. USOS
19. PRESENTE PERFECTO: CONTINUO Y SIMPLE
66
68
20.1. FORMACIN
20.2. USOS
20.3. PASADO PERFECTO CONTINUO
21. EL FUTURO
70
21.1. WILL
21.2. PRESENTE CONTINUO / GOING TO
21.3. WILL / PRESENTE CONTINUO / GOING TO
21.4. WAS GOING TO
21.5. WAS DOING / WERE DOING
21.6. WILL BE DOING
21.7. WILL HAVE DONE
21.8. POSIBILIDAD Y PROBABILIDAD
22. CONDICIONALES
75
80
85
87
90
26.1. FORMACIN
26.2. FOCO DE ATENCIN EN LAS ACCIONES
26.3. SISTEMAS Y PROCESOS
26.4. VOZ ACTIVA VERSUS VOZ PASIVA
26.5. DISTINTOS TIEMPOS
26.6. PERSONAL VERSUS IMPERSONAL
26.7. CAMBIOS
26.8. TRADUCCIN AL ESPAOL
26.9. VERBOS EN PASIVA E INFINITIVOS
26.10. HAVE SOMETHING DONE
26.10.1. Distintos tiempos
27. CLUSULAS RELATIVAS
95
98
100
30. LA REFERENCIA
103
105
107
110
131
Leer para aprender como meta global requiere que el estudiante-lector de ingls logre
los siguientes objetivos:
Este tipo de abordaje permite hacer predicciones sobre el tema del texto activando los
conocimientos y experiencias previas del lector con relacin al texto. Una lectura rpida
permite identificar ciertas palabras o expresiones que representan pistas para predecir
las ideas que siguen. As, el estudiante podr revisar sus predicciones y decidir cul es
la profundidad de anlisis de lectura que necesita de acuerdo a sus intereses.
Profundizar la comprensin de un texto exige fundamentalmente embarcarse en un plan
de lectura estratgica articulado en base a tres tipos de anlisis del texto que estn en
constante interaccin.
1.2.1. Anlisis lexical
Analizar el significado de una palabra no es limitarse a la asociacin de la misma con un
objeto determinado sino que requiere abocarse a transformar estructuralmente el
significado; aprender una palabra no representa un punto de llegado sino uno de partida
en el desarrollo de un concepto.
El estudiante debe tener plena conciencia de que la palabra es un signo arbitrario que se
emplea para representar un referente y expresar una idea o concepto. Es decir, no posee
ningn significado por s misma: el significado se lo dar el contexto en el que est
inserta. Pero adems se dan cambios de significado de una misma palabra por
diferentes razones:
The writers covert and non-reciprocal interaction not only provides for the
conveyance of ideas but also helps to generate them (Op. Cit., p. 81) (La interaccin
encubierta y no recproca por parte del escritor no solamente proporciona la
comunicacin de las ideas sino que tambin ayuda a generarlas). Es vital que el
estudiante aprenda a reconciliar las funciones conceptual y comunicativa implcitas en
todo proceso discursivo. Pero, a su vez, acercase a la la textualizacin entendida como
la forma mediante la cual una lengua determinada se manifiesta para articular los
conceptos y funciones de un tipo de discurso en particualr, implica la necesidad de un
anlisis retrico.
En consecuencia, otro de los objetivos esenciales a lograr cuando se lee para aprender
es el reconocimiento de los patrones retricos que organizan la informacin de los
textos, es decir, las formas particulares de comunicar la informacin. Identificar
relaciones de causa y efecto, clasificacin, comparacin y contraste, descripcin,
definicin, conclusin, problema y solucin, secuencia narrativa de los acontecimientos,
etc., permite captar cmo un escritor ha articulado sus ideas para dar coherencia al
mensaje que desea comunicar. Es necesario adems identificar el uso de los mismos en
el gnero textual que se est abordando, ya sea que se trate de una descripcin, de una
narracin, de un informe, un cuento, una novela, etc. Por ejemplo, en un informe de
investigacin cientfico-acadmica sera conveniente analizar los patrones retricos
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2. EL SUSTANTIVO
2.1. FORMA
2.1.1. Afijos de sustantivos
2.1.1.1. Sufijos
Sufijo
Interpretacin
Ejemplo
-age
-cantidad o conjunto de
-accin o proceso
-lugar de
mileage
drainage
orphanage
-an /ean/ian
-alguien que es de
-caracterstico de
-alguien especializado en
American/European
Mozartean
politician
-ance
-accin o proceso
-cualidad o estado
performance
protuberance
-ation
-accin o proceso
-algo conectado con
una accin o proceso
operation
discoloration
-dom
-rango
-jurisdiccin
-estado
-alguien que tiene una
ocupacin, inters o carcter
especficos.
dukedom
kingdom
freedom
officialdom
-ee
employee
-ence
-accin o proceso
-cualidad o estado
emergence
independence
-er
painter/lifter
porker
New Yorker
foreigner
- ery / -ry
fishery
chemistry
-hood
-estado o condicin
motherhood
hatter
12
-ing
-accin o proceso
meeting
-accin o proceso relacionados con boating
algo especfico
-ion
conversion
-ism
criticism
animalism
Buddhism
barbarism
stoicism
cyclist
-ist
colloquialism
alcoholism
novelist
pianist
automobilist
psychologist
socialist
-ite
dynamite
-ity
theatricality
-let
-diminutivo
-droplet
-or
operator/accumulator
-ment
entanglement
development
entertainment
encampment
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enlargement
-ness
goodness
-ship
friendship
clerkship
horsemanship
citizenship
-ure
-acto o proceso
exposure
Interpretacin
Ejemplo
fore-
-implica anterioridad
-implica un primer plano o lugar
-parte posterior
-implica lo opuesto
-implica lo opuesto
-implica lo opuesto
-implica lo opuesto
-error
-exceso
-exterior
-exceso
-por s mismo (auto-)
-implica lo opuesto
-insuficiencia
forerunner
forestage
hindbrain
illegitimacy
impossibility
inconsistency
irregularity
misconception
outrage
outdoors
overdose
self-adjustment
unemployment
underdevelopment
hindiliminirmisoutoverselfununder-
boys
resources
-Singular + es:
brush
box
brushes
boxes
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country
secretary
countries
secretaries
halves
lives
children
feet
men
-Ciertos sustantivos derivados del latn o del griego conservan el plural derivado de esas
lenguas:
medium
datum
basis
criterion
media
data
bases
criteria
-Algunos sustantivos tienen dos formas de plural cuyos significados pueden ser
diferentes:
index
formula
indices (algebraicos)
formulae
indexes (alfabticos)
formulas
2.2. GNERO
Aunque en ingls, a diferencia del espaol, el gnero no est expresado en el artculo, se
puede expresar de diversas formas en el sustantivo:
father
bull
king
god
czar
mother
cow
queen
goddess
czarina
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2.3. CLASIFICACIN
2.3.1. Propios
Jack, Mozart, Spain, Windsor Castle, The Times
2.3.2. Comunes
girl, table, art, street, love, music
2.3.3. Colectivos
army, crowd, family
Los sustantivos colectivos pueden ser reemplazados por it o por they:
The army are / is looking for new recruits.
Existe una leve diferencia cuando se elige un verbo en plural o en singular:
That family belongs to the nobility.
(Se usa el verbo en singular porque se piensa en el grupo en forma colectiva)
The whole family meet every week to have lunch together.
(Se usa el verbo en plural cuando se piensa en los individuos que componen el grupo)
2.3.4. Pluralia Tantum
Se denomina de esta forma a un nmero de sustantivos que se presentan con el sufijo
que indica plural. Se trata generalmente de prendas o herramientas que estn
compuestas por dos partes:
trousers
spectacles
The scissors are on the shelf.
Para pasar a singular usualmente se usa la expresin a pair of:
There is a pair of scissors on the shelf.
2.3.5. Contables o incontables
Los sustantivos contables hacen referencia a personas, animales, plantas, objetos
concretos o unidades de medicin o monetarias; los incontables a substancias,
materiales, productos primarios, ideas abstractas, lenguas.
Los sustantivos contables pueden presentarse en forma plural o singular:
lawyer/s, horse/s, oak/s, metre/s, dollar/s
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17
18
3. LOS ARTCULOS
3.1. A / AN
3.1.1. Usos
El artculo a se usa antes de los sonidos de consonantes, y an antes de los sonidos de
vocales:
an appraisal
a director
an hour
a code
an interview
a unit
an office
a question
an MBA
a university
19
Para hacer referencia a ros, montaas, mares, nombres de pases que incluyen
sustantivos como republic, union, kingdom:
The Aral Sea in the former Soviet Union is polluted.
3.2.2. Omisin
Indica la generalizacin sobre sustantivos contables e incontables:
*Money is the root of all evil.
(El dinero en general, no todo el dinero.)
El artculo se omite cuando se hace referencia a compaas, ciudades, lagos, islas
individuales:
I work for *Goldman Sachs in *London, and I have a house in *Western Road. I have
also have a holiday home in *Crete and another near *Lake Garda.
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4. EL ADJETIVO
4.1. FORMA
El adjetivo en ingls es invariable en gnero y nmero. Es necesario traducir primero al
sustantivo para luego hacer concordar al adjetivo en gnero y nmero. Un adjetivo
terminado en s no implica un caso de plural.
4.1.1. Afijos de adjetivos
4.1.1.1. Sufijos
Sufijo
Interpretacin
Ejemplo
-able
-al
-ar
-ate
-capaz de ser
-condicin de
-condicin de
-en forma de
-que posee
-lo que est provisto de
-caracterizado por
-capaz de ser
-calidad de
-calidad de
-capaz de
-hacer
-semejanza o caracterstica
-calidad de
-sin, carente de
-semejanza
-pleno de
-lo que produce
-lo que est compuesto por
comparable
regional
circular
dentate
nucleate
skilled
useful
divisible
magnetic
electrical
contractile
encouraging
blueish
interactive
restless
fishlike
dangerous
troublesome
earthy
-ed
-ful
-ible
-ic
-ical
-ile
-ing
-ish
-ive
-less
-like
-ous
-some
-y
4.1.1.2. Prefijos
Adjetivo + sustantivo
Verbo + adjetivo
21
A social and political approach should be necessary to understand the recent crisis.
Para establecer comparaciones, a los adjetivos de una slaba se les agrega er y est:
22
old
big
Comparativo
Superlativo
older
bigger
oldest
biggest
BT is large. NTT is larger than BT. AT&T is the largest company in the world.
Los adjetivos good y bad constituyen dos importantes excepciones:
good
bad
better
worse
best
worst
Los adjetivos que terminan en y (por ejemplo: friendly, wealthy, easy) y algunos
adjetivos de dos slabas (por ejemplo: clever, narrow) siguen el siguiente patrn:
friendly
clever
friendlier
cleverer
friendliest
cleverest
Con la mayora de los otros adjetivos de dos slabas, y otros de tres o ms slabas, se usa
more / less y the most / the least:
modern
profitable
Comparativo
Superlativo
Toyota is profitable: BT is more profitable than Toyota. The Royal Dutch Shell Group
is the most profitable company in the world.
El superlativo puede usarse con the second, third, fourth, etc. para referirse a la
posicin de algo en una lista:
Siemens is the largest electronics company in Europe.
Philips is the second largest electronics company in Europe.
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5. ADJETIVOS Y ADVERBIOS
5.1. FORMACIN DE LOS ADVERBIOS
La mayora de los adverbios pueden formarse agregando ly, -y, -ally, o -ily, lo que
depende de la forma en que se escriba el adjetivo o el sustantivo en el que se basan:
expensive / expensively
dramatic / dramatically
full / fully
day / daily
early
weekly
fast
monthly
late
quarterly
elderly
lonely
silly
costly
Adverbio + adjetivo
Adverbio + adverbio
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be
get
look
smell
seem
taste
appear
sound
become
feel
earlier
faster
the earliest
fastest
Los adverbios con dos o ms slabas se comparan usando more / less y the most / least:
efficiently
fluently
All our manufacturing plants are efficient, but at the moment the one in France is
operating the most efficiently.
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Adverbios y participios
26
6. LOS PRONOMBRES
6.1. NOMINATIVOS
Se usan en funcin del sujeto, es decir, la persona o cosa que realiza la accin:
I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they
yo
t / usted
l
ella
l / ella / ello (pronombre neutro, no se traduce)
nosotros / nosotras
vosotros / vosotras / ustedes
ellos / ellas
me / m
te / ti / la /le / usted
lo / le / l
la / le / ella
le / lo / la / l / ella / ello
nos / nosotros / nosotras
os / les / vosotros / vosotras / ustedes
los / las / les / ellos / ellos
6.3. REFLEXIVOS
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
me
te / se
se
se
se
nos
os / se
se
27
Nominales
mine
your
his
hers
its
ours
yours
theirs
Determinativos
my
your
his
her
its
our
your
their
mi / mis
tu / tus / su / sus
su / sus
su / sus
su / sus
nuestro / nuestra / nuestros / nuestras
vuestro / vuestra / vuestros / lustras / su / sus
su / sus
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Plural:
these
those
el de / la de / lo de
los de / las de
el que / la que / lo que
los que / las que
This y these se usan para cosas o personas que estn cerca con respecto al espacio o a
un concepto y that y those para cosas o personas que estn ms distantes. Es decir, la
diferencia que existe en el espaol entre una mayor y menor distancia (ste, ese, aqul)
solamente existe en dos grados en Ingls, el inmediato (this) y el distante (that). This y
that no plantean diferencia en cuanto al gnero.
Los adjetivos demostrativos presentan la misma forma de los pronombres
demostrativos. A diferencia de otros adjetivos, los demostrativos plantean una forma
plural para los sustantivos en plural
These chapters are very interesting.
Estos captulos son muy interesantes.
Those cases are very heavy.
Esas/aquellas maletas son muy pesadas.
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Each / every hacen referencia a los individuos o cosas que conforman un grupo. Toman
la forma singular del verbo. Each puede ser tanto adjetivo como pronombre, every es
solamente adjetivo. Each puede hacer referencia a dos o ms personas o cosas y every
se emplea para grupos ms amplios. Preceden al sustantivo.
Look at those two girls. Each girl is carrying a bunch of flowers.
Mira a esas dos chicas. Cada chica lleva un ramo de flores.
Seven men were going to St. Ives and every man had seven wives
Iban siete hombres a St. Ives y cada hombre tena siete mujeres
All hace referencia a un grupo compuesto por personas o cosas:
All passengers will change at the next station.
Todos los pasajeros cambiarn en la prxima estacin.
Cuando en ingls aparece every, en espaol suele emplearse todo en lugar de cada:
England expects that every man will do his duty.
Inglaterra espera que todo hombre cumpla con su deber.
Either / neither pueden ser tanto adjetivos como pronombres. Either hace referencia a
dos personas o cosas en un enunciado afirmativo y neither lo hace en un enunciado
negativo.
The Browns have two children and neither child is fair-haired like the parents.
Los Brown tienen dos nios y ninguno (de los nios) es rubio como los padres.
Which would you like? A detective novel or a romance? I dont mind, either book will
suit me.
Cul quieres? Una novela de detective o un romance? Me da igual, cualquiera me
vendr bien.
Cuando one precede a los trminos day, week, month, year, etc. seala un momento en
particular:
We usually go to France for our holidays but one year we went to Spain.
Solemos ir a Francia para nuestras vacaciones pero un ao fuimos a Espaa.
Some y any preceden a los sustantivos contables e incontables para indicar cantidad. El
primero se usa en enunciados afirmativos y el segundo en los interrogativos y negativos.
Pueden ser tanto adjetivos como pronombres:
There are some notes in the file.
Hay algunas notas en el archivo.
Sheila has got some information about marketing policy.
Sheila tiene algo de (cierta) informacin sobre poltica de marketing.
Have you got any sugar?
Tienes algo de azcar?
They havent any children.
No tienen nios.
No puede emplearse como un adjetivo con un verbo afirmativo para expresar una
negacin:
I have no money.
No tengo dinero.
Many y much pueden ser tanto adjetivos como pronombres. Many se usa para
modificar los sustantivos contables en plural; much se usa para modificar los
incontables.
There were many students at the seminar.
Haba muchos estudiantes en el seminario.
We didnt make much money last month.
No ganamos mucho dinero el mes pasado.
Many puede ser reemplazado por a lot (of):
She has a lot of friends.
Tiene muchos (un montn de) amigos.
Little seala una pequea cantidad y se usa para modificar sustantivos incontables:
He enjoys a little drink.
Le gusta beber un poco.
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Few seala una pequea cantidad y se usa para modificar sustantivos contables:
There were a few books on her desk.
Haba unos pocos libros sobre su escritorio.
Little y few pueden emplearse para indicar la falta o escasez de algo:
He received little education.
Recibi poca educacin.
Few men have achieved so much.
Pocos hombres han logrado tanto.
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33
34
35
Is that your agenda? It looks like the one I was given for my birthday.
Es esa tu agenda? Se parece a la que me regalaron para mi cumpleaos.
One/s puede estar precedido por this-these /that-those:
I have never met such naughty pupils as these ones.
Nunca conoc alumnos tan traviesos como stos.
Como pronombre indefinido one puede hacer referencia a cualquier persona pero se
usa, en particular, cuando quien habla lo hace como si se representara a la gente en
general:
One ought to make allowances for people like that.
Habra que perdonar a gente as.
36
somebody / someone:
something:
somewhere:
en alguna parte.
sometime:
sometimes:
somehow:
Forma interrogativa
any:
cualquier, cualquiera
anybody / anyone:
cualquiera, quienquiera,
todo el mundo,
anything:
anywhere:
en cualquier parte,
en todas partes,
dondequiera,
en alguna parte.
Forma negativa
not any:
ninguno, nadie.
not anything:
not anywhere:
en ninguna parte.
any time:
anyhow:
no:
nobody / no one:
37
none:
nothing:
nada.
nowhere:
parte,
every:
everybody / everyone:
everything:
everywhere:
somebody else:
someday:
algn da.
someplace:
someway / someways:
somewhat:
anymore:
anyplace:
anyway:
anywise:
anything else:
no how:
nothing else:
nada ms.
everyday:
everyway:
en todo respecto.
everyplace:
(ver everywhere).
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10. LA PREPOSICIN
10.1. PREPOSICIONES SIMPLES Y COMPLEJAS
Las preposiciones expresan una relacin entre las personas y/o las cosas. Esta relacin
puede ser de diversos tipos: tiempo, lugar, modo, etc. Las preposiciones en ingls
pueden ser simples (es decir, formadas por una palabra) o complejas (formadas por ms
de una palabra). La mayora de las preposiciones son simples. Las ms importantes son
las siguientes:
about
against
around
behind
between
down
from
minus
off
outside
round
throughout
under
up
within
above
along
as
below
beyond
during
in
near
on
over
since
till
underneath
upon
without
across
amid (st)
at
beneath
by
except
inside
notwithstanding
opposite
per
than
to
unlike
via
after
among (st)
before
beside (s)
despite
for
like
of
out
plus
through
towards
until
with
una palabra perteneciente a otra clase y una preposicin (por ejemplo, un verbo, un
adjetivo, una conjuncin)
39
40
above
alongside
behind
between
in
off
outside
through
up
across
apart
below
beyond
inside
on
past
throughout
within
after
around
beneath
by
near
opposite
round
under
without
Preposicin:
Adverbio:
Frases verbales:
Verbos preposicionales:
Frases verbales/preposicionales:
41
Estos verbos pueden distinguirse a partir de una mera secuencia de verbo + frase
preposicional:
He called with a present.
La preposicin est relacionada con el sustantivo en la frase preposicional y no
constituye una unidad semntica y sintctica con el verbo.
He called on her.
La preposicin constituye una unidad semntica y sintctica con el verbo, en este caso
se trata de un verbo preposicional.
A menudo este tipo de verbos pueden reemplazarse por verbos de una palabra:
He called her up.
He telephoned her.
He called on her.
He visited her.
switch off
turn on
bring in
fall out
reir
do in
matar
42
Los verbos que preceden a los verbos principales son auxiliares (The pickets will not
end their vigil until the strike is called off).
11.1. EL VERBO BE
11.1.1. Formas
Presente simple
I am
he / she / it is
you / we / they are
Pasado simple
I / he / she / it was
you / we / they were
Participio
been
Forma ...ing
being
Im
youre
hes
shes
its
I am
you are
he is
she is
it is
43
were
theyre
isnt
arent
wasnt
werent
we are
they are
is not
are not
was not
were not
Ser
He was a biologist.
They are researchers.
Estar
Tener
Era bilogo.
Son investigadores.
Be + infinitivo
Be + about + infinitivo
It is about to boil.
44
11.1.3. Usos
Soccer star Kevin Dillon was handed a three-year ban yesterday for drink-driving.
There be
hubo haba
hubo? haba?
no hubo / haba
habr
there will be
habra
there would be
ha habido
haba habido
habr habido
habra habido
puede haber
pudo haber / poda haber / podra haber / pudiera haber / pudiese haber there could be
podra haber / pudiera haber / pudiese haber
debe haber
there must be
there might be
there should be
45
there ought to be
there is / are to be
Presente
I / you / we / they do
she / he / it does
Pasado
Participio
done
Forma ing
doing
11.2.2. Usos
46
In spite of the colourless platforms of the establishment parties, people did not abstain
from voting
Presente
Pasado
Participio
had
Forma ing
having
11.3.2. Usos
The company had a rapid growth due to the governments economic policies.
Como verbo auxiliar se traduce como verbo haber o como tener que.
The judge decided that the jury had not proved its case and therefore acquitted Sheila
Smith of burglary.
The government has to justify the support of the arts because what this amounts to is
taking away money from taxpayers who never set foot in a museum or theatre.
47
Consejo y obligacin
Crtica
Capacidad y posibilidad
Can puede usarse tanto para expresar capacidad como posibilidad, en relacin al
presente o al futuro. Va seguido por un infinitivo (activo o pasivo):
I can speak fluent German.
(Capacidad)
Your order can be delivered next Thursday.
(Posibilidad)
Can no presenta las formas que corresponden al infinitivo ni al presente perfecto se
usa be able to:
Id like to be able to help you, but I do not have the authority.
I havent been able to finish the work.
Will be able to se usa para hacer referencia al futuro:
Soon people will be able to see videos by using ordinary telephone lines.
Capacidad pasada
49
Posibilidad pasada
Para hacer referencia a algo que fue posible en el pasado, pero que no ocurri, se usa
could + have done / could + have been done:
It was foolish to leave so much money in your office. Someone could have stolen it.
There was a fire at the warehouse last night. We could have lost all our stock.
Can, could, will, would se usan para pedirle a las personas que hagan cosas. Can, could
y may se usan para pedir permiso. Can y will son formas un poco ms directas que
could o would:
Can / Could you help me with this machine?
Will / Would you take this file to Peter?
Can / Could / May I use your phone?
12.3. MUST / HAVE TO / NEEDNT / CANT
Existen diferentes verbos atpicos que pueden usarse para expresar obligacin. Todos
son seguidos por el infinitivo:
Obligacin
No obligacin
Prohibicin
must
have to
have got to
neednt
dont have to
havent got to
mustnt
cant
(be) not allowed to
Para decir que algo es obligatorio se usan must, have to, y have got to:
Applicants must include the names of two referees.
I wont come to lunch today I have to / have got to finish this report by 4.00.
Neednt, dont have to, y havent got to se usan si algo no es necesario:
You neednt stay late we have cancelled the meeting.
We dont have to / havent got to pay our bill until the 30th.
Mustnt, cant, y not allowed to se emplean para expresar que algo est prohibido:
Passengers in the airport mustnt leave their luggage unattended at any time.
Im sorry, but we cant / arent allowed to give you your bank balance by phone.
50
Have (got) to, dont have to, cant, y (be) not allowed to son ms comunes cuando se
habla de obligaciones y prohibiciones. Must, neednt, y mustnt son ms frecuentes
cuando se da una orden o se le indica a alguien qu hacer:
a: Ive got to be in London by 3.30.
b: Then you must leave immediately, because the traffic is terrible.
Must, need not, y must not son tambin frecuentes en la lengua escrita.
Obligacin pasada
Cuando se habla sobre el pasado, se usan had to, didnt have to, y couldnt / wasnt
allowed to:
In my last job, I had to be at the office by 8.00 a.m. We didnt have to work very hard,
but we couldnt leave the office without asking permission.
Existe una diferencia en significado entre didnt need to do something (no era
necesario, por lo tanto la accin o actividad no se concret), y neednt have done
something (se hizo, pero no era necesario):
Because he was Spanish, he didnt need to get a visa to visit Britain.
We neednt have hurried to Heathrow as the plane was late.
12.4. MAY / MIGHT / COULD / MUST / CANT
May, might, y could se pueden usar seguidos del infinitivo (forma activa o pasiva) para
especular sobre el futuro:
In the next few months, the price of oil may rise.
(Probablemente subir.)
I might be promoted at the end of the year.
(Probablemente ser promovido.)
The lawyers think it could take quite a long time to draw up the contract.
(Probablemente llevar mucho tiempo, los abogados no estn seguros.)
No existe diferencia significativa entre may, might, y could en este contexto.
Must, may, might, y cant pueden usarse para especular sobre el presente:
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May / might, must, cant / couldnt seguidos por have done, have been done, o have
been doing, se usan para especular sobre el pasado:
He bought the shares when they were cheap and sold them at their peak, so he must
have made a lot of money.
(Seguramente gan mucho dinero.)
I am not sure why Mr. Jansen wasnt at the meeting. He might have been delayed at the
airport.
(Quizs estuvo demorado.)
You cant / couldnt have seen Mr Gere at the sales conference, because he was in
Mexico at the time.
(Estoy seguro de que usted no lo vio.)
He arrived here this morning. He must have been waiting for hours.
(Estoy seguro de que ha estado esperando durante horas.)
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runs
drinks
replaces
goes
reaches
misses
rushes
fixes
studies
tries
mangoes
matches
classes
dishes
boxes
parties
(tambin mangos)
53
13.2. USOS
Situaciones permanentes
El presente simple se usa para hablar sobre acciones y situaciones que en forma general
y permanente son reales.
IBM is the largest computer company in the world; it manufactures mainframes and
PCs and sells its products all over the world.
Rutinas y frecuencia
El presente simple se usa para rutinas y cosas que se hacen en forma regular.
I usually get to the office at about 8.00 and I have a quick look at the post.
The sales representative usually arrives at about 8.30.
Hechos
El presente simple se emplea para hablar de hechos tales como los cientficos.
Superconductors are special materials that conduct electricity and do not create any
electrical resistance.
Programaciones y horarios
Cuando el presente simple se emplea de esta manera puede estar refirindose al futuro.
There are two flights to Tokyo next Thursday. There is a JAL flight that leaves
Heathrow at 20.30 and gets in at 06.20, and there is a British Airways flight that departs
at 22.00 and arrives at 08.50.
54
studying
building
writing
En los verbos de una slaba que presentan un sonido de vocal breve y terminan en una
consonante, se dobla la consonante y se agrega ing.
sit
run
stop
sitting
running
stopping
reading
speaking
leading
taking
driving
concluding
14.2. USOS
Se habla de una actividad que se est llevando a cabo en el momento durante el cual se
est hablando.
Im afraid the managers not available at the moment. He is talking to a customer on the
other phone.
55
Proyectos actuales
El presente continuo se usa para hablar de actividades, acciones, proyectos que estn
teniendo lugar durante un perodo de tiempo (incluso cuando no estn ocurriendo en el
momento en el que se est hablando).
Bartons is one of the largest local construction companies. At the moment we are
building a new estate with 200 houses and we are negotiating with the council for the
sale of development land in Boxley Wood.
Situaciones temporarias
Cambios lentos
El presente continuo se usa para describir tendencias actuales y cambios lentos que se
estn dando.
The latest statistics show that both unemployment and inflation are falling, and that the
economy is growing at an annual rate of 2.6%.
56
1. James works for an investment magazine. Every month he writes articles about new
investment opportunities.
2. Take these figures to James. He needs them for an article he is writing.
En el primer caso se habla de algo que James hace rutinariamente. En el segundo, es
algo que est haciendo en el momento durante el cual se est hablando.
57
appear, seem
Otros:
58
(infinitivo: go)
(infinitivos: ring be)
16.3. USOS
El pasado simple se emplea para hablar de acciones que se terminan o completan en el
pasado:
James Sainsbury set up a dairy in 1869. The business expanded and diversified, and
eventually became the largest chain of supernarkets in Britain.
16.4. EXPRESIONES DE TIEMPO CON PREPOSICIONES
En el ejemplo anterior el pasado simple se usa con expresiones que hacen referencia a
perodos de tiempo en el pasado. Observe los siguientes ejemplos y las preposiciones
que se usan con los mismos:
at
on
in
sin preposicin
yesterday / yesterday night / last Saturday / next September / a
few days ago / the day before yesterday / when I was young
59
El pasado continuo se usa para hacer referencia a una accin o actividad que estaba en
progreso en un momento en particular del pasado:
At 3.15 yesterday afternoon, Mr Jansen was seeing some clients in Miami.
El pasado continuo se puede usar para hablar de una accin o actividad que ya estaba en
progreso, y que fue interrumpida por otra accin:
We were discussing our expansion plans when the chairman suddenly announced his
resignation.
Esta oracin tambin puede reorganizarse con while + el pasado continuo:
While we were discussing our expansion plans, the chairman suddenly announced his
resignation.
La actividad puede o no continuar despus de la interrupcin:
Pat was doing some filing when her boss asked her to answer the phone.
(Pat contest el telfono y luego, probablemente, sigui archivando.)
Pat was doing some filing when the fire broke out.
(Probablemente dej de archivar.)
Secuencia de tiempos
Con una clusula de tiempo como, por ejemplo, when the phone rang, se pueden usar
el pasado simple o el pasado continuo.
El pasado continuo hace referencia a lo que estaba transcurriendo hasta el momento en
que el telfono son:
60
I was talking...
I answered
...............3.............. NOW
61
El presente perfecto se usa para hablar de una situacin actual que resulta de algo que
sucedi en un perodo no determinado del pasado. En consecuencia, no se usa una
expresin de tiempo especfica como por ejemplo yesterday, last week, etc.:
I have given your report to Peter.
(Le he dado tu informe y l lo tiene en este momento.)
Sheila has sent them the samples they wanted.
(Sheila les ha enviado las muestras. Las mismas estn ahora en el correo.)
62
Lo mismo ocurre con expresiones tales como on Monday, in 1997, at 3.40, etc., o con
preguntas encabezadas por When...? How long...?. En estos casos se usa el pasado
simple y no el presente perfecto.
Just
El presente perfecto frecuentemente se usa con la palabra just para hablar de acciones
que han tenido lugar muy recientemente:
Im sorry, Mr Jones is not here. He has just left.
Been / Gone
El presente perfecto frecuentemente se usa con las palabras ever y never para hablar de
una experiencia de vida en general:
Have you ever worked abroad?
(Es decir, en toda su vida hasta el momento.)
I have never been to America.
(No en toda mi vida hasta el momento.)
El presente perfecto con ever a menudo es seguido por el pasado simple. El ltimo
tiempo se usa para dar ms informacin sobre una accin que se complet, cuando se
hace referencia a un momento o contexto especfico:
Have you ever been to Hong Kong?
Yes, I have. I worked there when I was with Coopers and Lybrand.
Already / Yet
They are getting on well with the new building. They have already modernized the
warehouse, but they havent decorated the reception area yet..
La palabra already se usa en oraciones afirmativas. Frecuentemente indica que algo ha
sucedido apenas antes de lo esperado.
Yet se usa en oraciones interrogativas y negativas. Se espera que una accin tenga lugar
sino se ha dado hasta el momento.
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El presente perfecto a menudo se usa con for y since y los verbos que denotan estados
para hablar de cosas que comenzaron en el pasado y han continuado hasta el momento:
I have known about the takeover bid for several weeks.
(Y lo s ahora.)
She has owned shares in ICI since she started work there.
(Las posee ahora.)
For / Since
Se emplea for para hablar de la duracin de perodos de tiempo y since para hacer
referencia a cundo se inici un perodo. Observe la siguiente lnea de tiempo y los
ejemplos:
since 7.00
10.00
for 3 hours
PAST................................................NOW....................................FUTURE......................
64
for
ten minutes / six days / three months / two years / a long time / ages
since
10.15 / Monday / the 17th / last week / July / 1999 / she left school
Oraciones negativas
Se puede usar el presente perfecto negativo para referirse a la cantidad de tiempo que ha
transcurrido entre este momento y la ltima vez que algo sucedi:
We havent had any large orders from them for several months.
Im not sure if his trip is going well. I havent heard from him since Tuesday.
Si se habla de una accin terminada, se puede usar el presente perfecto y since (pero no
for). Tambin se pueden usar otras frases de duracin tales como to date, recently, over
the past two years, etc. La accin en s misma est terminada, pero el perodo de tiempo
se extiende hasta el presente:
We have opened six new branches since December.
(Desde diciembre hasta ahora.)
65
Actividades no terminadas
El presente perfecto continuo se usa con for, since y How long...?, y con otras
expresiones de duracin (por ejemplo, all day), para hacer referencia a actividades que
comenzaron a desarrollarse en el pasado y an se estn desarrollando en este momento.
La actividad puede haber estado dndose en forma continua o repetida varias veces:
They have been producing cars for 10 years.
(Han comenzado a producir autos 10 aos atrs. Todava los estn produciendo
actualmente.)
I have been trying to ring them all day.
(He tratado de llamarlos desde esta maana. Aun estoy tratando de hacerlo.)
Sin embargo, el presente perfecto simple normalmente se usa con verbos que denotan
estados, o para hacer referencia a situaciones que se consideran permanentes:
Katherine has been in Dublin since 9 oclock this morning. (Y es incorrecto: have been
being...)
I have lived in New York all my life. (Y es incorrecto: have been living...)
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Oraciones negativas
El presente perfecto continuo hace referencia a una actividad que estaba en progreso,
pero que acaba de terminarse. Normalmente hay alguna evidencia. Compare:
Theres glass everywhere! Someone has broken the window.
The ground is very wet. It has been raining.
67
El pasado perfecto se usa para hacer referencia a acciones terminadas que ocurrieron
antes que otros acontecimientos en el pasado. Compare:
1- When I arrived at the office, the meeting started.
(Llegu a la oficina y la reunin comenz.)
2- When I arrived at the office, the meeting had started.
(La reunin comenz antes de que llegara a la oficina.)
El pasado perfecto funciona como la forma pasada del presente perfecto. Muchas veces
se usa con adverbios como just, already, never. Compare:
I am nervous because I have never given a presentation.
(Estoy por hacer una presentacin.)
I was nervous because I had never given a presentation.
(Hice una presentacin ayer.)
20.3 PASADO PERFECTO CONTINUO
El pasado perfecto continuo est formado por had been + la forma ing del verbo
principal (I / he / she / it / you / we / they had been working.)
El presente perfecto continuo se usa para hacer referencia a la cantidad de tiempo
durante el cual se ha estado desarrollando una actividad hasta el momento actual. El
pasado perfecto continuo hace referencia a la duracin de una actividad hasta
determinado momento en el pasado. Compare:
I have been working here for six months.
(Todava estoy trabajando ahora.)
When I left my last job, I had been working there for four years.
(Comenc en 1992 y lo dej en 1996.)
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El pasado perfecto continuo no se usa con verbos que denotan estados como, por
ejemplo, know, like, etc. En su lugar se emplea el pasado perfecto:
When they met again, they had not seen each other for 15 years.
69
21. EL FUTURO
21.1. WILL
Decisiones espontneas
La construccin will + el infinitivo del verbo principal se puede usar para hacer
referencia al futuro cuando decidimos espontneamente hacer algo.
a: Weve run out of paper for the printer.
b: Ill go and get some from the stock room.
A menudo will se usa luego de expresiones como I think o I dont think:
a: I think Ill go home now. Its getting late.
b: Yes, youre right. I dont think Ill stay either.
La forma negativa de will es will not o wont.
I wont stay long. Im in a hurry.
Es incorrecto el uso de wont luego de I think.
I think I wont come to the conference.
La expresin correcta:
I dont think Ill come to the conference.
Predicciones
Will se puede usar para hacer predicciones y determinar hechos que en el futuro sern
reales.
Over the next few years, interactive TV will make a great impact on consumer behavior,
and advertisers will have to approach customers in a completely new way.
Se usa el presente (y no will) para hacer referencia al futuro con expresiones como if,
when, as soon as, after, etc.
I will contact you as soon as I get the information.
Tambin puede usarse will si alguien est deseando hacer algo, hacer pedidos,
promesas, amenazas, y adems para ofrecer ayuda.
Hello, caller. I am afraid the line is busy. Will you hold?
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Presente continuo
El presente continuo suele usarse para hablar de citas o cosas que se han dispuesto para
el futuro.
a: What are you doing on Friday afternoon?
(Qu ha dispuesto hacer?)
b: I am seeing the accountants.
(He dispuesto verlos.)
La construccin going to + el infinitivo del verbo principal hace referencia a algo que
se intenta hacer o que se ha decidido hacer.
The D.V. group is going to open a new Fiat dealership this summer.
La expresin going to tambin se usa para predicciones slidas cuando hay evidencia
fsica de que algo va a suceder.
Based on these figures, we are going to make a loss of $ 1.5m this year.
Pero en muchos casos, es posible predecir acontecimientos futuros usando going to o
will. Existe muy poca diferencia en lo que respecta a significado, no obstante, going to
normalmente sugiere que el acontecimiento suceder pronto. Compare:
I dont think the present government will win the next election.
I dont think the present government is going to win the next election.
20.3. WILL / PRESENTE CONTINUO / GOING TO
La siguiente es la diferencia ms importante entre estos tiempos verbales:
El presente continuo se emplea para acciones o actividades que se han dispuesto,
(excepto en el caso de los verbos que denotan estados).
71
72
15/6
20/6
22/6
27/6
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
payment 1
payment 2
payment 3
final payment
AUGUST
Las expresiones como definitely, probably, perhaps, maybe se usan para demostrar qu
probabilidad existe de que ocurra un acontecimiento:
Grado de probabilidad:
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
Likely to / certain to
73
Youll meet Jane at the Sales Conference next week. She is certain to be there.
(Definitivamente va a estar all.)
The final cost of the project is likely to be higher than the current estimates.
(Probablemente ser ms alto.)
The Bundesbank is unlikely to lower interest rates again this year.
(Probablemente no las reducir.)
I think / I doubt
Existen ciertos verbos y expresiones que pueden mostrar cun probable es que algo
ocurra en el futuro.
Desde un alto nivel de probabilidad
Im quite sure that...
Im confident that...
I expect that...
The chances are that...
I should think that...
I shouldnt think that...
I doubt if...
I doubt very much whether...
Im quite sure that + (wont)...
Verbos atpicos
74
22. CONDICIONALES
22.1. CONDICIONAL CERO
IF + PRESENTE + PRESENTE
Se puede hablar de hechos y cosas que siempre se dan como reales o verdaderas con if
en la oracin. Este tipo de oracin presenta el tiempo presente en ambas partes.
if
presente,
presente
company profits rise.
IF + PRESENTE + WILL
presente
will
infinitivo
(condicin)
(resultado)
If / When
Variaciones
En una oracin con una clusula con if, se pueden usar un imperativo o un verbo
atpico, en lugar de will + el infinitivo.
75
If / Unless
Unless significa lo mismo que if...not. Siempre hace referencia a la parte condicional de
la oracin y no a la parte del resultado.
If he doesnt get here soon, we will have to start the meeting without him.
(condicin)
(resultado)
Unless he gets here soon,
(condicin)
A menudo se usa not + unless, lo que significa only...if, cuando se desea enfatizar una
condicin.
They will only sign the contract if we give them an additional discount.
They wont sign the contract unless we give them an additional discount.
If / In case
In case se usa para hacer referencia a precauciones que se tomarn antes de que ocurra
un problema. If se usa para hablar de lo que se har luego de que ocurra un problema.
We are going to ensure the shipment in case the goods get damaged in transit.
(Primero se asegurar la mercadera, el problema puede o no darse.)
If the goods get damaged in transit, well make a claim.
(El dao puede darse; el reclamo se presentar luego.)
Si se desea enfatizar una condicin se pueden usar las expresiones provided that /
providing, as long as, so long as. Provided that y as long as significan if y only if
(providing y so long as son menos formales como expresiones que provided that y as
long as).
I will agree to these conditions provided that you increase my salary by 8.5%.
(Solamente aceptar si me da ms dinero.)
The strike will be successful as long as we all stay together.
(Solamente tendr xito si permanecemos unidos.)
So that
So that se usa para explicar cul ser el resultado o propsito de una accin:
Ill take a credit card so that we dont run out of money.
76
Variaciones
77
would (not)
have done
Variaciones
78
Accin pasada:
He did well on the training course.
Resultado actual:
He is head of department now.
Condicionales combinados:
If he hadnt done well on the training course, he wouldnt be head of department now.
79
work: trabajan
Pasado
He worked silently.
Trabaj / trabajaba silenciosamente.
MODO SUBJUNTIVO
Presente
They want me to work more.
Quieren que trabaje ms.
to work: trabaje
works: trabaje
MODO POTENCIAL
People would work better in a
comfortable setting.
La gente trabajara mejor en un
ambiente cmodo.
MODO IMPERATIVO
Work efficiently, please.
Por favor, trabaje / trabajen con eficiencia.
80
MODO INDICATIVO
Presente
We have worked very much this year.
Hemos trabajado muchsimo este ao
Pasado
They had worked here before 1990.
trabajado.
Haban trabajado aqu antes de 1990.
Futuro
I will have worked 6 hours by 5 p.m.
Para las 5 de la tarde habr trabajado
6 horas.
MODO SUBJUNTIVO
Presente
They dont believe him to have worked much.
No creen que (l) haya trabajado mucho.
Pasado
If he had worked more, we would have worked.
more too.
Si l hubiese trabajado ms, nosotros habramos
trabajado ms tambin.
MODO POTENCIAL
If he had worked more, we would have worked
more too.
Si l hubiese trabajado ms, nosotros habramos
trabajado ms tambin.
81
Pasado
They were working on the engine
this morning.
Estaban / estuvieron trabajando en
el motor esta maana.
Futuro
He will be still working on this
project tomorrow.
Maana estar todava trabajando
en este proyecto.
MODO SUBJUNTIVO
Presente
They dont think him to be
working on the drawings.
No creen que est trabajando
en los planos.
to be working: est
trabajando
Pasado
Unless you were working well,
they wouldnt have complained.
A menos que usted estuviera trabajando
bien, no se habran quejado.
MODO POTENCIAL
She would be working with
the firm if they had appreciated her skill.
82
Pasado
The team had been working on
the installation when the floor
gave way.
El equipo haba estado trabajando
en la instalacin cuando el piso cedi.
Futuro
The miners will have been working
regularly for six hours when the foreman
comes.
Cuando llegue el capataz los mineros habrn
estado trabajando durante seis horas.
MODO SUBJUNTIVO
Presente
She doesnt believe him to have been working
much lately.
No cree que l haya estado trabajando mucho
ltimamente.
Pasado
If we had been working all the time the project
would be ready now.
Si hubisemos estado trabajando todo el tiempo,
el proyecto estara listo ahora.
83
MODO POTENCIAL
They would have been working day and night
if the pay had been better.
Habran estado trabajando da y noche si la
remuneracin hubiese sido mejor.
84
24. EL INFINITIVO
Posicin inicial
1- to + base = infinitivo
Posicin intermedia
1- to + base = infinitivo
86
Be + (base + -ing)
By + (base + -ing)
Psychiatrists may help more people by assisting and advising other medical professions.
Los psiquiatras pueden ayudar a un mayor nmero de personas asistiendo y
aconsejando a otras profesiones mdicas.
87
En espaol, infinitivo:
Launching a media campaign was necessary to assure the public that growth was
guaranteed.
Lanzar una campaa meditica era necesario para asegurarle al pblico que el
crecimiento estaba garantizado.
Base + -ing
En espaol, sustantivo:
There is the possibility that our modern scientific understanding of the universe may be
fundamentally limited.
Existe la posibilidad de que nuestra actual interpretacin cientfica del universo pueda
estar bsicamente limitada.
88
The expelled gases provide the required propelling force to drive the aircraft through
the air.
Los gases de escape proporcionan la fuerza de propulsin necesaria para impulsar la
aeronave a travs del aire.
89
Am I driven?
Is he / she / it driven?
Are we / you / they driven?
90
I couldnt use the company car yesterday because it was being serviced.
We only noticed the mistakes when the brochures were being printed.
91
26.7. CAMBIOS
El presente perfecto en voz pasiva se usa frecuentemente cuando se estn describiendo
cambios que han tenido lugar, y el inters se centra ms en los cambios que en quin los
ejecuta.
The factory is completely different. The whole place has been modernized and
computarized, and a lot of people have been made redundant.
26.8. TRADUCCIN AL ESPAOL:
En trminos generales, en las oraciones con voz pasiva se interpreta que hay un sujeto
implcito indeterminado que ha generado una accin; el mismo se desconoce, se
sobreentiende o no interesa mencionarlo. En estos casos, a diferencia de las oraciones
que plantean quien ejecuta la accin mediante la construccin encabezada por by, sera
ms apropiado emplear construcciones con se.
The diamond stones are cut in Antwerp.
Las piedras de diamante se cortan en Amberes.
The diamond stones are cut by skilled workers.
Las piedras de diamante son / estn cortadas por trabajadores calificados.
The Marketing Department is run in a very successful way.
El Departamento de Marketing se administra de manera muy exitosa.
The Marketing Department is run by Peter Franks in a very successful way.
El Departamento de Marketing es / est administrado por Peter Franks de manera muy
exitosa.
Your complaint is being dealt with.
Se est tratando su queja.
Your complaint is being dealt with by our Sales Department.
Su queja est siendo tratada por nuestro Departamento de Ventas.
Our Marketing Representative was fired after the takeover.
Se despidi a nuestro Representante de Marketing luego de la adquisicin de la
compaa.
Our Marketing Representative was fired by the new administration.
Nuestro Representante de Marketing fue despedido por la nueva administracin.
The new brochures were being printed.
Se estaban imprimiendo los folletos nuevos.
The new brochures were being printed by the Advertising Department.
Los folletos nuevos estaban siendo impresos por el Departamento de Publicidad.
92
objeto
our books
participio pasado
printed in Singapore.
93
Presente simple
Presente continuo
Pasado simple
Presente perfecto
Going to
Verbos atpicos
94
Personas y cosas
Se puede usar una clusula que comience con who, that, o which para describir y
definir a una persona o cosa. Para referirse a las personas, se usan who o that. Para
hacer referencia a las cosas, se usan which o that.
Personas:
The accountants who / that advised me were very good.
(La clusula who / that advised me ayuda a identificar a los contadores.)
Cosas:
The computers which / that they bought were expensive.
(La clusula which / that they bought me identifica a las computadoras.)
Whose
95
Es posible, particularmente en lengua escrita o formal, colocar palabras como to, from,
about, on, etc. delante de whom, which, y whose (pero no who o that).
The woman to whom I spoke was extremely helpful.
Sin embargo, es mucho ms frecuente colocar palabras como to, from, about, on, etc. al
final de una clusula relativa.
The woman (that) I spoke to was extremely helpful.
27.2. WHERE / WITH / WHAT Y CLUSULAS NO DEFINITORIAS
Where
With
Cuando se quiere describir lo que algo o alguien tiene, se puede usar una clusula
relativa o with + un sustantivo.
Im thinking about buying a computer that has a faster chip.
Id like to buy a computer with a faster chip.
What
Se puede usar el pronombre relativo what para reemplazar the thing (s) that...:
I went to buy some parts, but they didnt have the things that we needed.
I went to buy some parts, but they didnt have what we needed.
96
97
98
habido
que haya
habiendo
habiendo habido
es seguro que hay
es seguro que habr
es probable que haya
fue / era probable que hubiera / hubiese
debe haber / va a haber / tiene que haber
deba haber / iba a haber / tena que haber
sola haber
It now appears that many of the severe language abnormalities found in children can in
some way be traced to interruptions of the normal acquisition process.
Actualmente parece que muchas de las graves anormalidades del lenguaje encontradas
en los nios se pueden rastrear, de alguna manera, en las interrupciones del proceso
normal de adquisicin.
It would be dangerous not to take into account the consequences of the crisis.
Sera peligroso no tener en cuenta las consecuencias de la crisis.
It is possible that the policies did not achieve the desired results.
Es posible que las polticas no hayan logrado los resultados esperados.
It was believed that Japans growth had increased permanently thanks to enormous
investment.
Se crea que el crecimiento de Japn se haba incrementado en forma permanente
gracias a la gran inversin.
Verbos que se dan con mayor frecuencia en estas construcciones: consider, think, say,
believe, know, etc.
It is said that ... / it was considered that ... / it has been thought that... / it is known
that...
99
29. CONECTORES
En trminos muy generales, las palabras pueden clasificarse en dos categoras lexicales
bsicas: palabras que denotan contenido (yellow, tree, run, slowly) y palabras que
denotan funcin (the, for, and, or, because). Las ltimas ayudan a expresar las
relaciones entre conceptos y son cruciales para conferir cohesin gramatical a un
discurso pero son las que resultan ms complejas en cuanto a comprensin para el lector
de una lengua extranjera. Los conectores o conjunciones representan uno de los tipos
ms importantes de palabras que denotan funcin, especialmente en la prosa acadmica.
Observe la importancia de los mismos en los siguientes casos:
John bought an expensive sports car.
His wife left him.
En ausencia de un conector explcito, el lector no puede tener certeza de la relacin
establecida entre los dos enunciados si no tiene una clara comprensin de la situacin
precedente y la posibilidad de contextualizarlos. Los tipos de conectores que podran
emplearse para vincularlos cambiaran no solamente la forma de interrelacin sino el
significado completo segn expresen:
Adicin: John bought an expensive sports car and his wife left him.
Un conector aditivo podra usarse en el contexto de una lista de acontecimientos
(no necesariamente en un orden cronolgico).
Temporalidad: John bought an expensive sports car after his wife left him.
Un conector temporal como despus determina una secuencia
acontecimientos.
de
Efecto y causa / causa y efecto: John bought an expensive sports car because his
wife left him.
El conector porque determina que el primer acontecimiento es generado por el
segundo.
John bought an expensive sports car so his wife left him.
En este caso, por lo tanto determina que el primer acontecimiento desencadena
el segundo.
Contraste: John bought an expensive sports car but his wife left him.
El conector adversativo pero indicara, en este caso, que Juan trat de retener a
su mujer con la compra del automvil, sin embargo, ella igualmente lo dej.
also
again
as a matter of fact
anyway
besides
otherwise
similarly
still
more
furthermore
100
nor
and
likewise
compared to
of this type
on the whole
such being the case
this kind of
Resumir:
finally
for better or worse
in this fashion
in this way
in this manner
briefly
in fact
e.g.(abreviatura de exempli gratia)
that is
for example
then
for instance
that is to say
i.e.(abreviatura de id est, that is)
rather
still
still less
to a certain degree
yet
Comparar:
similarly
in fact
nevertheless
on the contrary
on the other hand
otherwise
only
Mostrar consecuencia:
accordingly
as a result
consequently
hence
therefore
not only
as a matter of fact
at the same time
but
conversely
however
in contrast to
in addition
or
such as
indeed
in other words
namely
above all
after all
finally
to a certain degree
in conclusion
in particular
in the first (second, etc) place
next
on the whole
to begin with
101
at last
at the same time
at this point
by the time that
presently
soon after
subsequently
then
thereafter
afterwards
somewhat later
both...and
neither...nor
formerly
meanwhile
now
thereupon
eventually
by the time that
either...or
not merely...but
.Tiempo
after
before
if ever
since
when
as ( = while)
by the time (that)
now that
till
whenever
as long as
every time that
once
until
while
because
whereas
.Causa o razn
as ( = because)
since ( = because)
.Propsito o resultado
for the purpose of
so
so...that
in order that
so that
in order to
such (a)...that
as if
except (that)
in case (that)
inasmuch as
no matter that
though
on (the) condition that
even if
if
insofar as
in the event that
provided (that)
unless
.Comparacin
as...as
102
30. LA REFERENCIA
Al igual que en el caso de los conectores, la referencia confiere cohesin gramatical.
Funciona como una instruccin de bsqueda que puede ser:
Los referentes son trminos que funcionan como nexo entre oraciones independientes o
dentro de la misma oracin. El no comprender en una segunda lengua a qu hacen
referencia determinadas expresiones puede llevar a malinterpretar parte de un texto.
Observe los siguientes ejemplos:
Our world is one of growing complexity, increasing uncertainty, and diminishing
capability to anticipate and control outcomes.
While most other civilized countries have forsaken the death penalty, the United States
has increasingly resorted to it.
Like the British urban reformers from whom he learned so much, Engels wanted to
turn the unhealthy and immoral city into a text: a report, an irresistible accumulation of
facts and statistics, a programme for action.
The American Sunday newspapers print close to a million words each.
People probably hear more language from the media than they do directly from the lips
of their fellow humans in conversation.
The potential for a chain reaction is why Argentina matters. It could trigger the next
global financial crisis.
Berlusconis family owns virtually all of Italys private-sector television. Many Italians
think this is unhealthy.
Los siguientes ejemplos destacan el uso frecuente de it como elemento de anticipacin a
lo que se va a expresar, en estos casos it no se traduce.
It is a pleasure to teach her.
It seems that youve made a mistake.
It doesnt matter what you do.
It was considered impossible for anyone to escape.
It surprised me to hear him say that.
103
104
Contraste
Unemployment in Europe has fallen now for six years in a row. France, Spain, Britain
and Ireland are all at, or near, a two-decade low. Yet this is no occasion to break out the
champagne, for European unemployment still averages a hefty 8.3 %, almost twice the
rate in America.
Laws designed to protect employees against easy firing have no clear implications for
the unemployment rate. They do, however, increase the average time a worker spends in
unemploymnet.
Radical reform movements aim at subordinate corporations to established frameworks
of democracy. Although these movements are radical in their rejection of growth,
prioritization of non-economic concerns, and critiques of dependency and consumption,
they assume that states can be held accountable to regulate rather than facilitate
corporate operations.
Despite intensive research, we have no complete explanation for the genesis of these
mental disorders.
Orden o secuencia
At least three of the main arguments against the death penalty in America fall away in
the case of Mr Mc Veigh. First, there is no question that he murdered 168 people. He
has admitted it; indeed, he has boasted of it. Second, although nine in ten people on
death row cannot afford their own lawyers, there is no evidence that Mr Mc Veigh has
been poorly represented. There are none of the usual tales about drunk lawyers or
uncalled witnesses. Third, Mr Mc Veigh, as many of his supporters never stop
reminding people, is white, so there is no question of discrimination (blacks account for
one in three people executed).
Some nations would be subject to condemnation simply because of their poverty, while
others would be arraigned for the policy outcomes taken democratically. The first
stance would be morally distasteful, while the second would be counterproductive.
Definicin
Marketing can be defined as any human activity which is directed at satisfying needs
and wants by creating and exchanging goods and value with others.
Economists define demand as the quantity of any product that people buy at different
prices during a given time period.
105
Architecture was a kind of writing before alphabet. The origins of architecture were
bound up with those of script, the building of monuments was born of the same motives,
to make signs durable, to communicate ideas.
Neoplasia means new growth and a neoplasm (commonly known as tumour) is an area
of tissue whose growth has outstripped and become independent of the adjoining tissue.
Communication to correct erroneous impressions, maintain the goodwill of the
organizations many publics, and explain the organizations goals and purposes is called
public relations.
Condicin-resultado / resultado-condicin
Chinese Communist Partys control has been weakened by the dispersal of power to
individuals, to companies and to the regions. If that devolution were to continue, or
even accelerate, the party would surely wither away.
Harmful radioactive substances may enter the atmosphere if atomic energy plants are
built and run carelessly.
Causa-efecto / efecto-causa
Ejemplificacin
The demand for a product is not always the same. It changes under different conditions.
For example, taste may change.
In the 1970s and 1980s high rates of inflation allowed inflated asset prices to adjust
back to their fair values without the need for a big drop in nominal prices. For instance,
British property prices in the four years to1993 fell by 25% in real terms, but by only
8% in nominal terms.
Propsito
106
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
nine
ten
eleven
twelve
thirteen
fourteen
fifteen
sixteen
seventeen
eighteen
nineteen
twenty
twenty-one
twenty-two
100
101
102
etc.
200
300
etc.
thirty
forty
fifty
sixty
seventy
eighty
ninety
two hundred
three hundred
ten thousand
100,000
a hundred thousand
107
1,000,000
1,000,000,000
Nmeros ordinales
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st
22nd
23rd
24th
etc.
first
second
third
fourth
fifth
sixth
seventh
eighth
ninth
tenth
eleventh
twelfth
thirteenth
fourteenth
fifteenth
sixteenth
seventeenth
eighteenth
nineteenth
twentieth
twenty-first
twenty-second
twenty-third
twenty-fourth
30th
40th
50th
60th
70th
80th
90th
thirtieth
fortieth
fiftieth
sixtieth
seventieth
eightieth
ninetieth
100th
101st
102nd
etc.
hundredth
hundred and first
hundred and second
200th
300th
etc.
two hundredth
three hundredth
108
1,000th
1,725th
thousandth
one thousand seven hundred and twenty-fifth
10,000th
100,000th
1,000,000th
1,000,000,000th
ten thousandth
hundred thousandth
millionth
milliardth / thousand millionth
109
PASADO
PARTICIPIO
FORMA -ing
arose
awoke
awaked
arisen
awoken
awaked
awoke
arising
awaking
B
backslide
backslid
backsliding
be
bear
was-were
bore
beat
beat
become
begin
bend
bet
became
began
bent
bet
betted
beset
bade
bid
bound
bit
buy
bled
blew
broke
bred
brought
broadcast
broadcasted
built
burned
burnt
burst
bursted
bought
backslid
backslidden
been
borne
born
beaten
beat
become
begun
bent
bet
betted
beset
bidden
bid
bound
bitten
bit
bled
blown
broken
bred
brought
broadcast
broadcasted
built
burned
burnt
burst
bursted
bought
C
catch
cast
choose
caught
cast
chose
caught
cast
chosen
beset
bid (farewell)
bid (offer)
bind
bite
bleed
blow
break
breed
bring
broadcast
build
burn
burst
being
bearing
beating
becoming
beginning
bending
betting
besetting
bidding
binding
biting
bleeding
blowing
breaking
breeding
bringing
broadcasting
building
burning
bursting
buying
catching
casting
choosing
110
come
cling
cost
creep
crossbreed
cut
D
daydream
deal
dig
dive
disprove
do
draw
dream
drink
drive
dwell
E
eat
F
fall
feed
feel
fight
find
fit
flee
fling
fly
forbid
forecast
forego (precede)
forgo
forget
came
clung
cost
crept
crossbred
cut
come
clung
cost
crept
crossbred
cut
coming
clinging
costing
creeping
crossbreeding
cutting
daydreamed
daydreamt
dealt
dug
dived
dove
disproved
daydreaming
drove
dwelled
dwelt
daydreamed
daydreamt
dealt
dug
dived
dove
disproved
disproven
done
drawn
dreamed
dreamt
drunk
drank
driven
dwelled
dwelt
ate
eaten
eating
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
fitted
fit
fled
flung
flew
forbade
forbad
forecast
forecasted
forewent
forwent
forgot
fallen
fed
felt
fought
found
fitted
fit
fled
flung
flown
forbidden
falling
feeding
feeling
fighting
finding
fitting
forecast
forecasted
foregone
forgone
forgotten
forgot
forecasting
did
drew
dreamed
dreamt
drank
dealing
digging
diving
disproving
doing
drawing
dreaming
drinking
driving
dwelling
fleeing
flinging
flying
forbidding
foregoing
forgoing
forgetting
111
forgive
forsake
foresee
foretell
freeze
frostbite
forgave
forsook
foresaw
foretold
froze
frostbit
forgiven
forsaken
foreseen
foretold
frozen
frostbitten
forgiving
forsaking
foreseeing
foretelling
freezing
frostbiting
G
get
got
getting
give
go
grind
grow
gave
went
ground
grew
got
gotten
given
gone
ground
grown
giving
going
grinding
growing
H
handwrite
hang
hang (die by
hanging)
have
hear
hew
handwrote
hung
hanged
handwritten
hung
hanged
handwriting
hanging
had
heard
hewed
having
hearing
hewing
hide
hid
hit
hold
hurt
hit
held
hurt
had
heard
hewed
hewn
hidden
hid
hit
held
hurt
inlaid
inputted
input
inlaid
inputted
input
inlaying
inputting
kept
knelt
kneeled
knit
knitted
known
keeping
kneeling
know
kept
knelt
kneeled
knit
knitted
knew
L
lay
lead
lean (U.K)
lean (U.S.A.)
laid
led
leant
leaned
laid
led
leant
leaned
I
inlay
input
K
keep
kneel
knit
hiding
hitting
holding
hurting
knitting
knowing
laying
leading
leaning
leaning
112
leap
leaped
leapt
learnt
learned
left
lent
let
lay
lied
leaped
leapt
learnt
learned
left
lent
let
lain
lied
lit
lighted
lip-read
lost
lit
lighted
lip-read
lost
lighting
made
meant
met
miscast
misdealt
misdone
misheard
mislaid
misled
mislearnt
mislearned
misread
misset
misspoken
misspent
misspelled
misspelt
mistaken
mistaught
misunderstood
miswritten
mowed
mown
making
meaning
meeting
miscasting
misdealing
misdoing
mishearing
mislaying
misleading
mislearning
mistake
misteach
misunderstand
miswrite
mow
made
meant
met
miscast
misdealt
misdid
misheard
mislaid
misled
mislearnt
mislearned
misread
misset
misspoke
misspent
misspelled
misspelt
mistook
mistaught
misunderstood
miswrote
mowed
O
offset
outbid
outbreed
outdo
outdraw
outdrink
outdrive
offset
outbid
outbred
outdid
outdrew
outdrank
outdrove
offset
outbid
outbred
outdone
outdrawn
outdrunk
outdriven
learn
leave
lend
let
lie
lie (to make an
untrue statement)
light
lip-read
lose
M
make
mean
meet
miscast
misdeal
misdo
mishear
mislay
mislead
mislearn
misread
misset
misspeak
misspend
misspell
leaping
learning
leaving
lending
letting
lying
lying
lip-reading
losing
misreading
missetting
misspeaking
misspending
misspelling
mistaking
misteaching
misunderstanding
miswriting
mowing
offsetting
outbidding
outbreeding
outdoing
outdrawing
outdrinking
outdriving
113
outfight
outfly
outgrow
outleap
outspeak
outspeed
outspend
outswear
outswim
outthink
outthrow
outwrite
outbid
overbreed
overbuild
overbuy
overcome
overdo
overdraw
overdrink
overeat
overfeed
overhang
overhear
overlay
overpay
override
overrun
oversee
oversell
oversew
outfought
outflew
outgrew
outleaped
outleapt
outrode
outran
outsold
outshone
outshined
outshot
outsang
outsat
outslept
outsmelled
outsmelt
outspoke
outsped
outspent
outswore
outswam
outthought
outthrew
outwrote
outbid
overbred
overbuilt
overbought
overcame
overdid
overdrew
overdrank
overate
overfed
overhung
overheard
overlaid
overpaid
overrode
overran
oversaw
oversold
oversewed
overshoot
oversleep
overspeak
overspend
overshot
overslept
overspoke
overspent
outride
outrun
outsell
outshine
outshoot
outsing
outsit
outsleep
outsmell
outfought
outflown
outgrown
outleaped
outleapt
outridden
outrun
outsold
outshone
outshined
outshot
outsung
outsat
outslept
outsmelled
outsmelt
outspoken
outsped
outspend
outsworn
outswum
outthought
outthrown
outwritten
outbid
overbred
overbuilt
overbought
overcome
overdone
overdrawn
overdrunk
overeaten
overfed
overhung
overheard
overlaid
overpaid
overridden
overrun
overseen
oversold
oversewed
oversewn
overshot
overslept
overspoken
overspent
outfighting
outflying
outgrowing
outleaping
outriding
running
outselling
outshining
outshooting
outsinging
outsitting
outsleeping
outsmelling
outspeaking
outspeeding
outspending
outswearing
outswiming
outthinking
outthrowing
outwriting
outbidding
overbreeding
overbuilding
overbuying
overcoming
overdoing
overdrawing
overdrinking
overeating
overfeeding
overhanging
overhearing
overlaying
overpaying
overriding
overrunning
overseeing
overselling
oversewing
overshooting
oversleeping
overspeaking
overspending
114
overspill
overspilled
overspilt
overtook
overthought
overthrew
overwound
overwrote
overspilled
overspilt
overtaken
overthought
overthrown
overwound
overwritten
overspilling
put
put
partaken
paid
pleaded
pled
plead
prepaid
preset
preshrunk
proofread
proved
proven
put
partaking
paying
pleading
prepay
preset
preshrink
proofread
prove
partook
paid
pleaded
pled
plead
prepaid
preset
preshrank
proofread
proved
quit
quitted
quit
quitted
quitting
read
rebroadcast
recast
recut
redid
refit
refitted
refitted
refit
regrew
reheard
relaid
remade
repaid
reran
resent
reset
retook
retold
rethought
retrod
read
rebroadcast
recast
recut
redone
refit
refitted
refitted
refit
regrown
reheard
relaid
remade
repaid
rerun
resent
reset
retaken
retold
rethought
retrodden
reading
rebroadcasting
recasting
recutting
redoing
refitting
overtake
overthink
overthrow
overwind
overwrite
P
partake
pay
plead
Q
quit
R
read
rebroadcast
recast
recut
redo
refit (replace parts)
refit (retailor)
regrow
rehear
relay
remake
repay
rerun
resend
reset
retake
retell
rethink
retread
overtaking
overthinking
overthrowing
overwinding
overwriting
prepaying
presetting
preshrinking
proofreading
proving
putting
refitting
regrowing
rehearing
relaying
remaking
repaying
rerunning
resending
resetting
retaking
retelling
rethinking
retreading
115
retrofit
ride
ring
rise
roughcast
run
retrofitted
retrofit
rewaked
rewoke
rewound
rewrote
rid
ridded
rode
rang
rose
roughcast
ran
S
sand-cast
saw
sand-cast
sawed
say
see
seek
sell
send
set
sew
said
saw
sought
sold
sent
set
sewed
shake
shave
shook
shaved
shear
sheared
shed
shine
shed
shone
shined
shod
shoed
shot
showed
rewake
rewind
rewrite
rid
shoe
shoot
show
shrink
shut
sight-read
sing
sink
shrank
shrunk
shut
sight-read
sang
sung
sank
sunk
retrod
retrofitted
retrofit
rewaked
rewoken
rewound
rewritten
rid
ridded
ridden
rung
risen
roughcast
run
retrofitting
rewaking
rewinding
rewriting
ridding
riding
ringing
rising
roughcasting
running
sand-cast
sawed
sawn
said
seen
sought
sold
sent
set
sewn
sewed
shaken
shaved
shaven
sheared
shorn
shed
shone
shined
shod
shoed
shot
showed
shown
shrunk
shrunken
shut
sight-read
sung
sand-casting
sawing
shutting
sight-reading
singing
sunk
sinking
saying
seeing
seeking
selling
sending
setting
sewing
shaking
shaving
shearing
shedding
shining
shoeing
shooting
showing
shrinking
116
sit
slay
sleep
slide
sling
slit
smell
smite
sneak
sow
speak
speed
spell
spend
spill
spin
spit
split
spoil
spread
spring
stand
steal
stick
sting
stink
stride
strike
string
strive
sublet
sunburn
swear
sat
slew
slayed
slept
slid
slung
slit
smelled
smelt
smote
sneaked
snuck
sowed
spoke
sped
speeded
spelled
spelt
spent
spilled
spilt
spun
spit
spat
split
spoilled
spoilt
spread
sprang
sprung
stood
stole
stuck
stung
stank
stunk
strode
struck
strung
strove
strived
sublet
sunburned
sunburnt
swore
sat
slain
sitting
slaying
slept
slid
slung
slit
smelled
smelt
smitten
smote
sneaked
snuck
sown
sowed
spoken
sped
speeded
spelled
spelt
spent
spilled
spilt
spun
spit
spat
split
spoilled
spoilt
spread
sprung
sleeping
sliding
slinging
slitting
smelling
stood
stolen
stuck
stung
stunk
standing
stealing
sticking
stinging
stinking
stridden
struck
stricken
strung
striven
strived
sublet
sunburned
sunburnt
sworn
striding
striking
smitting
sneaking
sowing
speaking
speeding
spelling
spending
spinning
spitting
splitting
spoiling
spreading
springing
stringing
striving
subletting
sunburning
swearing
117
sweat
sweep
swell
sweat
sweated
swept
swelled
swim
swing
swam
swung
sweat
sweated
swept
swelled
swollen
swum
swung
took
taught
tore
telecast
telecasted
told
test-drove
test-flew
thought
thrived
throve
threw
thrust
trod
treaded
typecast
typeset
typewrote
taken
taught
torn
telecast
telecasted
told
test-driven
test-flown
thought
thrived
thriven
thrown
thrust
trodden
trod
typecast
typeset
typewritten
unbent
unbound
underbid
undercut
underfed
underwent
underlay
undersold
undertook
understood
underwrote
undid
unfroze
upheld
unknit
unknitted
unlearnt
unlearned
upset
unbent
unbound
underbid
undercut
underfed
undergone
underlain
undersold
undertaken
understood
underwritten
undone
unfrozen
upheld
unknit
unknitted
unlearnt
unlearned
upset
T
take
teach
tear
telecast
tell
test-drive
test-fly
think
thrive
throw
thrust
tread
typecast
typeset
typewrite
U
unbend
unbind
underbid
undercut
underfeed
undergo
underlie
undersell
undertake
understand
underwrite
undo
unfreeze
uphold
unknit
unlearn
upset
sweating
taking
teaching
tearing
telecasting
sweeping
swelling
swimming
swinging
telling
test-driving
test-flying
thinking
thriving
throwing
thrusting
treading
typecasting
typesetting
typewriting
unbending
unbinding
underbidding
undercutting
underfeeding
undergoing
underlying
underselling
undertaking
understanding
underwriting
undoing
unfreezing
upholding
unknitting
unlearning
upsetting
118
unsew
unsewed
unsling
unstick
unstring
unweave
unwind
unslung
unstuck
unstrung
unwove
unwound
W
wake
waylay
wear
weave
wed
weep
wet
win
wind
withhold
withstand
wring
write
woke
waked
waylaid
wore
wove
weaved
wedded
wed
wept
wet
wetted
won
winded
wound
withheld
withstood
wrung
wrote
unsewn
unsewed
unslung
unstuck
unstrung
unwoven
unwound
woken
waked
woke
waylaid
worn
woven
weaved
wedded
wed
wept
wet
wetted
won
winded
wound
withheld
withstood
wrung
written
unsewing
unslinging
unsticking
unstringing
unweaving
unwinding
waking
waylaying
wearing
weaving
wedding
weeping
wetting
winning
winding
withholding
withstanding
wringing
writing
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
SO (conjuncin) / THEN
So y then pueden emplearse en respuestas y significan: as que, ya que es as.
A: Its more expensive to travel on Friday.
B: Then / So Ill leave on Thursday.
A: Ill be needing the car.
B: Then / So I suppose Ill have to take a taxi.
So (pero no then) puede tambin usarse cuando quien se expresa quiere conectar dos
ideas.
Its more expensive to travel on Friday, so Ill leave on Thursday.
SO (adverbio de grado)
So significa en estos casos `tan / tanto.
It was so cold that we couldnt go out.
She didnt drive so fast.
SO /VERY
Very se emplea cuando estamos presentando nueva informacin. So se emplea
principalmente cuando se hace referencia a informacin que ya se ha dado, ya se conoce
o que es obvia.
Youre very late. (Se est dando nueva informacin.)
Im sorry Im so late. (Informacin que ya se conoce.)
It was very warm in Scotland. (Nueva informacin.)
I didnt think it would be so warm. (Se hace referencia a informacin que ya se
conoca.)
SO: uso enftico
Hes so bad-tempered!
Youre so right!
SOTHAT
Se emplea so y no very antes de las clusulas con that.
It was so cold that we stopped playing.
He spoke so fast that nobody could understand.
So antes de adjetivos y adverbios.
So puede emplearse antes de un adjetivo no acompaado por un sustantivo o antes de un
adverbio.
126
127
128
129
130
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