2013master Spanish Training Book

Latin American
Master Training Manual

SEMINARIO EN ESPAÑOL
BIENVENIDOS A VILTER
INTRODUCCION A REFRIGERACION
Introduccion a la Refrigeracion
• FUNDAMENTOS BASICOS
– La Refrigeracion es un Intercambio Termico o

Transferencia de Calor entre dos fluidos a traves
de un elemento. Su proposito es remover calor.
– Todo se resume a un balance y transformacion de

Energia
– Energia Termica a Mecanica y de Mecanica a

Electrica. ( Btu B.H.P Kw)
FUNDAMENTOS BASICOS
• Para entender un poco a manera simple veamos
unos cuantos terminos:
– Calor: Calor es una forma de Energia. Es evidente que el

calor puede ser convertido en varias formas de energia y
que varias formas de energia pueden ser convertidas en
calor. Termodinamicante, calor esta definido como la
energia en transito de un cuerpo a otro como el resultado
de la DIFERENCIA de temperaturas entre dos cuerpos.
Todo otro tipo de enegia calor sucede como Trabajo.
Trabajo
– Luego, FRIO ES LA AUSENCIA DE ENERGIA O CALOR.

– No existe entonces el termino de HACER FRIO!!
– SOLO EXISTE EL TERMINO REMOVER CALOR!!
CALOR
• La Energia Calor transferida de uno cuerpo a otro
puede causar el cambio de estado como tambien el
cambio
bi de
d temperatura.
t t Luego,
L calor
l se divide
di id en
dos (2) dependido cual de ellos afecta al cuerpo:
• Calor Sensible: Es el calor asociado con el Cambio

de Temperatura, en contraste, con el intercambio de
calor donde ocurre un cambio de forma o estado (
calor latente). Solo es expresa en grados.
• Calor Lantente: Cambio de entalpia o cambio de

estado y normalmente expresada en Btu / Lb o
KJoules/Kg.
FORMAS DE TRANSFERIR
CALOR
Conduccion: contacto
directo
Conveccion: Contacto
Indirecto o Agitacion
Radiacion:
Radiacion Reflejo o
emision
ENTALPIA “h”
• Ahora, en cambios de temperaturas, la mayoria de substancias
sufriran cambios de estados. Por ejemplo: En aumentos de
temperatura, Primero iran de estado solido a estado liquido y
g de estado liquido
luego q a estado ggaseoso. Cuando el solido
pasa al estado liquido, esto es conocido como el CALOR
LATENTE DE FUSION y cuando el liquido pasa a estado
gaseoso, este se conoce como CALOR LATENTE DE
VAPORIZACION O EBULLICION.
• Entalpia: Para evitar el uso de una frase larga como

CONTENIDO DE CALOR, el uso de una sola palabra define la
frase = ENTALPIA y utiliza la letra “h”.
• Es una propieda termodinamica de cada substancia definida

como la suma de su energia interna mas la cantidad de Pv/J,
donde P igual a presion, v igual a volumen y J el equivalente
mecanico a calor.
BTU o British Thermal Unit
• BTU (BRITISH THERMAL UNIT): Es la
cantidad de calor requerido o necesario para
cambiarle a una Libra de Agua un (1) grado
Fahrenheit. Luego, si a 1Lb de Agua, le
agregamos 1Btu, aumenta entonces 1°F de
temperatura.
• A
Asi,
i la
l cantidad
tid d d
de Btus
Bt requeridaid para una
libra de Hielo convertirse en agua es de 144
Btu o viceversa. Es de 32°F a 33°F.
TONELADA DE
REFRIGERACION
• Antes de que existieran sistemas de
Refrigeracion, la madre naturaleza,
siempre
p nos ha brindado sistema de
Frio o Refrigeracion = Hielo.
• Este sistema fue, sigue y sera

siendo HIELO. Y el Hielo, sigue
siendo la base o columna vertebral
de Refrigeracion.
• Bajo el concepto de BLOQUE DE

HIELO de 1 Tonelada de peso se
define casi todo sistema de
Refrigeracion
• El termino CAPACIDAD no es mas

que la referencia de DERRETIR
ESTE BLOQUE DE HIELO de 1 TON.
TONELADA DE
REFRIGERACION
• Luego, a los comienzos de la
industria, el termino de 1
TONELADA DE
REFRIGERACION, no era mas
que el calor requerido para
derretir una Tonelada de Hielo
en un periodo de un dia o 24
horas.
• 1 Tonelada masa = 2000 Lbs.
• Luego 1 T.R. = 2000 Lbs x 144

Btu / Lb = 288,000 Btu
• Dividido por 24 hrs = 12,000 Btu

/ Hr.
• O su equivalente a 200 Btu/min.

CAPACIDA DE UN SISTEMA
• Luego, la capacidad de un sistema esta definido
como la rata o razon o proporcion de calor a
remover de
d un espacioi o elemento.
l t
• En sistema I.P. tener la capacidad de 1 Tonelada

(T.R.) es la capacidad frigorifica de derretir una 1
Ton de Hielo en un periodo de 24 horas.
• En sistema Metrico, una 1 Tonelada es la

equivalencia de 3.517 kJoules/segundo o kW.
Notese que la capacidad de refrigeracion, es
actualmente una rata o razon de transferencia de
energia y como tal expresada en terminos de
POTENCIA.
Presion de Vapor o Presion de

Saturacion
• Cambiar 1 Lb de Agua a 1 Lb de vapor, se require de 970 Btu. (
212°F o 100°C).
• Ahora,
Ahora el calor energia cambia tambien la presion de vapor.
vapor
• Presion de Vapor conocida tambien como la presion de vapor

de equilibrio o presion de vapor de saturacion. Todos los
liquidos y solidos tienden a evaporarse a forma gaseosas; y
todos los gases tienden a condensarse a su forma original
solida o liquida. Luego, la presion Vapor es entonces la presion
de una substancia donde esta en equilibrio con sus otras
formas de no vapor.
• A una determinada temperatura para una substancia particular

, existe una presion para la cual el gas de esa substancia se
encuentra en equilibrio dinamico con sus formas de estado
liquido o solido.
Amoniaco – Nh3 – R717
PUNTO DE VAPORIZACION o
EVAPORACION
• De esta manera, se puede definir que el punto de
saturacion o punto de un cambio de estado esta
relacionado con la presion de vapor.
• En el caso del Punto de Saturacion para Ebullicion o

Punto de Evaporacion o Vaporizacion, es el punto que le
corresponde a presion atmosferica (14.7 psiA o 0 psiG).
• Es el caso de p
pasar AGUA de estado liquido
q a vapor,
p , es
una temperatura de 212°F o 100°C.
• En el caso de Amoniaco es a -28° F y en el caso de Freon

R-22 es a -41°F
PUNTO DE EBULLICION PARA
REFRIGERANTES
Punto de Saturacion y Presion

• De esta manera cada substancia tiene una
temperatura correspondiente a una presion
o viceversa.
• Recordemos que
– Presion Atmosferica: es el peso del aire
medido en psig (libras por pulgada
cuadrada) o bares o kg/cm2. Estandard
Universal al nivel medio del mar = 14.7
psig. Esta presion varia por la altura
geografica.
– Presion Absoluta: presion medida por

encima de vacio (29.92 pulgadas de
Mercurio – Hg). Constante universal
para medir todos los sistemas. Se
denomina como p psiA o BarA,, o Pascal (
Pascal es unidad de presion Absoluta,
no manometrica).
– Presion Manometrica: mide por encima

o por debajo de la presion atmosferica
comparando entre afuera y dentro del
elemento medidor. Se denomina como
Gauge o psiG, bar G.
– Presion Absoluta = presion

manometrica + presion atmosferica.
Puntos de Saturacion o Puntos
Criticos
• Punto de Evaporacion o Ebullicion:
Cambio de Liquido a Vapor
• P t d
Punto de Condensacion:
C d i Cambio
C bi ded
gas a Liquido
• Sobrecalentamiento: Cualquier
punto por encima del punto de
Ebullicion. Es decir, una vez gas, si
se sigue incrementando la
temperatura por encima de la
temperatura de ebullicion, se
comienza a recalentar el gas.
• Subenfriamiento: Cualquier punto

por debajo del punto de
condensacion o enfriamiento. Es
decir, unavez liquido, si se sigue
bajando la temperatura por debajo
del punto de condensacion, se
comienza a subenfriar el liquido.
Refrigeracion Basica
• Entonces, Refrigeracion esta definido como todo
proceso para remover calor. Mas especificamente,
es la
l ciencia
i i que trata
t t con los
l procesos de d reducir
d i y
mantener temperatura a un espacio o materia prima
por debajo de las temperaturas ambientes o
externas que lo rodean.
• Para lograr esto, el calor del cuerpo o substancia

debe ser removido por otro cuerpo o substancia que
esta por debajo del primero.
primero
• Y como el calor del primero es removido por un

segundo, esta claro que refrigerar y calentar son los
efectos opuestos del proceso
• La rata o razon a la cual el calor debe ser removido
p o substancia, para
del cuerpo p lograr
g y mantener la
temperatura deseada, se denomina CARGA DE
REFRIGERACION, Carga de Frio o Carga de Calor.
• En todos los sistemas, es la suma parcial o total de

todas las fuentes de calor posibles.
• En el proceso de Refrigeracion, entonces se usara

un segundo cuerpo o substancia que absorbera el
calor del primero.
• Todos los procesos pueden ser catalogados como
Sensibles o Latentes dependiendo del efecto.
• Como ya vimos, si el efecto es cambio de

temperatura, lo llamamos entonces refrigeracion
sensible, y si el efecto es cambio de estado, lo
llamamos refrigeracion latente.
• Cualquiera que sea estos dos efectos, ,para matener

el ritmo del proceso, en forma continua y constante;
la substancia o cuerpo que absorbe el calor, debe
mantenerse siempre a la misma temperatura y
normalmente por debajo del primer cuerpo o
substancia a enfriar.
• Para ilustrar esto, imaginemos un cuarto
donde 1 Lb de agua a 32°F se pone en un
recipiente abierto y dentro de un cuarto que
tiene una temperatura inicial de 70 °F.
• A lo largo, el calor fluira del espacio que

esta a 70°F hacia el agua que esta a 32°F.
De esta manera la temperatura del espacio o
cuarto disminuira. Sin, embargo, por cada
Btu de calor que el agua absorbe del
espacio, la temperatura del agua subira de
un grado en grado hasta que tanto el cuarto
como el agua se igualan de temperatura y el
efecto de remocion de calor dejara de Fluir y
no habra mas intercambio termico.
• Hubo solo calor sensible pero no latente.

• NO HAY cambio de estado.
• Ahora, en vez de usar 1Lb de Agua,
usamos 1Lb de hielo.
• La temperatura del hielo (32°F o 0°C) no

cambiara, hasta que todo el hielo se
derrita y se vuelva agua. Pero, en el
proceso, el Hielo absorbe el calor del
cuarto. De esta manera, el cuarto va
bajando de temperatura y el hielo se va
derritiendo pero se mantiene en
derritiendo,
temperatura = 32°F. El hielo cede su
energia al cuarto y el cuarto se enfria.
• Hubo calor latente pero no sensible.
• HAY Cambio de Estado.

• Luego, si fuera posible y practico lograr
una refrigeracion continua con una
substancia o cuerpo p SENSIBLE,, la
refrigeracion solo seria posible con
substancias o cuerpos que no requieran
sino mantener su temperatura y que solo
cambien de estado. Pero, requeriria de
grandes cantidades o volumenes de esta
substancia o refrigerante.
• Esto haria sistemas muy costosos y poco

practicos.
• Siendo asi el efecto, se pensaria entonces

que para volver a usar o dar reuso al
refrigerante o substancia, es necesario
devolverlo en su estado original ( agua a
hielo) para mantener un flujo continuo o
un proceso continuo de intercambio
termico.
• En el caso de suministro de Hielo, se
deberia entonces tener un suministro
constante de Hielo. En el caso de un
g
refrigerante uno que
q fluya
y en forma
constante y que hace el mismo trabajo
que el Hielo.
• En el caso de los refrigerantes, se

tomaria de un recipiente de alta
presion y se deja escapar a baja
presion, es decir, a la atmosfera.
• El cambio de presion brinda el cambio

de temperatura y logra el efecto de
refrigeracion.
• Por cuestiones no practicas,

economicas y ambientales, esto no
seria nada viable y recomendado.
Refrigeracion Mecanica
• Para ello nace la necesidad de
crear un sistema que en un
circuito cerrado o sellado,
mantengag un volumen o carga g de
refrigerante, y que haga el trabajo
solicitado y que recicle o use una
y otra vez el refrigerante.
• Los sistemas mecanicos, son

disenados entonces para dar uso
al refrigerante una y otra vez, en
forma inagotable.
• Su objetivo es como ya lo
definimos, regresar el refrigerante
a su estado (Calor Latente) para
hacer el efecto y llevarlo
nuevamente a su temperatura (
Calor Sensible) por debajo del
cuerpo o substancia que requiere
frio.
Sistema Elemental Mecanico

• En un Sistema de Refrigeracion
Mecanica existen entonces 5
Mecanica,
elementos basicos:
1) Compresor
2) Condensador
3) Evaporador
4) Elemento de alimentacion de
refrigerante
5) Tuberia
EVAPORADOR
LINEA DE REFRIGERANTE LIQUIDO ALTA PRESION
LINEA DE SUCCION
BAJA PRESION
Vilter
Vilter
CONDENSADOR RECIBIDOR DE
LIQUIDO
COMPRESOR
TRAMPA DE SUCCION figura 1
Diagrama y Ciclo de Entalpia
• Para tener un buen entendimiento
de un sistema de Refrigeracion,
debemos tener claro el ciclo y
diagrama de Entalpia. Cada
substancia en este planeta,
planeta tiene
un diagrama y tabla de
propiedades fisicas, quimicas y
termodinamicas.
• El Ciclo de Compresion de Vapor,

no es mas que estudiar el
diagrama de entalpia o de Mollier
y sus fases.
• Como ya pudimos ver, tenemos 4

fases en el Diagrama
1) Compresion
2) Evaporacion
3) Condensacion
4) Alimentacion de Liquido o
conocido con el termino de
Expansion.
Ciclo de Refrigeracion
• Teniendo las tablas y diagramas adecuados
para cada Refrigerante o substancia,
podemos determinar las zonas como:
• Evaporacion: El resultado del punto C menos

el Punto B. Como esta a una misma presion,
se llama proceso isobarico o igual presion.
Cambio de Estado: Liquido a Gas
• Compresion: El resultado del punto D menos

el punto C, cambio de presion, idealmente un
proceso ADIABATICO. No cambio de estado,
solo cambio de presion.
• Condensacion: El resultado del punto A

menos el punto D,
D igual que evaporacion,
evaporacion
proceso isobarico. Cambio de Estado, Gas a
Liquido.
• Expansion: El resultado del punto B menos el

Punto A. Igual que compresion, proceso
isoentalpico, no cambio de estado.
Compresion
• Ya sabemos que para mantener un efecto continuo
de refrigeracion, debemos tener una fuente continua
o suministro de Refrigerante.
• Para mantener evacuando el refrigerante que ya

pierde su vida util o ya dio su funcion, necesitamos
un elemento que mantenga el ritmo que saque del
Evaporador ese gas y sea reemplazado por uno
nuevo.
• E
En este
t caso usamos, ell compresor y se puede d
definir como una bomba de desplazamiento positivo
de gas, siendo asi, quien le da la energia o moviento
al sistema o al refrigerante dentro del sistema.
Compresion
• Si asumieramos que tenemos
p
un recipiente lleno de
Refrigerante y lo dejamos
escapar a la atmosfera,
entonces su cambio de
presion genera un cambio de
temperatura. Este cambio,
como ya lo mencionamos,
genera un intercambio
g
termico y toma efecto un
proceso de refrigeracion o
intercambio termico hasta que
se agote el refrigerante.
Compresion
• Si tomamos por ejemplo
como refrigerante
g Freon
R-22 que tiene un punto
Critico o de Ebullicion a -
21.6°F, podemos generar
temperaturas por encima
de esta a un espacio o
cuarto, dejando escapar el
refrigerante
g en forma
controlada y a la presion
que necesitamos para la
temperatura que
necesitemos dentro del
cuarto
Compresion
• Pero, para temperaturas
por debajo
p j del punto
p
Critico o de Ebullicion, en
este caso, por debajo de -
21.6°, necesitamos bajar
por debajo de la presion
atmosferica, ya ahi
usariamos una bomba de
vapor o COMPRESOR y
esta bajaria la presion
dentro del evaporador y
descargaria el gas al
ambiente o presion
atmosferica
COMPRESION
• Para un ciclo ideal, el proceso de
compresion se asume ser ISOENTROPICO.
Un proceso ISOENTROPICO es un proceso
especial abiabatico que toma lugar sin
perdidas por friccion.
• Un proceso adiabatico es un proceso de que

t
toma llugar sin
i ell Intercambio
I t bi de
d Energia
E i
como calor de o hacia una substancia
durante el proceso.
Condesacion
• Ahora, ya sabemos que para mantener un efecto
continuo de Refrigeracion, debemos llevar el
refrigerante a su estado original y tener un suministro
continuo
ti y constante.
t t
• Para ello debemos llevarlo de su estado Gaseoso a su

estado liquido. No podemos decargarlo al ambiente o
presion atmosferica, necesitamos mantenerlo dentro
de un circuito cerrado y aseguramos el suministro
continuo al sistema de forma inagotable.
• Dentro de este circuito cerrado, llevariamos el gas de

su estados gaseoso a su estado original liquido y este
efecto es conocido como CONDENSACION
Condensador
• Como el refrigerante se vaporizo en el evaporador por
absorber el CALOR LATENTE del espacio o
substancia, entonces necesitamos de manera similar
un elemento que remueva el CALOR LATENTE del
refrigerante.
• Este elemento se conoce como CONDENSADOR, y al

igual que el refrigerante fue la substancia para remover
el calor de otra substancia o espacio, el condensador
requiere de un medio o substancia medio condensador
para remover este CALOR LATENTE al refrigerante.
• Los mas usados son AGUA y AIRE ambiente o

combinados, y en otros casos, otros refrigerantes o
medios.
Condensador
• Para que exista FLUJO DE CALOR, debe existir una diferencia
de temperatura entre la primera substancia y la segunda.
• De la misma manera que el refrigerante debia estar por debajo

en temperatura que el medio a enfriar, ahora, la substancia que
enfriara el refrigerante, debe estar por debajo en temperatura
que el Refrigerante.
• Debido al aumento de presion por parte del compresor, el

refrigerante ahora tiene una Presion que le corresponde una
temperatura de Saturacion. Y esta temperatura debe ser mas
alta que la del medio enfriante. Al mismo tiempo, el trabajo
hecho por el compresor sobre el gas, le imparte una energia
que le aumenta en calor o temperatura. Luego el gas que sale
del compresor sale por encima de presion y por encima de
temperatura al medio que lo va a enfriar.
Condensador
• Entonces, el compresor llevara el gas
hasta una presion por encima a la
correspondiente en temperatura del
medio enfriante o condensante.
• En el caso de Agua o Aire o

combinados, esta temperatura de
saturacion esta determinada por
condiciones de Zona Geografica y
Bulbo Humedo y Seco.
• Aca es donde el nace el termino

TEMPERATURA DE CONDENSACION y
en la mayoria de los casos
casos, para
diseno, se usa Temperatura de 95 °F o
35 °C que corresponde al dia mas
caliente del año en la zona. Esto es
con fines que el condensador este
seleccionado y dimensionado para
esos eventos.
• Invierno, en forma contraria, puede
usar una TEMPERATURA DE
CONDENSACION BAJA.
Expansion
• Expansion no es mas que el sistema tanto de
medicion como de control de ALIMENTACION DE
REFRIGERANTE y practicamente esta formado por
accesorios como valvulas, VALVULAS DE
EXPANSION (MANUALES, ELECTRICAS,
MOTORIZADAS) controladores de nivel (FLOTAS,
PROBETAS, SENSORES), VALVULAS
REGULADORAS: de presion, de flujo, capilares,
etc…… en la tuberia y sistema.
• Debemos recordar que a una TEMPERATURA DE

SATURACION le
l corresponded una Presion
P i de d
Saturacion.
• Expansion debe lograr que el refrigerante se

encuentre en TEMPERATURA Y PRESION DE
SATURACION y que normalmente debe estar por
debajo de lo que se quiere enfriar.
Expansion
• El proceso de expansio sucede al restringir el paso
del fluido a traves de un orificio, cambiandolo en
presion.
i De
D altalt ( condensacion)
d i ) a baja
b j (
evaporacion).
• El proceso de expansion no tiene cambio de

Entalpia, pero si de entropia. Es Adiabatico. La
entalpia del punto A es la misma del punto B.
• El cambio de entropia durante el proceso A-B ocurre

como resultado de permitir que el fluido se expanda
de alta presion a baja presion sin la eficiencia de
producir trabajo.
Efecto Neto Refrigerante
• La cantidad de calor que cada unidad de masa de
refrigerante
g absorbe es conocida como el EFECTO
NETO REFRIGERANTE.
• Cuando 1Lb de Hielo se derrite, absorbera una

cantidad de calor a su CALOR LATENTE DE FUSION
o 144 Btu, luego el efecto Refrigerante es 144 Btu.
• En el caso de los Refrigerantes, el liquido

suministrado al evaporador debe ir a una presion
que le corresponda en Temperatura para el proceso.
FLASH GAS O BURBUJA
• El liquido saldra del Condensador al Recipiente de
Almacenamiento a la Temperatura de Saturacion. En muchos
casos puede estar a 95°F.
95 F.
• A esta temperatura le correspondera una presion alta. El

refrigerante se llevara a esta presion a una mas baja para lograr
la temperatura deseada. (Proces de Expansion).
• Esto es solo posible a traves de elementos como orificios o

valvulas de expansion.
• En el proceso, parte del mismo refrigerante cedera moleculas o

refrigerante para ayudar al proceso, lograr bajar temperatura.
Estas moleculas se convertiran de liquido a gas y se conoce
este fenomeno como FLASH GAS y es una deficiencia del
Efecto Neto Refrigerante.
EFECTO NETO REFRIGERANTE

• Luego, en la curva, se
podra observar que
una parte se
convierte en gas y no
ayuda a la
evaporacion, y otra
se convierte en
liquido de baja
presion y temperatura
y sera el liquido que
hara el trabajo. Esta
zona de la curva es la
parte NETA.
DIAGRAMA DE MOLLIER
Liquido Subenfriado
Liquido y Vapor Saturado
Vapor Sobrecalentado
Liquido
q hacia vapor
p
Vapor hacia Liquido
Lines de Temperatura / Constante

120 F 120
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
360
320
-40 -40
280
240
-60 -60
200
160
120
80
-80 -80
40
0
-40
-80 F
-100 -100
Lines de Presion / Constante
300 300
200 200
100 100
80 80
60 60
50 50
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE (lbs/sq in)
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
8 8
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1.0 1.0
Lineas de Entalpia Constante SCALE CHANGE ENTHALPY (BTU/lb Above Saturated Liquid at –40 F)
-75 0 100 200 300 400 500 550 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780 800 820
-75 0 100 200 300 400 500 550 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780 800 820
SCALE CHANGE
ENTHALPY (BTU/lb Above Saturated Liquid at –40 F)
Lines de Volumen Constantes
Lineas de Entropia Constante

SCALE CHANGE ENTHALPY (BTU/lb Above Saturated Liquid at –40 F)
-75 0 100 200 300 400 500 550 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780 800 820
300 300
120 F 120
100 100
200 200
80 80
60 60
100 100
80 80
40 40
60 60
50 50
20 20
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE (lbs/sq in)
40 40
30 0 0 30
20 20
-20 -20
360
320
-40 -40
10 10
280
8 8
240
6 6
-60 -60
5 5
200
4 4
160
120
3 3
80
-80 -80
40
2 2
0
-40
-80 F
-100 -100
1.0 1.0
-75 0 100 200 300 400 500 550 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780 800 820
SCALE CHANGE
ENTHALPY (BTU/lb Above Saturated Liquid at –40 F)
PUNTO CRITICO
GAS
SOBRECALENTADO
LIQUIDO CONDENSACION
SUBENFRIADO
EXPANSION
FLASH GAS EVAPORACION H.P.

Calculo de un Compresor
• Vamos a suponer que ya nos
suministran
i i t la
l Carga
C del
d l Sistema:
Si t
¾ Un sistema de Amoniaco para una
capacidad de 18 Tons de Refrigeracion y
a una temperatura de evaporacion de 0°F
y con una condensacion de 100°F.
¾ Determinar:
D t i
¾ Puntos de Entalpia
¾ Volumen de Gas
¾ CFM del sistema
• Usando un diagrama y tablas de propiedades para
Amoniaco, encontramos que:
q
• A 100°F Amoniaco tiene una entalpia de liquido o hl =

155.2 Btu/Lb (Punto A = Punto B)
• A 0°, tiene una entalpia de Gas, hg = 611.8 Btu /Lb

(Punto C).
• Evaporacion es entonces qe = (C-B) o (hg – hl ) =

611.8 – 155.2 = 456.6 Btu / Lb
• Sabemos que el sistema es de 18 T.R
• Sabemos que 1 T.R. es equivalente a 12000

Btu/hr o 200 Btu/min
• 18 * 200 = 3600 Btu / Lb-min
• Tomamos vaporizacion y lo dividimos por la

capacidad del sistema
• 3600 / 456.6 = 7.88 Lb / min
• Conociendo que el sistema requiere 7.88 Lb / min y
volviendo a usar las tablas, encontramos que
q
Amoniaco a 0°F tiene un Volumen de Gas = 9.116 Ft
3/ Lb.
• Luego, podemos hallar los CFM o desplazamiento

Volumetrico como 7.88 * 9.116 = 71.87 Ft 3 / min o
CFM.
• El sistema necesitaria tener un compresor que tenga

un Desplazamiento Volumetrico de 71.87 CFM.
• Tambien podemos ver que:
• (200 Btu/min) / (456.6 But/Lb) = 0.44
Lb/min de refrigerante recirculado para
generar 1 T.R.
• 0
0.44
44 Lb/min x 9
9.116
116 ft3 /lb = 3.99
3 99 CFM
5.14 CFM recirculado por 1 Tonelada de
Refrigeracion
• Si vemos el Volumen y Densidad de Amoniaco a 100 °F en
estado liquido (l)
• Volumen = 0.02747
0 02747 Ft3 / Lb
• Densidad = 36.40 Lb/ Ft3
• 7.88 Lb/min * 60 min = 472.8 Lb/hr. de Refrigerante para la carga

de 18 T.R.
• 472.8 Lb/hr * 0.02747 Ft3/Lb = 12.99 Ft3/hr de refrigerante para

la carga de 18 T.R.
• Asumiendo 1 Hr. podemos asumir una carga de 472.8 Lb de

Amoniaco para el Sistema, Y, un recipiente que al 70% de su
capacidad almacene 12.99 Ft3 de Amoniaco.
Calculo de un Compresor Parte II
• Determinar la temperatura actual de
descarga
– Usando la Entropia: Sg
• Entropia es la relacion o rata de calor agregado
a una substancia a la temperatura absoluta a la
cual es agregado. La entropía (simbolizada
como S) es la magnitud física que mide la parte
de la energía que no puede utilizarse para
producir trabajo .
• Luego, la Sg para 0°F es 1.3352 Btu- Lb
( °R)

• Usando nuestro diagrama,
I t
Intersectamos
t la
l linea
li de
d entropia
t i
(valor de 1.33 ) hasta la linea de
condensacion 100°F. El punto de
interseccion nos da una nueva Entalpia
equivalente a 736 But/Lb segun las
lineas de 100°F
• entropia
736
• Luego nuestro nuevo punto D tiene
como propiedades:
i d d
Presion = (100°F) 197.2 psig
Temperatura = 260 °F aprox
Entalpia (h) = 736 btu / min aprox
Volumen = 1.7 ft3/ Lb
Entropia = 1.33 ( igual que el punto C)

• Teniendo una vez el valor nuevo de Entalpia y conociendo la
Eficiencia Adiabatica del Fabricante del Compresor ( promedio
70% a 80% max.) podemos hallar el valor real de entalpia de
descarga como:
• ( 736 – 611.8 ) / 0.70 + 611.5 = 789.23 But/Lb
• 789.2 Es la entalpia de temperatura de Descaga del Compresor
• Buscando esta entalpia sobre el diagrama y sobre la linea de

condensacion, podemos hallar en que zona o temperatura esta
esta nueva entalpia y esa es la temperatura real de descarga
del compresor, en este caso esta en la zona de 340 Deg F.
100°F
789.23
736 320°F 360 °F

ENERGIA MECANICA EQUIVALENTE
• Trabajo Mecanico es realizado cuando una
fuerza actua moviendo un objeto cierta
distancia.
• Asumiendo que la accion de la fuerza es
paralela a la direccion de movimiento, la
cantidad de trabajo es igual a: w = (F)(s)
F= Fuerza en Libras o en Newtons ( Kg por
aceleracion o gravedad).
S= distancia en pies (ft) o metros
Luego w = Ft-Lb o N-m (Joules)
EQUIVALENTE ENERGIA MECANICA

• Potencia es la proporcion o rata de tiempo para
hacer un trabajo. En el sistema I.P. su unidad es
H.P. o Caballos y en el sistema Metrico es kW.
P = w/(33,000)(t) min o P= w/(550)(t) segundos = H.P.
P = w/t = (Joules)(seg) = kW
Luego, es necesario expresar el trabajo o

energia mecanica en Unidades de Energia de
Calor. Experimentos han establecido que 778 ft-Lb
de trabajo o energia mecanica equivalente son igual
a 1 Btu de energia termica.
ENERGIA MECANICA EQUIVALENTE
• La energia
equivalente del
trabajo hecho
d rante el ciclo de
durante
compresion se
refiere como al Calor
de Compresion y se
define como la
diferencias de
p
entalpias de los
puntos D – C”
• qw = hd – hc
TRABAJO MECANICO
• El trabajo mecanico hecho por el piston sobre el
vapor o gas durante compresion, puede ser
estimado del calor de compresion. Si w es el trabajo
hecho en Ft-Lb por Libra de refrigerante recirculado
en el sistema, y J como la energia mecanica
equivalente (788 ft-lb/Btu), entonces:
• w = (qw)(J) = J(hd – hc).
• Si miramos nuestro nuestro ejemplo, tenemos que:

en el ciclo isoentropico y negando perdidas y
friccion h d = 736 Btu / Lb & Succion a (0°F) hc =
611.8 Btu / Lb
W = (778 )( 736 – 611.8 ) = (778)(124.2) = 96,627.6 ft-lb

/ lb
POTENCIA TEORICA
• La Potencia como vimos es el trabajo hecho en una
rata o razon de tiempo.
• Para nuestro ejemplo anterior sabemos que tenemos

un trabajo de 96,627.6 ft-lb/lb
• Y ya sabemos que 1 T.R. = 12000 Btu / hr = 200 Btu /

min
• El flujo masico de refrigerante circulado para

generar 1 TT.R
R seria
i igual
i la
m = (200) / (456.6) = 0.44 Lb/min ton
• Luego el trabajo para 1 T.R seria igual a
w= 96,627.6 x 0.44 = 42,516.1 ft-lb / min ton
POTENCIA TEORICA
• La potencia teorica, negando todo tipo de perdidas,
seria igual entonces a
• Teori P / ton = (w) / (33,000)

(33 000) = (J)(m)(qw) / (33
(33,000)
000)
• P = (42.516.1) / ( 33,000) = 1.28 H.P. / Ton

o (788)(0.44)(124.2) / (33,000) = 1.28
• Para nuestro sistema de 18 T.R seria entonces una

potencia teorica de 18 * 1.28 = 23.4 H.P.
• La verdadera potencia seria usualmente de 30% a

50% por encima de la potencia teorica dependiendo
de la eficiencia del compresor.
POTENCIA EN TORNILLOS
La potencia
consumida del
compresor es el
resultado de absorber
el cambio de entalpia
del gas y del aceite
Power = mGAS CpGAS

dTGAS + mOIL CpOIL dTOIL
COP o Coeficiente de Eficiencia

• El coeficiente de Eficiencia de un sistema de
refrigeracion o compresor es la eficiencia del ciclo y
esta
t dada
d d como
• C.O.P. = (Calor abosrobido de espacio refrigerado) / (

CalorEnergia equivalente de la energia suministrada
al compresor)
• C.O.P. = ( Efecto neto refrigerante ) / ( Calor de

compresion )
• C.O.P. = qe / q w = (hc – ha) / ( hd – h c) = ( 456.6 ) / (

124.2 ) = 3.67
EFICIENCIA SISTEMA
• Nuestro sistema era para 18 T.R. y requiere una
Potencia de 33 H.P.
23 4 H
23.4 H.P.
P / 18 T
T.R
R = 1.28
1 28 H.P.
H P por T
T.R.
R
En sistema metrico
18 T.R * 3.517 = 63.31 kW
23.4 H.P. * 0.745 = 17.43 kW
((63.31)) / ((17.43)) = 3.63
Es decir que se producen 3.63 kW de Refrigeracion por

cada 1 Kw de Potencia
SOBRECALENTAMIENTO O SUPERHEAT
• En un sistema simple e ideal, el gas alcanza la
succion del compresor en condiciones de
saturacion, pero en la practica, el refrigerante en el
evaporador se convierte todo en gas y luego sigue
adquiriendo temperatura en el evaporador, tuberia y
trayectos. Esto se denomina Sobrecalentamiento.
• Si miramos nuestro ejemplo de una Temperatura de

Satuacion de 0°F y adquiere 20 grados mas de
calentamiento podemos decir que existe un
calentamiento,
superheat o sobre calentamiento.
• Las nuevas condiciones para ese gas seran:

• Presion (0
(0°F)
F) 15.7 psig
• Temperatura: 20 °F
• Usando diagrama o tablas de propiedades
• Entalpia h = 623 Btu / lb aprox
• Volumen: v = 10 ft3 / Lb aprox
• Entropia: s = 1.36 Btu / lb °R aprox
• Siguendo la nueva linea de entropia y cruzandola

con 100°F de condensacion, encontramos nuestro
nuevo punto D’
• D’ nos dara los nuevos puntos de:
• Entalpia h = 750 Btu / Lb aprox
• Volumen v = 2.3 ft3 / lb aprox
• Temperatura = 275 °F aprox
• El trabajo de compresion o calor de

compresion sera igual a:
Qw = hd’’ – hc’ = ( 750 – 623 ) =

127 btu / Lb
• Sin sobrecalentamiento se obtuvo un calor de compresion de:
124.2 Btu / Lb
• Con sobrecalentamiento se tiene un calor de compresion de
127 Btu / lb
• Sabemos que la cantidad requeridad a circular en el sistema es

de 0.44 Lb / min por 1 T.R.
C.O.P. = (456.5) / (127) = 3.59 comparado con 3.63
• Luego la nueva potencia Teorica sera:
P = (788)(0.44)(127) / (33,000) = 1.33 h.p. / Ton
Comparado con 1.28 H.P. / Ton
Se aumento en 100 * (1.33-1.28)/(1.28) = 4 %
• El volumen de gas en condiciones de saturacion era de:
9.116 ft3 / lb y en sobrecalentado podemos ver que es 10
ft3/lb aprox
• P
Para un desplazamiento
d l i t ded 0.44
0 44 x 9.116
9 116 = 4
4.01
01 ft3/
ft3/min
i o CFM
por Tonelada, para 18 T.R. era igual a 72.2 CFM
• Para la nueva condicion sera 10*0.44 = 4.4 ft3 / min * 18 =

79.2 CFM
• Si el compresor fue escogido para las condiciones de

saturacion o 72 CFM, quedara subdimensionado para las
nuevas condiciones.
• Se aumento en el flujo en un:

100 * ((79.2-72) / (72)) = 10%
• O se disminuye la capacidad del compresor en un 10%.

Caida de Presion
• En vencer friccion, tanto interna como externa, el gas
experimenta una caida de presion a traves del evaporador,
accesorios, valvulas, trayectos de tuberia, etc….
• Si asumimos que en nuestro ejemplo para Una Temperatura de

Succion de 0 °F exista una caida de presion de 2 psi, tenemos
unos nuevos puntos como:
• Temperatura: 0°F (30 psiA – 15.7 psig)

• Presion: 13.7 psig o 28 psiA
• Entalpia: h = 616 Btu / lb aprox
• Volumen v = 10 ft3 / lb aprox
• Entropia = 1.35 Btu / lb-°R
Caida de Presion
• Y habria un nuevo punto D’ con
Entalpia = hd’ = 742 btu/Lb aprox
Volumen = v = 1.66 ft3 / lb
Temperatura = 260 ° F aprox
• Luego nuestro nuevo qw = ( 742 – 616) = 126 Btu / Lb
• Nuestra nueva potencia seria:
• P = (788)(0.44)(126) / (33,000) = 1.30 H.P. / Ton
• Nuestro
uest o nuevo
ue o CFM
C seria
se a (0.44)
(0 ) ((10)
0) = 4.4 Ft3/min
t3/ to
ton * 18
8 = 79.2
9
• C.O.P. baja a (456.6)/(126) = 3.62 , Potencia sube 100*(1.30-1.28)/1.30)=

1.5 %
• Y ya vimos que el compresor disminuye en capacidad 10%

Dimensionamiento Lineas o Tuberias:
• Linea de Succion (Page # 7)
7):: __________________
• Use ½ lb/100 ft Line Loss
• Linea de Descarga (Page # 8)

8):: ________________
• Use 2 lb/100 ft Line Loss
• Drenaje Condensador a Recipiente (Page # 8) 8):: ______
• Seguir Valores de Tabla – NUNCA SUBDIMENSIONAR
• Lineas de Liquido Sistema (Page # 8)
8):: ______________
• Lineas Ecualizacion Cond & recipiente (Page # 84)

84)::
______________
SEE VILTER REFRIGERATION PIPING DATA MANUAL
Temperatura de Saturacion Succ (°F) (Page # 7)

Line
Size -20°F Saturated
20°F Saturated Suction
Suction Temperature
Temperature (SST)
(SS )
(SST)
Caida de Presion (psig/100 ft)

IPS
(Inches)
½ 1 2 ½ 1 2
2 15.9 TR 23.9 TR 32.5 TR 42.3 TR 60.2 TR 85.6 TR
2½” 25.3 TR 36.1 TR 52.0 TR 74.5 TR 106.5 TR 151 TR
3” 45.1 TR 64.6 TR 91.5 TR 153 TR 218 TR 305 TR


7):: 2 ½ “ para 18
T.R a@ -10
10°°F
Discharge Lines (Page # 8)

Line
Size
Temperature 250°F
Pressure Drop (psig/100 ft)

IPS
(Inches)
½ 1 2
1” 5.68 TR 8.06 TR 11.6 TR
1¼” 14.7 TR 21.1 TR 30.4 TR
1½” 22.2 TR 31.5 TR 45.0 TR


7):: 2 ½ “ para 18
T.R a@ -10
10°°F Use ½ lb/100 ft Line Loss

8):: 1¼“
Liquid lines (Page #8)

Line
Size
To Receiver (Condenser Drain)
IPS Velocity (100 fpm)

(Inches)
½“ 13.6 TR
¾” 25.2 TR
1” 42.1 TR
• Linea de Succion (Page # 7):

7): 2 ½ “
• Linea de Descarga (Page # 8):

8): 1¼“
• Drenaje Cond. a Recipiente (Page # 8)

8):: ¾”
Liquid Lines (Page # 8)

Line
Size
To System (Liquid Supply)
IPS Pressure Drop (2 psig/100 ft)

(Inches)
3/8 ” 11.6 TR
½” 23.5 TR
¾” 53.2 TR
1” 102 TR
• Linea de Succion (Page # 7):

7): 2 ½ “
• Linea de Descarga (Page # 8):

8): 1¼“
8):
• Drenaje Cond a Recipiente (Page # 8): ¾”
• Seguir Valores de Tabla – NUNCA
SUBDIMENSIONAR
• Lineas de Liquido Sistema (Page # 8):

8): ½”
• Seguir Valores de Tabla – NUNCA
SUBDIMENSIONAR
Equalizing Lines (Page # 84)

Line
Size Receiver to Condenser Equalizing Line
Sizes
Vent Line Size (Nominal Pipe Size – Inches)

IPS
(Inches)
Max Tons (TR) – Refrigerant 717 (Ammonia)
½” 50 TR
¾” 100 TR
1” 170 TR
7):: 2 ½”

8):: 1 ¼”
• Use 2 lb/100 ft Line Loss
• Drenaje Condensador a Recipiente (Page # 8)
8):: ¾ “
• Lineas de Liquido Sistema (Page # 8)
8):: ½“
• Lineas Ecualizacion Cond & recipiente (Page # 84)

84):: ½”
SEE VILTER REFRIGERATION PIPING DATA MANUAL
Gracias
Escuela de refrigeración
industrial básica
REFRIGERACIÓN MECÁNICA
PARTE I
La refrigeración se produce mediante la

liberación de cualquier refrigerante de alta
presión en la atmósfera. La Figura 1 muestra un
conjunto compuesto por un serpentín, una válvula
y un cilindro de refrigerante. La refrigeración
se obtiene al abrir la válvula y permitir que el
líquido de alta presión del cilindro se expanda
Figura 1
hacia la presión más baja en el serpentín y se
libere en la atmósfera.
No obstante, este sistema requeriría una inagotable demanda de

refrigerante y no sería viable, económico o compatible con las
cuestiones de interés medio ambiental.
Los sistemas de refrigeración mecánica han sido diseñados para que el

refrigerante se utilice una y otra vez. Durante su paso a través del
serpentín de enfriamiento, el refrigerante cambia de estado, es decir,
pasa de líquido a vapor absorbiendo su calor latente de vaporización de
la sustancia en refrigeración. El vapor permanece cautivo, y se trabaja
con él para devolverle la condición de líquido de alta presión con el
fin de que pueda volver a utilizarse.
2
SISTEMA DE REFRIGERACIÓN MECÁNICA
Un sistema básico de refrigeración mecánica se compone de cuatro elementos
principales: un evaporador, un compresor, un condensador y un medidor de
líquidos o dispositivo de medición.
Figura 2
El EVAPORADOR es aquella parte de un sistema de refrigeración que está
en contacto con la sustancia a enfriar. Existen varios tipos de
evaporadores.
La Figura 3 muestra un típico evaporador de expansión directa. El líquido
refrigerante sale del dispositivo de expansión y entra en el evaporador
a baja presión y a una temperatura de saturación baja.

3
El calor de la sustancia a enfriar circula hacia el fluido refrigerante
de baja temperatura, que es vaporizado o evaporado durante la absorción.
Por eso se lo denomina “evaporador”.
Durante su circulación a través del evaporador a presión constante, la
temperatura del refrigerante permanece constante hasta la vaporización de todo
el fluido. Independientemente de la cantidad de calor agregado, la
temperatura del refrigerante no se elevará mientras el fluido permanezca
estable y la presión se mantenga por la acción del compresor, que remueve
el vapor acumulado.
Evaporador de expansión
directa
Fig. 3
El calor de vaporización latente absorbido por el refrigerante durante
el enfriamiento deberá ser removido posteriormente para permitir su
reutilización. Se deberá trabajar con el vapor de baja presión que sale
del evaporador para regresarlo al estado líquido. Esta es la función de
los próximos dos elementos del sistema de refrigeración mecánica: el
compresor y el condensador.
El eje del sistema de compresión de vapor es el compresor. Los tipos más
comunes de compresores de refrigeración son: compresor “reciprocante”,
“de tornillo” y “centrífugo”. El compresor reciprocante

4
se compone de un pistón que se mueve hacia adelante y hacia atrás en un
cilindro con válvulas de succión y descarga configuradas para permitir
la acción de bombeo. Los compresores reciprocantes y de tornillo son
equipos de desplazamiento positivo, mientras que el compresor centrífugo
funciona mediante fuerza centrífuga.
COMPRESORES RECIPROCANTES
El compresor más común usado en aplicaciones
comerciales pequeñas es el compresor reciprocante,
cuyo tamaño puede variar entre potencias fraccionadas
y potencias muy superiores. Actualmente, los
compresores de tornillo han reemplazado prácticamente
a los reciprocantes dada su elevada potencia,
principalmente superior a los 50 HP. Los compresores
reciprocantes modernos son de simple efecto y los cilindros Figura 4
se encuentran en configuraciones en V, W, radiales o en línea. Durante la
carrera de succión del pistón, el gas refrigerante de baja presión es
aspirado por la válvula de succión. Durante la carrera de descarga, el
pistón comprime el refrigerante, y luego lo empuja a través de la
válvula de descarga, que habitualmente forma parte de la culata. Ver
Figura n.° 4.
El vapor del refrigerante es aspirado por el compresor, que es
esencialmente una bomba de gas, a través de las cañerías o tuberías,
llamadas líneas de succión. Durante el trayecto descendente del pistón,
la presión dentro del cilindro del compresor disminuye por debajo de la
del
5
refrigerante del evaporador y se abren las válvulas de succión,
permitiendo que el refrigerante entre en el cilindro. Al final de la
carrera del pistón, el vapor del refrigerante llena el cilindro. A medida
que el pistón comienza su trayecto descendente, se cierra la válvula de
succión y el vapor queda confinado dentro del cilindro. El continuo
movimiento descendente del pistón comprime el vapor atrapado y le confiere
un volumen mucho menor; además, la presión aumenta. Ahora, la cantidad de
calor contenida en el cilindro original lleno de vapor está más
concentrada. Debido al aumento de concentración, se eleva la temperatura.
Además, el equivalente de calor del trabajo de compresión es absorbido
por el vapor. Sabemos que la energía puede cambiar de forma, pero no se
puede generar o destruir. En este caso, la entrada de energía eléctrica
al motor se convierte en energía mecánica para operar el compresor. La
energía mecánica se transforma en energía térmica en el vapor.
Cuando la presión en el cilindro sobre el pistón se eleva lo suficiente
como para sobrepasar el asiento de la válvula de descarga, el gas es
liberado hacia la culata. El gas de alta presión continúa circulando
fuera del compresor hacia la línea de descarga hasta que el pistón
alcanza su máxima carrera. Luego, esta válvula de descarga se cierra y
sella el gas de alta presión del cilindro y comienza a moverse en forma
descendente.
6
Siempre debe haber un espacio pequeño entre la placa de la válvula y la
parte superior del pistón cuando el último se encuentre en el punto
muerto superior de su carrera. Este espacio es necesario para evitar que
el pistón desplace a la placa de la válvula. Esto se conoce como “volumen
de punto muerto”. A medida que el pistón comienza su carrera descendente,
el gas se reexpande. La presión reducida permite que se abra la válvula
de succión, que nuevamente admite el vapor de baja presión del
evaporador al cilindro.
Los compresores reciprocantes, particularmente los modelos modernos de
alta velocidad, han sido diseñados para regímenes de compresión en seco.
La compresión en régimen húmedo se produce cuando el refrigerante que
entra en el compresor contiene partículas de líquidos. Existe la
posibilidad de que haya quedado atrapado un poco de líquido en el pistón
ascendente, lo que puede dañar las válvulas del compresor, la placa de
la válvula o la culata. Los compresores modernos son más vulnerables
porque su alta velocidad no provee el tiempo suficiente para la
evaporación de ningún líquido por medio de transferencia de calor dentro
del compresor.
Las partículas de líquido en el vapor también pueden provocar el
desgaste rápido de las paredes del cilindro y los pistones, ya que
pueden eliminar el aceite que lubrica las superficies.
Debido a los peligros de la compresión húmeda, los sistemas son
diseñados para que el refrigerante entre en el compresor en forma de
vapor sobrecalentado. La reexpansión del volumen de punto muerto y el
pistón caliente y las paredes del cilindro añaden más calor al vapor
entrante antes de que comience la carrera de compresión.

7
Como resultado del trabajo realizado en el compresor, el refrigerante
entra en la línea de descarga como un gas de alta presión y con una
temperatura elevada. La temperatura real del gas, sobrecalentado antes
del inicio de la compresión y con el calor adicional de la compresión, es
mucho más elevada que la temperatura de saturación correspondiente a la
presión de descarga.
Según la tendencia de la mayoría de los equipos rotativos, la velocidad
operativa de los compresores ha aumentado en los últimos veinte años.
Desde los primeros compresores de velocidad lenta, de alrededor de 100
rpm, las velocidades han ido en aumento hasta alcanzar los valores
actuales. Hoy en día, los compresores alcanzan velocidades de hasta 3600
rpm.
En la actualidad, el equipo reciprocante más común es el compresor de
simple efecto V/W. (Figure 5). Es un equipo de alta velocidad que
requiere escaso espacio en la superficie, poca altura libre y un mínimo
lugar de reparación. Es un equipo multicilíndrico con sus cilindros en
un banco en V o W.
8
HERMÉTICO ABIERTO
Figura 5
DE TIPO ABIERTO
Un compresor cuyo cigüeñal se extiende a través de la carcasa del
compresor para permitir que el motor se acople externamente al eje se
llama compresor de “tipo abierto”. Se debe usar un sello cuando el eje
se acerca a la carcasa del compresor para evitar la fuga del gas
refrigerante o para evitar la fuga de aire si la caja del cigüeñal se
encuentra a una presión inferior a la atmosférica. Los sellos pueden
ser una posible fuente de fugas. Para evitar las posibilidades de fuga
por completo, el motor y el compresor pueden ubicarse en la misma
carcasa.
9
DE TIPO HERMÉTICO
Las técnicas de perfeccionamiento para aislar eléctricamente el motor
permiten que los motores funcionen aún cuando están en contacto con el
refrigerante. En varios diseños, el gas de succión refrigerado circula a
través del motor para mantenerlo refrigerado. Casi la mayor parte de las
unidades de motor usadas en refrigeradores domésticos y congeladores son
de tipo hermético. Las únicas conexiones con la carcasa del compresor
son las de succión y descarga y las conexiones eléctricas. La humedad del
sistema puede dañar el motor. Por lo tanto, es fundamental deshidratar
las unidades herméticas antes de realizar la carga. En unidades
herméticas selladas más grandes, es común que las culatas sean removibles
para poder hacer el mantenimiento de válvulas y pistones. Este tipo de
unidades herméticas se denominan “semi-herméticas” o herméticas
reparables. Las unidades herméticas son más comunes en aplicaciones
residenciales o comerciales, y rara vez se utilizan para aplicaciones
industriales porque una “sobrecarga” podría dañar la carga completa de
refrigerante y provocar daños considerables.
COMPRESOR DE TORNILLO
Los compresores de tornillo están compuestos por una configuración de rotor
macho y una de hembra. Sólo un rotor es impulsado por el motor; el otro es
impulsado a través de la película de aceite. La cámara de compresión se
llena de aceite durante la operación para 1) reducir el ruido, 2)
remover el calor, 3) mejorar el rendimiento volumétrico y 4) reducir las
temperaturas de descarga.
El tamaño de los compresores de tornillo varía de 100 a 4000 CFM. Los más
pequeños,
10
de 100 a 300 CFM (m3/h), funcionan mediante un engranaje interno que
aumenta la velocidad para mantener la velocidad periférica requerida para
el rendimiento. Estos compresores reemplazan a los reciprocantes en
aplicaciones comerciales e industriales debido a su alta confiabilidad y
bajo costo de mantenimiento. A medida que los rotores rotan juntos, uno
de los lóbulos se engrana a un lado del equipo, creando un creciente
volumen de cavidad interlobular. El gas entra en el puerto de admisión
al extremo de la carcasa y rellena la creciente cavidad interlobular
hasta el que volumen alcanza su máximo. En este momento, el lado de
admisión de la cavidad barre el borde del puerto de admisión y la carga
queda atrapada. Con la rotación, la cavidad se engrana con un lóbulo del
rotor de acoplamiento y el volumen interlobular comienza a disminuir. A
medida que disminuye el volumen ocupado por la carga de gas, aumenta su
presión. El proceso es adiabático. Se provee un puerto de descarga en la
pared lateral y en el extremo de la culata, ubicada geométricamente para
proporcionar la cantidad deseada de relación de volumen de compresión.
El diseñador puede regular el valor de compresión interna mediante el
cambio de ubicación del puerto para ajustar la relación de volumen. Una
vez que la cavidad ha sido expuesta al puerto de descarga, la presión
igualará la de la línea de descarga del equipo. Por lo tanto, el gas
puede ser sobrecomprimido o subcomprimido en la culata antes de ser
enviado a la descarga. Se obtiene un rendimiento óptimo cuando la
relación entre las presiones de operación se corresponde con la relación
entre las presiones incorporadas. Esto puede lograrse con un medidor de
relación variable en el compresor de tornillo.

11
COMPRESOR DE TORNILLO
GIRATORIO
Figura 6 Figura 7
Los compresores de tornillo se llenan con aceite en el espacio de compresión.
La velocidad de inyección varía desde 20 gpm en compresores pequeños
hasta 100 gpm en compresores grandes. Por este motivo, los compresores
de tornillo se venden generalmente como una unidad integrada por un
compresor/separador de aceite. Los separadores pueden ser verticales u
horizontales. Generalmente, el diseño de los separadores es de doble
etapa, con un separador total de primera etapa y un filtro de segunda
etapa. Con este método pueden alcanzarse velocidades de arrastre del
aceite tan bajas como dos partes por millón de aceite en suspensión. El
caudal del aceite en suspensión no incluye el aceite en estado de vapor,
que también es arrastrado en la descarga.
Los compresores de tornillo pueden usarse con todos los refrigerantes
comunes pero, en general, se aplican los refrigerantes R-22, R-290 o R-717
debido al bajo valor en

12
cfm por tonelada. Los compresores pueden configurarse en una etapa
simple o configuración compuesta. Los compresores de tornillo pueden
aplicarse con temperaturas bajísimas, como -8° F, y han sido aplicados
en temperaturas más bajas de saturación mediante el sobrecalentamiento
del gas antes de la compresión.
COMPRESORES CENTRÍFUGOS
Los compresores centrífugos, Figura 8, son
similares
en la construcción a las bombas centrífugas. El
gas entrante ingresa en el ojo del impulsor
rotativo y es arrojado mediante fuerza
centrífuga hacia la periferia del impulsor.
Por lo tanto, las paletas del impulsor confieren Figura 8
una alta velocidad al gas y, además, generan la presión. Desde
el impulsor, el gas circula hacia las paletas del difusor o hacia una
voluta, donde parte de la energía cinética se convierte en presión.
Los compresores centrífugos se usan actualmente para aplicaciones de
muchas toneladas, dado que los compresores de tornillo son menos
costosos por tonelada. También poseen una ventaja de potencia a
temperaturas elevadas (temperaturas de succión bajas) y pueden manejar
grandes cargas laterales, tanto de los requerimientos de economía del
sistema como de cargas variables independientes.
EL CONDENSADOR
El condensador, Figuras 9 y 10, recibe el gas sobrecalentado de alta
presión liberado por el compresor. Mediante el uso de un medio de
enfriamiento tal como aire o agua, se remueve el calor del

13
refrigerante. La función inicial del condensador es absorber el
recalentamiento, que ha sido adquirido por el refrigerante en su paso a
través del evaporador, la línea de succión y el compresor. La
temperatura disminuye hasta alcanzar la temperatura de saturación en la
condición de presión de descarga existente. La absorción de calor por el
medio de condensación continuará luego de que la temperatura del
refrigerante se haya reducido a saturación, pero el calor removido es el
calor latente de condensación.
CONDENSADOR ENFRIADO POR AGUA CONDENSADOR ENFRIADO POR AIRE
Figura 9 Figura 10
La cantidad de calor removida del refrigerante en el proceso de
condensación excede la cantidad que había absorbido en el evaporador
debido al calor añadido por compresión y otras causas involucradas. Este
exceso representa aproximadamente 25% de la cantidad que absorbió en el
evaporador en aplicaciones de aire acondicionado y superior al aumento
de HP/ton en sistemas de temperaturas más bajas.

14
Entonces, en el condensador, el refrigerante cambia de estado y
pasa de vapor de alta presión a líquido de alta presión, por lo que
está listo para realizar más tareas de enfriamiento.
DISPOSITIVO DE EXPANSIÓN O PARA EL CONTROL DE FLUIDOS
Como la temperatura del líquido de alta presión que sale del
condensador es demasiado alta para llevar a cabo un enfriamiento
útil o efecto neto refrigerante, debe reducirse a un nivel por
debajo del de la sustancia que se está enfriando. Un pequeño
orificio o dispositivo de estrangulación, colocado en la línea de
líquido delante del evaporador, hace que el refrigerante líquido
se expanda parcialmente y que su presión disminuya al pasar a
través del área reducida de la restricción.
Cuando disminuye la presión, una pequeña porción del refrigerante
líquido se evapora inmediatamente. Este vapor, conocido como “vapor
instantáneo”, es el resultado de la absorción del calor latente de
vaporización por esa parte del líquido. El calor necesario para que
se produzca esta vaporización se obtiene del líquido restante. La
temperatura del líquido restante disminuye hasta alcanzar la
temperatura de saturación en la condición de presión reducida.
El porcentaje de líquido, que se vaporiza en gas, varía con la
caída de presión a través del dispositivo de expansión. En todas
las instancias, en el evaporador ingresa una combinación de
líquido y vapor, no 100% de líquido.
1. Tubo capilar: Un tubo capilar es un medio muy simple

15
de expandir el líquido refrigerante. Es simplemente un tubo de
diámetro pequeño y longitud seleccionada. Solo mediante la
selección crítica del diámetro interior y la longitud se puede
determinar la velocidad correcta del caudal del refrigerante
para una cierta caída de presión a través del tubo. Dada su
simplicidad, no se pueden hacer modificaciones para ajustar la
velocidad de caudal a diferentes condiciones de operación.
Históricamente, el uso de los tubos capilares ha sido
restringido a unidades domésticas y comerciales selladas
herméticamente y montadas en fábrica. En este caso, el tubo
capilar se ajusta para ofrecer la correcta velocidad de caudal
del refrigerante en condiciones estándar establecidas de carga
térmica y presiones de operación.
En los sistemas que emplean expansión a través de un tubo
capilar, el líquido refrigerante de alta presión circula
directamente hacia el capilar desde el condensador. Mientras el
sistema está en funcionamiento, se produce el desplazamiento de
todo el refrigerante. La carga del refrigerante es muy crítica.
En algunos sistemas pequeños, puede llegar hasta ¼ onza.
La carga crítica es el motivo que explica la habitual
restricción de uso de tubos capilares en sistemas sellados
herméticamente, donde existe menos probabilidad de que se
produzcan fugas de refrigerante. En esos sistemas, la posibilidad
de que alguna materia extraña ingrese

16
en el circuito refrigerante y obstruya el pequeño diámetro interior

del tubo es mínima.
Los tubos capilares no poseen partes móviles, que podrían
desgastarse o erosionarse. Cuando son utilizados, las presiones
dentro del sistema se compensan rápidamente en la parada y el motor
no debe superar altas presiones diferenciales en la puesta en
marcha. Además, no son costosos.
2. Válvula de expansión manual: En los comienzos de la
refrigeración mecánica, la válvula de expansión manual era el
medidor de líquido más utilizado. La cantidad de líquido
refrigerante admitida a través de la válvula depende del tamaño del
orificio y la distancia a partir de la cual se eleva la aguja de
medición. Como lo indica su nombre, la válvula es operada
manualmente. Cuando varía la carga térmica en el evaporador, se
debe cambiar también la configuración de la válvula para disminuir
o aumentar el caudal del refrigerante y evitar que el líquido
inunde el compresor o que se subalimente el evaporador.
Dado que no es automática, el uso de una válvula de expansión
manual es limitado. Son mayormente instaladas en conexiones de
bypass alrededor de las válvulas de flotador.
El uso de una válvula de expansión manual introduce otro

17
componente del sistema de refrigeración mecánico:
El receptor de alta presión
Debido a las demandas de carga, los sistemas de refrigeración no
siempre requieren la misma cantidad de refrigerante en
circulación. Para alcanzar la misma eliminación de calor
requerida en condiciones de carga reducida se requiere la
evaporación de menos líquido refrigerante. También funciona como
vasija; y allí se bombeará el refrigerante cuando se realicen
servicios de mantenimiento del sistema.
No todos los sistemas de refrigeración
incluyen un receptor separado. En algunos
equipos más pequeños con condensadores
enfriados por agua, se facilita el
espacio en el condensador para almacenar
una adecuada cantidad de líquido RECEPTOR

Figura 11
refrigerante.
El líquido en el receptor (o condensador) actúa como un sello

entre el gas caliente que entra al condensador y el fluido que
va hacia el dispositivo de expansión.
3. Válvula de expansión térmica (termostática): La válvula de
expansión térmica ha sido diseñada para admitir fluidos en un
evaporador a la velocidad exacta de transformación en vapor del
líquido dentro del evaporador. La Figura 12

18
muestra el medidor de una típica válvula
de expansión termostática. Este tipo de
medidor de líquidos siempre se usa en los
evaporadores de expansión directa porque
estrangulan el caudal del refrigerante en
proporción al grado de sobrecalentamiento
del vapor que sale del evaporador.
VÁLVULA DE EXPANSIÓN TÉRMICA

Figura 12
4. Válvula de flotador de baja
presión: Los dispositivos para
medición de líquidos analizados hasta
el momento se utilizan con
evaporadores de expansión directa.
La válvula de flotador de baja presión
es un tipo de medidor usado con un
evaporador inundado. La Figura 13
muestra una típica válvula de flotador
de baja presión. VÁLVULA DE FLOTADOR DE BAJA PRESIÓN
Figura 13
La función de la válvula de flotador de baja presión es
mantener el evaporador inundado repleto de líquido. El
flotador esférico controla el funcionamiento de la válvula
para mantener un nivel de líquido seguro en la cámara de
flotación. El líquido de alta presión del receptor se
expande hacia la presión más baja y sale de la válvula. El
vapor instantáneo de expansión se eleva sobre el nivel del líquido

19
y el líquido de baja presión circula hacia el evaporador. Al pasar a
través del evaporador, el líquido entra en ebullición y una mezcla de
burbujas de líquido y vapor retorna a la cámara de flotación, que
actúa como un receptor de baja presión o cámara de carga. El
propósito de la cámara de carga es separar el líquido del vapor; que
el vapor regrese al compresor y que el líquido pueda usarse
nuevamente en el evaporador.
5. Válvula de control de nivel de líquido: El tipo de válvula de
control de nivel más usada actualmente en aplicaciones industriales
es la válvula de control de nivel de líquido. Es, simplemente, una
válvula automática colocada en la línea de alimentación del líquido
hacia el evaporador que puede ser controlada por la boya del flotador
a nivel del líquido o por una celda ▲p. La válvula se ajusta en
respuesta a la señal externa para mantener el nivel preestablecido en
el evaporador. Se produce una presión a través de la válvula que
reduce la temperatura/presión del lado alto al lado bajo, similar a
los otros dispositivos de expansión descriptos. Ver Fig. 14. LADO
ALTO – LADO BAJO
Un sistema de refrigeración completo se divide en un lado de alta
presión y un lado de baja presión.
El “lado alto”, como se denomina comúnmente, se compone de todas las
partes del sistema, que encierran al refrigerante en su estado de
alta presión. Se inicia en el extremo de descarga del compresor y

20
VÁLVULA DE CONTROL DEL NIVEL DE LÍQUIDO
FIGURA 14
21
consiste en la línea de líquido de alta presión del condensador, el
receptor, y la línea de líquido del receptor hacia la entrada del
dispositivo de expansión.
Figura 15
El “lado bajo” se inicia en la salida del dispositivo del medidor de líquidos.
Consiste en la línea del refrigerante de baja presión hacia el
evaporador, el evaporador, la línea de succión y la parte del compresor
que se encuentra por debajo de las válvulas de descarga.
La Figura 15 muestra la división entre el lado alto (línea punteada) y el
lado bajo (línea continua).
REFRIGERANTES
El agua fría, circulada a través del serpentín de la unidad de tratamiento de
aire, absorberá el calor del aire. Dado que el proceso de refrigeración
consiste en la remoción de
22
calor de una sustancia y su absorción por otra sustancia, el agua en los
serpentines es un refrigerante (llamado refrigerante secundario). Cada
libra de agua circulada absorbe una BTU (kcal) por cada grado que aumenta
su temperatura.
La base de la refrigeración mecánica, no obstante, es la gran cantidad de
calor absorbido por el líquido refrigerante durante la vaporización.
Sabemos que una libra de agua circulada a presión atmosférica absorbe una
BTU por cada grado que aumenta su temperatura. Pero, cuando la
temperatura en ebullición alcanza los 212° F, se debe añadir 970 BTU a
una libra de agua para convertirla en vapor a presión atmosférica.
También hemos observado que la temperatura de ebullición del agua varía
con la presión a la que es sometida.
Todos los refrigerantes conocidos se comportarán de la misma manera que
el agua, excepto cuando se someten a diferentes presiones y
temperaturas.
Los fluidos pueden convertirse de un estado líquido a vapor y de vapor a
líquido, si existen los medios para medir su temperatura y presión. En
general, se recomienda el uso de un refrigerante con características que
permitan que pueda ser sometido repetidamente a estos cambios de estado, ya sea
a temperaturas requeridas en la aplicación y a presiones que permitan el uso de
un equipo económicamente práctico. Por ejemplo, sabemos que el refrigerante R-
12 entra en ebullición a temperatura atmosférica a nivel del mar, a

23
-21,6° F, y que la presión a temperatura en ebullición de 100° F es 117.2
psig. El R-12 es un refrigerante de uso común. Se han elaborado tablas
termodinámicas similares a las tablas de vapor para todos los
refrigerantes conocidos. A partir de su aplicación, es posible
determinar las propiedades o características del refrigerante tales como
temperatura, presión, volumen, densidad y entalpía o capacidad
calorífica. La elección del refrigerante apropiado para una aplicación
o uso particular se realiza en función de estas características y de
otros factores.
Ver la tabla del Refrigerante 22 en la Sección Tablas. Los valores dados son
para condiciones saturadas de líquido y vapor a las temperaturas y
presiones indicadas.
El la columna del lado izquierdo, las temperaturas están expresadas en
grados Fahrenheit. El siguiente título es Presión. Está expresada en
libras por pulgada cuadrada, donde la columna de la izquierda muestra la
presión absoluta (psia) y la derecha la presión manométrica (psig)
correspondientes a la temperatura de saturación de la primera columna.
Se podrá observar que la diferencia entre las presiones absolutas y
manométricas, que es la presión atmosférica es, en cada instancia, 14.7
psi.
Hacia la derecha, el volumen denota el espacio ocupado por una libra del
refrigerante a la condición de presión y temperatura dadas, expresado en
pies cúbicos por libra de líquido a la izquierda y

24
pies cúbicos por libra de vapor a la derecha. Los símbolos usados son:
vf: volumen de líquido saturado; Vg: volumen de vapor saturado. Se
debe tener en cuenta que cuando la temperatura y la presión de un
vapor saturado aumentan, el volumen del vapor disminuye.
No obstante, si la temperatura de un vapor aumenta mientras la presión
permanece constante; en otras palabras, si el vapor es sobrecalentado, el
volumen aumenta. Existen tablas y cuadros que indican las propiedades de los
vapores sobrecalentados para los distintos tipos de refrigerantes.
La densidad es la masa o el peso del refrigerante a una condición
saturada dada expresada en libras de refrigerante por pie cúbico. Los
símbolos usados son: 1/vf: densidad del líquido saturado y 1/vg: densidad
del vapor saturado.
La siguiente columna muestra la cantidad de calor en BTU contenida en
una libra de refrigerante, ya sea líquido o vapor, a una condición dada
de presión y temperatura.
Sabemos que el calor total de una sustancia es la suma de su calor
sensible y latente. En las tablas de vapor, se supone que el agua a 32°
F no contiene calor. Su entalpía o calor total es 0.00 BTU/lb. Este
punto de referencia tiene, por supuesto, un valor simplemente práctico,
porque el calor latente debe ser disipado del agua para poder congelarla
y el calor sensible debe disminuir la temperatura del hielo a cualquiera
sea la temperatura existente. Por lo tanto, el agua no contiene calor por
debajo de los 32° F.

25
En los comienzos de la aplicación del proceso de refrigeración, raramente
se usaban temperaturas del refrigerante inferiores a -40° F, y esa
temperatura fue elegida arbitrariamente como el punto en el cual el
líquido refrigerante no contiene calor y se estableció como punto de
referencia. En las tablas de saturación de la mayoría de los
refrigerantes, la entalpía del líquido a -40° F es 0.000 BTU/lb. La
entalpía del líquido saturado por debajo de -40° es, por consiguiente,
expresada en un valor negativo.
La tabla nos muestra que una libra de líquido Refrigerante-22 saturado a
37.7 psig y 15° F contiene 14.46 BTU.
Para vaporizarse, la libra de líquido debe absorber 91.45 BTU, según se
observa en la columna central. La entalpía del vapor saturado en la
tercera columna es la suma de las otras dos:
14.46 + 91.45 = 105.91 BTU/lb
Ver Figura 16
R-22 PROPIEDADES DE SATURACIÓN — TABLA DE TEMPERATURA
TEMP. PRESIÓN VOLUMEN DENSIDAD ENTALPÍA ENTROPÍA TEMP.

cu ft/lb Ib/cu ft Btu/lb Btu/(lbX*R)
°F PSIA PSIG LÍQUIDO VAPOR LÍQUIDO VAPOR LÍQUIDO LATENTE VAPOR LÍQUIDO VAPOR °F
Vf Vg 1/vf 1/vg hf hfg hg sf sg
10 47.464 32.768 0.012088 1.1290 82.724 0.88571 13.104 92.338 105.442 0.02932 0.22592 10
11 48.423 33.727 0.012105 1.1077 82.612 0.90275 13.376 92.162 105.538 0.02990 0.22570 11
12 49..396 34.700 0.012121 1.0869 82.501 0.92005 13.648 91.986 105.633 0.03047 0.22548 12
13 50..384 35.688 0.012138 1.0665 82.389 0.93761 13.920 91.808 105.728 0.03104 0.22527 13
14 51..387 36.691 0.012154 1.0466 82.276 0.95544 14.193 91.630 105.823 0.03161 0.22505 14
1.0272 82.164 0.22484

15 52.405 37.709 0.012171 0.97352 14.466 91.451 105.917 0.03218 15
16 53.438 38.742 0.012188 1.0082 0.99188 14.739 91.272 106.011 0.03275 0.22463 16
82.051
17 54.487 39.791 0.012204 1.0105 15.013 91.091 106.105 0.03332 17
0.98961 81.938 0.22442
18 55..551 40.855 0.012221 1.0294 15.288 90.910 106.198 0.03389 18
0.97144 81.825 0.22421
19 56..631 41.935 0.012238 1.0486 15.562 90.728 106.290 0.03446 19
0.95368 81.711 0.22400
Figura 16
26
De la capacidad calorífica total del vapor saturado, 105.91 BTU, más
del 86% se absorbió como calor latente necesario para vaporizar el
líquido a 15° F.
Los símbolos usados para la entalpía son los siguientes: hf: entalpía de
líquido saturado; hfg: entalpía de vaporización y hg entalpía de vapor
saturado.
El siguiente título es Entropía. Sabemos que la energía puede
transformarse de una clase a otra. En estos procesos, no es posible usar
parte de la energía para producir trabajo útil. Por ejemplo, en la
conversión de energía eléctrica de un motor a energía mecánica, parte de
la energía eléctrica se disipa en forma de calor. La entropía mide la
parte de la energía de una sustancia que no puede utilizarse para
producir trabajo útil. Se define como la relación de calor añadido a una
sustancia con respecto a la temperatura absoluta a la cual es añadido.
Las tablas elaboradas para los refrigerantes se han desarrollado a partir
de cuadros o diagramas, que describen en detalle la condición del
refrigerante solo para condiciones saturadas. El estudio del diagrama de
la Figura 17 facilita los cálculos del efecto de refrigeración, la
cantidad de refrigerante a circular y otros datos básicos al momento de
considerar el ciclo de refrigeración real. Estos diagramas se presentan
en varios tamaños [para apreciar su magnitud].

27
DIAGRAMA DE PRESIÓN-ENTALPÍA
Figura 17
Este es un diagrama típico de Presión-Entalpía de un refrigerante y se

usa para analizar sistemas con cualquier tipo de compresor de
refrigeración, ya sea reciprocante, centrífugo, de tornillo, etc.
La ordenada, que es la línea vertical ubicada en el lateral izquierdo del

gráfico, indica la presión absoluta del refrigerante.
La presión permanece igual a lo largo de todas las líneas trazadas en el
ángulo derecho de la ordenada.
Ver Figura n.° 18.

28
Figura 18
La abscisa (la línea horizontal en la parte inferior del diagrama)
muestra el calor total (entalpía) en BTU por libra de refrigerante a
cualquier condición dada en el gráfico. Ver Figura n.° 19.
Figura 19
La curva de la izquierda representa el líquido saturado (Figura 20). En
cualquier punto de esta curva, cada libra de refrigerante contiene la
cantidad exacta de calor requerido para mantenerlo en estado líquido a la

29
temperatura correspondiente a la presión existente. Todo el calor
disipado del líquido saturado genera una pérdida de temperatura y el
líquido sufre un subenfriamiento. El área hacia la izquierda de la línea
del líquido saturado se conoce como zona de líquido subenfriado.
Figura 20
Si se agregara calor al líquido saturado, se produciría un cambio de
estado y provocaría el proceso de vaporización y el movimiento del punto
del refrigerante, a temperatura y presión constante, hacia la derecha en
la curva del líquido saturado. Dado que tanto el líquido como el gas
coexisten a temperatura de ebullición hasta que se evapore todo el
refrigerante, el refrigerante se encuentra en una condición mixta,
moviéndose en la línea de la curva hacia la derecha. Se encuentra en la
zona mixta de líquido y vapor, que también se denomina zona saturada.
La curva de la derecha es la curva del vapor saturado. Esto significa que
todo el líquido se ha vaporizado. El calor añadido al vapor saturado
genera un aumento de temperatura. El refrigerante se mueve hacia la
derecha de la línea de vapor saturado, hacia la zona de recalentamiento.
La parte superior de la curva es el punto crítico, sobre el cual no

30
pue
de haber líquido en el refrigerante.
Las líneas de volumen específico constante
(Ft3/lb) se muestran en la región de recalentamiento.
Parten desde la curva de vapor saturado y se
extienden hacia la región de sobrecalentamiento, VOLUMEN CONSTANTE

Figura 21
en un ángulo levemente ascendente hacia la línea
horizontal. Ver Figura 21.
Las líneas de temperatura constante, °F, en
general se muestran solo en la región de
recalentamiento. En la región mixta, son
normalmente horizontales (Figura 22) y corresponden

TEMPERATURA CONSTANTE
a su presión de saturación. En la región Figura 22
subenfriada, son verticales y corresponden a la
entalpía en saturación.
Las líneas de entropía constante (BTU/lb °F)
solo aparecen en la región de recalentamiento,
donde se extienden desde la curva de vapor
saturado. Ver Figura 23.

ENTROPÍA CONSTANTE
Figura 23
31
RESUMEN:
Ahora que hemos repasado los fundamentos del ciclo de refrigeración y
estudiado el gráfico de Presión-Entalpía del Refrigerante, veamos cómo
podemos usar esa información para hacer un diagrama de un supuesto
sistema de refrigeración. El dibujo o diagrama les indicará la cantidad
de trabajo a realizar por cada componente del sistema, además de las
presiones o temperaturas involucradas.
Como mencionamos anteriormente, el dibujo o diagrama puede aplicarse a
cualquier refrigerante y tipo de compresor, condensador, evaporador o
dispositivo de expansión. También es aplicable a una carga de cualquier
tamaño ya que representa la acción de una libra de refrigerante.
En nuestro primer diagrama, no tendremos en cuenta la presión real y las
lecturas de los valores de entalpía porque solo queremos aprender el
significado de las líneas.
Ver las Hojas de trabajo 1 y 2. En la ordenada o línea vertical, escribir
“Presión, psia”; en la abscisa o línea horizontal, escribir “Entalpía,
BTU/lb”.
En la curva de la izquierda, escribir “Líquido saturado” y en la de la
derecha, “Vapor saturado”.
Dibujar la línea del evaporador entre las dos curvas. Marcar la
intersección de la línea del evaporador con la línea de líquido saturado

32
con la letra “A” y la línea de vapor saturado con la letra “C”.
Trazar la línea del condensador y escribir la letra “E” en la línea de
líquido saturado.
Desde el punto “C”, trazar la línea del compresor en forma paralela a
las líneas de entropía constante hasta que se cruce con la línea del
condensador. Marcar este punto con la letra “D”.
Desde el punto “E”, trazar la línea de expansión verticalmente en
sentido descendente hacia la línea del evaporador. Marcar este punto con
la letra “B”.
Luego, rotular las líneas del Evaporador, Compresor, Condensador y del
Dispositivo de expansión.
Proyectar las líneas A-C y D-E hacia la línea de presión. Esto nos indicará la
presión del condensador y la presión del evaporador.
Proyectar las líneas en forma descendente desde los puntos B, C y D
hacia la línea de entalpía. Al leer el valor en BTU/lb del refrigerante
para cada uno de estos puntos, descubrimos lo siguiente:
C menos B = cantidad de trabajo producido en el evaporador
D menos C = cantidad de trabajo producido por el compresor
D menos E = cantidad de trabajo producido en el condensador
Con esta información, podemos multiplicar el trabajo producido por cada libra de
refrigerante por el total de libras circulantes y determinar

33
el trabajo total que debe realizar cada componente. El próximo paso es
seleccionar los componentes del tamaño adecuado.
La Parte II analiza las matemáticas del ciclo de refrigeración.

-1-
Escuela de refrigeración industrial básica
REFRIGERACIÓN DE BAJA TEMPERATURA
PARTE I
INTRODUCCIÓN
Este documento servirá como una revisión de los fundamentos de refrigeración
mecánica, a la vez que servirá como una introducción a los sistemas compuestos y en
cascada que se utilizan en los sistemas de refrigeración de baja temperatura.
SISTEMAS DE UNA SOLA ETAPA
Primero observemos los principios fundamentales del sistema de refrigeración por
compresión de vapor de una sola etapa. La figura 1 muestra que existen cuatro componentes
principales en un sistema de una sola etapa, a saber: un compresor, un condensador, un
evaporador y un dispositivo de medición.
Figura 1
-2-
En este sistema, el refrigerante extrae el calor de una sustancia en el evaporador y, al hacerlo,
se produce la vaporización. El compresor elimina el vapor del refrigerante del evaporador,
aumentando la presión y el nivel de temperatura del refrigerante y lo descarga en el
condensador. El calor absorbido en el evaporador y el calor agregado por el proceso de
compresión se elimina en el condensador al transferirse a un fluido más frío (aire, agua) a
través de la superficie de intercambio de calor; por lo tanto, se enfría y se condensa el vapor
caliente de alta presión. Luego, el refrigerante licuado fluye a través de un dispositivo de
medición donde se reducen su presión y su temperatura hasta alcanzar las del evaporador. Si
estimamos un ciclo ideal, los balances de calor y caudal pueden establecerse y analizarse
fácilmente a través de un diagrama de presión-entalpía.
Supondremos que contamos con una aplicación diseñada con amoníaco como refrigerante
para operar a una temperatura de evaporación de +10º F. con una temperatura de
condensación de +95º F. El ciclo aparecería como en la Figura 2 sin sobrecalentamiento del
gas de succión o subenfriamiento del líquido. En esta figura se observa un ciclo ideal.
Para simplificar las ilustraciones, ignoraremos algunos de los factores que impiden lograr el
ciclo de refrigeración ideal en la práctica actual. La Figura 2 muestra que el vapor del
refrigerante se comprime en una sola carrera del pistón, el proceso que va desde el punto B
al C.
3
Figura 2
La entalpía es la medición de la capacidad calorífica del refrigerante. Cuando se realiza el
trabajo o se traslada el calor, el refrigerante sufre un cambio de entalpía. Volviendo al ciclo
ideal del diagrama P-H, notamos que la expansión del líquido de alta presión (puntos D a A) a
la presión del evaporador constituye un proceso de entalpía constante. A medida que el
refrigerante se expande hacia la presión del evaporador, parte de él pasa rápidamente y enfría
el resto del líquido a una temperatura similar a la del evaporador. El proceso en el evaporador
se muestra a presión y temperatura constantes. En el punto B, el gas de succión ingresa al
compresor bajo condiciones de vapor saturadas. La compresión tiene lugar entre los puntos B
y C a lo largo de una línea de entropía constante. Recuerde que estamos analizando un ciclo
ideal y que, en la compresión real, participan la fricción al igual que la transferencia de calor
entre el pistón, las paredes del cilindro y el aire ambiente que rodea la máquina, así como el
sobrecalentamiento del vapor de succión antes de que ingrese al compresor.
En el punto C, la descarga de gas sobrecalentado ingresa al condensador. Luego de que el gas
es enfriado (desobrecalentado) a condiciones saturadas, se produce la condensación a líquido

4
a través de la región de vapor líquido a la línea líquida en el punto D, completando el ciclo.
Ahora, consideremos lo que puede decirnos el diagrama P-H con respecto a este proceso de
refrigeración. Hay que tener en cuenta que en la Figura 2 hemos mostrado una temperatura de
evaporador de +10º F. y una temperatura de condensación de 95º F. y que el refrigerante es
amoníaco.
1. Enfriamiento útil o efecto neto refrigerante
El efecto de la refrigeración por libra de amoníaco que circula a través del
evaporador es la diferencia de entalpía entre los puntos A y B. En este caso, 615 -
149 = 466 BTU/lb. de amoníaco.
2. Velocidad del caudal o flujo másico
Las libras de amoníaco que circulan por minuto por tonelada se dividen 200
veces por el efecto de la refrigeración, o bien 200 ÷ 466 = 0,43 lbs. de amoníaco
por tonelada por minuto.
3. Trabajo del compresor
El calor de la compresión se halla en la diferencia de entalpías en los puntos C y
B. En este caso, 718 - 615 = 103 BTU/lb. de amoníaco. Dado que ya hemos
determinado que deben circular 0,43 lbs. de amoníaco por minuto por tonelada,
esto supone que el trabajo de compresión es de 103 X 0,43 ó 44 BTU/Min. por
TR.
4. Potencia
La potencia teórica por tonelada se obtiene convirtiendo el trabajo de compresión
por tonelada en potencia. En este caso, nuestra potencia (HP) teórica sería de 44 ÷
42,42 ó 1,04 por tonelada de potencia (HP).

5
5. Relación de compresión
La relación de compresión es la presión de descarga absoluta dividida por la
presión de succión absoluta. Para las condiciones mostradas, la relación de
compresión (CR) sería 196 ÷ 39 = 5,0.
Ahora, consideremos el mismo sistema de compresión de vapor de una sola etapa, pero
disminuyamos la temperatura del evaporador a -20º F. El diagrama P-H sería similar a la
Figura 3.
Figura 3
6
Los factores importantes analizados para la Figura 2 se muestran en la Tabla 1, así como los
valores comparativos para las condiciones dadas en la Figura 3.
TEMP. DEL EFECTO DEL REFRIG. LBS. BHP RELACIÓN DE

EVAPORADOR ºF. BTU/L8. NH3 NH3/T.R. TEÓRICO COMPRESIÓN
+ 10º F. 466 0,43 1,04 5
- 20º F. 456 0,44 1,62 11
Tabla n.º 1
Note las diferencias en la tabla. A medida que disminuye la temperatura del evaporador, la
relación de compresión aumenta y la HP teórica por tonelada aumenta. Estas cifras, que se
determinaron comparando los ciclos ideales en un diagrama P-H, parecen razonables. No
obstante, en una planta real, los requisitos de potencia serán superiores a causa de
determinadas ineficiencias del compresor. Relaciones superiores de compresión suponen
mayores temperaturas de descarga y menor rendimiento volumétrico. Investiguemos esta
cuestión de rendimiento volumétrico en detalle.
La Figura 4 a continuación muestra un pistón y un cilindro típicos utilizados en un
compresor alternativo.
7
Normalmente, estos tienen uno o más pistones
para comprimir el gas. La mayoría de los
compresores de alta velocidad modernos
cuentan con múltiples bancos de cilindros en
un patrón en V o W para que sean compactos.
Cuando el pistón avanza en su carrera hacia la
parte superior central, siempre debe haber
distancia entre el final de la carrera y la parte
superior del cabezal.
Figura 4
La cantidad exacta se determina a través de diversos factores, entre ellos se encuentran las
tolerancias de fabricación y el diseño de las válvulas. Una distancia con una proximidad del 4%
es razonable para la mayoría de los compresores modernos. A medida que el pistón realiza su
carrera en el cilindro, podremos seguir el proceso en una tarjeta indicadora teórica para
el ciclo ideal. La Figura 5 muestra la presión en comparación con el volumen dentro del
cilindro. Cuando el pistón llega al final de la carrera de compresión, la distancia impide
que se expulse todo el gas del cilindro.
Recuerde que el gas restante está bajo
condiciones de presión de descarga, que
significa 196 psia para el ejemplo que hemos
presentado. En realidad, la presión dentro del
cilindro sería superior a causa de la caída de
presión a través de las válvulas. Ahora,
a medida que el pistón retrocede Figura 5

8
-8-
su dirección y comienza la carrera de succión, no puede ingresar gas del lado inferior del
evaporador hasta que la distancia de gas del cilindro disminuya su presión hasta alcanzar la
correspondiente a la condición de succión. En algún punto de la carrera de succión, el volumen de
distancia es tal que este gas “sobrante” alcanza una condición de presión lo suficientemente baja que
permite que nuevo gas ingrese al cilindro a través de la válvula de succión. Las relaciones de
compresión superiores suponen una mayor propagación de presión entre las condiciones de
descarga y succión, y esto genera un trayecto mayor del pistón antes de que comience el
trabajo útil. Si el pistón se traslada la mitad de su carrera antes de comenzar a admitir gas
fresco a causa de este proceso de reexpansión, entonces solo 50% del total del
desplazamiento puede realizar trabajos útiles, o bien la carrera es efectiva en un 50%.
Por consiguiente, el compresor alternativo no toma la misma “cantidad” de gas cuando opera bajo
distintas relaciones de compresión. La relación de gas real que un pistón bombea a su
desplazamiento teórico es el Rendimiento volumétrico. Por lo tanto, el problema del diseño y las
placas de las válvulas para mantener un volumen de distancia bajo resultan de primordial importancia
para el fabricante. Otros factores, tales como la velocidad de transferencia de calor lejos de un
cilindro, las fugas en válvulas y pistones, el trefilado y el refrigerante, afectan al rendimiento
volumétrico. No obstante, una vez que el diseño del compresor se ha establecido, el
rendimiento volumétrico es, ante todo, una función de la relación de compresión.
La Figura 6 a continuación muestra el rendimiento volumétrico comparado con la relación

de compresión para un compresor típico de alta velocidad de amoníaco.
9
No necesariamente se sigue una línea recta,
como se muestra en la figura, pero se encuentra
razonablemente cerca dentro del rango de las
relaciones de compresión mostradas. Hay que
tener en cuenta que el rendimiento
volumétrico, o la capacidad del compresor de
realizar trabajos útiles, disminuyen a medida
que la relación de compresión aumenta. Dado Figura 6

que el rendimiento volumétrico constituye un
factor principal al determinar la capacidad real
de un compresor, se trata de un buen motivo
por el cual deberíamos considerar la separación
de etapas de los compresores, a modo de
mantener la relación de compresión del
compresor individual baja y con el mejor
rendimiento posible.
La Figura 7 ilustra los resultados con un
sistema de una sola etapa y por qué
deberíamos utilizar un sistema de compresión
compuesto. Hay que tener en cuenta que, a
medida que la temperatura del evaporador se
reduce con una temperatura de condensación
constante,
Figura 7
10
se reduce el rendimiento del compresor (T.R.). Si bien la BHP del compresor también disminuye,
aumenta la afección neta de BHP/TR. De modo que es posible observar que, a medida que
aumenta la relación de compresión, disminuye el ciclo de rendimiento. Para mantener rendimientos
de ciclos elevados con una BHP/TR baja, se utilizan sistemas compuestos o en cascada.
Sistemas compuestos:
Un sistema compuesto o por etapas constituye básicamente una combinación de dos o más ciclos.
Esta discusión se centrará en las etapas directas, solo dos etapas. No obstante, los principios también
se aplican a sistemas de tres etapas o más. Observemos los componentes básicos tal como se
disponen para la compresión de dos etapas. Consulte la Figura 8.
Figura 8
11
A menudo, las etapas en cascada se utilizan en el rango de temperatura que estamos planteando. Los
sistemas en cascada utilizan dos o más sistemas de refrigeración separados con una conexión
común que es un condensador en cascada, en el que el refrigerante de la etapa inferior se
condensa con el refrigerante de la etapa superior a medida que se evapora. Consulte la Figura 9.
Figura 9
Volviendo a la Figura 8, puede observarse que se utiliza un solo refrigerante y que circula en serie a
través de las dos etapas. En la línea de descarga del compresor de la etapa inferior se observa un
refrigerador intermedio cerrado de líquido y gas. Además de éste, pueden usarse otras alternativas.
Tiene dos objetivos: 1. Refrigera el gas de descarga sobrecalentado que proviene del compresor de
etapa inferior. 2. Refrigera el líquido de alta presión entre el condensador y el evaporador. Para
facilitar la tarea, se omite el receptor de alta presión habitual. El tipo de intercambiador de
calor mostrado mantendrá el líquido a una presión alta, lo que generará una mejor operación
de los medidores del refrigerante en el evaporador.

12
A menudo, se utiliza un intercambiador de calor de evaporación, en el que todo el líquido se
evapora a presión intermedia. Este tipo tiene la ventaja de enfriar el líquido al máximo, pero
esto se compensa con las desventajas de controlar el líquido de baja presión. El objetivo
principal del intercambiador de calor es enfriar (desobrecalentar) el gas caliente de descarga.
No obstante, se obtiene un beneficio en el rendimiento del ciclo al refrigerar el líquido de alta
presión y al captar el vapor instantáneo en el compresor de etapa superior. Observemos este
sistema de etapa directa en un diagrama de presión-entalpía, en la Figura 10.
En este ejemplo, el trabajo de compresión se muestra dividido entre la primera y la segunda
etapa. La presión ideal inmediata puede encontrarse en la medida lineal en el diagrama P-H
para hallar el punto intermedio entre los extremos de presión operativa. O bien, la respuesta
puede calcularse tomando la raíz cuadrada del producto de dichos extremos de presión.
Figura 10
13
P1 = PRESIÓN IDEAL INTERMEDIA
Como se muestra en este ejemplo, la presión ideal intermedia debería ser de alrededor de 60 psia. En
la práctica real, es común agregar cerca de 5 psi a la presión ideal. Dado que la operación a
carga máxima y la presión máxima de condensación existen normalmente solo durante un
breve período, esta suerte de desequilibrio de trabajo deliberado ofrecerá, en general, un
mejor rendimiento a la planta. Asimismo, la selección de presión intermedia dependerá de la
disponibilidad de los aumentos de desplazamientos de equipos en la línea de fabricación de
equipos de etapas superiores e inferiores que puedan utilizarse.
Volviendo a la Figura 10, la línea punteada “Vapor intermedio” indica que una parte del
líquido de alta temperatura y alta presión se evapora a la presión de succión del equipo de
etapa superior para refrigerar el líquido restante a 50º F. y para refrigerar (desobrecalentar) el
gas de descarga del compresor de etapa inferior nuevamente a condiciones saturadas (30º F.).
En la práctica real, la succión de ambos compresores tomaría un poco de gas apenas
sobrecalentado. La continuación de la línea punteada perteneciente a la compresión de etapa
inferior ilustra que la operación de una sola etapa precisaría más potencia y generaría
temperaturas más elevadas de descarga. En el ciclo ideal, mostramos una temperatura de
descarga de 300º F. para una sola etapa y de 185º F

14
para ciclos de compresión compuesta. Esta selección de 50º F como la temperatura que resulta
del líquido refrigerado fue puramente arbitraria. No obstante, 20º F. de temperatura intermedia
es razonable para este tipo de intercambiador de calor.
El vapor instantáneo que se desarrolla en el intercambiador de calor es una carga adicional para el
compresor de etapa superior. Por lo tanto, su capacidad debe ser adecuada para manejar la carga del
evaporador, además del vapor instantáneo. Como regla general, la función de refrigeración necesitará que
el compresor de etapa superior cuente con una capacidad de tonelaje de cerca del 25% superior a la del
compresor de etapa inferior. Esto no indica una relación de desplazamiento del compresor entre equipos
de etapa superior e inferior, dado que la densidad del gas es mucho mayor en condiciones intermedias que
en condiciones de evaporación. Por ejemplo, a 30º F., una libra de gas de amoníaco ocupa cerca de 4,8
pies cúbicos, mientras que una libra de gas a 20º F. ocupa cerca de 14,7 pies cúbicos.
La Tabla 2 muestra los resultados de este estudio de una sola etapa en comparación con la compresión
compuesta.
TIPO DE EFECTO DEL LBS. NB3/ BHP RELACIÓN DE RENDIMIENTO DESPLAZAMIENTO B.H.P.
COMPRESIÓN REFRIG. T.R. TEÓRICO/T.R. COMPRESIÓN VOLUMÉTRICO REAL DEL REAL POR
BTU/LB. NH3 COMPRESOR POR T.R. DE EVAP.
T.R.
466 0,43 1,04 5 72% 4,4 1,4

EVAPOR. DE
ETAPA SIMPLE DE
+10º F EVAP.
EVAPOR. DE 456 0,44 1,62 11 40% 16,2 3
ETAPA SIMPLE
DE -20º F
COMPUESTO DE ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA ETAPA
DOS ETAPAS INF. SUP. INF. SUP. INF. SUP. INF. SUP. INF. SUP. INF. SUP. INF. SUP.
-20º F DE EVAP. 507 0,39 0,48 0,59 0,84 3,3 3,3 82% 82% 7,0 2,8 1,04 1,25
COMPARACIONES TEÓRICAS Y REALES EN LA

COMPRESIÓN DE UNA SOLA ETAPA Y LA COMPRESIÓN
COMPUESTA
Tabla 2
15
Estas cifras revelan valores teóricos que se calculan utilizando un ciclo ideal en la tabla de
presión-entalpía y también muestran los requisitos reales según el cálculo a partir del
conocimiento de la falta de rendimiento del compresor en diversos coeficientes de
compresión. Las últimas dos columnas muestran comparaciones interesantes entre los
desplazamientos totales del compresor requeridas por tonelada y la potencia al freno real por
tonelada del evaporador.
Asimismo, se debe observar que los rendimientos volumétricos idénticos se muestran para el
compresor de etapa inferior y el compresor de etapa superior, en función de que tiene las
mismas relaciones de compresión. Esto podría no ser del todo preciso, pero es
razonablemente cercano. El V.E. de etapa superior podría ser un poco superior que el del
compresor de etapa inferior. El gas de succión absorbe una cantidad importante de calor antes
de pasar por las válvulas de succión hacia el cilindro. Los cilindros del compresor de etapa
inferior manejan un gas que es menos denso que el que maneja un equipo de etapa superior.
Por lo tanto, este gas absorbe una mayor cantidad de calor por libra de circulación. Por lo
tanto, en la práctica real, puede haber algún tipo de variación en el rendimiento volumétrico,
aunque se utilicen compresores idénticos con la misma relación de compresión. El error en
esta suposición sería pequeño.
Aparte de la cuestión de los costos operativos elevados de la compresión de una sola etapa en
un rango de temperatura bajo, se deben considerar el mantenimiento del compresor y las
limitaciones del fabricante. La mayoría de los fabricantes tienen una limitación de cerca de 9-
12 en la relación de compresión cuando se trata de compresores alternativos. A medida que
aumenta la relación de compresión, también aumenta la temperatura de descarga del
compresor. El calor excesivo siempre es una preocupación principal, ya que se trata del
generador de los gastos elevados de mantenimiento a causa de la falta de lubricación, la

16
destilación y la asimetría de las válvulas. El sobrecalentamiento por succión debe controlarse
cuidadosamente, en especial en sistemas que funcionan a relaciones de compresión elevadas.
No hace falta aclarar que la operación a una relación de compresión baja reducirá la
posibilidad de desgaste de los cojinetes y otras piezas móviles del compresor. Actualmente, se
dispone de compresores internos compuestos para trabajos a temperaturas bajas, lo que reduce
el costo, en primer lugar, y además provee excelentes características operativas. Los
compresores internos compuestos son equipos alternativos que se fabrican con cilindros
diseñados para trabajar a bajos niveles de temperatura y cilindros diseñados para actuar al
nivel de etapa superior. El traslado del gas se realiza de manera interna y estos equipos
también pueden incluir intercambiadores de calor integrados al chasis para desobrecalentar el
gas intermedio.
En sistemas más grandes, se pueden utilizar turbocompresores de múltiples etapas, donde las
ruedas actúan como etapas (directas) según lo requerido.
Puertos laterales
El puerto lateral es un caso especial que integra la familia de los sistemas compuestos. Los puertos
laterales cuentan con cargas de enfriamiento a más de una temperatura del evaporador. En un
puerto lateral, la presión intermedia se establece por cargas laterales que provienen de otros
sectores de la planta, que deben manejarse con el compresor de etapa superior. La carga
externa que diferencia a un puerto lateral de un sistema compuesto se capta, en general, mediante el
refrigerador intermedio. Si se utiliza un depurador de succión separado (acumulador, receptor
de baja presión), la carga externa puede traerse directamente hacia la línea de succión de los
equipos de etapa superior.

17
Resumen:
Los sistemas de compresión de una sola etapa no son adecuados en ninguna de las siguientes
condiciones:
1. Cuando se hallen relaciones de compresión excesivas. Por lo general, las relaciones de
12 a 1 representan el máximo para compresores alternativos de una sola etapa.
2. Cuando sea posible obtener temperaturas de descarga de gas excesivas. El límite es,
normalmente, un máximo de 275º.
3. La BHP debe analizarse detenidamente en relación con los costos operativos. Los
sistemas compuestos permiten un rendimiento operativo superior.
4. Cuando se necesitan prolongadas horas de funcionamiento. Es muy poco
recomendable desde el punto de vista de la confiabilidad, elegir un equipo de una sola
etapa que se encuentre próximo a su limitación máxima.
Cuando un sistema de refrigeración de una sola etapa no es adecuado, puede haber dos
alternativas: un sistema compuesto o en cascada.

18
1. Sistemas compuestos:
A. Dos o más compresores de una etapa en serie.
Puede ser cualquier tipo de compresor.
B. Uso de compresores internos compuestos reciprocantes.
C. Uso de turbocompresores de etapas múltiples.
2. Sistemas en cascada:
A. Dos o más sistemas de refrigeración de una sola etapa
con un nivel de condensación de refrigerante de etapa
inferior establecido por un nivel de evaporación de
etapa superior.
Los sistemas compuestos se caracterizan por el uso del mismo refrigerante en todos los
niveles de funcionamiento del sistema.
Los sistemas en cascada pueden utilizar diferentes refrigerantes en cada nivel del
funcionamiento.
Los puertos laterales son variaciones del tipo compuesto dado que habrá cargas de
refrigerante en más de un nivel de temperatura.

19
Escuela de refrigeración industrial básica Ecuaciones
Relaciones y ecuaciones utilizadas frecuentemente
I. Ciclo de refrigeración básica
1. NRE (Btu / #) = HB - HA
Ton X 200
2. Velocidad del caudal (flujo másico) (# / min) = NRE
3. Entrada del compresor CFM = Velocidad del caudal (flujo másico) x veloc. Vol.B
4. Altura adiab. (Btu / #) = HC - HB
5. Altura adiab. (pies) = (Hc - HB) x 778
6. Altura real (Btu / #) = HC - HB

Rend.
7. Altura real (pies) = (Hc - HB) x 778
Rend.
Veloc. de caudal x Alt. real (Btu / #)
8. IHP del compresor = 42,4
IHP = HP indicada
A Design Manual
Industrial Refrigeration 102:
Milton W. Garland, PH.d., P.E.
2001 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference

Long Beach, CA
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of the 9th Annual Meeting of the International Institute of Ammonia
Refrigeration is due to the work of the authors whose technical papers appear in this
book.
IIAR expresses its deepest appreciation to these authors for their unselfish
contributions for the betterment of the industry.
Thank you.
IIAR Board of Directors
Notice
The views expressed in the papers contained in this
book are those of the individual authors. They do not
constitute the official views of IIAR and are not
endorsed by it.
International
Institute of
Ammonia Refrigeration
1200 19th Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C.20036-2412
(202) 857-1 100
4
SUP E RH EAT
T
E
a By:
Weston G. Strauch, P r e s i d e n t ,
I R e f r i g e r a t i o n E q u i p m e n t Company
New Orleans, Louisiana
Prepared For:
IIAR 9 t h Annual Meeting
March 29-April 1, 1987
Hyatt I s l a n d i a , San Diego, Cal f o r n i a
-33-
SUPERHEAT
BY
Weston G. Strauch
New Orleans, LA I
Some 30 years ago when I was just getting my feet wet in I
the air c o n d i t i o n i n g and refrigeration world I worked f o r a
Carrier marine contractor in New Orleans. The man operating
1
t h e company w a s r e s p e c t e d in New Orleans as a fully knowledge- 1
able a i r conditioning and refrigeration man, both in engineer-
i n g , d e s i g n and application. We were negotiating a sale of
several l a r g e Carrier compressors to Lykes Steamship Line and
a f t e r the proposal was delivered, we were awaiting the order.
I
We got a phone call from a t o p Lykes man. He said t h e y wanted
to know the d i s c h a r g e temperature of the Carrier compressor.
None of us knew. We contacted the Carrier marine office in New
Pork City. We figured that Carrier must have run tests i n
their laboratories and they must know t h i s . The marine office
I
didn't know, and they passed this on to Syracuse.
week went by and one day a phone call came in from Syracuse.
More than a
1
The voice at the other end wanted to know what the suction
temperature was. Wow we thought, t h e y don't know, and are
stalling f o r time. We told them that it was to be zero de-
grees, F. T h e next day another phone call came in. Now they
wanted to know t h e condensing temperature. Again we were
critical of the Carrier. Next they wanted to know the refrig-
erant. Wow we thought, they sure don't know much up there.
Finally a number was given to us, and we relayed this to
-34-
1
Lykes. Eventually we got the order. Now today we all are
II going to learn more about Superheat, and discharge gas tempera-
1 tures.
The subject of t h i s presentation is Superheat:.
I Created by yours truly, 1986 for an "R" in the ASHRAE

Presentation, New O r l e a n s , LA.
1 How does Superheat affect compressor discharge tempera-
ture? There are many ways Superheat operates w i t h i n the
t refrigeration and a i r conditioning system. Today we are going
I to see how it affects the operation of the compressor and how

the Superheat varies with different refrigerants and operating
s conditions.
The Pressure Temperature Chart is a part of our very life
if we do very much in designing air conditioning and refrigera-
I tion systems.
All of us are well acquainted with the Tables shown on the
screen. These are the Saturated Gas Tables, and we all learned
in our high s c h o o l physics that for every temperature there is
E an equivalent pressure.
3 These tables show a l l the most popular refrigerants, and

many well trained people confuse these tables with the s u b j e c t
1 of t h i s presentation.
Way over there in Dresden, Germany, there lived a well
I noted scientist. What h e discovered to this day has an affect
I on our activities as a i r conditioning and refrigeration e n g i -

neers.
r The man, Mr. R i c h a r d Mollier, graduated Summa Cum Laude in
I
-35-
college. He f o u n d himself experimenting in the compression of
gases, and he discovered t h a t as gas is compressed, heat is
generated- He drew up some charts and t a b l e s .

Richard Mollier, born in 1863, l i v e d a l i f e of scientific
research, and died at the age of 7 2 , in 1935.
Today charts and tables like Mr. Mollier prepared about 50
years ago are still used today in the planning of refrigeration
and air conditioning compressors.
These t a b l e s cover every condition o f the refrigerant,
including pressures for the s a t u r a t e d liquid, enthalpy,
entropy, and tempe~aturesand p r e s s u r e s of superheated gases.
Starting off now, h e r e is a flow diagram of a simple air
conditioning refrigerant system. Copies of this slide are in
your packet. Superheat is a b s o l u t e l y necessary in all r e f r i g -

erant systems. At times we have difficulty attempting to
describe in laymen's terms a most necessary component of a
system, Superheat. Superheat is heat the refrigerant gas p i c k s
up, above evaporating temperature. In air conditioning, if we
are evaporating R-12 at 40 Deg. F., t h e R-12 in t h e evaporator
is boiling at 4 0 Deg. F. Now, as the gas leaves the evaporator
it must t r a v e l to t h e compressor s u c t i o n , and on the way it
warms up, and on the way it is gathering Superheat. Actually
the pressure in the line has dropped some due to s u c t i o n l i n e
p r e s s u r e loss, so the pressure is down to perhaps as low as 32
PSIG, and t h e temperature of the gas entering the compressor
h a s risen to perhaps as high as 6 2 Deg. F.
In this presentation we are going to confine our interest
-36-
to con1 itions along the saturated vapor ine, ani the tempera-
tures and pressures of the refrigerant in superheated condi-
tions.
The blue line in this slide is the saturated vapor line.
At this condition the refrigerant contains liquid, and is
holding all the heat it can and still contains saturated drops
( l i k e fog or rain).
Starting out at the blue arrow we are at 4 0 Peg. F. which
is air conditioning conditions, If the compressor were to draw
into its suction port gas at this condition it would have
entrained liquid, which would damage the compressor.
To avoid this situation, Superheat is necessary. As we
move to the right on the red line to a b o u t 60 degrees, this
means t h a t due to the expansion valves normal operation and

heat the refrigerant picked up in the suction l i n e , we have
secured 20 degrees of Superheat.
Now a n o t h e r function takes place. That's s u c t i o n l i n e
losses. Note the yellow arrow. We have dropped straight down
from the 60 degree green arrow and we will estimate about 8
pounds of suction line loss. This puts us right at that yellow
arrow. With the evaporator at the blue arrow, and the Super-
heat and pressure drop at the yellow arrow, we find that here
is where the gas enters t h e s u c t i o n port of the compressor,
Most of t h i s presentation involves t h e use of the Mollier
T a b l e s , and the industry has always used absolute pressures on
these Tables, so we must keep in mind that we must deduct 14.7

pounds from a11 the absolute pressures to achieve po un ds per
-37-
square inch pressure gauge, which we a r e all accustomed to. I
Our first example: an air conditioning situation, 4 0 Deg.
F. evaporating, with Refrigerant 12 and condensing at 105 D e g . I
F. with water from a cooling tower.
We're going to see plenty of these Mollier Charts today,
and we are starting with OUT air conditioning evaporator,
evaporating Refrigerant 12 a t 4 0 degrees F.
On the same chart, now we have added the green arrow. '3
This is giving us about 20 degrees Superheat and about 8 pounds
of suction line p r e s s u r e l o s s . That's where green arrow is
E
spotted. Now the gas has entered t h e compressor s u c t i o n , and
it's being compressed a l o n g the red line up to the orange arrow.

IC
That's 105 degrees condensing, and now with the yellow P
arrow we f i n d the discharge gas temperature is about 145
degrees. I
What's wrong if the discharge gas temperature gets t o o
high? If the discharge gas temperature rises up above t h e
carbonization point of the oil, the compressor will generate I
carbon. J u s t like t h i s , the carbon p l u g s up the discharge
valves, and t h e gas recirculates within t h e d i s c h a r g e and B
s u c t i o n components of the compressor and more and more heat is
generated. If you open up a compressor subject to h i g h d i s -
I
charge gas conditions, carbon like t h i s can be removed by the
c o f f e e cup full.
I wonder how many of us realize how forgiving a refriger-
ant, Refrigerant 12 happens to be, and how many of us respect

Refrigerant 12 a s we sit, cool and comfortable in our automo-
I
- 38-
biles on a sweltering hot-humid day.
Due to the ozone controversy, attempts have been made to
s wipe out domestic production of Refrigerant 12.

Dupont has announced that if the EPA definitely proved
that the ozone layer was being destroyed by Refrigerant 12,
1 that they would halt production of same.

If Refrigerant 12 were t o be no more, this would do away
with the automobile air conditioning business. Refrigerant 12
is the only refrigerant that can operate under the hood of an
automobile.
The pressures and temperatures under the hood of a car
3 would wipe out a l l systems. What a terrible place to install a
condenser, right next to the radiator.
Y e s , it's in front, right where bugs and dirt can close up
the air passages, and it's s u b j e c t to radiant heat from the

radiator. On a hot summer day the condensing temperature can
easily exceed 200 degrees and the discharge gas temperature can
exceed temperatures of 260 degrees. Later we will see how 2 2
and 502 would react under these conditions.
I Let's investigate a typical automobile a i r conditioning

system.
Evaporating at 40 degrees, and about 20 degrees of Super-
heat and about 10 pounds of suction loss the gas enters t h e
1 compressor at the green arrow.
The gas is compressed up the red line, up to the orange
arrow, to about 190 degrees.
Here's the whole picture, and the yellow arrow reveals a
d i s c h a r g e gas temperature of 260 degrees.
Examining Refrigerant 12 a bit more, it boils at atmo-
spheric pressure at about minus 21 Degrees F .
And it's widely used in domestic home refrigerators.
And investigating a domestic refrigerator with a f r e e z e r .

Minus 20 evaporating and with an air cooled condenser we are
condensing at about 135 degrees.
Back to the Refrigerant 12 Mollier, minus 20 on the
saturated line.
Now we have added about 20 degrees Superheat, and about 10
pounds of suction line losses, and the gas enters the compres-
sor at the green arrow, and compression starts.
Up to the orange arrow, to 135 degrees, and the yellow
arrow reveals a discharge gas temperature of 2 8 0 d e g r e e s .
Let's move on to other freons, say first to Refrigerant 2 2 .
For many years the world got a l o n g just Eine w i t h but one
freon, and many wonder j u s t why in recent years there have been
so many available. To my way of thinking it's all t h e work of
one major name in the chemical world; the name is Dupont.
During World War One, Dupont manufactured a wartime poison
gas. It was named Phosgene. When they burned Dichlorodi-
fluoromethane, Phosgene Gas was produced. Sometime after the
war ended, a brilliant chemist at Dupont discovered that if
they liquefied this gas known as Dichlorodifluoromethane that
they had a very good refrigerant, and t h e y promptly s e c u r e d a
patent on same. After the p a t e n t ran out, several competitors
started to manufacture Refrigerant 12.
-40-
So Dupont invented a new refrigerant, and it was named
Refrigerant 22. Its main advantage was t h a t it required a b o u t
J 4 0 percent less gas pumping capacity t o do the
Refrigerant 12.
same work as
Now at large cost savings, the compressors
could be made 4 0 percent smaller.
Another advantage, it went down to about minus 41 degrees
1 before it went into a vacuum.
Let's s e t up an air conditioning system similar to the
I others we have seen earlier, a 4 0 degree system, condensing
with a cooling tower.
R-22 chart, 4 0 degree evaporating.
I And with the refrigerant entering the compressor suction
e at the green arrow, we r i s e up to the orange arrow.

degrees, and discover the discharge g a s temperature to be 180
That's 105
degrees. That's the yellow arrow.

Moving along now, let's duplicate t h e previous situation,
Q and substitute an a i r cooled condenser, keeping the Superheat

t h e same.
II Evaporating the R-22 at t h e same 4 0 degrees F., and with
I the refrigerant is entering the compressor at the green arrrow,

it is being compressed along the red line.
1 Up to the orange arrow, that's 135 d e g r e e s , and we d i s -
cover t h a t the gas temperature has risen to 220 degrees, to the
1 yellow arrow.
I gas
Raising the condensing temperature r a i s e s the discharge
temperature. Raising the condensing temperature 30 degrees
! r a i s e s t h e discharge g a s temperature 50 degrees.
c
-41-
Now, let's carry on experimenting, and keeping the c o n d i -
tions the same as previously, except we w i l l increase the
suction line losses, the row of red d o t s drop down b u t they
must a l s o slope to the right because if we increase the length
of the suction line and if we increase t h e l o s s e s , there has to
be additional Superheat; the refrigerant enters the compressor
suction at the green arrow, and it's compressed up to t h e
B
orange arrow, which is at 135 degrees, and now the compressor
is approaching the damaging point, the discharge gas tempera-
ture is at 300 degrees, at t h e yellow arrow. a
Moving a l o n g , let's move away from air conditioning and
into commercial refrigeration, Most of it is accomplished
I
today with air cooled condensing units.
Back to the old reliable, Refrigerant 12, at a low temper-
a
ature condition. 1
The blue arrow is the evaporating conditon minus 20
degrees evaporating, and w i t h 20 degrees of Superheat and about
1
8 pounds of suction line losses, the refrigerant enters the
111
compressor at the green arrow; it's compressed up to the orange
arrow, 135 degrees, and note, the discharge gas temperature is I
220 degr.ees; relatively low.
Let's see what would happen if we were to attempt to do
I
the same job with Refrigerant 2 2 ,
With the evaporator at minus 20 d e g r e e s F., and with 20
U
degrees of Superheat, and about 8 pounds of suction line
l o s s e s , the refrigerant enters the compressor at the green
arrow, then it's compressed up to the orange arrow, 135 de-
-42-
1
grees, and the resultant discharge temperature is way up there
at 260 d e g r e e s . By changing the refrigerant from 12 to 22,
keeping all conditions the same, we have raised the discharge
gas temperature from 135 d e g r e e s F. to 260 degrees F.; a r i s e
of 125 degrees F. The discharge gas temperature is well above
the boiling point of water.

A new refrigerant showed u p after the patents ran out on
22, and all their competitors were in the business. Dupont
introduced 502, a revolutionary refrigerant, sort of combined
the best of both 12 and 22.
It has the low discharge temperature of 12, and the lower
boiling point of 2 2 . Note here that 502 has an atmospheric
boiling point of a b o u t minus 45 degrees.
Comparing Refrigerants 22 and 502, note both atmospheric

boiling temperatures are about the same, within 10 degrees of
each other, and at the bottom of t h e t a b l e , the s a t u r a t e d
condensing pressures at 135 degrees are about 15 pounds apart.
Note that the 22 is lower.
Here we are going to i n v e s t i g a t e 502 under the same
conditions as the previous slide of Refrigerant 22, a i r cooled,
minus 20 degrees evaporating.
And the revelation as to the makeup of Refrigerant 5 0 2 as
a low temperature refrigerant: these were the same conditions
we saw a bit ago with an air cooled R-22. Here we have minus
20 degrees evaporating, and w i t h minimum Superheat and line
l o s s e s , t h e gas enters the compressor at the green arrow, it's

compressed up to the orange arrow, 135 d e g r e e s . Note that the
-43-
d i s c h a r g e is b u t about 190 degrees, 70 degrees less than the
example with Refrigerant 2 2 .
Let's compare Refrigerant 12 and 5 0 2 side by side, both I
with the same evaporator temperature, same Superheat, and same
condensing. The discharge gas temperature is remarkably
I
close. Refrigerant 12 is about 210 degrees, and 502 is about t
185 degrees.
Here's the big difference: the big c o s t difference is
c o s t per pound. The D u p o n t gang and all the others in the 502
business have decided to keep the price up. They have t h e
I
hammer to sell the product a t whatever price they decide.
Refrigerant 502 is about 2 and one-half times h i g h e r than
Refrigerant 12. t
Let's see what would happen if we were to change the
automobile air conditioner to Refrigerant 502 instead of
I
Refrigerant 12.
40 degrees evaporator, minimum Superheat and line losses,
a n d the 502 enters t h e compressor at t h e green arrow, it's I

compressed up the r e d l i n e .
Up to 2 0 0 d e g r e e s , off t h e t a b l e , t h e table o n l y goes to
1
about 170, and over to t h e right we find the discharge pressure
exceeds 500 P S I A .
a
Maybe Refrigerant 22 c o u l d be substituted if the EPA had 1
their way and Refrigerant 12 was outlawed.
U n d e r t h e same conditions 40 degrees evaporator, and 200
'II
degrees condensing, t h e pressures exceed 800 pounds per s q u a r e
inch absolute, Now we know how much Refrigerant 12 is needed
P
-44-
in this modern world if we want to continue to enjoy automobile
air conditioning.
I Ammonia, thought you'd never ask, how does it respond?
I
1 F,
Ammonia boils at atmospheric pressure at minus 28 degrees
The industry has decided in the southern part of the world

that the most practical condensing temperature of Ammonia in
1 the summertime is at 96.5 degrees, or about 185 pounds per
R
-
square inch.
Comparing it on the Mollier Table, under a i r conditioning
I conditions, 40 degrees evaporating, Ammonia is never used for

comfort air conditioning. Quite often it's utilized for
industrial a i r conditioning, s u c h as in a meat processing
plant. Here we find the blue arrow at saturation, 5 degrees of
Superheat and about 10 PSIG s u c t i o n line loss. The refrigerant
I enters the compressor suction port at t h e green arrow.

It compresses the Ammonia Refrigerant up to the orange
I arrow, which is 96.5 degrees, and down at the yellow arrow we

discover the discharge gas temperature to be about 195 degrees.
I Experimenting along if we increase the Superheat about 10
T degrees to 60 degrees F., and increase the suction line losses
about 18 more pounds, down to about 13 pounds, and keeping the
I same condensing temperature, the discharge gas has moved up to

2 7 8 degrees. That's to the yellow arrow, so j u s t by altering
the Superheat and suction line l o s s e s , we have increased the
E Superheat by 8 7 degrees.
High discharge a f f e c t s all systems, and is v e r y hard on a
-45-
compressor utilizing Ammonia, because under the same conditions
the discharge gas temperature i s much higher w i t h Ammonia.
Therefore basically Ammonia requires a heavier duty compres-
sor. Let's review a no-no system for Ammonia.
s
S i n g l e stage low temperature Ammonia is very bad. Here we I
have an evaporator at minus 30 degrees, and a minimum amount of
Superheat, and line losses, and keeping the condensing tempera-
f
ture at 96.5 degrees, we find the discharge gas temperature to 1
be practically off the t a b l e , about 390 degrees. Under these
conditions we a r e w e l l above the carbonization point of r e f r i g - 1
erant oil, and no piston reciprocating compressor can operate
very long under these conditions.
I
In conclusion, comparing the four refrigerants, at the I
same evaporator, same condensing, and minimum Superheat, they
a r e as t h e screen shows: R-12, 120 degrees; R-22, 160 degrees: I
R-502, 123 degrees, and Ammonia, 200 degrees.
I
I
I
T
t
II
pi
1
-46- 1
%ACE
+I+-
CHllNGL PRESSUR€-ENlHALPY DI AG RAM
ACKNOWLEDGEMEm
The success of the 13th Annual

Meeting of the International
Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration
is due to the work of the authors
whose technical papers appear in
this book. ,
IIAR expresses its deepest
appreciation to these authors for
their contributions for the
betterment of the industry.
-- IIAR Board of Directors
NOTICE
The views expressed in the papers
contained in this book are those of
the individual authors. They do not
constitute the official views of
IIAR and are not endorsed by it.
International
Institute of
Ammonia Refrigeration
1101 Connecticut Avenue
Suite 700
Washington, D.C. 20036
202/857-1110
FAX: 202/223-4579
i
I
I
I
I PRESSURE DROP IN TWO-PHASE FLOW
I
I
By:
I Peter Chr. Jacobsen
I Gram Refrigeration
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Presented At:
I IIAR's 13th Annual Meeting

March 24-27, 1991
I San Francisco, CA
I 311
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
312
I
I
I
I INTRODUCTION:
I Engineers, manufacturers, contractors, and owners often need to

calculate pressure drop in refrigerant piping. Such calculations
I can be made using various tables, graphs, and charts published by

refrigeration organizations and companies. Typically, the flow
I capacity, pressure, and temperature are known, and these resources

allow the engineer to find the pressure drop per unit pipe length
for any given pipe diameter.
I
Often the piping is sized without regard for the total pressure
1 drop, which is of course related to the total pipe length
(including equivalent length of valves and fittings) . Since
I Professor Mats Backstroms of Sweden concluded that optimum pipe
sizing depends very little on the total length of pipe,
I consideration of pipe length is therefore not so important for pipe

sizing as it is for calculating the total pressure drop in a given
flow path of the refrigeration system.
I
Particularly in larger refrigeration plants there is a need to know
I the pressure drop in suction and discharge lines, and also to
understand their influence on capacity and power consumption.
I These demands have increased since the energy crisis of the 1970s.
At the same time, the expanded capability of the personal computer
I has greatly enhanced our ability to quickly and easily calculate

two-phase flow characteristics.
I Pumped recirculation plants historically have had special needs for

two-phase flow calculations. Those needs normally have been
I addressed in an easy but inaccurate way: The pipes were calculated
for one-phase flow and the next larger pipe size was chosen for
I the suction return lines to account for the presence
I Peter Jacobsen, Head of Construction, Gram Refrigeration, Division

of Brodrene Gram A/S, Vojens, Denmark.
I 313
I
I
of the liquid phase. I
In the early 1980s, our firm searched the market for a computer
program designed to handle two-phase flow of refrigerants. Finding
I
none, we developed our own program which could be used to size
refrigerant piping as well as to calculate the theoretical pressure
I
drop in proposed or existing systems. This paper will describe our
approach and theory we used for the two-phase flow calculations. I
It will also point out how we tried to make it easy to analyze a
complete system in one round. I
CALCULATION OF TWO-PHASE FLOW: I
There is nothing revolutionary to report with regards to the
theories involving two-phase flow; the formulas used are widely
I
known and have been published in the literature since the 1960s.
We needed two equations: one for frictional pressure drop and one I
for static pressure drop. Both of these are described in one
article (Chawla and Thome, 1967). The Chawla equation is used for I
frictional pressure drop; the Kowalczewski equation is used forthe
static pressure drop. I
Chawla's equation is developed according to the traditional formula
for pressure drop based on single-phase flow, but is utilized for
I
two-phase flow with a correction factor. Refer to Appendix A for
the development of the formula for the total frictional pressure I
drop.
I
In gas lines, the static pressure drop normally can be neglected.
However, in liquid lines and two-phase lines, this is not the case.
The pressure drop in lines with upward flow has to be included in
I
the total pressure drop. The Kowalczewski formula, used for the
two-phase lines, is developed according to the traditional
I
expression for static pressure drop and assumes that the vertical
line is filled with liquid. A correction factor takes care of the I
314
I
1
I
I special influence of the two-phase flow. Refer to Appendix B for
the development of the formula for the static pressure drop.
I The two above-mentioned formulas include all of the theory needed
I to perform two-phase flow calculations. There are two different

approaches to addressing pressure drop in valves, fittings, and
I other restrictions: the European and the American. In Europe,

pressure drop factors are a more commonly used factor for
restrictions, whereas in the United States, equivalent lengths of
I pipe are used. Both approaches lead to acceptable results.
1 Experiments have determined that static pressure drop can be

accurately calculated based only on suction temperature and the
I circulating ratio. The author also thinks that there is pressure

drop in upward flowing lines, but that there is no pressure rise in
I downward flowing lines.
PROGRAM DETAILS :
I
After selecting the theory and formulas to be used, there are still
I some decisions to make so that the program will be both easy to use
and as universal as possible. Two basic problems must be
I addressed: 1.) How to calculate pressure drop in an existing or

known pipelines, and 2.) How to size a new pipeline system.
I Calculating an existing or known pipeline presents no real problem.

The pressure drop is calculated for each part of the line and its
I restrictions, and finally all pressure drops are added together.
I More complex is the sizing of an extensive pipeline system unless

a maximum velocity limit is specified. Within the program, the
I pipes are sized such that the total pressure drop is held within a
specified range. This range is given in degrees (Fahrenheit or
I Centigrade) because most equipment capacity data is based on

evaporating and condensing temperature rather than pressure.
I 315
I
I
Normally one can allow the same temperature change on suction and I
discharge lines in terms of degrees; however, the pressure drop
will be quite different. I
When the suction temperature, condensing temperature, superheat,
subcooling, and the allowed pressure drops (temperature changes)
I
are decided, the process can be shown on an i-logP diagram. All of
the information about the refrigerant can then be calculated (see I
figure 1). This undertaking is quite traditional, and does not
demand further details about the pipeline system. I
The most difficult task is to use the computer model to size a
complete system of lines in such a way that lines are practically
I
sized and the total pressure drop falls within the allowed range.
Before any of the detailed flow calculations are performed, the
I
engineer must schematically represent the pipeline system as a
series of pipe segments. An example of a single pipeline system is I
shown in figure 2.
I
As shown, the pipeline system can be represented by many segments,
each with a length, flow, and bends, valves, or other restrictions.
All lines from the left to the right have to be calculated, and
I
none is allowed to have a larger pressure drop than that specified
as a maximum limit for that portion of the line. Before
I
calculating, the total allowed temperature change must be allocated
to the various pipeline segments. The fraction of total allowed I
loss allotted is based on length and capacity. Determining the
capacity in each segment is critical because significant I
overstatement of flow will result in expensive oversized lines.
When the fraction of loss is checked, the program only considers
the pressure drop from the pipe, not individual restrictions such
I
as valves. If this were not done, short lines with several
restrictions would be oversized.
I
All calculations for sizing the lines only include frictional I
3 16
I
I
I
I pressure drop. Static pressure drop is added at the end of the
sizing procedure, due to the fact that static pressure drop is
I essentially independent of pipe size.
I After making the decisions mentioned above, it was easy for the
program to make lines larger or smaller until the pressure drop
I (temperature change) is within the allowed range. The program can

handle a pipeline system with up to forty segments. The model can
I be used for liquid lines, dry suction lines and discharge lines as
well as for the two-phase lines. It can also be used for
refrigerants other than ammonia.
1
The two things unique to a pump recirculation system are: 1.) The
I liquid line has to be designed in accordance with the desired
circulating ratio, and 2.) The return line has to be calculated as
I a two-phase flow line.
I To make it easier to use, the program only needs the actual

capacity (flow) in the line and the circulating ratio. This allows
the total flow in the liquid line and the gas fraction in the
I return line to be calculated automatically.
I WHAT WAS LEARNED?
I We have used the computer program within our company for a number
of years as a tool both to size and optimize pipeline systems in
I different kinds of refrigeration plants. What has our experience

been with this computer program?
I Initially we found that people thought this tool unnecessary. They

were accustomed to using sizing graphs, and were satisfied with
I such sizing methods.
I Unfortunately, or maybe fortunately, we had some plants where for

one reason or another our client (system owner) complained about
I 317
I
I
excessive pressure drops. In some instances, the computer
I
program's analysis of the pipeline system confirmed a sizing
problem. In other situations, the analysis revealed different I
reasons for the excessive pressure drops.
It is now our standard practice to use the program for sizing the
I
pipeline systems for all of the larger plants, such as pump
recirculation plants. Therefore, these lines were often checked or
1
sized. An unexpected result surfaced. The return line to the pump
accumulator ended up being smaller than the suction line from the I
accumulator in some instances. One reason for this is the amount
of flash gas being generated in the accumulator from the warm I
liquid make-up.
On some jobs the owner establishes maximum pressure drops for the
I
lines. A hand calculation procedure takes too much time.
contrast, the computer program's speed makes evaluating sizing
In
I
alternatives practical.
I
In summary, two-phase flow theory is relatively simple, but is
difficult to use manually. A simple computer program is easy to I
develop if it only addresses a single pipeline segment. However,
to make the computer program readily usable, it must be able to
handle a complete pipeline system at one time. Such a program has
I
been described.
I
Demonstrating the program during the paper would have taken too
much time. Please contact me if you want to see the computer I
program in action.
I
I
I
318
I
I
I
I BIBLIOGRAPHY.
-
D B&ckstrt)m, Matts., "Economiska optimiproblem vid kylanltigg-
ningars bertikning", Kylteknisk Tidsskrift, Nr. 5, Okt. 1960.
- Blasius, H., "Das hnlichkeitsgesetz bei Reibungsvorgtingen in
I Fltlssigkeiten", Ver. Dtsch. Ing. Forschungsh. Vol. 131, 1913.
- Colebrook, C. F., "Turbulent Flow in Pipes, with Particular
I Reference to the Transition Region between the Smooth and
Rough Pipe Laws", J. Inst. Civ. Eng. London, Vol. 11, 1938-
1939.
I
I REFERENCES:
Chawla, J.M. and Thome, E.A., "Total Pressure Drop of Fkfrigerants

I Flowing Through Evaporator Tubes" Kaltetechnik-Klimatisierunq, No.
10, (1967), p. 306-309.
I
I
1
I
I
D
I
I
I
I 319
I
NOMENCLATURE. I
Diameter [ml I
S t a t i c height [ml
1
P r e s s u r e drop, fr i c ti onal [N / m 2 I
I
P r e s s u r e drop, s t a t i c [N/m21
1
Gravi t y [m/s21
P i p e roughness [ ml
I
Length o f p i p e [ml I
V e l oci t y h/sI I
G a s f r a c t i o n = Gasmassflow / t o t a l m a s s f l o w 1
Froude number o f l i q u i d [ dimension1 essl
I
Froude number ( t o t a l f l o w as l i q u i d )
I
Massflow [ k g / (s*m2)1
I
Pressure absolute [N/m21
Critical pressure absolute [N/m21

I
F r a c t i o n of density, pl/pg [dimensionless]
1
Reynold number o f gas [dimensionless] I
Reynold number of l i q u i d [ d i m e n s i on1 ess] 1
A r e a f r a c t i o n of g a s f l o w [dimensionless] I
320 I
I
1
I P S t a t i c p r e s s u r e drop parameter [ dimension1 essl
I E Two phase f l o w parameter [ d i m e n s i on1 essl
1 Frictional factor f o r pipes [ dimension1 essl
Dynamic v i s c o s i t y of gas [kg/ ( s * m )1

I
Dynamic v i s c o s i t y of l i q u i d [kg/ b * m ) 1
I Density
P [ kg/ m 1
I Density o f g a s [ kg/m 1
I P1 Density o f l i q u i d [ kg/m31
I c Pressure drop f a c t o r [ dimensi on1 essl
I e F r a c t i o n of v i s c o s i t y , q l / q g [ dimensionl essl
I
I
1
I
1
R
I
321
I
I
APPENDIX A.
Frictional Pressure Drop in Two Phase Flow.
Chawlas equation is build in accordance with the traditional
formula for pressure drop, based on one phase flow but correc-
ted for two phase flow with a correction factor:
(1) APf = l*I*L*p*v2
d 2
fl is the correction for two phase flow. v is calculated on the

gas fraction only:
(2) APf = (I.a* 1 1* M 2 * X 2 )*fl

p9
Pressure drops over valves, bends and other restrictions can

either be calculated as equivalent length in formula (2) or by
using the formula below:
(3) APf = C * 1
y*p*v2
fl is again the correction for two phase flow. v is still

calculated on the gas fraction only:
(4) AP, = (C*i 1 * M 2 * x 2 )*fl

b
Formula (4) is mainly build up in the same way as formula (2).

This is the reason why the author imagines this gives reaso-
nable results for restrictions. During tests on different lines
there were never big differences between measurements and
calculations.
In Europe it is normal to calculate valves, bends and other
restrictions with formula (4). But it seems to be more used in
the US to use formula (2) and calculate restrictions as equiva-
lent lenght. Both calculations lead to acceptable results.
The total frictional pressure drop for every line in the system
can be calculated in the combined formula:
322
I
I The frictional factor can either be taken from Blasius' formula
(6a) which is Chawlas choise. It is only correct for smooth
pipes. More generel but not explicit is formula (6b) evaluated
I by Colebrook.
a = o . m , * ( x*M*d
l)g ]-0.25
I
I -
1 =
6
-0.87*1 2.51 +
"I
3.71*d
I
I
Re, =
M*x*d
-
"9
I fl = [ 1 +
x*e * R I" *
I E = 62*- *
--1
( R e , *Frl) *R'Os9
X*8
I
(10) R e , = M*(l-x)* d
I '11
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 323
I
I
APPENDIX B. I
Static Pressure Drop in Two Phase Flow,
Kowalczewskis formula is build up in accordance with the
traditional expression for static pressure drop and based on
I
the assumption of a line filled with liquid. A correction
factor takes care of the special influence of the two phase
flow:
I
I
(13) f2 = 1-a
I
I
(15) p =
1
I
1+-1-x
x*R I
I
Formula (12) has been checked with a computerprogram. A s a
conclusion from this test it was found that there is only a
I
very little connection between the calculated pressure drop and
1 ) diameter and 2) massflow. The static pressure drop can
therefore be calculated only based on suction temperature and
I
the number of circulation which gives the gasfraction.
It is the personal opinion of the author that there is pressure I
drop in upstream lines but no pressure rise in downstream
lines ,
I
I
I
I
324
I
I
I
I FIGURES.
I i-logP diagram f o r R 717

I bar -
20 ....1................................................... -4.....................................
I i 1523.7
.....?.......................................................
-
LO
I 5 .............................................................
I *
j
!
100.0
1157.4
.........-a i .......................... :.......................... :.........................id ......f -..............i-. .........
I
2
1 ,............................................................................... ....................... ........

I -40
.......................................
i 1Ooo.o
KW
;................................................... I .....................................
0.5
I oc
200
i
1000 1400 1800
$J/kg
I
I
I
I -40.0
-40.0
-40.0 c
c
c
0.72
0.72
0.68
150.64
1548.55
1635.11
i': 154 Lo-open(%):
my" 8 1.0 c I
i": 1411 EFFiSene. :
75.0
0.0 c
1.0
58.8 C 3.03 523.87 my" 11 1.0 c I 0.0 c
I 58.6 C
-10.0 c
-40.0 c
2.91
2.91
0.72
545.72
1.53
1548.55
ill: 1609 oi
my' 212
(Kw):
1.0 c I
i": 1411 CI€C RATIO:
1157.4
3.7 c
4.0
-39.0 C 0.76 1474.08 my' 291 1.0 c
I -11.3 C 2.75 1.45 i': 20 1.0 c 6.1 C
I
PER dP OF
JJmEAsEoF:
1°C I N
PER dP OF 1°C I N DISC
SUJT 1 coMp.pcwER
4.4 %
3.2 %
1 a
3Mp
w
.
6.1 %
0.4 %
1 aB0.w
D1F.W. (M): 30.0
0.6 % LmPRss. : -40.oc
0.4 % INrERmoL.: -10.0 c
I 325 Fig. 1
1
I
I
I no 11 no -11
*
no 121
I
I
no 12
no 122
*
I no 0 no -2
no 21
*
I no -3
1 I no 2
*
1
no 22
-> -> -> -> -> flow direction -> --> -> -> ->
I Fig. 2
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1 326
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of the 20" Annual Meeting of the International Institute of Ammonia
Refiigeration is due to the quality of the technical papers in this volume and the labor
of their authors. IIAR expresses its deep appreciation to the authors, reviewers, and
editors for their contributions to the ammonia refiigeration industry.
Board of Directors, International Institute of Ammonia Refiigeration
ABOUT THIS VOLUME

IIAR Technical Papers are subjected to rigorous technical peer review.
The views expressed in the papers in this volume are those of the authors, not the
International Institute of Ammonia Refiigeration. They are not official positions of
the Institute and are not officially endorsed.
EDITORS
Christopher P. Combs, Project Coordinator
Daniel €2. Kuespert, PbD., Technical Director
M. Kent Anderson, President
International Institute of Ammonia Refiigeration

1200 Nineteenth St., NW
Suite 300
Washington, DC 20036-2422
+1-202-857-1110 (voice)
+1-202-223-4579 (fax)
-i
www.iiar.org ms
P
m
I
N
c
c
Ammonia Piping Design
Vernon Alexander, P.E.
Niceville, FL
193
Introduction
The piping which interconnects the many equipment components is a very important
element in a refigeration system. Its design can have a substantial effect upon the performance
and energy efficiency of the system.
This paper deals with the sizing and layout of the various lines through which the
ammonia flows. No attempt is made to become involved in the fundamentals related to any
particular type of fluid flow which may occur nor any unusual instances. Rather, in keeping with
the theme of this meeting, we start with a review of several basic principles related to flow in
pipes.
Basic Flow Principles
Flow
1. The substance flowing may be a vapor or a liquid or in some instances two phases, a
mixture of liquid and vapor.
2. Flow will occur only when there is a difference in head or pressure between the inlet and
a point downstream.
3. Flow increases as the difference in head or pressure increases.
4. Flow is expressed quantitatively in CFM, GPM, Ib/min or ft3/min.
1. For liquids and gases, head can be expressed either in feet or psi. For liquids, head can be
increased by means of a liquid pump or an external source of higher pressure.
2. For gases, head can be increased by means of a compressor or an external source of
higher gas or vapor pressure.
Pressure Drop
1 Pressure drop is a measure of resistance to flow and is indicated as AP.
2 As flow increases in a given size line, pressure drop will increase.
3. Pressure drop is expressed either in psi/lOO ft equivalent length or as temperature loss AT
in OF per 100 ft equivalent length.
195
Sources of Pressure Drop
Pressure drop occurs in the components of a system through which ammonia flows such
as pipe and fittings, shut off and control valves, strainers, evaporative condenser and evaporator
coils and static liquid heads.
Figure 1 shows in schematic the various components of the high stage portion of a two
stage system and shows locations where pressure drop will occur. The highest pressure will be
in the discharge line of a compressor before oil is separated, if a screw compressor, or before
passing through the discharge stop valve, if a reciprocating or vane rotary type. Actual discharge
pressure will be determined by the pressure at which ammonia is condensed in the condenser.
Discharge pressure will always be greater than condensing pressure.
Suction pressure in most instances will be controlled by a pressure-sensitive device which
is set to maintain a constant pressure regardless of the evaporator load at any given moment. It
will be lowest just after passing through the suction stop valve on the compressor.
Effects of Pressure Drop

To determine how pressure drop affects pressures throughout the system, refer to Figure
1. Starting at the compressor discharge (CD), there is a pressure drop AP1 in the piping to the
condenser. There is a pressure drop AP2 in the condenser coil. The pressure of the liquid as it
leaves the condenser coil is shown as (CP). The compressor discharge pressure (DP) can be
determined by CP + AP1+ AP2.
Since gravity flow occurs in the liquid line fiom the condenser to the receiver, the head of
liquid in the line overcomes pipe resistance so that the pressure in the receiver is the same as that
in the condenser (CP). To ensure that the pressure between the two components is the same, an
equalizing line is connected between them.
The high temperature liquid (HTL) in the receiver at high pressure can be distributed to
the evaporators by various means such as:
1. Directly to the evaporators which operate as direct expansion units.
2. Into a vessel (intercooler or pump receiver) for use as makeup liquid for a refrigerating
load.
3. Into a subcooling coil installed within a vessel to cool medium temperature liquid (MTL)
which is used as makeup for a refrigerating load.
4. From a pilot receiver into a controlled pressure receiver, fiom which it is supplied by gas
pressure to a refrigerating load.
In this instance, the liquid (HTL) fiom the receiver flows through piping which has a
pressure drop, AP3 + AP4, to a liquid throttling device which may have a relatively large
pressure drop, AP8, and then into the evaporator which has a pressure drop AP9.
Leaving the evaporator, the single phase flow passes through the control valve group
which has a pressure drop of AP10. At this point evaporator pressure (EP) should be indicated by
instrument so that evaporating temperature can be determined. Flow continues through piping,
which has a pressure drop AP11, to the intercooler where there is no pressure drop. Flow
196
continues through piping, which has a pressure drop AP 12, to the high stage compressor suction
(HBS). The compressor suction HBS = EP -(APlO + AP11 + AP12).
Figure 2 is a schematic flow diagram of the low stage portion of the two stage system. In
this instance, liquid is pump recirculated. To avoid the possibility of pump cavitation, there
should be sufficient liquid head in the accumulator/pumpreceiver to adequately overcome the
net positive suction head requirements of the pump and its suction piping.
The low temperature liquid (LTL) is supplied by the pump through piping, which has a
pressure drop of AP14, to the evaporator control group. The liquid throttling device in the line to
the evaporator has a pressure drop of AP 15. The evaporator coil, which has an evaporating
temperature (ET), has a pressure drop of AP16.
The two-phase flow leaving the evaporator unit passes through the control group, which
has a pressure drop AP17. It continues through piping which has a pressure drop AP18, to the
pump receiver. It passes through the pump receiver, which has no pressure drop. It continues
through piping, which has a pressure drop AP 19, to the compressor suction. The compressor
suction pressure (LBS) will be the total of AP 16, AP 17, AP 18, and AP 19 subtracted from the
evaporating pressure. LBS = EP - (AP 16 + AP 17 + AP 18 + AP 19).
As liquid overfeed systems dominate the low temperature applications, it is necessary for
the low temperature liquid (LTL) line to be sized for the total amount of liquid to be circulated,
that is, 4 times that being evaporated if at a 4 to 1 rate, or 3 times if at a 3 to 1 rate.
Pressure-Volume-Temperature Relationships
Before looking at how various portions of a system are affected by pressure drop a review
of three characteristics of ammonia is in order.
1. The refrigerant tables for ammonia show the pressure-temperature-volumerelationship
for it as a saturated refrigerant.
2. The pressure-volume relationship shows that at low pressures, volume is large and as
pressure increases volume decreases.
3. The pressure-temperature relationship shows that as pressure is lowered, temperature also
is lowered.
To illustrate the effect these characteristics have on pressure and volume note the
variation in pressure change which results when a one O F difference in temperature occurs over a
wide range of temperatures. (See Table 1)
Analysis of Table 1 reveals:

At high temFeratures:
1. The pressure difference is 3.1 times greater at 95/96 OF, than the 1OF temperature
difference.
2. Volume is small because vapor is dense.
197
At medium temperatures
1. The pressure and temperature differences at 20°F are approximately the same 1" versus
1.1 psi.
2. Volume is larger - approximately 3.9 times greater than compressor discharge volume at
95°F.
At low temperatures 0" to -40"

1. Note the dramatic increase in volume as temperatures become lower. Volume at -40°F is
16.2 times larger than at 95°F.
2. Note that the pressure difference per degree of temperature change becomes increasingly
smaller as the temperature becomes colder: 0.3 1 psi difference at -40°F.
Pressure-Temperature Penalty Chart
To provide a better understanding of the penalty relationship between pressure and

temperature differences, in 1980 I prepared Chart 1, Ammonia Pressure/Temperature Penaltv due
to Pressure Drop. One curve is shown for pressure difference and three curves for temperature
differences over a range of +40"F to -50°F. This chart highlights the dramatic effect that lower
evaporating temperatures have upon the penalty.
Note the 2 psi AP curve at +20"F evaporating temperature: the AT (read to left) is 2°F.
At -10°F evaporator, the AT loss is 3.3"F. At -40°F evaporator temperature, the AT loss is 7.O"F.
This means that where suction pressures are in the 25 to 35 psig range, a total pressure drop of 2
psi would be considered satisfactory. However, when evaporating temperature is -40"F, a total
pressure drop of 2 psi should be reduced. This -40°F evaporator condition is better illustrated by
use of the AT curves.
The 4°F AT curve at -40°F evaporator shows AP (read to right) as 1.2 psi. For a total
pressure drop of 1.2 psi, suction pressure would be 10.4 1 minus 1.2 = 9.2 1 psia and a saturated
temperature of -44°F.
Recognition of these relationships at low temperatures is very important when making
pipe sizing determinations for applications where suction temperatures are -20°F and lower.
Pipe Sizing Methods

Prior to 1977 piping was sized by various methods, the most common being charts and
tables prepared by the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (AN). Other data and
methods had been developed and used by certain equipment manufacturers and was included in
their engineering data. All methods involved the use of charts in which values were indicated
along the edges and traced through a maze of parallel lines with the answer interpolated along the
edge of another side. It was necessary to repeat this procedure each time a more suitable answer
was desired.
198
ASHRAE Bulletin RP 185
The 1977 ASHRAE Bulletin RP 185 Refrigerant Line Sizing completely changed and
simplified the method of sizing pipe. Having sized pipe for many systems prior to its
publication, it represented, in my opinion, a major improvement over the methods previously
available.
It provides separate charts for suction, discharge and liquid lines along with a table for
selecting the refrigerant flow rate as well as other useful tables and charts.
In order to understand how to use these charts, assume we are sizing simplified suction,
discharge, liquid and defrosting hot gas lines for a 1000 ton single stage system, evaporator
temperature 20°F (33.5 psig), condensing temperature 95°F (181.1 psig), 20°F recirculated liquid
at 3 to 1 rate and 100 tons of evaporators defrosted at one time.
Ammonia Flow Rate

In the case of this simple recirculating system, there are two separate sources of liquid
supply with each having a different flow rate. One source supplies warm makeup liquid from the
high-pressure receiver to the pump receiver, where it flashes and its temperature is lowered. The
other source supplies cold liquid from the pump receiver to the evaporators. This pumped cold
liquid is recirculated at a designated rate of 3 to 1 in this example.
Now refer to Table 2, which is Table 1-717, Ammonia Flow Rate of ASHME Bulletin
RP 185. The left hand column, Liquid Temp."F, lists temperatures of liquid as it enters the
expansion device or at the accumulator/pump receiver. Evaporating Temperature "F (shown for
the other columns) is the evaporating temperature at the evaporator or leaving the accumulator.
The flow rate for the makeup liquid is obtained by descending down the Liquid Temp
column to 95°F (condensing temperature) then moving to the right to the 20°F Evaporating
Temperature column. At the point of intersection the mass flow is shown as 0.427 lb/min/ton.
The total amount circulated to and from the system will be 1000 tons x 0.427 = 427 lb/min.
The flow rate for the recirculated liquid will be obtained at the intersection of the 20°F
Liquid Temp line with the 20°F Evaporating Temperature column which is 0.362 lb/min/ton.
The amount required for a 1000 ton load is 1000 x 0.362 = 362 lb/min. The amount to be
recirculated at a 3 to 1 rate will be 362 x 3 = 1086 lb/min.
Suction Lines
Refer to Chart 2 which is Chart 1-717 Suction Lines of Bulletin RP 185. One important
aspect of this chart is that the curves are based on single phase flow with no excess liquid in the
vapor. For systems with two-phase flow, make selection from chart then increase pipe diameter
to the next larger size to allow for the combined flow of liquid. Stoecker (1) states some
designers follow this practice.
Now to the chart. Note the vertical lines in the right half of the chart. They represent
different sizes of pipe with the smallest to the right. Note the numbersjust to the left of each
199
vertical pipe size. These represent varying amounts of ammonia flow in lb/min. The amounts
are smaller at the bottom of each pipe size line and become larger as each pipe size increases.
The vertical lines on the left half of the chart represent evaporating temperatures with the
coldest, -50"F, closest to the center. On the left side of each of these evaporator temperature
lines are a series of numbers from 0.1 near the bottom to 10.0 near the top. These numbers
indicate pressure drop (AP) in psi/l 00 feet of equivalent length. On the right side of those lines
is another series of numbers which range from 0.1 to 8.0 for the 30°F evaporating temperature
line to 0.4 to 20 for the -50°F line. These numbers represent "F of temperature loss (AT) per 100
ft of equivalent length. The addition of this series of numbers enables a designer to know what
the temperature penalty is likely to be and to make a reselection of a more desirable size at that
time.
Return to our example of 1000 tons with 362 lb/min. being vaporized at 20°F in the
evaporator. The smallest line shown to handle 362 lb/min. is 5 in. Moving horizontally to the
vertical 20°F evaporating temperature line, the pressure drop reading on the left side is
approximately 4.8 psi/lOO ft equivalent length. The temperature penalty reading on the right side
is approximately 4.5"F/100 ft equivalent length. Assume that the equivalent length of this
simplified header is 400 ft. The pressure drop in this 5 in line would be 4.8 x 400/100 = 19.2 psi
and the temperature loss would be 4.5 x 400/100 = 18.O"F. The suction pressure would be 33.5 -
19.2 = 14.3 psig, which is much too low for the system and dictates consideration of a 6 in line.
Now, going to the 6 in line with 362 lb/min of vapor and a 20°F evaporating temperature the
pressure drop is 1.8 psi/lOO ft. equivalent length. The total pressure drop would be 1.8 x 400/100
= 7.2 psi. Suction pressure would be 33.5 - 7.2 = 26.3 psig (123°F). This 7.2 psi pressure
difference appears to represent a substantial potential penalty to compressor capacity and
BHP/ton and warrants consideration of an 8 in line.
The AP of an 8 in line with a flow of 362 lb/min is 0.43 psi/lOO ft equivalent length. The
pressure drop is 0.43 x 400/100 = 1.72 psi. Compressor suction pressure would be 33.5 - 1.72 =
3 1.78 psig (1 8.4"F).
A comparison of the capacities and BHP/ton for the 6 in and 8 in lines can be made by
referring to Chart 3: Effect of Variable Suction Pressure UDon Compressor Tons & BHP at
Constant Discharye Pressure.
The data for these curves was obtained from rating data for a 12 cylinder reciprocating
compressor. Its purpose is to show how the capacity and BHP are affected by suction pressure
changes.
The suction pressure for the 6 in line is 26.3 psig (12.8"F) and for the 8 in line it is 3 1.78
psig (18.4"F). Entering at the 123°F suction temperature and moving upward to the intersection
with the TONS curve the reading on the left scale is 78.5 tons for the 6 in line. Continuing up on
that line to the intersection with the BHP/Ton curve and reading the scale to the right shows 1.27
BHP/ton. Repeating this process for the 18.4"F suction of the 8 in line shows capacity as 90.0
tons and 1.13 BHP/ton.
The 11.5 ton increase in capacity for the 8 in. line represents a 14.7% increase in
capacity. The 0.14 BHP/ton decrease represents an 11% decrease in BHP/ton. This
improvement would appear to indicate use of the 8 in. line size. Since this is a recirculating
200
system, a 10 in. suction line should be considered to the accumulator. From the accumulator to
the compressor an 8 in. line is appropriate.
It is my recommendation that all suction line sizing determinations be made using AT
values rather than AP so that reference to ammonia tables for conversion of pressure to
temperature is avoided.
Discharge Lines
Refer to Chart 4, which is Chart 2-717, Discharge Lines, of ASHRAE Bulletin RP 185.
This chart is quite similar to that for suction lines. The various vertical lines in the right half are
pipe sizes with the smallest on the right. The numbers adjacent to the left are ammonia flow in
lb/min. The vertical lines in the left half represent condensing temperatures. Once again the
numbers to the left indicate pressure drop in psi/l 00 ft equivalent length while those on the right
indicate temperature difference in "F/lOO ft equivalent length.
Since a line for 95°F condensing temperature is not shown, one has been drawn in where
appropriate. The pressure and temperature loss numbers can be added by connecting a
corresponding pressure drop for 100°F condensing with the corresponding pressure drop for
90°F condensing and marking where it crosses the 95°F line.
The discharge line in our example may be sized by initially considering both a 4 in. and 5
in. line handling 427 lb/min. Locating 427 lb/min on the 4 in. line and moving horizontally to
the left to the 95°F vertical condensing line, the pressure loss is approximately 7.7 psi/l 00 ft
equivalent length. Assuming the equivalent length is 200 ft, the pressure loss is 7.7 x 200/100 =
15.4 psi. Since the condensing pressure is established by the condensers, the compressor
discharge pressure would be condensing pressure plus the pressure loss or 181.1 + 15.4 = 196.5
psig. If a 5 in. line were considered, its pressure loss would be approximately 2.3 psi/lOO ft
equivalent length and its total pressure loss = 2.3 x 200/100 = 4.6 psi and the discharge pressure
would be 181.1 + 4.6 = 185.7 psig. With a pressure loss difference of 15.4 - 4.6 = 10.8 psi, a
determination of power savings versus added cost of piping could be considered to determine the
most cost effective selection.
Liquid Lines
In this instance, there are three different liquid lines which require sizing. Each has a
different design criterion. So as not to confuse their sizing, we shall start with the liquid drain
line from the condenser to the receiver, then liquid from receiver to the recirculating vessel, and
finally the liquid being recirculated at a 3 to 1 rate to the evaporators.
Condenser to Receiver
Since this line is essentially a gravity drain line it is generally sized for a velocity of 100
Wminute. Table 3 is Table 5 , Condenser to Receiver Piping, of ASHRAE Bulletin Rp 185. The
vertical columns are nominal pipe sizes. The numbers for R-717 in the horizontal rows for
schedule 40 or 80 pipe are maximum lb/min when velocity in the line is 100 Wmin.
20 1
The maximum flow in a 4 in. line is 326 lb/min which is less than the 427 lb/min in
circulation. The capacity of a 5 in. line is 5 13 lb/min which is greater than the 427 lb/min and
should be selected.
Receiver to Recirculatiny Vessel

Chart 5 is Chart 3-717, Liquid Lines, of ASHRAE Bulletin RP 185. The vertical lines in
the right two-thirds represent pipe sizes, and the numbers to their left indicate flows in Ib/min.
The vertical lines in the left one third of the page represent liquid temperature. Along the left
hand margin are numbers which represent pressure drop in psi/lOO ft equivalent length. These
are extended slightly upward through the vertical liquid temperature lines.
In our example, the make up liquid will be flowing in this line from the receiver at 95°F
to the pump receiver operating in the range of 30 to 33 psig with its temperature approximately
20°F. Examination of the chart shows that a 2 in. or 2 1/2 in. line can be considered for use.
Moving horizontally to the left from 427 lb/min on the 2 in. line to the 100°F vertical line
(interpolation to 95°F is insignificant) and then slightly downward to the left, the pressure drop is
approximately 2.5 psi/l 00 ft equivalent length. Assuming the equivalent length is 100 ft the
pressure drop in the line would be 2.5 x 100400 = 2.5 psi which is very nominal considering the
30 to 33 psig pressure in the recirculating vessel.
Recirculated Liquid to Evaporator Units

With a recirculating rate of 3 to 1 and the evaporator units vaporizing 362 Ib/min, the
total flow in this portion of the liquid piping will be 362 x 3 = 1086 lb/min. Reference to Chart 5
indicates 2 1/2 in., 3 in. and 4 in. pipes as being capable of handling a flow of 1086 lb/min.
The pressure drop in a 2 1/2 in. line is 6.3 lb/lOO fi equivalent length. The pressure drop
in a 3 in. line is approximately 2.10 lb/l 00 ft equivalent length. The pressure drop in a 4 in. line
is approximately 0.57 lb/lOO ft equivalent length.
Assuming that the overall equivalent length in this simplified header is 400 ft, then the
pressure drop in the lines will be:
2 112 in. line is 6.3 x 400/100 = 25.2 psi
3 in. line is 2.1 x 400/100 = 8.4 psi
4 in. line is 0.57 x 400/100 = 2.3 psi
Since pumps are selected for feet of head difference between suction and discharge and
other factors, it is necessary to convert the psi pressure loss into feet of head. Converting 1.O psi
of 20°F liquid into feet of head is (l.O/ 40.43) x 144 = 3.57 Wpsi.
When converting pressure drops into head loss, the head loss for each size is:
2 1/2 in. is 25.2 x 3.57 = 89.5 ft
3 in. is 8.4 x 3.57 = 30.0 ft
4 in. is 2.3 x 3.57 = 8.2 ft
It is obvious that the head loss in the 2 1/2 in. line is rather large for a pump to handle in
an efficient manner, if at all. Allowance for the 30 ft head loss should be made when
establishing the design conditions for the pumps used for the 3 in. main, since other factors also
will enter into the pump selection procedure. The small 8.2 ft head loss for the 4 in. line should
have no effect upon pump selection for the line.
202
Defrost Hot Gas
Sizing for these lines is done using Chart 4,Discharge Lines. The 100 tons of
evaporators to be defrosted at one time is 10% of the total system tons. Strong has stated that
“The time-honored rule of thumb for determining the quantity of hot gas required to properly
defrost any evaporator has been to supply a defrost heating effect from the hot gas equal to three
times the evaporator’s cooling effect when in refrigeration”(2).
The quantity of hot gas needed to defrost 100 tons of evaporator when following the 3 to
1 rule will be 10% x 427 x 3 = 128 lb/min.
Hot gas may be supplied at discharge pressure or at some reduced pressure level to avoid
waste of hot gas. This may occur from hot gas blowing through the relief regulator, to the
compressor, when a defrost is completed prior to termination of the hot gas cycle. At a lower
pressure, the quantity of hot gas blowing through the regulator will be less because of its lighter
density. Any blow through of vapor will reduce compressor capacity since expansion of the
vapor occurs when pressure is reduced in the suction line.
In this instance, we shall reduce the pressure in the defrosting hot gas header to 125 psig
(74.7”F); the relief regulator being set at 70 psig (47.3 OF). Chart 4 indicates the pressure drop
(AP) per 100 ft equivalent length for these lines when flow is 128 lb/min as follows: 2 112 in. =
13.0,3 in. = 4.0 and 4 in. = 0.7. Assuming the header has an equivalent length of 400 ft, the total
pressure drop in each line will be:
2 112 in.: 13.0 x 400/100 = 52.0 psi
3 in.: 4.0 x 400/100 = 16.0 psi
4 in.: 0.7 x 400/100 = 2.8 psi
When the 52 psi pressure drop is subtracted from 125 psig header pressure the net
pressure in the line will be 73 psig for the 2 1/2 in. line, which is too close to the pressure setting
of the relief regulator and is unsatisfactory. The 3 in. line is a good choice considering that the
hot gas supply pressure will be 109.0 (125 -16.0) psig and will allow for some upward
adjustment of the setting of the defrost relief regulator, if necessary.
Design Criteria
In the 15 years prior to my retirement in 1977, I was responsible for the design of
numerous industrial liquid recirculating refiigeration systems throughout the food industry. In
order to ensure that the piping designs were effective and consistent, I developed criteria to be
used for sizing all piping installed in those systems (See Table 4). Though it may seem
conservative, these were large refrigerated facilities, and it was essential that they perform in
accordance with design requirements. Prior to my development of these criteria, tables
developed by ARI which listed maximum tons capacity for various type of lines at different
pressure drops were published by various equipment manufacturers in their engineering data.
More recently, ASHRAE has published maximum capacities for various line sizes and pressure
drops for suction, discharge and liquid lines in tabular form. Stoecker has listed preferrable
203
ranges of temperature loss for suction lines at 0.9 to 3.6"F and for discharge lines at 1.8 to
5.4"F( 1).
High Stage Suction Line Example

A detailed high stage direct expansion suction line example is shown in Figure 3. Note
that several pipe size selections have been made for most line segments and that temperature loss
(AT) values have been used instead of pressure drop (AP) values per 100 ft equivalent length.
Since the final amount of temperature drop is not known until totalled, sizes of certain
portions of the line may be interchanged so that a suitable temperature loss will be obtained. To
better achieve this objective, temperature loss for both the smaller and larger pipe sizes are
shown as well as a cumulative total for each line segment.
In this example, the equivalent length for a globe valve has been used wherever a shut off
valve would be installed. These values are separately shown under the equivalent length column.
Where a control valve's resistance has been given in psi by a manufacturer it has been converted
to temperature loss and shown as an item to be added to the temperature loss for that segment.
Analysis of Figure 3 Example

1. Note the dramatic cumulative temperature loss of 8S"F for the smaller pipe sizes as
compared with the 3.67"F cumulative temperature loss for the larger pipe size selection.
2. With an evaporating temperature of 20"F, suction temperature at the compressor for the
larger pipe sizes would be 20°F minus 3.67" or 16.33"F (29.7 psig) versus 20°F minus
8.5" or 11.5"F (25.2 psig) for the smaller pipe sizes.
3. The effect of this difference upon compressor capacity also is very dramatic. Reference
to Chart 3 indicates a capacity of 76 tons and 1.3 1 BHP/Ton at a suction temperature of
11.5"F for the smaller pipe sizes and a capacity of 85.7 tons and 1.18 BHP/"on at a
suction temperature of 16.3"F for the larger pipe sizes. These differences represent a
12.7% increase in capacity and a 10.0% decrease in BHP when larger pipe sizes are
considered.
4. Without question, the larger pipe sizes should be selected for use. Since the evaporators
are direct expansion units, pipe sizes will remain as shown in the example, rather than
being enlarged for liquid recirculation.
5. For a given flow, pressure drop will decrease as line size is increased.
6. There is a much greater pressure drop per 100 ft equivalent length for valves than for
pipe.
Low Stage Suction Line Example

A detailed low temperature suction line example for a continuous blast freezer supplied
by pump recirculated liquid is shown in Figure 4. In this example, a comparison is made on the
204
effect that a globe valve has upon temperature loss as compared with that of an angle or 45" Y
valve. Two pipe sizes are indicated in most segments. However, since the AT per 100 ft
equivalent length was excessive for the smaller line size, only the larger was used. CG indicates
a control valve group in which two shut off valves and a gas powered check valve are installed in
the suction header.
Analysis of Figure 4 Example

1. In those segments where only pipe is involved temperature loss is small.
2. Note that the equivalent length for a globe valve is much greater than for an angle or 45 O
Y valve of the same size. (See Table 7 for equivalent length of valves.)
3. The effect that large size valves have upon temperature loss is substantial.
4. The effect that a control valve having a pressure drop of 114 psi has upon temperature loss
is substantial. The temperature loss would be twice as large if pressure drop was
increased to 1/2 psi.
5. Reference to Chart 6, Effect of Variable Suction Pressure upon Booster Tons and BHP at
Constant Discharge Pressure, indicates that the use of angle or 45" Y valves, as compared
with globe valves, will result in an increase of 7.7% in compressor capacity and a
decrease of 4.2% in BHP/ton.
6. For a liquid recirculating system, consider using pipes one size larger than shown in the
example.
Low Temperature Liquid Line Example

A detailed liquid line example is shown in Figure 5. This selection is made for the liquid
supplied to the blast freezer suction line example shown in Figure 4. You will note that we have
retained the same identification for each segment, but the direction of flow is reversed. The
pressure loss is expressed in psi rather than OF since we are more interested in psi and its
conversion to feet of head. Since maximum liquid pressure occurs at the pump discharge, the
pressure available at the farthest unit in segment A will be the total of all pressure losses
subtracted from discharge pressure.
Trapped Suction Line Risers

One source of substantial pressure loss in the suction line of a recirculating system occurs
when the line rises (is trapped) after leaving the evaporator outlet. Since the amount of liquid
flow in the suction line from any evaporator is only an estimate, the manner in which it passes
upward can vary in a number of forms depending upon its loading. Our concern involves its
state when flow is occurring under design load conditions.
Though there may be some relationship between flow to pipe size for minimum pressure
drop in a riser, the only published information on this subject of which I am familiar is by
Richards(3) and Stoecker( 1). Stoecker references Richards and uses some of his findings.
205
Richards predicts temperature loss in 10 ft risers of various size at -40°F with a 5 to 1
recirculating rate. For pipe sizes between 2 1/2 in. and 6 in., the range of minimum temperature
loss is between 2.7"F for the smaller size to 3.5"F for the 6 in. size.
To determine the effect a 3°F temperature loss will have upon compressor capacity at
-40°F and -43"F, refer to Chart 6. Capacity at -40°F is 48 tons and 1.39 BHP/ton while capacity
at -43°F suction is 43.5 tons and 1.5 1 BHP/ton. This penalty will cause a 9.4% reduction in
compressor capacity and an increase of 8.6% in BHP.
The important aspect of this matter is the fact that a substantial temperature penalty
occurs whenever a suction line containing recirculated liquid rises or is trapped. The loss will
increase as line size or the height of the rise increases. Fortunately, this is the only penalty which
a designer has the ability to entirely avoid. This is possible by removing the liquid from the
suction line before it rises by means of a liquid transfer system which is located below the unit.
Pressure Loss Due to Height

On occasion, the routing of liquid lines involves their placement on roofs or at high
elevations in a building. When this occurs liquid pressure in the line will be reduced by the head
loss which results. The amount of this loss is readily obtained by reference to Chart 7 which is
Chart 7-7 17, Pressure Loss fiom Increase in Height, of Bulletin Rp 185.
For example, the pressure loss in a line containing 50°F liquid that rises 30 ft is 8.3 psi.
Enter the chart at 30 €t. Move up vertically to the intersection of the horizonal50"F line. At that
point, interpolation between the 8 and 9 psi lines will show pressure drop to be approximately
8.3 psi.
Other Reference Data

For reference purposes there is included from Bulletin RP 185 the following:
1. For pipe fittings - Table 5, Loss in Equivalent Feet of Pipe.
2. For valves - Table 6, Loss in Equivalent Feet of Pipe.
3. Chart 8-717, Gage Pressure at Various Altitudes.
Before concluding this portion of the paper, recognition and comment is in order on one
aspect of the Suction Line chart. As that chart was prepared on the basis of all liquid supplied to
the evaporator being vaporized it also allowed for 10°F of superheat being added to the vapor
returning to the compressor. As a result, the volume of the vapor is increased by approximately
2.75%. Table 2 on page 33 of ASHRAE RP185 indicates that a 10°F reduction in superheat will
result in pressure drop being reduced by 2.6%. In this instance, we are dealing with a matter in
which knowledge of the actual flow of ammonia is only an estimate and subject to much greater
variation than 2.6%. In any event that superheat allowance will provide a 2.6% reduction in
pressure drop and render the chart conservative.
206
Piping Arrangement and Practices
The arrangement of a well conceived piping system involves considerably more
engineering effort than that required to provide a schematic flow diagram to a piping contractor.
Though any number of arrangements are possible it is important that each:
1. Provides convenient access to items related to system operation such as shut off valves,
float valves and chambers, pumps, liquid coolers, condensers etc.
2. Provides convenient access to operating equipment for service or maintenance.
3. Is easily understood and not confusing.
4. Is energy efficient.
5. Avoids interferences or "fixes" where omissions or errors may have caused a problem.
There follows a listing of factors which warrant considerationwhen arranging piping in

specific areas or applications.
In Refrigerated and Non-Refrigerated Areas

Piping Headers
1. Allow ample space between lines.
2. Locate suction lines where valves can be installed with stems horizontal.
3. Locate over product storage areas or close to walls.
4. Install valves for isolation of branch headers where they connect into main header.
5. Avoid locations that will interfere with air distribution.
6. Avoid locating piping over processing equipment.
7. Assure piping is well protected from below.
8. Assure piping is properly braced and supported.
Suction Headers
1. Plan routing.
2. Locate end of each branch at highest point for units located farthest from engine room.
3. Pitch continuously down towards machine room.
4. Branch headers must connect into main header from above, never from below.
5. Avoid use of globe valves in suction lines whenever possible to reduce pressure drop.
6. Do not trap to avoid interference with other piping or equipment.
7. For major rise to another floor or roof, do not trap. Allow suction from unit to drain into
an accumulator and transfer pump or a liquid return system located below evaporator
unit.
207
Evaporator Piping 8
1.
2.
Plan piping arrangement from unit to control group to headers.
Use shut off valves in all lines between control valves and unit. Locate them so that they
are accessible in one location by ladder or fork lift from floor.
I
3. Defrost relief drain line to take off from underside or end of lower coil connection.
Control Valve Group

1. Locate all valves adjacent to each other where accessible from one location for operation
and maintenance.
2. Avoid the use of strainers, and their increased temperature loss penalty, in front of any
low temperature suction control valve.
3. Avoid locating over doors.
4. Provide adequate spacing between lines for insulation on valves and accessibility for
service.
5.
6.
7.
Provide one pressure gauge which will show pressure in the coil at all times.
Provide a pressure gauge upstream of liquid throttling device.
Restricted spaces may require detailed layout of all valves and piping to avoid
I
interferences and provide access for maintenance.
ID
Engine Room
General
1
1. Establish equipment locations based upon a planned header arrangement. 8
2. Establish elevations for major piping headers - HBS, LBS, LLBS, CD, BD.
3. Provide double offsets in suction and discharge piping from headers to compressors to
provide flexibility to piping.
4. Locate compressor shutoff valves where accessible.
5. Provide convenient access and work space needed to operate and service items such as:
shutoff valves, check valves, control valves, float devices, strainers, pumps, liquid
coolers, etc.
6. Avoid interferences or difficult access after installation of insulation.
Individual Items
1. Provide main line liquid solenoid at receiver to stop liquid flow upon emergency
shutdown.
2. Feed makeup liquid into vessels - not piping.
3. Combine branch lines into manifolds where possible.
208
4. Provide stubs or valves for future compressor or condenser additions, if likely.
5. Cross connect booster suctions from different low stage systems for flexibility.
6. Provide starting by-pass for single stage operation of two stage system.
7. Provide suction header drain valves on underside near end of header.
8. Make compressor suction connection to header from above - never from below.
9. Make compressor discharge into header from above at 45" angle.
10. Ensure a check valve is installed in discharge line from each compressor.
11. Provide shut off valves at every connection on every vessel except for safety relief valve.
12. Install valves on vessels with pressure under seat.
13. Never locate a union between a valve and vessel.
14. Provide pump out or drain valves on underside of liquid lines at control or check valves
and underside of liquid line to pump suction connection.
15. Provide hydrostatic relief valve where isolation of a liquid line could result in liquid
lockup.
16. Locate float columns so that: level eyes are readily visible, float switches can be observed
and serviced, and float chambers can be raised or lowered.
17. Provide pump out connection on float columns.
18. Locate liquid level control floats and valves where accessible for service and pressure
gauges are readily visible.
19. Provide hand expansion by-pass around all liquid control valves.
20. For low temperature applications, be aware of the effect upon compressor capacity that
results from excessive temperature loss in suction lines and make sizing selections on a
conservative basis.
Electric Panels
1. Never locate refrigerant or water lines over any switchgear, motor control center,
distribution and control panels.
Closing Comment
The recommendations contained herein represent a condensation of the knowledge gained
from many years of experience in designing, starting up and troubleshooting numerous
refrigeration systems. Of course, there are other ways to do some of the things described with
satisfactory results.
The author hopes that system designers, engineers, plant operating supervisors and
personnel will find some of this information helpful and beneficial in the course of their work,
and that it will contribute to their becoming more knowledgeable and valuable individuals.
209
References
1. Stoecker, W. F. Industrial RefriFeration, 1988. p. 264 and p. 271-272.
2. Strong, A. P. “Hot Gas Defrost: A one, A more, A time,” Proc. IUR Ann. Mtg., 1984, p
185K.
3. Richards, William, V. “PipingIs Piping ... Or Is It?,” Proc. IUR Ann. Mtg., March 1982,
p 20.
210
Table 1: Pressure-Volume Variation Due to Temperature Change
Temperature Pressure Volume (V,)

"F Psig fi3m
96 184.2 1.510
95 181.1 1.534
AT= 1"F AP=3.1 psi
21 34.6 5.789
20 33.5 5.910
AT=l "F AP=0.3 1 psi
21 1
Table 2: Ammonia Flow Rate, lb/min/ton
Cowtesy of American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers. Reprinted from "RefrigerantLine Sizing," ASHRAE Research Project
185.
~ _ _- - _
' Liquid EvaporatingTemperature, F'.
Temp I .
F' -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 * l o 1 2 d i o '

120 0.482 0.478 0.473 0,469 0.466 0.462 ,. 0.459 0.456 0.453
115 0.475 0.471 0.467 ~ 0.463 0.459 0.456 0.453 0.450 0.447
110 0.468 0.464 0.460 0.457 0.453 0.450 0.447 0.444 0.441
105 0.462 0.458 0.454 0.453 0.477 0.444 . 0.441 0.438 0.435
100 0~456 0.452 0.448 0.445 0.431 0.438 0.435 0.432 0.430
95 0.450 0.446 0.442 0.439 0.436 0.433 0.430, . * 0.4271 0.425. *
90 0.444 0.440 0.437 0.433 , 0.430 0.42f 0.424 0.422 0.419
85 0.439 0.435 0.431 0.428 0.425 0.422 0.419 . 0.417 0.414
80 0.433 0.430 0:426 0.423 0.420 0.4 17 0.414 0.412 0.409
;;
65
-
0.428
0.423
0.418
0.424
0.419
0.414
0.421
0.416
0.41 1
0.418
0.413
0.408
0.415
0.4 10
0.405
0.4 12
0.407
0.402
0.409
0.404
0.400 I
0 407
0.402
0.398
0.405
0.400
0.395
60 ' 0.413 0.409 0.406 0.403 0.400 0.398 0.395 0.393 0.391
-55 , 0.408 0.404 0.401 0.398 0.396 0.393 0.391 0.389 , 0.387
' 50 0.403 0.400 0.397 0.394 0.392 0.389 0.387 0.385 .I 0.383
45 0.399 0.396 0.393 0.390 0.387 0.385 0.383 ?.38,J 0.379.
40 0.395 0.392 0.389 Q.386 . 0.383 0.381 0.379 . 0.377. 0.375 .

35
30
0.390
0.386
0.387
0.383
- 0.384
0.380
0.382
0.378
0.379
0.375
0.377
0.373
0.375
0.371
01373
0.369
- 0.371
0.367'
25 0.38? 0.379 0.376 0.374 0.371 0.369 0.367- *. 0.365
20 0.378 0.375 0.373 0.370 0.368 0.366 0.364 0.365.''

15 0.374 0.371 0.369 0.366 0.364 0.362 0.360
10 0.370 0.368 0.365 0.363 0.361 0.358 0.356
5 0.366 0.364 0.361 0.359 ' 0.357 0.355
0 0.363 0.3b 0.358 0.356 0.354 0.352

-5 0.359 0.357 0.354 0.352 0.350
-10. 0.356 0.354 0.351 0.349 0.347
-1 5 0.352 0.350 0.348 0.346
-20 0.349 0.347 01345 0.343

-25 0.346 0.344. 0.342 *- .
. -30
-35
. 0.343
0.340
0.341
0.338.
.c .. ..
0.339
'.
' 7
.
a ,
-40 0.337 , 0.335

-45 0.334
-50
Temperature enteringexpansiondevice
*' Saturationtemperature leaving evaporator or accumulator
***TonsxpwnQsper(minute,lon)=poundsperminule
212
Table 3: Condenser to Receiver Line Sizing, 100 Urnin, 90°F liquid temperature
Courtesy of American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers. Reprinted from “Refrigerant Line Sizing,” ASHRAE Research Project
185.
Nominal Pipe Size

vi 1 1‘/4 1 ‘/2 2 2 ’h 3 4 5 6
Sch Flow Rate, pounds per minute
R-12 40 30 83 113 179 266 41 1 708 1112 1606
a0 24 48
40 71 98 164 236 367 639 1012 1450
R-22 40 34 56 96 131 207 308 4 76 819 1287 1858

80 28 46 a3 114 190 273 425 740 11 70 1677
R-502 40 26 42 73 100 158 234 362 623 9ao 1415

a0 21 35 63 87 145 208 323 563 89 1 1276
R-717
40
80 .
j 11 ia 33 45
63
76
-
123
109
189
169
326
295
513
466
714
668
213
Table 4: Design Criteria
H.B. Suction 1 psi per 750 ft equivalent length

L.B. Suction 1 psi per 1000 ft equivalent length
L.L.B. Suction 1 psi per 1000 ft equivalent length
Booster Discharge 1 psi per 200 ft equivalent length
Hot Gas to Condenser 1 psi per 200 ft equivalent length
Hot Gas to Plant 1 psi per 200 ft equivalent length
Liquid Cond-Rec 100 Wmin velocity
Liquid to Plant 1 psi per 200 ft equivalent length
Oil Drain 3f4 in
214
Table 5: Loss in Equivalent Feet of Pipe
Courtesy of American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Reprinted from “Refrigerant Line Sizing,” ASHRAE Research Project
185.
Nominal
Pipe
Size
Pipe 9oo
icheduie Std’
9oo
Long
Rad. t
Street.
Smooth Bend Elbows
Street’
-1 Flow
Through
Smooth Bend Tees
Branch Reduction
(in.)
i i
VZ 40 2.5 0.8 1.3 2.5 3.0 1.o 1.4 1.6

80 1.3 0.4 0.7 1.3 1.6 0.5 0.7 0.8
3A
1
40
80
40
9 1.2
2.0 I 3.2
1.9
4.1
0.9
0.5
1.3
1.6
1.o
2.1
3.2
1.9
4.1
4.0
2.4
5.0
1.4
0.8
1.7
1.9
1.1
2.3
,
2.0
1.2
2.6
80 2.6 0.8 1.3 2.6 3.2 1.1 1.5 1.7
I
1 i%
1% 40 5.6 1.7 3.0 5.6 7.0 2.3 3.1 3.3
80 3.7 1.2 2.1 3.9 4.8 1.6 2.1 2.3 .
1 ’/2 40 6.3 2.1 3.4 6.3 8.0 2.6
80 4.5 1.5 2.4 4.5 5.7 1.8
2 40 8.2 2.6 4.5 8.2 10 3.3 4.7
80 6.0 1.9 3.3 6.0 7.3 2.4 3.7
1 40
-
1.8 1.2
elded or anged Fit! DS1’
0.8 2.4 52 1.6 0.8 1.2
80 1.2 0.8 0.5 1.5 3.3 1 .o 0.5 0.8
1% 40 2.3 . 1.6 1.1 3.1 7.1 2.0 1.1 1.6
80 1.6 1.1 0.7 2.1 4.9 1.4 0.7 1.1
1 Y2 40 2.6 1.8 1.2 3.5 8.4 2.0 1.2 1.8
80 1.8 1.3 . 0.9 2.5 6.0 1.4 0.9 1.3
2 40 3.4 2.3 1.5 4.6 10.5 2.5 1.5 2.5
80 2.5 1.7 1.1 3.3 7.7 1.8 1.1 1.7
2 Y2 40 4.2. 2.7 1.8 5.6 13 2.9 1.8 2.7
80 3.1 2.0 1.3 4.1 10 2.0 1.3 2.0
3 40 5.3- 3.4 I 2.3 7.1 16 3.6 2.3 3.4
80 4.0 2.6 1.7 5.4 12 2.7 1.7 2.6
4 40 7.2 4.5 . 3.0 10 I 22 4.5 3.0 4.5
80 5.6 3.5 2.3 7.8 17 3.4 2.3 3.5
5 40 9.2 5.7. 3.8 12 27 ’ 5.1 , 3.8, 9.2
80 7.3 4.5 3.0 9.5 21 4.0 3.0 7.3
6 40 11 6.8 ‘ 4.6 15 33 6.1 446 11
80 8.6 5.3 3.5 12 26 , 4.8 3.5 8.6
8 30 16 10 . 6.7 21 47 7.5 6.7 16
40 15 9 6 20 44 7.1 6.0 15
10 30 19 12. 8 25 60 9.2 8.0 19
40 18 11 7 24 56 8.7 7.0 18
20 25 16 11 34 77 12 - 11 25
12 30 23 15 10 32 72 11 10 23
40 22 14 9 -. 30 68 10 9 22
‘WD approximatety equal lo 1
t W D approximately equal to 1.5
215
Table 6 : Valve Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe
Courlesy of American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Reprinted from "RefrigerantLine Sizing," ASHRAE Research Project
185.
.- - - -- - - ..- . , .- -.- .. . - - -- - - - - - - - -- .
Pipe
Size Butter- Swing Lift
in. Sch. Globe 60'Y 45 "Y Anale Ball' fly' Check Check
Y2 40 18 9 7 7 4 6
80 9 4 3 3 2
=A 40 22 11 9 9 6 8
80 13 7 5 5 4 5
1 40 29 15 12 12 3 10
80 19 10 8 8 2 6
1 'A 40 38 20 15 15 6 14
80 26 14 10 10 4 10
Globe and
1Y2 40 43. 24 18 18 5 16 vertical
80 31 17 13 13 3 11 lift
same as
40 55 30 24 24 11 20 globe
2
80 40 22 18 . . 18 8 15 valve
2 '/2 40 69 35 29 29 9 25
80 51 26 21 21 7" 19
40 84 43 35 35 10 26 30
3
80 64 33 27 27 7 20 . 23
4 40 120 58. 47 47. 8 28 40

80 94 45 37 37 6 22 31
5 40 140 71 58 58 19 27 50
80 111 56 46 46 15" 22" 40
Angle
40 170 88. 70 70 41 34 60 lift .
6
80 133 69 55 55 * 32 26 47 same as .
angle
30 233 122 90 90 44 44 85 valve
8
40 220 115 85 85 42 42 80
30 297 154 111 111 60 58 106

10
40 280 145 105 105 57 55 100
20 362 187 147 147 59 69 136

12 30 339 175 138 138 55 65 128
40 320 165 130 130 52 61 120
'F,low data for ball and butterfly valves vary widely. even lrom the same manufacturer. Equivalent lengths shown above should not be used without
correctionsfrom Table 9.
"Ball and butterflyvalves may not be available from some manufacturersin these sizes.
216
L .
I
E
00
'U
L.S.
CPMPR.
MTL,
,: P P
13
H F I E 0 C
S&G-
MENT
C 5 I .17 I Iod
D
E
I -22 I I 2.3b I
F
I I
. ..
...
..
' i
I
.+.
. I.
I
. .. . i ..
I
i
1.
i
ZbA'
2
I
I
-rI..
..
%;
. . i/
, I
' I-
I
I
I
1-
cn
C
.!3:
E
CD
v,
r
8
v1
CD
v,
11asea on :?rnperaiures woerhealea aDnw ? d l u r . i l m ,I\ normally O C C I I I ~ In o r a w r c Scc :eil l o r dpirltt? ..

.~ ,
used 101 lhis char1 are nni a deslqn recornrncr~dallon Consult applicable codes and Slandarfls In1 salely llrni13110nS See lex1 lor loss wi1i;oIlier
\\all III~c~:~esscs wall lhickn'esses
I
.
.....,.-^...-.....
I
. . . ........-.....
.
. . . ,.._.__
...A
I . .,. ,I
' I
-.+-
...
. . ,..., I
..
I
. ...... ._ . .,..._._..
."!. . _.!,__.I. I
.
. . I
... .. ............ ...-

b .
* . . ......
. . . .
! ! .
.
.
1
Nominal Pipe Slze (Inches)
CondensingTemperature, F Sch 30 Schedule 40
120 110 100 1; 90 80 70 60 0 6 5 4 3 2% 2 1% 1%
20
1-
io--
..
m1-w
-- -
-0 20--
-E
10-
--e4
.-, I " - 20--z
)
!
-
- -cu -
> -
i
; 5-- -0
-::4 5- lo:-*
1o--u,
-_
I
iI
L
3 5
-_
_I..
4---
3--
*" . --0
-w
--0
I
5---h,
.! 2,'-
_- 4-- 5--
I - w 2- - - w
! -_ 3-
4--w
2
-m --s 3--
! - *
. 1-- -m 2--
-I-
1- 0,
--9 2--- _r
s
..
--9 .m-
-v) W-
.5--
s-- 1 --
--s r--
.4=".
.4 - -I-
'-c?
l- - w
--s (0-
.5 ---9 --?
In-
.5-.
-4--
.4--n!
lead pressure loss, psi,
.3 - w-
.3--
In left side of line I
.2
-.?
lead tempsrature loss, F. .2 -I- m-
sn righf side ol line
ased on temperatures Superheatedabove saturation as normally occurs in practice See text lor details
(all thicknesses used lor this chart are not a design recommendation Consult applicable codes ana Standards lor salety limitations See text lor loss with other wall thtcknesses
Wall thicknesses used lor this chart are not a design recommendation
Consult applicable codes and standards lor safety limitations See iexr lor loss with other wall thicknesses.
Nominal Pipe Size (inches)
Liquid Temperature, F { T S c q h e d u l e 40
120& 80 40 O -40 3 - K x t1112,0Schedlu'e80
w
w
o\
.
-
. loo:
. ..-
Iq-.,
. ... ._.
-. -.
n
P
x
..4
9
E.
a
r
5'
"g
Pressure Loss, psi

0 2 4 6 8 10' 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
*
-50
LA
n o
E
I-
E
a
50,
P
1
700 I
l I 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 I
4
1 . II
I
I II I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Increase in R-717 Liquid Line Height, 11
Gage Pressure, psi
in.Vac 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 110 130 150 200. 250
7
P
2.
U
w
n
R-717Saturation Temperature, F
p
B
1
t-
9'
VILTER MANUFACTURING
CORPORATION
PRESENTA
Tecnologia
g del
Compresor
Reciprocante
1
La Historia del Compresor
Reciprocante Vilter
Compresor Horizontal de Doble
Accion
Primer Compresor en
1882
Velocidad baja,109 RPM
maximo
Cilindros Grandes con
una carrera de 23” x 46”
Polea de Compresor de
20’
Ocupaban grandes
espacios
Compresor de Tipo Piston Doble - Horizontal
2
1882 Compresor Reciprocante Horizontal
z Tipo Doble Piston- Horizontal
z Impulsados por Maquinas de Vapor
Horizontal Compressor
3
Inicios de 1880’s Rangos 13” - 23” diametro,
23”- 46” carrera 65 - 109 RPM 275 - 900 Hp
Hasta 40 pies ( 13 mts ) Largo
3 - 19” diametro x 28”carrera con Motores

Sincronos Electricos
4
Compresion hasta 1250 psig – CO2 como refrigerante
Sistema Doble Etapa-

Etapa- Unidad Duplex
5
Reciprocante Vilter
Compresor de Cilindro Gemelo
Vertical Desarrollado en 1920
Velocidad mediano
hasta 360 RPM
maximo
Grandes Cilindros
con una carrera
hasta 10-
10-1/2” x 10-
10-
1/2”
Menos espacio
necesitado que el
compresor horizontal
6
Primeros Verticales 250 to 400 RPM
Primeros de Banda Plana - 10% Perdida de

Potencia tipicamente
7
Reciprocante Vilter
Compresor Multi
Multi--cilindro Vilter
440 VMC compresor
desarrollado en 1945
velocidades más
altas
Cilindros con carrera y
agujero de 4-1/2”
4 1/2” x 3-
3-
1/2” y 4-
4-1/2”x 4-
4-1/2”
Menos
M espacio
i necesitado
it d y
más eficiente que los
compresores horizontales o
verticales
Vilter 400 Series VMC

Compresores
Hay 3 modelos actuales de la Serie 400 VMC
440 VMC serie, maximo 1200RPM

4-1/2” diametro and 3
3--1/2” carrera
Diametro pequeño para crank pin (2.874”)
Placas para valvulas de descarga
450XL VMC serie, maximo 1200RPM

4-1/2” diametro and 4
4--1/2” carrera
Diametro grande para crank pin (3.124”)
Tipo Anillo placas para valvulas de descarga
460 VMC serie, 50hz acoplamiento directo para aplicaciones

de exportacion, maximo 1500RPM
4-1/2” diametro and 33--1/2” carrera
Diametro pequeño crank pin (2.874”)
Tipo Anillo, placas para valvulas de descarga
8
CAMISAS DE
CILINDROS
CAMISAS DE CILINDROS
> Camisas de
450/450XL liners
son 1” mas grande
que en los 440/460
> Las camisas en los
440/460 utilizan 4
pines de elevacion
para los
descargadores
> Camisas de los
450/450XL Utilizan 8
pines de levante
450 & 450XL 440 & 460
9
Patron Bruñido
> Las funciones del Bruñido
son:
> Ayudar al asentamiento
de los anillos
> Atrapar pelicula de aceite
en la camisa
30°° to 60
30 60°°
> 30°
30° to 60°
60° Angulo de
Bruñido
> Si un piston y una biela
son removidos del
compresor,
compresor la camisa debe
ser rebruñida y se debe
usar nuevos
> Piedras de raspado medio
deben ser usados para el
Pistones Y
Anillos de
Compresion y
de
d AAceite
it
10
Anillos del Piston
> Anillo de Compresion: > Anillo de Aceite

> Sella durante la compresion > Raspa el aceite en la
> Se instalan con el bizel o carrera hacia abajo
palabra “Top” hacia la > Permite pasar aceite por el
cabeza del anillo en la carrera hacia
arriba
> Se Instalan con la marca o
palabara hacia “TOP” arriba
de la cabeza del piston
Piston
> Piston de aluminio / Cam ground
aluminum piston Canal para Anillos de
compresion
> La zona de anillos son de menor
diametro que la superficie
Canal para
> 3 Anillos de compresion
Anillo de
> 1 Anillo de Aceite
aceite
> La hendidura en el anillo de
aceite permite el paso de aceite
> Los pistones para 440, 450 & Pin de Piston
460 tiene ajuste de empuje a
mano con el Pin de Piston o
biela
> Los pistones para 450XL tienen
ajuste de apretado con el pin del
piston
11
Plato de
Valvulas y
Valvulas
Plato de Valvulas de
Descarga
> Existen 2 tipos de valvulas de Descarga:

> Tipo Diafragama (Izquierda) (440 & 450XL
Boosters o compresores aplicacion de Baja).
> Tipo Anillo (Derecha) (450, 450XL & 460)
Estandard o compresores de aplicacion de Alta
12
Plato de Valvulas de
Succion
Alta Presion Baja Presion
> Existen dos versions para el Plato de Succion

Succion, de Alta Presion y de Baja Presion
> 450XL
> Alta Presion de Succion igual o por encima de 45 psig para Amponiaco y en
Freones > 25 psig (High Lift)
> Baja Presion para Amoniaco por debajo de 45 psig y en Freones por debajo de
25 psig(Low Lift)
> 440
> Alta presion por encima de 45 psig (High Lift)
> Baja Presion por debajo de 45 psig (Low Lift)
Valvulas del plato de

Succion y Descarga
Valvula de Succion
Valvula de Descarga
450, 450XL 440 &
& 460 450XL Booster
> La valvula de succion es de tipo anillo para toda la

serie 400 VMC
> La valvula de descarga es de tipo diafragma para
los Boosters 440 and 450XL Booster VMC
> La valvula de descarga es de tipo anillo para el plato
de descarga de los 450, 450XL and 460 VMC
13
BIELAS Y
RODAMIENTOS
DE BIELA
BIELAS
> Todas las bielas son
> Forjadas
> Marcadas con gguia y
Agujero Taladrado para aceite chavetero para evitar
deslizamiento o
rotacion del
> Agujero taladrado de
aceite para suplir
lubricacion
> Bielas para los 450XL
Canal de suministro > Major diametro para
la seccion cigueñal
de aceite > Canal detras del
rodamiento
14
RODAMIENTOS DE BIELA
InferiorSuperior
InferiorSuperior
Actual Primeros 440 450XL

450, 440
& 460
> El rodamiento superior esta hecho
> Los primero 440 tenian canal para
completa
> Aumentar superficie de rodamiento
> Diseño actual en los 440, 450, and en el punto maximo muerto superior
460 no tiene canal > Dar empuje de aceite al pin
> El rodamiento inferior es un
rodamiento simple sin bolsillos o
perforaciones
> Estos deben ser instalados en sus
orden exacto, de lo contrario habra
fallo de lubricacion y giro de piezas
Pin y Buje de Biela

> Todo los pines y bielas
son alimentados de
aceite por el orificio
Agujero de aceite
taladrado en la biela
> El aceite lubrica el Pin a
Canal de Aceite traves de una seria de
canales y derivaciones
internas
> Los Bujes son de acero
con Bronze
15
Sistema de
Descargadores
del Compresor
16
Descargadores con
sistema por Aceite
Puerto normalmente abierto de la fuente de presion sea
Aceite o Gas ( Gas esta descontinuado )

Válvula de 3 vias de Solenoide
Puerto comun al piston para descargar
Puerto normalmente cerrado al carter
17
Gas Descargadores con
sistema por Gas
Valvula Solenoide de 2-
2-Vias Normalmente cerrado
Piston de
Descarga
Linea Venteado al
Camara de Succion
Mecanismo Descargador
>Leva
>Pivote
>Brazo
>Resortes
18
Pistones de
Descargadores
Ci
Circuito
it de
d
Aceite
19
400 Series Cut-Away - Oil Flow
Bomba de Aceite
Salida >La bomba de
desplazamiento
positivo esta diseñada
para rotar en cualquier
sentido
Entrada >Si se cambia de sentido
de giro, la bomba
Salida cambia internamente
de sentido pero
conseva la entrada y
salida en posiciones
fijas
Entrada
20
Reguladora de presion de aceite
Presion de aceite debe ser puesto de 40 a 45 psi Netas

La Presión del aceite neta es la Presión del Calibrador de la
Succión restando la Presión de Indicador del aceite
El Ajuste del Regulador de la Presión del aceite está en la
entrada (drive end) de acople o eje.
Separador de Aceite
6 Estandard
– Termistores o malla de
acero
6 Super Separator
– Elemento Coalescente
©Vilter Manufacturing Corporation 2003
21
Estandard
Separador de Aceite
6 Estandard
– Termistores o malla de
acero
6 Super Separator
– Elemento Coalescente
22
Super Separator™ Oil
Separator
Flotador
23
Terminología de Operacion del
compresor
Compresión
Gas de re-
re-expansión
Eficiencia volumétrica
Proporción de compresión
Sobre calentamiento de Succion
Arrastre de Liquido
Reducción de capacidad
400 Serie Seccionado - Flujo de

Gas
24
Ciclo de compresión
A – Valvula de Succion Cierre
B – Valvula de Descarga Abre
200 C – Valvula de Descarga Cierre
C DESCARGA B D – Valvula de Succion Abre
150
PRESION
100
50
D SUCCION A
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% de Volumen de Cilindro
Ciclo de Compresion
Piston A Punto
Muerto Superior
Valvula de Succion
cerrada
Valvula de
Descarga abierta
El gas es forzado
fuera
f del
d l cilindro
ili d
25
Ciclo de Compresion
Al caer la presion de gas de
salida, el resorte del plato de
valvulas de Descarga cierra
el plato o salida.
El piston baja, a medio
camino en el cilindro y
comienza a genera una vacio
o presion interior baja.
El gas en el cilindro está por
debajo de la presión de
succión del compresor
Valvula de Succion se abre, el
gas de succion es de mayor
presion que la interna en el
cilindro.
El gas de succión entra filtrado
en el cilindro y llena el cilindro
hasta que las presiones son
iguales.
Ciclo de Compresion
Piston en Punto Muerto Inferior
El gas de succión para de
entrar al cilindro en el
momento que las presions
de cilindro y succion son
iguales
Valvula de succion se cierra
ahora por los resortes del plato
de valvulas de succion.
Valvula de Descarga esta
cerrada
Gas en el cilindro que esta a
presion de succion
succion, empezará a
comprimirse cuando el piston
comienza a subir
26
Ciclo de Compresion
El piston sube a medio
camino en el cilindro
Valvula de succion
cerrada
Valvula de descarga se
abre en el momento que
el gas del cilindro
adquiere mayo presion
para vencer la fuerza del
resorte y la presion
afuera del cilindro.
El gas en el cilindro es
ligeramente mas alto en
presión que la presion
afuera en la descarga del
compresor
Ciclo de Compresion
Piston en Punto
Muerto Superior
El Ciclo esta
completo
El Ciclo reinicia
nuevamente
27
250 A – Valvula de Succion cerrada
Proporción de compresión= 150/50 = 3 B – Valvula de descarga abierta
C – Valvula de descarga cerrada
Eficiencia Volumetrica = 81% D – Valvula de succion abierta
200
X - Re
Re--expansion
p
C B
150
Presion PSIA
100
50
D A
X 81%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% de Volume del Cilindro
250 A - Valvula de Succion cerrada
C B B - Valvula de descarga abierta
C - Valvula de descarga cerrada
200 D - Valvula de succion abierta
X - Re
Re--expansion
p
PRESION PSIA
150 Proporción de compresión = 225/50 = 4.5

Eficiencia Volumetrica = 73%
100
50
D A
X 73%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
28
250 A - Valvula de Succion cerrada
Proporción de compresión = 150/25 = 6 B - Valvula de descarga abierta
C - Valvula de descarga cerrada
Eficiencia Volumetrica = 65%
200 D - Valvula de succion abierta
X - Re
Re--expansion
p
C B
PRESION PSIA
150
100
50 D A
X 65%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Compresore Reciprocante
29
Digestion de Liquido
Digestion de Liquido el
hecho de CUALQUIER
liquido
q que
q esta en la
sistema de refrigeracion
La cabeza de seguridad
es de resorte para
prevenir daño
Cambios en
temperaturas muy
grandes causa fracturas
de estres
Digestion
Di ti continua
ti causa
desgaste en la area de
rodamientos debido a
cargas altas
Digestion de Liquido
250 A - Valvula de Succion cerrado
B - Valvula de descarga abierto
C - Valvula de descarga cerrado
200 D - Valvula de succion abierto
X - Re
Re--expansion
p
C B
PRESION PSIA
150
100
50
D A
X
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
30
Válvula interna de Alivio de Presión
Previene el daño
catastrófico
debido a la alta
descarga del
compresor
Discharge Chamber Una vez que el
alivio abre, debe
ser reemplazado
Suction Chamber
Comparacion de Compresores
RECIPROCANTE TORNILLO MONO CENTRIFUGO
DOBLE TORNILLO
CABEZA O Variable Variable Variable Fija
PRESION DE
DESCARGA
Volumen Fija Fija Fija Variable
Capacidad Baja Intermedia Intermedia Alta

Volumetrica
Desplazamiento Hasta 800 CFM 70 -5500 CFM 70- 3000 CFM 400 – 25,000 CFM
Volumetrico 1359.23 m3/hr 120 – 120 - 5097 700 – 42,000
10,000m3/hr m3/hr m3/hr
Potencia Hasta 350 H.P. 50-2000 H.P. 50-2000 H.P. 300- 15,000 H.P.
Impulsador 250 kW 40-1,500 kW 40-1,500 kW 200- 11,000 Kw.
Action o Tipo Reciprocante Rotatorio Rotatorio Rotatorio
Control Por Etapas Variable Variable Variable
31
Compresores Reciprocantes
z Los compresores reciprocantes fueron los primeros compresores en
ser usados en la Industria.
z Existieron compresores con arreglos y formas variadas. Hoy dia,

los mas comunes son el arreglo en V o W.
z Los reciprocantes pueden usar cualquier tipo de refrigerante o gas.

Todo depende del tipo de aplicacion, solubilidad del refrigerante
con el aceite, eleccion del cliente, y capacidad.
p
z La mayoria son de tipo impulsado por motores electricos pero

pueden usar cualquier tipo de impulsador como motores de
combustion, hidraulicos y turbina. Algunos son de arreglo de
Acople por bandas y otros por acople directo.
z Tambien p
pueden variar el numero de cilindros y velocidades.
z Dependiendo del tamaño y relacion de compresion, la

potencia al freno B.H.P. puede ir desde 1 H.P. hasta 350 H.P.
Y son capaces de manejar capacidades hasta 800 CFM.
z Debido a las altas temperaturas de descarga de esta

maquinas( 275°F para Halocarbones o Freones y 360°F para
A
Amoniaco),
i ) llos cilindros
ili d deben
d b ser refrigerados
fi d ya sea con
agua o con el mismo refrigerante.
z Normalmente los Halocarbones o Freones no requiren de

enfriamiento a menos que excedan las ratas de compresion.
32
z La relacion de compresion puede ser de 8:1 para Amoniaco
y de
d 12
12:11 para Freones
F oH
Halocarbones
l b
z La relacion de compresion se define como la Presion de

Descarga en Presion Absoluta sobre la Presion de Succion
en Presion Absoluta. (Pd / Ps)
z Y ell volumen
l neto
t ddepende
d de
d la
l Relacion
R l i de d Compresion.
C i
Una rata de 4:1 para Amoniaco da una eficiencia
Volumetrica de 75% mientras que una rata de 8:1. da una
eficiencia volumetrica de 58%.
Serie 320 323 324 325 326 327 328 Solo para
Freones
Cilindros 3 4 5 6 7 8
CFM 91 121 151 182 212 242 1800 RPM
Series 350 ES 353 354 355 356 357 358 Solo para
Freones
CFM 121 161 201 242 282 322 1800 RPM
Serie 440 442 444 446 448 4412 4416 Para cualquier
Gas
Cilindros 2 4 6 8 12 16
CFM 78 155 232 309 464 619 1200 RPM
Serie 450XL 452 454 456 458 4512 4516 Para cualquier
Gas
CFM 99.4 199 298 398 597 796 1200 RPM
33
COMPRESORES RECIPROCATES
DIFERENCIA BASICAS
TORNILLOS Y RECIPROCANTES
z Compresion hasta ciertas

z Compresion hasta cierta razon o relaciones ( 8:1 Amoniaco y 12:1
relacion (hasta 23:1)
z Mayor flujo de aceite para Freones)
lubricacion, sello y enfriamiento z Bajo flujo de aceite y en especial
z Enfriamiento del gas durante solo para lubricacion
compresion z Limitado enfriamiento del gas
z Mayor rango de capacidades durante compresion
z Bajo Desempeño en Cargas Parciales
z Bajo COP para compresores de tipo z Menor rango de capacidades
“Mini Screws” o pequenos. z Excelente desempeño a cargas
parciales
z Mejor COP
COMPRESORES RECIPROCANTES
COMPRESORES RECIPROCANTES VERSUS
COMPRESORES TORNILLOS
Caracteristicas a Carga Parcial
CONSUMO DE
POTENCIA
100%
TORNILLO A ALTAS
RELACIONES O
CARGA
~80%
~65%
~60%
50%
RECIP TORNILLO A BAJAS
RELACIONES O
CARGA
50% 100% CAPACIDAD
34
35
COMPRESORE RECIPROCANTES
COMPARACION - DIFERENTES PLANTAS
Consumo especifico: kW / kW ( -40ºC -40°F / +35 ºC +95 °F )
CAPACIDAD SISTEMAS DOBLE DOBLE ETAPA - TORNILLO CON TORNILLO –
ETAPA - TORNILLO RECIPROCANTES ECONOMIZADOR SISTEMA UNA
ETAPA
100% 0.584 0.595 0.656 0.746
75% 0.647 0.622 0.791 0.905
50% 0.769 0.742 1.076 1.227
•Consumos de
Specific power consumption
potencia especificos
se doblan al 50%
1.400 para carga parcial en
1.200
una etapa.
•Para
Para sistema doble
kW
kW / k
1 000
1.000
etapa, los tornillos y
los reciprocantes se
0.800
0.600
50%
aumentan el
0.400 75% Capacity consumo solo 30% a
Tw o stage
Tw o stage
100% (partload) 20% aprox para
cargas al 50%
- screw s Screw
- recips Single
w ith
stage
ecomizer
screw
Plant type
TIPICO MODELO
NOMENCLATURA
A 11 K 456XL-42 B R
REFRIGERANT CAPACITY REDUCTION OPTION

A = Ammonia (R-717) M = R-22
COMPRESSOR SPEED DESIGNATOR DRIVE

12 = 1200 RPM 93 = 930 RPM NO LETTER = BARE COMPRESSOR
11 = 1130 RPM or 1150 RPM * 88 = 880 RPM F = LEVEL 2 WITH FLYWHEEL
06 = 1060 RPM 87 = 870 RPM * C = LEVEL 2 WITH COUPLING
10 = 1000 RPM 83 = 830 RPM B = LEVEL 3 V-BELT DRIVE
96 = 960 RPM * ((50Hz)) 78 = 780 RPM D = LEVEL 3 DIRECT CONNECTED
95 = 950 RPM 73 = 730 RPM
* FOR DIRECT CONNECTED UNITS
COMPRESSOR SERIES
NUMBER OF CYLINDERS
UNIT TYPE
K = COMPRESSOR UNIT
36
NIVELES DE COMPRESORES
Uso de VFD o VSD – Variador de Frecuencia en

compresores Reciprocantes
z Razones para usar un VFD
– Control de Capacidad:
– Un compresor reciprocante trabaja en pasos fijos o etapas
dependiendo de su banco o cabezas de pistones
– Un compresor tipico de 8 pistones puede operar con capacidad o

pasos de 25%, 50%, 75% y 100% descargado. Si consideraramos
una aplicacion de un Chiller donde por cuestiones de proceso la
capacidad deberia estar en una valor de 60%, el compresor estaria
ciclando entre 50% y 75%. Estos ciclos consumirian mas energia
que si el compresor pudiera estar al 60%. Con un VFD, se
estableceria el compresor al 75% y se reduciria velocidad hasta
lograr el 60%.
37
Uso de VFD en compresores
reciprocantes
z Los procentajes determinan la Numero %
velocidad minima antes del uso
de bomba externa de Lubricacion: de
Cilindros
z Ejemplo Un 12 cilindros a 1200
rpm x 0.6 = 720 rpm 2 40%
4 40%
z Mas abajo de esta velocidad se
requiere del uso de una bomba de 6 50%
lubricacion externa y se puede
hasta velocidades minimas de 8 50%
20%.
12 60%
16 60%
Uso de VFD en compresores

Reciprocantes
z Razones para usar un VFD:
z Ciclaje del compresor: En un proceso de un cilaje continuo
del compresor, como lo puede ser Fines de Semana en un
Almacen de Frio donde las cargas seran minimas y el
compresor tenderia a estar sobredimensionado.
z Corriente en el Arraque del Motor: Para suavizar los picos
o evitar las altas corrientes de arranque
z B fi i adicionales:
Beneficios di i l U compresor a velocidades
Un l id d minimas
i i
emite menos ruido. Tambien a velocides mas bajas, mas larga
vida util de los componentes
38
USO DE VFD en compresores
reciprocantes
z Razones para NO usar un VFD:
z Fluctuaciones de la carga: Un compresor sin VFD
usara las solenoides de los descargadores para
llevarlo a su punto ideal. Este proceso es
instantaneo en la energizacion o desenergizacion de
las solenoides. Con un VFD podria tomar mas de 8
seg ndos en estabilizarlo
segundos estabili arlo y podria comenzar
comen ar a
perseguir la carga en forma falsa.
Gracias!
39
1
2
Table of Contents
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Vilter 450XL Oil Filtering System ........................................................................................................ 6

Mycom Oil Filtering System ................................................................................................................. 7
Vilter 450XLShaft Seal Assembly ......................................................................................................... 8

Mycom Shaft Seal Assembly ................................................................................................................. 9
Vilter 450XL Crankshaft Main Bearings ............................................................................................. 10

Mycom Crankshaft Main Bearings...................................................................................................... 11
Vilter 450XL Relief Valves ................................................................................................................. 12

Mycom Relief Valves .......................................................................................................................... 13
Vilter 450XL Pressure Gauges, Thermometer and Heater .................................................................. 14

Mycom Pressure Gauges and Thermometer ....................................................................................... 15
Vilter 450XL Water Cooling ............................................................................................................... 16

Mycom Water Cooling ........................................................................................................................ 17
Vilter 450XL Belt Drive ...................................................................................................................... 18

Mycom Belt Drive............................................................................................................................... 19
Warranty.............................................................................................................................................. 20
Installation Advantages ....................................................................................................................... 21
Performance Curves- Ammonia .......................................................................................................... 22

Performance Curves- Halocarbon ....................................................................................................... 23
Dollar SavingsPer Year Based on Horsepower Savings ..................................................................... 24
Application Range Comparisons ......................................................................................................... 25
3
4
Introduction
VMC 450XL
Reciprocating Compressor
Features and Efficiency
Comparisons Booklet
This booklet is a study of features and operating efficiencies of the Vilter VMC® 450XL® and
the Mycom type A and B multi-cylinder compressors. Ratings and features contained herein are
based on information taken directly from the manufacturers' published information that is subject
to changes without notice. Mycom information within this booklet is based on Mycom Recipro-
cating Compressor Manual #301352E in use in 1986.
Information contained herein should not be reproduced in whole or in part without written
consent from an authorized official of Vilter Manufacturing LLC. This booklet is intended for
internal use only and not for general distribution.
5
Vilter 450XL
Oil Filtering System
Vilter's Tri-Micro® micronic-type oil filter,

with its full flow design, filters out 95 percent
of insoluble contaminants as small as 3 mi-
crons (.000119 inches'). This is an important
feature when you consider the fact that the
clearance of a bearing in the load zone ap-
proaches .0001 inches! By eliminating these
smaller contaminants in the oil, the Tri-Micro
filter reduces wear on the internal compo-
nents of the compressor, lengthening com-
pressor life and extending time between oil
changes. The convenient throw away recharge
element is enclosed in a seamless drawn
carbon steel shell with cast iron cover, and is
equipped with a means for determining
pressure drop across the filter. It’s simple
design means less time in changing elements,
resulting in less downtime.
These two tables illustrate the considerable

differences in the amount of wear of two dif-
ferent model compressors side by side in the
same plant, operating under the same condi-
tions. Note the amount of tin, copper and
iron present in the oil analysis of the Mycom
machine
6
Mycom
Oil Filtering System
Mycom’s multi-plate-type Curio filter

accomplishes its contaminants removal by
manually rotating the stacked discs and
spacer assembly past fixed cleaner blades
which extend into the openings between the
discs. Thus, a rotation of one revolution
“combs” trapped particles from the spaces
to the bottom of the filter housing for later
manual draining through the drain connec-
tion.
Mycom states in their manual “Sometimes

blades are bent. If residue is deposited
inside, remove with a safety razor and clean
the inside by passing light oil or blowing
compressed air from inside. If this is done
from the outside, foreign matter will remain
inside and enter the oil pipe during opera-
tion, causing abrasion and scuffing of the
compressor”
Mycom’s published data does not state the

particle size but, by design, the smallest
particle is determined by the thickness of
the spacer between discs. Vilter, over 20
years ago, utilized the Cuno “Super Auto
Klean” for filtration in the 38 micron
(.0015 inches) range and replaced it with
the Tri-Micro Filter design.
The standard design tolerances for the

recommended clearance between bearings
and crankshaft for the Mycom “A” series
compressor is .00984 inches, and .0119
inches for the Mycom “B” series compres-
sor. These clearances are 2 to 3 times an
industry accepted standard of the maximum
tolerance of .001 inches per 1" of crank-
shaft diameter. Closer tolerances allow for
better compressor performance and require
the superior filtering ability of the Vilter
Tri-Micro oil filter.
7
Vilter 450XL
Shaft Seal Assembly
The Vilter 450XL double bellows shaft seal,

designed to exact specifications for industrial
refrigeration applications, consists of two
opposed seals — one sealing from the atmo-
sphere and the other from the crankcase. The
mating seal surfaces are lubricated by the full
flow of oil from the oil pump. Vilter's unique
design enhances the cooling effect of the oil
by the full flow entering the seal chamber and
exiting via three ports (two into the crank-
shaft and one through a metering port), thus
removing generated heat and thereby
adding to the life of the seal.
8
Mycom
Shaft Seal Assembly
The Mycom single seal assembly consists of a

shaft seal collar, shaft seal ring and two “0”
rings. The collar is fixed to the shaft with a
locking ball and rotates with the shaft. Helical
springs hold the seal ring in contact with the
seal collar. It is important to note that while
there is a seal chamber pressurized with
lubricating oil to the seal surfaces, oil flow to
this chamber is limited. Oil first enters the
bearing head. What flow there is through the
seal chamber occurs only with bleed off or
through a port to the crankcase (on “B”
models).
With a reduced oil flow, the heat removing
effect of the oil is reduced along with seal
life.
9
Vilter 450XL
Crankshaft Main Bearings
Double tapered, energy-efficient roller bearings enable Vilter 450XL compressors to be used
for high suction pressure applications as well as high belt-driven horsepower requirements.
These bearings have a long life and low friction, in addition to higher radial and thrust capacities.
Little service is required.
10
Mycom
Crankshaft Main Bearings
Mycom compressors use sleeve-type main bearings and collar-type thrust bearings. While com-
mon in compressors, sleeve bearings, in addition to being more difficult to lubricate, result in
more friction when compared to a roller bearing design. This results in a decrease in compres-
sor efficiency and an increase in power consumption. Mycom states in their manual that “the
motor side of the thrust bearing is easily abraded so do not overtension the belts” This is not a
concern with a compressor with roller bearing
11
Vilter 450XL
Relief Valves
Vilter 450XL compressors are standard with internal relief valves for protection from excessive
head pressure situations. Internal relief, in addition to eliminating the need to pipe the safety
valve discharge, eliminates loss of refrigerant to the atmosphere should the relief open. All Vilter
and vendor purchased relief valves carry the "UV" code symbol and therefore are National
Board Certified to the requirements of ASME standards UG-129 and UG-136 in addition to
ASHRAE standard 15-1978. Safety valves meeting these standards must display the "UV"
symbol and manufacturer in addition to the set pressure point.
12
Mycom
Relief Valves
Mycom ammonia compressors are standard with external relief valves. These valves do not
display the ASME “UV” symbol and, as such, are not National Board Certified, a requirement of
ASHRAE standard 15-1978 and many city and state codes. Mycom is not indexed as a manufac-
turer of National Board Certified relief valves. In addition, many cities and states require that all
relief valves be piped to the outside atmosphere away from doorways, vents and windows.
Simply piping the safety valve outlet to the suction is still a costly field piping operation and a
gamble since a valve designed to release to atmosphere may not work properly against a positive
pressure (i.e., high suction pressure conditions). External relief valves are subject to required
maintenance, nuisance releases and releases with resulting loss of refrigerant charge.
13
Vilter 450XL
Pressure Gauges, Thermometer
and Heater
Vilter 450XL compressors are standard with suction, discharge and oil pressure gauges and
each gauge is protected from pulsations and vibration with the patented Vilter Stedy- Mount®
gauge mount and gauge valve. In addition to these gauges, Vilter provides a Tri-Micro® filter
differential oil pressure gauge. Also, as standard, all 450XL compressors are provided with
crankcase oil temperature thermometer and heater.
14
Mycom
Pressure Gauges and
Thermometer
Mycom ammonia compressors are standard with external relief valves. These valves do not
display the ASME “UV” symbol and, as such, are not National Board Certified, a requirement of
ASHRAE standard 15-1978 and many city and state codes. Mycom is not indexed as a manufac-
turer of National Board Certified relief valves. In addition, many cities and states require that all
relief valves be piped to the outside atmosphere away from doorways, vents and windows.
Simply piping the safety valve outlet to the suction is still a costly field piping operation and a
gamble since a valve designed to release to atmosphere may not work properly against a positive
pressure (i.e., high suction pressure conditions). External relief valves are subject to required
maintenance, nuisance releases and releases
15
Vilter 450XL
Water Cooling
The Vilter 450XL compressor utilizes an efficient steel shell and tube type water cooled oil
cooler. By utilizing this efficient design, 2 cylinder through 8 cylinder 450XL Compressors
require only 2.5 to 4 GPM flow of 80°F or less water. Vilter offers as an option '1/2" water
regulating and solenoid valves to control the water flow and satisfy the cooling needs. In addi-
tion, since the water is circuited on the tubeside of the cooler, cleaning is easily accomplished.
This is an important maintenance feature if hard or brackish water is used. Also consider the fact
that Vilter's standard design includes stainless tubes.
16
Mycom
Water Cooling
The Mycom compressor utilizes a shell and coil type water cooler. The water is circuited through
the shellside of the cooler. Cleaning of shell and coil vessels with the water circuited on the
shellside is by far more difficult than the tubeside of a shell and tube heat exchanger with remov-
able heads. Consider the water consumption of a Mycom N4B as compared to a Vilter 454XL.
The compressors are of similar capacity. The Vilter compressor requires a cooling water gpm of
3 to 5 gpm at 86°F. Mycom states in their service manual, the N4B requires 10.6 gpm of 86°F
water. That means a minimum of 5.6 gpm more water (or over 2,000,000 gallons of additional
water consumption yearly for a 6000 hour per year operation). Consider also the larger cooling
water piping and valves increasing the installation costs.
17
Vilter 450XL
Belt Drive
The Vilter 450XL, in offering the highest horsepower capability of any belt drive reciprocating
compressor, offers a superior installed belt drive. The specially designed “5V” belt utilizes a
high horsepower design that resists stretching, oil, and heat. Its thicker compression cushion
under cord offers high belt to pulley contact.
18
Mycom
Belt Drive
The Mycom compressor offers a flywheel that requires "C" style belts. This design requires 45
percent more belting than the Vilter design. In addition, Mycom belt drive compressor units do
not include belts, motor pulley, and bushing but are available as an option. The use of "C" style
belts with its reduced horsepower capability (compared to the Vilter standard V-belt design)
limits the maximum size of a belt driven compressor. Vilter discontinued the use of "C" style
belts years ago.
19
Warranty
Vilter
New 450XL Extended Warranty:
The 450XL compressor and all of its compos-
ite Genuine Vilter Parts are fully warranted
"against defect of material or workmanship
under normal use and service, for a period of
2 Full Years from the date of shipment:' This
could allow the customer nearly 2 full years
from startup depending on the time elapsed
between shipment and startup. Standard war-
ranties allow only 1 year from date of startup.
Mycom
Mycom warrants its compressors for a period
of eighteen months from the date of shipment
or twelve months from the date of installa-
tion, whichever comes first. In addition,
Mycom terms and conditions state that the
"risk of loss" shall pass to the buyer as soon
as the goods are identified. This places the
buyer at risk if the goods are still in inventory
and under the sole and exclusive control of
Mycom.
20
Installation
Advantages
Consider a situation requiring 200 CFM

compressor capacity. In this situation a Vilter
454XL belt driven compressor (198 CFM) is
weighed against the Mycom N4B compressor
(224 CFM). Vilter has several distinct advan-
tages.
A. INSTALLED FLOOR SPACE
The Vilter 454XL belt driven compressor

requires minimal floor space. In this case, it
requires 9 square feet less than the compa-
rable Mycom N4B.
B. REQUIRED CONCRETE PAD
The Vilter 454XL concrete pad is 72 inches

by 30 inches compared to Mycom’s 96 inch
by 35 inch concrete pad. Translated to cost,
that’s almost 9 cubic ft. of concrete savings
for Vilter! Add to that 6 additional anchor
bolts to secure the Mycom to the pad.
C. SHIPPING COSTS
The Vilter 454XL belt driven unit has a ship-

ping weight of 2700 lbs. versus the compara-
ble Mycom N4B at 3300 lbs.
21
Performance Curves- Ammonia
22
Performance Curves- Halocarbon
23
Dollar SavingsPer Year Based on
Horsepower Savings
24
Application Range Comparisons
25
26
27
5555 South Packard Ave.
Cudahy, WI 53110
1987.06comparison www.vilter.com
28
Vilter Reciprocating Compressors
Tuesday, November 11, 2008
1:19 PM
Project Name:
Description:
Units: USA Refrigerant: R717 X

Compressor Series: 450 XL R22:
Cylinders: 8 R290:
Oil Cooling: Water R134a:
R404a
R507
Speed: 1,200 Percent Capacity: 100% Capacity:
Drive Type: Belt Max. Internal Steps: X
Hertz: 60 Hz Standard Steps:
Evaporator Temperature: 10.0 Condensing Temperature: 95.0

Evaporator Pressure: 23.9 Condensing Pressure: 181.4
Suction Pressure Loss: 0.0 Discharge Pressure Loss: 0.0
Suction Pressure: 23.9 Discharge Pressure: 181.4
Sub Cooling: 0.0 Superheat: 0.0
Vilter Model Number

A 12 K 458 XL
Percent Capacity: 100% 75% 50% 25%
Capacity: 98 73 49 24 TR
Power: 136 103 71 39 BHP
Heat Rejection: 1,518 1,143 768 392 MBH
Speed: 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 RPM
Torque: 593 452 311 171 Ft-Lbs
Operating Duty: HIGH STAGE
Mass Flow: 2,520 1,890 1,260 630 Lbs/hr
Suction Volume: 306 230 153 77 ACFM
Discharge Temp.: 217 217 217 217 °F
Displacement: 398 299 199 100 CFM
Oil Cooling: 8 8 8 8 GPM
Power/Capacity Ratio: 1.39 1.41 1.46 1.59 RATIO
Oil Separator Size 16 in. Separator sizes are based

Super Separator Size 12 in. on operating conditions.
Discharge Check Valve Size 1-1/2 in.
LEGEND
TR: Tons Refrigeration RPM: Revolutions Per Minute GPM: Gallons Per Minute
BHP: Brake Horse Power Ft-Lbs: Foot Pounds RATIO: Power to Capacity Ratio
F: Degrees Fahrenheit Lbs/Hour: Pounds Per Hour CFM: Cubic Feet Per Minute
MBH: 1000 BTU/Hour ACFM: Actual Cubic Feet Per Minute
0
0
03
04 050 6 0 70
0.0
R717 Ref :R.Döring. Klima+Kälte ingenieur Ki-Extra 5, 1978 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00
80 .0090 .010
0 0
200.00 DTU, Department of Energy Engineering
.75
4.00
s in [kJ/(kg K)]. v in [m^3/kg]. T in [ºC]
0.015
5
s=3
M.J. Skovrup & H.J.H Knudsen. 08-11-22
4.2
130
0
s=
4.5
s=
120
130 0.020
s=
5
4.7
110
100.00 120
90.00
s=
0
100
5.0
80.00 110 0.030
s=
70.00
5
100
90
5.2
60.00 0.040
60
s=
80 90
.00 0.00
80
50.00 0
v= .010 0.050
v= 0 80
70
40.00 v= 0.060
0
5.5
0.01
5 70 0.070
60
v=
s=
30.00 0.080
0 60 0.090
0. 02
50
v= 0.10
50
5
20.00
40
.030
5.7
v= 0
s=
40 0.15
.040
30
Pressure [Bar]
v= 0
30 0.20
0
6.0
20
0
10.00 0.06
s=
9.00 v= 20
8.00 0.30
10
0
7.00 v= 0.08
10
5
6.00 .1 0 0.40
6.2
v= 0
s=
0
5.00 0 0.50
.15 0.60
v= 0
0
4.00
6.5
-10
0.70
s=
.2 0 -10
3.00 v= 0 0.80
5
0.90
6 .7
-20
.30 1.0
s=
v= 0
2.00 -20
0
7.0
0
v= 0.4
s=
1.5
-30
5
7.2
0
v= 0.6 -30
s=
2.0
50
0
7.
1.00 v= 0.8
s=
0.90 75
0.80 -40 v= 1.0 -40 7. 3.0
0.70 s=
0.60 4.0
0.50
x = 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
s = 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Enthalpy [kJ/kg]
CONDITIONS:
SYSTEM TONS : 95 NON-ECONOMIZED 10 °F Suction(1# P.D.)
95 °F Condensing
MACHINE MODEL COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE AT PART LOAD
CFM CAPACITY
% LOAD 100 90 80 75 70 60 50 40 30 25 20 10
VILTER TR 98 88 78 71 69 59 49 39 29 26 26 24
458XL Reciprocating BHP 136 124 112 102 99 88 77 67 58 53 53 48
Compressor BHP/TON 1.39 1.40 1.43 1.44 1.44 1.50 1.58 1.70 1.99 2.01 2.01 2.04
C.O.P. 3.40 3.36 3.31 3.27 3.28 3.15 2.99 2.78 2.37 2.35 2.35 2.31
VILTER TR 96 86 76 69 67 57 48 38 29 26 26 23
VSM 361 Single Screw BHP 133.9 126 118 110 109 100 92 84 78 73 73 68
Variable VI. BHP/TON 1.40 1.46 1.54 1.60 1.63 1.75 1.93 2.21 2.71 2.82 2.82 2.97
C.O.P. 3.37 3.23 3.07 2.94 2.90 2.70 2.44 2.14 1.74 1.67 1.67 1.59
HOURS OF OPERATION HOURS 8,760 7,884 7,008 6,570 6,132 5,256 4,380 3,504 2,628 2,190 1,752 876
Savings per year based on 94.5%
$0.20 cents / KW Motor $1,745 $7,093 $12,065 $15,813 $17,785 $20,682 $24,152 $27,433 $29,131 $29,700 $29,700 $30,107
NOTE SAVINGS ARE BASED ON BHP / TON COMPARISON ALL FIGURES ARE CLOSE APPROXIMATIONS
ENTER (Light Grey fields above will automatically be filled in)

Vilter Recip TR @ 100% = 98 Recip Vilter Single Screw TR @ 100% = 95.6 Single Screw
Vilter Recip BHP @ 100% = 136 Vilter Single Screw BHP @ 100% = 133.9
Vilter Recip CFM = 306 Vilter Single Screw CFM = 302.9
Motor Efficiency = 94.5% ie. .95 Conditions= suction 10
Cost per KW = 0.2 ie. .078 condensing 95
Hours = 8760
Vilter ScrewPro - Single Screw Compressor Data Report
Project Performance Run Date 11/11/2008
Description Vilter Single Screw Compressor Time 1:23:00 PM
Customer Refrigerant Ammonia - R717
Program Version 6.4: Build # 0 Registered To UNREGISTERED
Evaporating Temperature 10.0 °F Condensing Temperature 95.0 °F

Evaporating Pressure 38.6 psiA Condensing Pressure 196.1 psiA
Suction Line Pressure Loss 0.5 psi Discharge Line Pressure Loss 2.0 psi
Suction Pressure 38.1 psiA Discharge Pressure 198.1 psiA
Suction Superheat 0.0 °F Subcooling 0.0 °F
VSM-361 @ 100 % Capacity 3,550 rpm

Capacity 95.6 Tons Compression Ratio 5.2 :1
Power 133.9 BHP Volume Ratio 3.6 :1
Heat Rejection 1,294.1 MBH Volumetric Efficiency 85.8 %
Torque 198 ft-lbf Isentropic Efficiency 77.6 %
Speed 3,550.0 RPM Power/Capacity Ratio 1.40 :1
Temperature Mass Flow Volume Flow

Suction 10.0 °F 2,464.0 lbm / hour 302.9 ACFM
Discharge 172.9 °F 2,464.0 lbm / hour 76.0 ACFM
Oil Cooling Data Full Time Oil Pump Not Required
Oil Cooling Type Water Cooled Oil Type 717
Oil Flow Rate 21 gpm Oil Cooling Load 16.1 Tons (193.8 MBH)
Oil Injection Temperature 130.0 °F
Sizing Data
Oil Separator Diameter 16 in. @ 75° Cond.
Suction Line - Std. 3 in. 1.71 psi

Suction Line - Optional 4 in. 0.38 psi Discharge Line 2-1/2 in.
Suction Line - Optional 5 in. 0.12 psi Discharge Check 1-1/2 in.
Note: The information contained in the program is subject to change without notice. Vilter reserves the right to final performance
verification. The minimum full load driver power should be 110% of the program predicted power.
Vilter Manufacturing Corporation
LATIN AMERICA Phone 414-305-6614
5555 SOUTH PAKCARD AVENUE Fax 866-270-6614
CUDAHY, WISCONSIN, 53110 EMail german.robledo@vilter.com
CONSUMO DE ACEITE EN COMPRESORES VILTER RECIPROCANTES.
Vilter verificó el consumo de aceite de sus compresores reciprocantes operando con Amoníaco, en las
siguientes condiciones:
Presión de succión: 15 Psig. Presión de descarga: 185 Psig
Sobrecalentamiento: 15ºF (8,3ºC) Temperatura de aceite: 120ºF (49ºC)
Presión neta de aceite: 45 Psig Aceite: Vilter 717
Como resultado, Vilter estableció la siguiente pauta de consumo de aceite en compresores con separador:
½ galón (1,9 lts) por cilindro, por mes, 24 hrs./día, para compresores 440 y 450.
¾ galón (2,8 lts) por cilindro, por mes, 24 hrs/día, para compresores 450XL.
1 galón (3,8 lts) por cilindro, por mes, 24 hrs/día, para compresores 300.
(Sin separador de aceite, los consumos se duplican).
1. Cuando el consumo de aceite es alto, no siempre debe atribuirse al compresor.

a. Verifique la válvula de flotador del retorno de aceite para ver si está operando bien. Se considera
que está bien, cuando la línea de retorno se calienta a ratos. Si está caliente en forma permanente,
la válvula flotador puede estar atascada.y abierta.
b. Verifique que las válvulas de ¼” y la de ½” en la línea de retorno de aceite al compresor se
encuentran abiertas.
c. Revise el asiento de la válvula de aguja del flotador, para estar seguro que no está obstruída o
dañada..
d. Verifique la viscosidad del aceite en uso.
e. Un pequeño flujo constante de amoníaco líquido por la línea de succión, (suficiente para crear
espuma en el aceite del cárter), hará variar el consumo de aceite.
f. Si en un Super Separador se condensa líquido durante el período de detención, los elementos se
dañan y deben ser reemplazados. Los estudios muestran que en ellos sucede lo mismo que cuando
llega amoníaco líquido a los elementos de los filtros de aceite.
g. Algunos de los antiguos elementos de Separadores de Aceite, que ya han sido reemplazados,
solían desmenusarse en la forma de “cabellos de angel”, tapando las válvulas de flotador del
retorno de aceite. (El fabricante del material solucionó este problema).
Recuerde que: el Separador de Aceite tiene por objeto recuperar el aceite antes que pase al sistema.
f. Otros refrigerantes pueden producir cambios en los consumos de aceite.
2. Chequeos a realizar en el compresor:

a. Verificar que la presión NETA del aceite no esté ajustada a un valor muy alto:
35-50 lbs., para los compresores de la serie 400
60-70 lbs., pata los compresores de la serie 300.
b. Si la descarga de capacidad se realiza con presión de aceite, verificar que el sello del pistón de
descarga no esté dañado, o que esté dejando pasar aceite.
c. La empaquetadura de las cabezas de cilindro del banco de descarga por aceite, puede tener una
vía de pérdida hacia el área de descarga del compresor.
d. Alta temperatura del aceite puede aumentar considerablemente el consumo. La temperatura
deberá estar comprendida entre 120º–130ºF. (49º–54ºC).
e. Cualquier compresor que opere descargado por períodos largos de tiempo, aumentará el consumo
de aceite, debido a la recirculación del gas de succión, lo que reduce la viscosidad del aceite.
f. Por cierto que cualquier anillo aceitero de pistón que se haya roto o esté desgastado, o camisa de
cilindro severamente dañada, afectará el consumo de aceite.
Reciprocating Compressor Oil Loss/Consumption
This topic has become one of the most commonly asked questions posed to Customer Service.
There are many contributing factors that affect oil loss, thus the following information and
recommendations have been compiled.
The Compressor:
Every compressor will not pump the same amount of oil when considering the oil control rings on a
new or rebuilt compressor. Hours of operation and what may have occurred during operation will have
to be taken into account. It is not unusual for a new compressor, (or one rebuilt with new rings & liners),
to experience higher oil consumption, for the first few hundred hours, until the rings seat. The primary
failure cause of piston oil rings not performing correctly is liquid refrigerant entering the cylinder liner
during the compression cycle. This can be via the suction line or by means of entering the suction
chamber of the compressor frame.
The suction line on a system, if designed incorrectly, could puddle liquid in the suction header prior
to the suction service valve. If liquid collects during low velocities through a suction line, once the
compressor loads. The machine’s capacity and gas velocity increase. Any liquid in the line can be picked
up and sent to compressor washing away the lubrication oil that the piston oil rings require during
operation. All suction headers should be designed to not let this happen. Oil control rings, and liners,
will simply wear out or will fail by what is commonly referred to as “glazing over”. A compressor is
designed to pump gas not liquid, so monitor the suction gas for the adequate superheat. If excessively
high suction superheat is present, it will raise oil temperature and lower the viscosity of the oil which
also ruins oil rings causing higher oil consumption.
Another cause of oil ring damage is from liquid entering via the location of the oil return line from
the separator oil float to the compressor. The oil float may condense refrigerant to a liquid, as the float
is at a cooler temperature than the separator. Upon entering the compressor, liquid flashes out of the
returning oil causing the oil to become foam-like. This foamy mixture will be picked up along with
suction gas entering the cylinder and is potentially pumped out to the system without returning to the
crankcase. Many years ago, the oil return connection was relocated to the oil crankcase.
The solution is to determine or prevent liquid from condensing in the oil float chamber. All standard
oil separators are non-serviceable and can be installed near the ceiling in the discharge line. However,
the oil float requires service and could be located at a workable height. The oil float then has an ambient
temperature much cooler than the discharge line or oil separator. To keep from condensing refrigerant,
one solution is to install the float near a heat source. The minimum ambient room temperature is 60
degrees Fahrenheit; with lower room temperatures a blanket heater on the separator is recommended.
Outdoor applications require special engineering.
A second source of liquid condensing in the separator is a leaking discharge check valve in the piping
after any oil separator, or the lack of a discharge check valve. When a system has multiple operating
compressors, and the check valve is leaking, discharge gas can condense in the separator and possibly in
any non-operating compressor. When the compressor re-starts, liquid flashing off will adversely affect
oil loss. If no check valve is installed, the simple cooling down of the separator and compressor may
condense refrigerant. This, too, affects oil loss.
Page 2
Below is a list of items to check or refer to in relation to the compressor itself:
a. Check to make sure the NET oil pressure, (Gauge reading at drive end housing minus suction
pressure), is not adjusted too high:
40-45psig for 400 series
60-70psig for 300 series
b. If oil unloading is used, the unloader piston seal could be damaged or leaking.
c. Cylinder head gasket for the oil-unloading bank could have a leak path to the discharge area.
d. High oil temperature can cause extreme oil loss; it should be 120°-130°F.
e. Any compressor running more than 30 minutes at an unloaded state will increase oil temperature
and consumption. This is due to the lack of suction gas being circulated which elevates oil
temperatures; thus lowering the viscosity of the oil. Vilter recommends an oil temperature cut-
out switch of 150ºF in crankcase and a 30 minute timer in control wiring.
f. Any broken or worn oil control ring on the piston and badly scored liner will have a significant
affect on oil loss.
g. Worn insert bearing or piston bushings may cause excessive oil consumption.
h. Cracked or broken shaft seal carbon on the outboard end of the shaft seal.
i. Broken discharge valves, causing excessive internal heat, again lowering the viscosity of the oil.
Also lead to more serve compressor damage.
j. Internal relief has opened or is leaking discharge gas back to suction, lower oil viscosity due to
temperature rise.
k. Is the correct oil viscosity being used?
l. Changing refrigerants can cause a change in oil consumption.
The Separator:
Now let’s focus our attention on the oil separator. There is not much that can be wrong with a
properly sized standard oil separator. Basically it is a vessel with mesh material that oil droplets cling to
as they pass through it. As the droplets collect and become heavier they drop to the bottom of the
vessel to drain into the oil float chamber. Oil that is lost could be due to the age of the separator, mesh
material has deteriorated and oil is by-passing, or the passage to the oil float is restricted or plugged by
foreign matter. At this point, determine if there is an obstruction to the oil float. If the float is operating
correctly a new separator may be required. Keep in mind, this type of oil separator is only 50% efficient
in collecting the amount of oil leaving the compressor.
A Super Separator, 90% efficient when sized correctly, has a coalescent element that is
replaceable if excessive oil loss occurs. The major cause of element failure is condensed liquid. Any
liquid refrigerant can damage the pleated material of the element, although many times this damage is
not visible to the naked eye. Small holes and tears will allow oil to pass through the element as very
small droplets and get carried out into the system. The liquid refrigerant is present due to the leaking
discharge check valve when the compressor is not running. If the coalescent element is dirty, it can also
cause oil loss.
The Oil Float:
The oil float itself may be the cause of oil loss. Make sure the needle stem/orifice seat is clear of
foreign matter. The float mechanism inside the chamber must be adjusted so when the oil level in the
chamber reaches the centerline height, the float ball starts opening the needle stem from the orifice seat.
If the float ball arm is bent or adjusted improperly, the float ball will hit the top inside of the chamber
and prevent the needle stem from opening. This will back oil up in the float and possibly into the oil
separator. Keep in mind, if the needle stem/orifice seat is opening a very small amount and warm oil
flow is felt in the ¼” return line, it could still be holding back a good deal of oil. Anytime the float is
removed from the chamber there should be some amount of oil present in the chamber. If there is none,
then possibly the ½” valve is not open or is plugged. Also, refer to items listed previously pertaining to
the oil separator.
Page 3
Vilter tests indicate oil consumption, noted below, with the following “Ammonia” conditions:
15psig Suction press. 185psig Discharge press.
15°F Superheat 120°F crankcase oil Temp
45psig net Oil Press. Vilter 717 Oil
The Vilter “Rule of Thumb” for oil loss for compressors with no separator is:
1- gallon/cylinder/month running 24 hrs/day, for 440 and 450 series compressors.
1.5 - gallons/cylinder/month running 24 hrs/day, for 450XL series compressors.
A Standard separator will decrease this amount by 50% when installed.
A properly sized Super Separator will decrease this amount up to 90% when installed.
November 2006 Rev_1

Reciprocating Compressor Maintenance and
Trouble-Shooting
LLC
PRESENTA
MANTENIMIENTO DE
COMPRESORES
RECIPROCANTES Y GUIA
SOLUCION DE
PROBLEMAS
Angel Sanchez-Berliz
IMPORTANCIA
MANTENIMIENTO
PROGRAMADO
Mejora el desempeno de produccion y reduce
costos operacionales.
Reduce costos de mantenimientos;

Analiza tipos de desgastes para saber los
mantenimientos requeridos.
Identifica fallas potenciales para eliminar
paradas inesperadas.
1
Trouble-Shooting
400 VMC Service Intervals

SERVICE INTERVAL (HOURS)
INSPECTION
100,000
110,000
120,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
GROUP OR
5,000
200
MAINTENANCE
ITEM
UNIT
Suction Screen I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Coupling Alignment and Integrity I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
V-Belt Drive Alignment and Integrity I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Water Line Strainers I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Liquid Line Strainers I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
CONTROL
CALIBRATION Electro-Mechanical Pressure Controls I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Transducers I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
RTD’s I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
COMPRESSOR
Oil Change (1) R R R R R R R R R R R R R
Flush Oil Circuit R R R R R R
Oil Analysis (2) S S S S S S S S S S S S S
Oil Filter (3) R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
Inspect Compressor (4) I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Key I Inspect.
R Replace.
S Sample
Sample.
Notes: (1) The oil should be changed at these intervals, unless oil analysis results exceed the allowable limits. The frequency of
changes will depend on the system cleanliness.
(2) Oil analysis should be done at these intervals as a minimum; the frequency of analysis will depend on system
cleanliness.
(3) The oil filter on a minimum must be changed at these intervals or annually if not run continuously. However, the oil
filter must be changed if the oil filter differential exceeds 25 psi or oil analysis requires it.
(4) To prevent possible breakdowns, the compressor should be opened and the condition of the valves, valve seats, liners
and connecting rod bearings should be checked and excessively worn parts be replaced. At the same time the
crankshaft bearing float should also be checked.
KIT PARA ANALIZAR EL ACEITE

Vilter Kit para analizar
el aceite VPN 3097A.
Tomar una muestra de
aceite del carter.
Llenar la informacion
requerida en las
etiquetas.
Introducirlas en
recipiente provisto
para correo.
2
Trouble-Shooting
Reporte del Aceite

Muestra las propiedades
fisicas del aceite;
C
Contenido de agua.
Viscosidad.
Acidez.
Numero de particulas.
Nivel de antioxidante.
Desgaste de Metales.
Contaminantes Metalicos
Metalicos.
Aditivos.
Spectrographic Oil Analysis Condition Limits

New Oil Marginal Not Acceptable
Wear Metals (ppm)
Antimony 0 0–5 Above 5
Silver 0 0–5 Above 5
Aluminum 0 5 - 10 Above 10
Chromium 0 0–5 Above 5
Copper 0 5 – 10 Above 10
Iron 0 5 – 10 Above 15
Nickel 0 0–5 Above 5
Lead 0 5 – 10 Above 10
Tin 0 5 – 10 Above 10
Contaminate/Additive Metal (ppm)
Barium 0 0 – 20 Above 20
Boron 0 0–5 Above 5
Calcium 0 0 – 20 Above 20
Magnesium 0 0 – 10 Above 10
Molybdenum 0 0 – 20 Above 20
Potassium 0 0–5 Above 5
Sodium 0 0–5 Above 5
Phosphorous 0 0 - 20 Above 20
Silicon 0 10 – 15 Above 15
Zinc 0 0 – 20 Above 20
Water PPM Less than 75 100 Above 100
Total Acid No. Less than 0.06 0.08 Above 1.0
3
Trouble-Shooting
Cilindros
(Cylinder liners)
Los cilindros en
compresores
450/450XL son
1” mas llargos que
los cilindros de
compresores
440/460.
Cilindros de
440/460 utilizan 4
lift pins para
descargar
(unloading)
450/450XL
/ Utilizan
8 lift pins de
450 & 450XL 440 & 460 menor diametro
para unloading.
Cilindros
Los cilindros deben ser medidos

usando un micrometro de interior.
Los
L cilindros
ili d d b ser medidos
deben did en
cuatro puntos Y tres niveles de altura.
El diametro de un cilindro es 4.500 el
maximo desgaste permitido es 0.005”.
Cualquier rayado, ondulacion o defecto
mayor de 0.0025 es razon para
descartar el cilindro ((rejection).
j )
El espacio permitido entre el piston en
su punto muerto superior (TDC) y el
cabezal de seguridad (safety head)
debe ser 0.012” minimum y 0.035
maximum.
4
Trouble-Shooting
Cilindro Conico
Cilindro Ovalado
(Tapared liner)
Cilindro desgastado en forma

Los cilindros se desgastan en
conica como indica la figura.
forma ovalada debido al
calor; finas paredes o viela
doblada.
Choked Liner Barreled Liner
Incrementos de las Maximas dimensiones en el

dimensiones desde arriba centro del cilindro.
hacia abajo.
5
Trouble-Shooting
Estampado del cilindro

(Honing)
Las funciones del honing
en el cilindro son:
Ayuda al break
break--in de las
anillas.
Mantiene una capa de
aceite en las paredes del
30°° to 60
30 60°° cilindro.
30°
30° a 60°
60° son los angulos
de honing.
Cada vez que se instala
anillas nuevas debe
hacerse un Re-
Re-Honing.
Debe usarse piedras para
Honing de un grueso
medio.
Degaste de Cilindros y
Pistones
Liquido refrigerante elimina el aceite de las

paredes de los cilindros y pistones.
Esto ocaciona arranques y corridas en seco
que desgastan los pistones y cilindros.
6
Trouble-Shooting
Anillas (Piston Rings)
Anillas de compresion Anillas de control de aceite;

(Compression Ring); Arrastra el aceite cuando el
Sellan durante la piston va hacia abajo.
compresion. Permite aceite pasar cuando
Instalar con bisel, marca o la ell piston
i t va hacia
h i arriba.
ib
para “top” hacia la cabeza Instalar con bisel, marca o la
del piston. para “top” hacia la cabeza del
piston.
Pistones
Cam ground aluminum Para anillas de compresion
piston.
3 Anillas de compresion
compresion.
1 Anilla de lubricacion. Para anilla aceite
La ranura en la canal de la Ranura retorno aceite

anilla de aceite sirve para
retornar aceite.
440,, 450 & 460 pistones
p
tienen pin que entran con
los dedos.
450XL necesita calentar el
piston para entrar pin.
7
Trouble-Shooting
Piston Measurement
and Wear
La medida del piston a la altura del pin es 4.955” con un maximo
desgaste permitido de 0.001”.
Due to shrink fit pin in 450XL piston,
piston piston will measure round
Rayaduras ni danos son permitido en la periferia del piston.
La cabeza del piston puede tolerarse siempre que estos no
toquen el safety head.
Verificar que no hayan danos en las ranuras donde se colocan
las anillas.
Las ranuras de las anillas deben inspeccionarse;
p ;
Compression ring 0.002” minimum, 0.006” maximum allowable.
Oil control ring 0.0015” minimum, 0.006” maximum allowable.
Cuando se instalan las anillas estas deben rotarse para que no
queden alineadas.
Danos en Piston
La falla inicial fue debido a liquido.

Rotura de valvula de la descarga por liquido.
Desgaste del bearing provoca que el piston tope al safety
head.
Rotura de los springs de la valvula de descarga.
8
Trouble-Shooting
Cabezales de Seguridad
(Safety Heads)
Hay dos tipos de Cabezales de seguridad

Diaphragm type (440 & 450XL Boosters).
Ring type (450, 450XL & 460).
Safety Head Lift
High Lift Low Lift
Hay dos tipos de safety head High and Low Lift;

450XL
High Suction Ammonia over 45 psig halocarbon over 25 psig (High Lift).
Low Suction Ammonia under 45 psig halocarbon under 25 psig(Low Lift).
440
High Suction over 45 psig (High Lift).
Low Suction under 45 psig (Low Lift).
9
Trouble-Shooting
Cabezal de seguridad
(Safety Head)
El asiento de la valvula de descarga debe estar a una
altura minima de 0.005” ppor encima del safety
y head.
Ninguna muesca o rayadura en en asiento de la valvula
de descarga o en el safety head es permitido.
El safety head debe ser reemplado si muestra desgaste
excesivo..
El safety head or safety head yoke deben ser
reemplazado si los springs no se mantienen en los
agujeros.
j
Los springs de los safety head pueden ser
inspecionados usando la tecnica de campana.
Tolerancia inadecuada
Marca del
safety head Piston golpeando Safety Head;
Desgaste
g del safety
y head o la
superficie de asiento.
Excesivmente pulido del asiento
del safety head.
Segmentos desgastados,
golpeando mientras el
compresor esta corriendo sin
carga.
Continuar corriendo en estas
condiciones ocacionara danos
Asiento del
mayores.
Safety Head
desgastado
10
Trouble-Shooting
Valvulas de Succion y
Succion Descarga
Descarga
450, 450XL 440 &

& 460 450XL Booster
Las valvulas de succion son del tipo anillo (ring type) en todos
los compresores de la serie VMC 400.
Las valvulas de descarga en los compresores 440 and 450XL
Booster son del tipo diafragma (diaphragm type).
Las valvulas de descarga en los compresores 450, 450XL y 460
son tipo anillo (ring type).
Valvulas
Inspeccionar las valvulas por signos de rotura
debido a;
Liquido llegando al compresor.
Sucio y objetos extranos.
Fatiga.
Fatiga
Si el cilindro o el safety head es reemplazado la
valvula(s) correspondiente(s) deben reemplazarze
tambien.
Todas las valvulas de descarga de un set deben ser
cambiadas y no rotadas.
Todos los springs
p g de las valvulas deben ser
cambiados cuando se abre un compresor para
inspecion.
Si alguna valvula se va a rehusar debe instalarse en
el mismo cilindro donde se encontraba.
11
Trouble-Shooting
Valvulas
Rotura de valvula de descarga debido a liquido.

Liquido refrigerante templa la valvula resultado de un
rapido enfriamiento, fracturando el material de la valvula
internamente.
La valvula tiende a fracturarse en forma irregular o en
capas.
Valvulas-liquid Slug
12
Trouble-Shooting
Valvulas - Stress Riser
Tipica rotura de una valvula por fatiga.

fatiga
Fatiga o stress provocan rotura rectas.
Vielas (Connecting Rods)

Todas las vielas;
Forged and shot
peened.
Emparejar
p j marca y
Rifl Drilled
Rifle D ill d Oil Supply
S l Hole
H l ranura para evitar
rotacion de los
bearings.
Las vielas vienen
provista de un
agujero para
lubricacion del pin del
piston.
Las vielas del 450XL ;
Oil Supply Groove Son de un diametro
mayor.
Tienen ranura detras
del bearing.
13
Trouble-Shooting
Vielas
(Connecting Rod Bearings)
Crush Relief The bearing esta disenado con un
Anti Rotation area de menos material en la linea de
Key particion llamada crush relief.
As the rod is tightened the overstand
is crushed into the crush relief.
The crush relief prevents the bearing
from binding on the shaft.
Provided good metal to metal contact
with the connecting rod to provide
adequate cooling for the bearing.
The anti rotation keys keep the
bearing from spinning.
The soft bearing material imbeds dirt
and debris to prevent the shaft from
scoring.
Connecting Rod Bearings
Lower Upper
Ahora Antes 440 450XL

450, 440
El bearing superior esta disenado:
& 460
Aumentar el area del bearing en el
Anteriormente los bearings tenian punto muerto superior TDC
ranura .
Suministrar aceite al pin del piston.
El diseno actual en los 440, 450, and
460 no tienen ranura. El bearing inferior no posee agujero
ni bolsillo.
Las ranuras estan disponibles en
medidas standars. Los bearings no deben ser
intercamciados de lo contrario
dejarian al pin sin lubricacion.
14
Trouble-Shooting
Connecting Rod Bearing

Problems
Non--Reversing Load Failure
Non
Falla no reversible causada por;

Posible rotura de la valvula de descarga por liquido.
Esto genera el piston esta siempre cargado impidiendo
la formacion de la pelicula de aceite.
Bearings sobrecargados
15
Trouble-Shooting
Connecting Rod Bearing

Problems
Babbitt Melt Out
Babbitt deretido;
Alta
Alt temperatura
t t d
dell aceite.
it
Bearing no esta en contacto
directo con la viela.
Sucio detras del bearing.
Corrosion
Corrosion, causada por;
Excesiva humedad en el sistema
sistema.
Contaminacion.
Refrigerante o lubricante
descomponiendose.
Wrist Pin and Bushing

Todos los wrist pins
y bushings son
alimentados con
Oil Supply Hole aceite atraves de un
Oil Supply Groove agujero tipo rifle a lo
largo del connecting
rod.
16
Trouble-Shooting
Inspeccion de conecting rod

Los tornillos de los conecting rod no deben
presentar dobladuras.
Al instalar los conecting rod los numeros deben
coincidir y deben verse desde el man hole cover
cover.
No poner aceite al conecting rod.
Asegurarse que la ranura del bearing encaje en el
conecting rod.
Los conecting rod bearing no deben punzarse al
instalarse.
Unloader Mecanismo
Los siguientes articulos deben ser inspeccionados:

Yoke
Pivot
Arm
Springs
17
Trouble-Shooting
Unloader Mechamism
Unloader Pistons
18
Trouble-Shooting
Oil Pump (Bomba aceite)

Outlet
La bomba de aceite de
desplazamiento
Inlet
positivo esta disenada
para operar en
Outlet
cualquier direccion de
rotacion del ciguenal.
Inlet
400 Series Shaft Seal
19
Trouble-Shooting
Regulador de presion de aceite.
Mantiene la presion de aceite del compresor.

Retorna el exceso de aceite hacia el carter.
Oil Pressure Regulator

Inspection
Si el spring del regulador de aceite pierde tension
la presion de aceite sera baja.
Inspecionar ranuras en el stem del regulador de
aceite.
Irregularidades en la bola del regulador de aceite
causara lecturas erradas de la presion de aceite.
Para evitar danos a la empaquetadura, afloje
ligeramente el estopero.
20
Trouble-Shooting
THE END
21
The New VILTech
Redefined !
Designed just for the Reciprocating
Compressors!
VILTech Microprocessor
VILTech Microprocessor
VILTech Micro-Controller
The New VILTech
Redefined !
• Easy to Use and Navigate
• Simple and Reliable Design
• Full Scope of Capabilities
• C tC
Cost Competitive
titi
The New VILTech
• 16” x 16” x 6” NEMA 4 Enclosure

• Emergency Stop Button
• Four LED Indicator Lights
• UL andd CUL Li
Listed
t d
Easy to Use and Navigate
• Large Keypad and Screen
– Multiple Mode/Function Menu
Selections
– Numerical Keypad
Easy to Use and Navigate
• Large Keypad and Screen
– Multiple Mode/Function Menu
Selections
– Numerical Keypad
• LCD Display
– 4.5
4 5” X 2
2.5
5” Screen with LED Backlight
VILTech LCD Display

Simple and Reliable Design
• Hardware Components
– Main Controller Board
– I/O Board
– Display Adapter Board
– Power Supply
VILTech Micro-Controller
Main Controller Board
• Program Memory (EPROM)
• Battery Backed up Memory (RAM)
• Nonvolatile Setpoint Storage (EEPROM)
• Analog Input Processing
• Communication Ports
Main Controller Board

Front Panel Connector Battery
Comm 2
RS-232C
Comm 0 Program
RS-422/ EPROM
RS-485
Power Supply
Comm 1 Connector
RS-422/
RS-485
Status LEDs I/O Board Connector DIP Switch for

Communications
I/O Board
• Analog Inputs
– All Sensors are 4
4-20
20 mA
– Four Temperatures
– Four Pressures
• Solid State Discrete Contact Inputs
– Motor Auxiliary
– Safety Circuit
– Remote Start/Stop
– AUX 1 Shutdown
I/O Board
• Discrete Outputs
– Motor Start
– Six Stages of Loading/Unloading
– Alarm/Failure Signal
– Crankcase Heater
– Oil Return
– Cooling Control
I/O Board
Power Supply Connector
Main Board Connector and Micro On/Off Switch
RTD
Analog
Inputs
Shield Grounds Discrete Inputs Discrete Outputs Input AC Power

and Fuse
Remaining Hardware
• Display Adapter Board
– Interface to Display and Keypad
– Current Limiting for LED Backlight
and LED’s
• AC/DC Power Supply
– 120 V
Volt
lt 50/60 H
Hz IInputt V
Voltage
lt
– Dual Output +5 VDC and +24VDC
– Internally Fused
Features
• Password Protection for 10 Users
– with
ith Access Le
Levels
els
• User Log of the last 100 Users
• Operational and Trend Log
– Capacity for 250 Entries
• Snapshot
p of Shutdown Values
• Alarm and Failure Logs Record
– Last 100 Events
Power Supply
AC Power In
DC Power Out
Control Features
• Programmable Capacity Control
– Up to 6 Stages (Loading/Unloading)
• Compressor Setpoint Scheduling
– Four Control Groups
– Seven Daily Schedules
• Automatic Capacity Control
– Adjustable Bandwidths
– Normal and Fast Timers
Special Features
• Process Temperature Control

• Integral Two-Stage Compressor Control
• VFD Motor Control with Optional
Output Board
p
• Compressor Sequencing
q g
Compressor Sequencing
• Master/Remote
M /R D
Designation
i i
• Simple Daisy Chain Connection
– Utilizes Modbus RTU
• Sequence up to 8 Compressors
– Multiple
M lti l Lead
L d List
Li t
– Four (4) Setpoint Groups
– Setpoint Scheduling
Compressor Alarms and

Shutdowns
• High
Hi h and
d Low
L Suction
S ti Pressure
P
• High Discharge Pressure/Temperature
• High Oil Temperature
• High Motor Current
• Low Oil Pressure
• High/Low Process Temperature
• High/Low Intermediate Pressure
Remote Communication
Options
• Standard
– Has Modbus RTU Interface
• Ethernet Board Option
– Will allow Modbus Ethernet
• Modem Expansion Board Option
– Will allow Modbus RTU via Telephone
VILTech
For Vilter Reciprocating Compressors
Now Available
in a
Retrofit Kit!
VILTech
Retrofit Kit
• Pre-Assembled
Easy to Install
• Simple, Reliable Design
• Easy to Use / Navigate
• Full Compressor
Protection
• Multi-Compressor
Multi Compressor
Sequencing
• Remote Communications
Capability
VILTech
Retrofit Kit
• Pre-Assembled
Easy to Install
• VILTech Controller
• Mounted on
Pre-Fabricated Frame
• With Pressure
Transducers
• Block & Bleed Valves
• For Bolting to
Compressor Frame
VILTech
Retrofit Kit
• Pre-Assembled
Easy to Install
• Install ¼” Tubing for
Pressure Transducers
• Install Wells & RTD’s
• Wire RTD’s to VILTech
• Wire Solenoids & Access.
• Wire 120 VAC to VILTech
• Read VILTech Manual !!
• Power Up VILTech &
Enter Setpoints
VILTech
Micro-Controller
• Sequence up to 8
Compressors
Compressors
• Up to 4 Setpoint Groups
• Setpoint Scheduling
• Master/Slave Designation
• Simple Daisy Chain
Connection
• Utilizes RS-422 Connection
• Multi-Compressor
Sequencing
VILTech
Micro-Controller
• Remote Access up to 8
Compressors with PC
• View All VILTech Screens
• Setpoint Scheduling
• Store All Setpoints on PC or
Network Drive
• Connection Methods:
• Ethernet with Comm. Board
• Dial-up with Modem Board
• RS-422 with USB Converter
• Built-in Modbus/RTU
Interface
• Remote Communications
Capability
VILTech
Micro-Controller
Remote Communications
Capability
Software Setup Screen

For Connection to PC
• Ethernet with Comm. Board
• Dial-up with Modem Board
• RS-422 with USB Converter
Vilter VILTech Mycom CP-1 Sabroe Unisab
Display Multi-font, multi-line (up to 40 character x 16 lines), with Three window layout with maximum 4 digits, uses LED LCD display (20 characters x 4 lines), with backlight and LED
backlight, reverse video highlighting and LED indicators indicators and codes to indicate status indicators
Keypad 30 keys with hotkeys and full numerical keypad for setpoint 7 keys with up/down arrow scrolling entry of setpoints 11 keys with up/down arrow scrolling entry of setpoints
entry. Single-key Start/Mode change.
Analog Inputs 8 sensor inputs including SP, DP & OP press; ST, DT & OT 6 sensor inputs including SP, DP & OP press standard with 10 sensor inputs including SP, DP & OP press; ST, DT & OT
temp standard with support for Intermediate press and process support for intermediate press and DT & OT temps temp and motor current standard with support for Intermediate
temp press, Intermediate temp and process temp
Discrete I/O 4 inputs and 12 outputs 4 inputs and 7 outputs 11 inputs and 17 outputs
Stages Support for up to 6 capacity stages. Multiple staging Support for up to 4 capacity stages Support for up to 6 capacity stages. Automatically configured
combinations supported. based on Sabroe model selected.
Comm Ports 2 RS-422/485 and 1 RS-232 standard 1 RS-485 Optional 1 RS-485
Comm Modbus/RTU standard, support for modem connection with Mycom & Modbus ASCII are both optional. No support for Support for Profibus and Modbus RTU with optional boards.
optional board or Modbus/TCP with optional Ethernet board modem or Ethernet.
Capacity Control Suction pressure standard with option for process temperature Suction pressure only Suction pressure standard with option for process temperature
control control
Capacity Setpoints 4 setpoint groups with scheduling 1 setpoint and NO scheduling 2 suction pressure setpoints, no scheduling
Staging Control Separate staging timers for loading and unloading Not user programmable Separate staging timers for loading and unloading
Control Safeties Suction pressure high, suction pressure low, and discharge Pressure and temperature safeties. NO pressure limiting and Suction low, and discharge pressure high limit and unload
pressure high limit and unload standard unload feature. standard
Ramp Start Suction pressure high, discharge pressure high, and capacity Not Available Suction pressure high ramp start available
ramp start standard
VFD Motor VFD motor control with optional analog output board Not Available VFD motor control with optional analog output
Sequencer Built-in sequencer for up to 8 compressors Not Available Built-in sequencer for up to 14 compressors
Time and Date Both. Time displayed in 12 or 24 hour format with automatic Not Available Not Available
Daylight Savings Time support
Logging 5 logs: Operational, Trend, Alarm, Failure and User logs Not Available Failure log (30 entries max), can only view one line at a time
Security 10 levels of password control for 10 users Not Available One password for access to all settings
Operating Status Overall runtime, runtime since last start, number of starts Total runtime only Not Available
today, number of starts yesterday, and total starts.
Diagnostics Full diagnostic interface for sensors, Discrete I/O, Alarm LED and Commnications error. No detailed diagnostics View Discrete I/O status, no names, analogs inputs and serial
communications and system information. Includes temporary available. number
override I/O feature
Calibration Static and Dynamic sensor calibration Not Available Supports offset change only, not all sensors
®
Diseñado por Vilter para

• Diseño simple y Confiable

• Fácil de usar y de navegar - interactuar
• Lleno de opciones y capacidades
• Bajo Costo Competitivo
Micro-Controlador del Compresor Reciprocante
Características de Control Componentes

Control de Capacidad en forma Automática con base en Presión Tarjeta Principal Madre de Control
de Succión como Estándar Memoria de Programa
Modos de Manual, Automático, Remoto y Secuencia Memoria con respaldo de Batería
de Compresores Memoria No volátil para Programas de Ajuste
Monitoreo de presiones y temperaturas del compresor de Entradas Analógicas para Procesamiento de operación
Succión, Descarga y Aceite Puertos de Comunicación
Monitoreo de Presión Diferencial de Aceite
Monitoreo de Contacto Auxiliar del Arrancador del Motor Tarjeta Adaptadora para Pantalla
Programación de operación para producción hasta de 7 días Teclado de Interfase entre Pantalla y Tarjeta
Registro de Operación, Tendencias, Alarmas, Fallas y acceso Limitador de Corriente para luz de LED y para los LED.
de usuarios
Temporizador de Anti Ciclo Fuente de Poder tipo AC/DC
Protección con Contraseñas Salidas de doble señal +5VDC y +24 VDC
Diagnostico de fallas incorporado Fusibles Internos
Recuperación de pérdida de energía y Reinicio Automático Suministro de 120 VAC 50/60 Hz
Descarga y/o Limitación de carga con base en presión de
descarga y carga Tarjeta de Entradas y Salidas
Arranque gradual y/o rápido con base en presión de descarga Entradas Analógicas
o succión Todos los sensores son para 4-20mAmp
Capacidad de carga gradual después de arranque o inicio Cuatro Temperaturas
Sistema de Unidades Métrico o Ingles Cuatro Presiones
Almacenamiento y Recuperación de Programación de Ajuste en Contactos Discretos de Estado Sólido
Memoria de la Tarjeta Contacto Auxiliar para Arrancador Del Motor
Puerto de Comunicación RS-232 Circuito de Seguridad
Puerto de Comunicación RS422 / 485, puerto Modbus y Arranque y Paro Remoto
multisecuencia de compresores Opción de Auxiliar 1 Adicional para Paro
Opciones Adicionales Salidas Discretas
Arranque del Motor
Control de Temperatura de Proceso
Seis fase de Descarga
Control para Compresores de Doble Etapa
Señal de Alarma y Fallol
Secuencia hasta de 8 compresores
Calefactor del depósito de aceite
Control de Variador de Frecuencia
Retorno de Aceite
Comunicaciones vía ModBus o vía Ethernet
Control de enfriamiento
Fabricación
16 pulgadas x 16 pulgadas x 6 pulgadas Gabinete tipo NEMA 4
Teclado de 30 Botones
Pantalla de Crista Liquido con Luz Interior
4 Luces LED para indicación de estatus
Botón para Paro de Emergencia
Certificación UL & CUL
Temp de Operación -20:+70 degC
Temp Ambiente -40deg: +80degC
www.vilter.com
414-744-0111
Bulletin-SP5007
®
Retrofit Kit
Para Compresores Reciprocantes de Vilter
• Ensamblado y Facil de Instalar

• Diseño Sencillo y Fiable
• Facil de Usar y Navegar
• Proteccion Completo del Compresor
• Comunicacion Remoto
• Secuencia de Compresores
AFIL ALARM RUNNING COMM
STOP
1 2 3
SET PT 4 5 6
L OGS 7 8 9
MENU . 0 -
PG PG
S
ATRT MAN AUTO QUIT SVAE
UP DN
MODE RMT SEQ CLEAR ENTER
VILTech
Una Etapa Integral

Dos-Etapas
2-8 12 & 16
Features Cylinder Cylinder
6 & 12
Caracteristicas Cilindros
Compressors Compressors
VILTech Controlador1
Soporte1
Aisladores de Vibracion1
Ensamblado de Valvulas de Bloqueo y Venteo1
Transductores de Presion y Cables1 3 4 4
RTD’s con Termopozos y Cables2 3 3 3
Ferreteria para Soporte2
Manual de VILTech2
1 Ensamblado en la Fabrica en el Soporte
2 Enviado Suelto para Instalacion en el Campo
Tuberia de Transductores No esta Incluyido
Opciones:
Modulo de Salida de VFD - 4-20mA
Control de Temperatura de Proceso- Incluye RTD con Termopozo y Cable
Bulletin No: 0308

COMPRESOR MONO
TORNILLO
© Vilter Manufacturing Corporation 2005
Compresion Eficiente
z Una de las diferencias
entre un compresor
p
reciprocante y un tornillo,
es que el reciprocante
usa Valvulas de Succion
y Valvulas de Descarga
para cada Cilindro
z Dentro del reciprocante,

estas valvulas operan
como Valvulas de Tipo
Cheque o Retencion en
un Solo Sentido
1
z La valvula de Succion permite fluir gas dentro del Cilindro
en la
l carrera hacia
h i hacia
h i abajo
b j del
d l piston
i t , mientra
i t que la
l
valvula de descarga permite fluir el gas hacia afuera del
cilindro en la carrera hacia arriba del piston
z Las valvulas son abiertas por la presion del gas que tienen
una caida de presion a traves de la valvulas.
z La presion del Gas debe sobrepasar o vencer la fuerza del

resorte fuerza que debe ser suficiente para vencer la
resorte,
superficie de area de la valvula y perdidas.
z El ciclo es ALTERNATIVO y no continuo, se denomina

reciprocante
z En su caso contrario, los tornillos NO TIENE VALVULAS,
ti
tiene PUERTOS
z En un Doble Tornillo la Helice o Flauta es el volumen

atrapado entre las canales de ambos rotores o tornillos
z En Mono Tornillo esta Helice es el volumen atrapado entre

el Rotor y el Diente de la Estrella
z Compresion occurre por el engrane de los rotores o

estrella-rotor y las estrechas tolerencias de la carcasa. En
la medida que los rotores giran en forma opuesta, el gas es
aspirado por el Puerto y va llenando la Flauta o Helice. En
la medida que el rotor o rotores giran, el gas se siente
atrapado entre la carcasa y el rotor o rotores y es
desplazado en forma axial y radial hasta el otro extremo de
los rotores
2
Compression
3
z Durante Succion, la
helice esta abierta o
expuesta al gas que
entra y la llena de Abierto a
gas.
Succion
z Cuando el maximo
volumen de helice ha
sido llenado, el rotor
o rotores siguen Llenado
girando hasta pasar
el puerto de succion
y dejarlo atras y Maximo
ahora el volumen
atrapado comenzara llenado de
a ser reducido en la Gas en
helice hasta el final Succion
de ella
4
z La helice o flauta es el Llenado
volumen atrapado entre las Maximo
dos canales o Canal y
Di t contra
Diente t ell cuerpo o Comienzo de
carcasa del compresor. compresion
z Durante Succion, la helice

esta abierta o expuesta al
gas que entra y la llena de
gas. Cuando el maximo
volumen de helice ha sido Compresion
llenado, el rotor o rotores
siguen girando hasta pasar
ell puerto
t de
d succion
i y
dejarlo atras y ahora el
volumen atrapado Descarga
comenzara a ser reducido
en la helice hasta el final de completa
ella
MONO TORNILLO
© Vilter Manufacturing Corporation 2002 © Vilter Manufacturing Corporation 2002

© Vilter Manufacturing Corporation 2002 © Vilter Manufacturing Corporation 2002
Llenado Maximo Descarga

Llenado Maximo Llenado Comienzo de completa
compresion
5
COMPRESION EFICIENTE
z Por el tamaño y posicion del PUERTO DE DESCARGA, se determina el
Volumen de Salida del Gas.
z Esta Volumen esta relacionado como la Relacion de Volumen de

Compresion y se denomina como el maximo Volumen interno del
rotor en Succion dividido por el Volumen justo a la salida de la helice
del rotor descargado hacia el puerto de Salida.
z La Relacion de Volumen esta relacionado a la Relacion de

Compresion o Presion y por la expresion:
z ( P2 / P1 ) = ( V1 / V2 )k
V
z
z
DONDE
P2 = Presion de Descarga ( Abs) Vsuction,int Vi = suction,int Vdischarge,int
z P1 = Presion de Succion ( Abs) Vdischarge,int
z V1 = Volumen de Gas en Succion
z V2 = Volumend de Gas en Descarga
z K = constante de relacion de calor del gas
Volume Ratio - Vi
P s u c ti o n V k
s u c ti o n = P d is c h a rg e V k
d isc h a rg e
( )
k
V s u c ti o n P d isc h a rg e
_________________________________________________________________
= _______________________________________________________________
V d is c h a rg e P s u c ti o n
6
Refrigerante K Factor 1/K
R717 (NH3) 1.29 0.77519
R-22 1.180 0.8475
R-134a
R 134a 1 118
1.118 0 8945
0.8945
R-290 (Propano) 1.140 0.8772
R-1270 1.145 0.8734
Ciclo de compresión
A – Valvula de Sucion Cierre
B – Valvula de Descarga Abre
200 C – Valvula de Descarga Cierre
C DESCARGA B D – Valvula de Succion Abre
150
PRESION
100
50
D SUCCION A
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% de Volumen de Cilindro
7
z Tomemos por ejemplo un
sistema que opera a 5°F (19.6
psig) de Evaporacion y usa
Amoniaco. Y el sistema
normalmente opera a 165 psig
(90°F).
z Su relacion Ideal debe ser:

(165 + 14.7 ) / ( 19.6 + 14.7 ) = 5.24
Significa que un compresor en

amoniaco con una relacion de
5.24 = (5.24) elevado a la 0.77519
= 3.61,
3 61 QUIERE operar a un Vi d de
3.61.
Es decir quiere comprimir el gas

3.61 veces para llevarlo a
volumen y presion o 27.7% su
reduccion de volumen.
z Un dia Caliente la presion puede
estar en 180 psig, luego la
relacion de compresion es:
(180 + 14.7)
14 7) / (19
(19.6
6 + 14.7)
14 7) = 5
5.67
67
En este caso 5.67 > 5.24. El gas

es descargado por encima del
punto ideal. Esto se denomina
OVERCOMPRESSION o POR
ENCIMA DE COMPRESION. Es
un desgaste de Energia o H.P. al
llevar el gas mas arriba de lo
necesario.
i
(5.67) elevado a(0.77519)= 3.84 Vi
3.84 Vi > 3.61 Vi
8
z El dia puede ser frio, o llega la noche
y trabaja ahora con una presion de
125 psig (75°F). La relacion de
compresion es ahora:
(125 + 14.7 ) / ( 19.6 + 14.7 ) = 4.07
En este caso 4.07>> 5.24. El gas es

descargado por debajo del punto
ideal. Esto se denomina
UNDERCOMPRESSION o POR
DEBAJO DE COMPRESION. Es un
desgaste de Energia o H.P. al tener
el MOTOR que llevar el gas mas
arriba al punto ideal.
(4.07) elevado a la 0.77519 = 2.96 Vi
2.96 Vi < 3.61 Vi
9
z Para evitar este Desgaste de Energia, todos
los Tornillos deben usar un sistema mecanico
que ubique el punto ideal de Descarga o
conocido como Vi.
z Y su ideal, es estar ubicando el compresor en

el p
punto q
que se necesita, como estar
buscando la presion de descarga ideal
Pdischarge, int = Psuction , int ⋅ (Vi ) = 30.4 ⋅ (3.6 ) = 176 psia

k 1.37
z P
Para ll llos ttornillos
ello, ill
de Tipo Doble Tornillo
usan una guia o pieza
mecanica deslizante
interna que hace
funciones de pared
para comprimir y
ubicarse
bi por ddebajo
b j
de los tornillos
10
11
z Dependiendo del Vi
requerido,
id antiguamente
ti t y
todavia actualmente,
fabricantes de Doble Tornillo,
fabricaban y fabrican
compresor con guias de Vi
Fijo
z La imagen Superior muestra

j Vi o Baja
Bajo j relacion de
Compresion, apertura de
salida o puerto grande
z La imagen Inferior muestra

Alto Vi o Alta relacion de
compresion, apertura o
puerto de salida chico.
z Para estar evitando el cambio
de la guia de una larga a una
corta
t o viceversa,
i se tomo
t una
guia larga y se partio en dos.
z De esta manera la guia de

capacidad sigue siendo la
misma pero en dos piezas bajo
una misma corredera o camino
z Su unica funcion es ubicarse

debajo de los tornillos para
ubicar INICIO DE
COMPRESION & INICIO DE
DESCARGA
12
z De esta manera
manera,
estando unidas =
100% de
Capacidad, se
puede lograr Vi
variables
i bl como llo
muestra la figura
Compresor Doble Tornillo

Suction Gas
Full Load
Low Volume Fixed Port Area
Ratio
Slide Stop
Slide Valve Discharge Gas
Suction Gas
Full Load
High Volume Fixed Port Area
Ratio
Slide Stop
13
Twin Screw Compressor 2.2 Vi - 100% Cap
Balance piston
Shaft seal assembly
Cap. - increase Vi - decrease
Cap. - decrease Vi - increase
Piston rod Unloader spring
Piston for Piston for Slide stop Vi – 2.2 Slide valve

cap. slide Volume slide
Spacer for cylinder
Cap. – 100%
Twin Screw Compressor 3.5 Vi - 100% Cap
Balance piston
Shaft seal assembly

Spacer for cylinder Cap. – 100%
14
Twin Screw Compressor 5.0 Vi – 100% Cap
Balance piston
Shaft seal assembly

Spacer for cylinder
Cap. – 100%
z Y el puerto de
Descarga se
encuentra en la
pared del
cuerpo del
compresor
15
SALIDA RADIAL
SALIDA
AXIAL
16
z Pero en la medida que

cambien
bi las
l
condiciones del
sistema, el compresor
debe operar a Cargas
Parciales.
z En estos puntos, las

dos piezas se separan
y el Vi, p
perdera su
punto ideal,
ubicandose en un
nueva posicion
Twin Screw Compressor 2.2 Vi – Min or Partial % Cap
Balance piston
Shaft seal assembly

Spacer for cylinder Cap. – min.
17
5.0 Volume Ratio
100% Capacity
90% Capacity
70% Capacity
Twin Screw Compressor

Suction Gas
Fixed Port Area

90% Capacidad
Vi Control
Se pierde o
ubica nueva
posicion
Slide Stop
Suction Gas
40% Capacidad
p
Fixed Port Area
Vi Control
Se pierde o
ubica nueva
posicion
Slide Stop
18
z Luego,
g , los DOBLE TORNILLOS O BIROTORES,,
solo son eficientes energeticamente cuando
operan al 100%
z A cargas parciales, tienen mayor consumo de

Energia, por la desubicacion del punto Vi
requerido.
z Debido a que el Vi solo es verdadero en cargas al

100%, una solucion en la DEFICIENCIA del
CONSUMO ENERGETICO es el uso de
VARIADORES DE FRECUENCIA, pues la
variacion de Velocidad es otro metodo para variar
Capacidad
Parallex™ de VILTER
z Dado lo anterior en los DOBLE TORNILLOS, VILTER
pantento el SISTEMA PARALLEX
z Guia de Capacidad Variable Separada e Independiente

Å Infinita Posicion de 10 to 100%
z Guia de Relacion de Volumen Variable – SEPARADA E

INDEPENDIENTE
Å Infinita Posicion y desde relaciones mas amplias desde 1.2 a
7.0 gracias que tiene la guia libre y solo para ella, no depende
de una guia para dos pieza
z TENIENDO GUIAS SEPARADAS E INDEPENDIENTES

PERMITE TENER RELACION DE VOLUMEN VERDADERA O
EXACTA SIN IMPORTAR DE LA POSICION DE LA
CAPACIDAD
19
CAPACIDAD
RELACION DE VOLUMEN
20
21
z De esta manera
manera, el Mono Tornillo es
practicamente el unico compresor en la
Industria que tiene mejores eficiencias
para Cargas Parciales Y SIN la
necesidad del uso de un VARIADOR
DE FRECUENCIA
FRECUENCIA.
Vilter® Single Screw

Part Load Performance
100%
90%
NT OF FULL LOAD POWER
TYPICAL TWIN SCREW

WITH VARIABLE VI
80%
70%
60%
SINGLE SCREW WITH
PARALLEX SLIDES IDEAL HP
50%
40%
30%
%
PERCEN
% CAPACITY % SAVINGS
20%
75% 5%
50% 10%
10%
25% 20%
0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
PERCENT CAPACITY
22
BALANCEO DINAMICO DE COMPRESION
z Como es bien conocido, los compresores

tornillos estan compuestos de pocas
partes:
– Rotores
– Rodamientos
– Guias de Capacidad y Volumen
– Cuerpo o Carcasa
z De esta manera, la columna vertebral de

los Compresores Tipo Tornillo son los
Rotores y Rodamientos.

z Los primero Compresores de tipo DOBLE
TORNILLO fueron inventados en 1878 en Alemania.
En 1935 fue patentado por Suecia usando un perfil
de 4 lobulos en el macho y 6 lobulos en la hembra y
es practicamente el nacimiento de la industria del
tornillo. En 1951 a compañia cambio luego su
nombre a S.R.M o SVENSKA ROTOR MASKINER. Y
practicamente posee toda la ciencia y derechos para
la Industria de Compresores tornillos.
z Uno de los rotores tiene Lobulos y es denominado

comunmente el Macho. Su pareja tiene tiene
cavidades y es denominado la Hembra.
23
z El diseño asimetrico busca minimizar el Efecto
Cascada o fuga interna de gas comprimido entre los
rotores y entre los rotores y la carcasa
carcasa.
Normalmente en operacion el macho ABSORBE EL
85% del torque y la hembra el 15%. Por esta razon,
el compresor es de tipo Inundado de Aceite, el
macho da impulso a la hembra como la hace un
diente de un engranaje sobre otro.

z Asumiendo unicamente
que el 15% del Torque
esta entre los dos rotores,
la accion de ruedo o giro
existe unicamente entre
los bordes de la helice.
z Para poder asumir las

cargas o esfuerzo
generados por LA
COMPRESION o
PRESION INTERNA
DESARROLLADA, los
rotores deben usar
RODAMIENTOS PARA
CARGA AXIAL Y RADIAL.
Radial para apoyo y Axial
para movimiento lateral.
24
RODAMIENTOS DOBLE TORNILLO Y CARGAS
Rodamiento Radial
Rodamiento Radial Rodamiento Axial
Balance piston
ZONA
Baja
Presion
ZONA
Alta
Presion
Empuje Radial debido Empuje Axial debido a

a la presion del Gas la presion del Gas de
de Descarga o Alta Descarga o Alta
Presion Presion

z En la mayoria de la Industria, la
Carga Radial esta asumida por
Rodamientos de Tipo Buje .
Estos tienen muchas
desventajas requieren
lubricacion permanente y
forzada y requieren maquinado
preciso, no son flexibles a
desalineamiento. Consumen
mas H.P.
z Otro Tipo para Radial es de

Rodillos y son mas economicos
que los Buje, ya que requiere
lubricacion por baño y son mas
flexibles para desalineamiento.
z En la carga Axial, todos usan

rodamientos de Tipo Bolas
25
z Los rodamientos de Bolas o Axiales son el talon de Aquiles de
los Doble Tornillo y el mayor causante de fallas de compresor.
z La carga de empuje o axial

axial, es producto de la presion
Diferencial entre descarga y succion que se proyecta sobre la
cara posterior de los rotores, mas la carga por el momento de
inercia o giro.
z En el rotor macho va en sentido de descarga hacia succion. En

el rotor hembra va en forma opuesta. Por esta razon el Macho
debe usar un Piston Balanceador en Succion y no hace mas
que ayudar al rodamiento de Bolas en su carga.
z Presion = Fuerza / Area luego Fuerza = P x A donde P es la

presion de aceite sobre el area del piston o superficie
z Por esta razon, el rodamiento en el rotor macho es muy

sensitivo a la presion de acite sobre el PISTON
BALANCEADOR.
26
Single Screw Main Rotor
4 Vent Holes
Through the Rotor
Balanceo Dinamico de Compresion

z En el Mono Tornillo, en forma contraria, todos los
rodamientos y partes del compresor se encuentran todos
p
expuestos appresion de succion o Bajaj Presion
z Todo esto posible a que el rotor tiene orificios o vasos

comunicantes que permiten que el gas que esta en un
extremo pase y se ubique en el extremo opuesto
logrando que es el mismo en ambos lados, igualando el
valor de presion en ambos lados
z Al usar este diseño, el empuja axial es nulo, ya que en

ambos extremos, el empuje es la presion de gas sobre la
superficie del rotor que para ambos – gas y superficie –
tienen el mismo valor y tamaño. Y en forma opuesta,
anula la carga
27
z Por medio del Diseño Geometrico del MONO, una
estrella actua comprimiendo una mitad del rotor y la
otra estrella actua comprimiendo
p la otra mitad.
z Este diseño permite que se generen fuerzas tanto

arriba como abajo pero de forma opuestas.
z Este equilibrio pone en centro el rotor sin tener

ningun movimiento vertical
z El tener dos estrellas, permite tener dos descargas,

cada una ubicada en polos opuestos y en forma
simetrica o 180°. Esto da como resultado que el gas
que sale por un puerto de un lado, tiene la misma
fuerza y magnitud al gas que sale por el puerto
opuesto. Opuesto, nuevamente da equilbrio.
28
z De esta manera se
logra un Perfecto
q
Equilibrio del Rotor en
todos sus puntos.
z Lo que sucede arriba,

sucede abajo
z Lo que sucede en un
extremo sucede en el
otro
z Asi, todos los

rodamientos no
reciben o asume
Cargas sobre ellos
29
CARGA SOBRE EL ROTOR

Fuerzas Axials son Balanceadas
F er as Radiales son Balanceadas
Fuerzas
La UNICA Fuerza Neta actuando sobre

el Rotor es
⇓⇓⇓⇓⇓
GRAVEDAD O PESO DEL ROTOR
30
CARATERISTICAS DE DISEÑO
z El ensamble tipico del Rotor tiene :

ÅPar de Rodamientos de Contacto
Angular o de Bolas para ubicar el
ensamble en forma axial
ÅUn Rodamiento de Contacto Radial o
Cilindrico para posicionar el rotor
dentro del cuerpo
31

z Todo esto brinda
z Fuerzas Balanceadas:
– Mayor Vida util de rodamientos (15 Años)
– Mayor confiabilidad y seguridad, poco riesgo
de fallas por rodamientos
z Parallex™ - Sistema de Guias para

Capacidad
p y Volumen:
– Eficiencia Optima – Mayor Ahorro de kW
Cualquier rango de capacidad 0-100% y
Volumen Vi (desde 1.2 hasta 7.0)
32
VENTAJA ADICIONAL
z Cuando existe la digestion o compresion de liquido existe
varios eventos:
z Primero:
P i Primera
Pi Ley
L ded los
l Liquidos,
Li id Ningun
Ni Liquido
Li id es
Compresible.
z En el momento que entra liquido y por las extremas

tolerancias o ajustes, el liquido al tratar de ser comprimido
ejercera en forma inversa una fuerza hidraulica de empuje
que averia o rompe piezas o soportes.
z De la misma forma,
forma el liquido que entra al compresor,
compresor
proviene de la zona de Baja Presion = Baja Temperatura.
z Este liquido entra frio y al sentir el calor del Trabajo de

Compresion dentro cierta zona de los rotores, va a cambiar
a estado gaseoso por el cambio de temperatura. Esta
expansion ocupa mas volumen o espacio, causando mas
daño.
VENTAJA ADICIONAL
z En el Mono Tornillo, al
estar todo en una sola
presion = temperatura,
una digestion de liquido
hace menos daño, pues
no existe cambio de
estado como sucede
dentro de un Doble
Tornillo
z Luego el Mono es mas

resistente a una
Digestion de Liquido que
su hermanos los Doble.
33
GRACIAS
34
UNA SOLA ETAPA ECO
CONDITIONS:
SYSTEM TONS : 54 ECONOMIZED -40 °F Suction (1# P.D.)
95 °F Condensing
CFM CAPACITY
% LOAD 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30%
VILTER TR 55 50 44 39 33 28 22 17
VSM 701 Single Screw BHP 180.8 165 149 131 117 103 89 78
C.O.P. 1.45 1.43 1.41 1.39 1.34 1.27 1.18 1.01
Variable VI. BHP/TON 3.26 3.30 3.35 3.39 3.52 3.71 4.00 4.68
COMPETITOR TR 54 48 43 38 32 27 22 16
RXF 101 Twin Screw BHP 183.7 172 161 150 138 127 116 106
C.O.P. 1.38 1.33 1.26 1.19 1.11 1.00 0.88 0.72
HOURS OF OPERATION HOURS 8,760 7,884 7,008 6,132 5,256 4,380 3,504 2,628
$0.20 cents / KW Motor $11,567 $18,113 $24,159 $31,170 $34,431 $38,488 $42,295 $44,087
NOTE SAVINGS ARE BASED ON BHP / TON COMPARISON ALL FIGURES ARE CLOSE APPROXIMATIONS
ENTER (Light Grey fields above will automatically be filled in)

Vilter TR @ 100% = 55.4 Competitor TR @ 100% = 53.8
Vilter BHP @ 100% = 180.8 Competitor BHP @ 100% = 183.7
Vilter CFM = 502.7 Competitor CFM = 504.3
Motor Efficiency = 94.5% ie. .95 Conditions= suction -40
Cost per KW = 0.2 ie. .078 condensing 95
Hours = 8760
Page 1
Evaporating Temperature -40.0 °F Condensing Temperature 95.0 °F

VSM701 @ 100 % Capacity 3,550 rpm


Suction -40.0 °F 1,162.5 lbm / hour 502.7 ACFM
Oil Cooling Type Thermosyphon Oil Type 717
Sizing Data
Larger oil separator may be required for pulldown, please verify.
Suction Line - Std. 5 in. 0.10 psi Separate Suction Stop and Check Required
Suction Line - Optional 6 in. 0.04 psi Discharge Line 2 in.
Economizer Connection 1-1/2 in. Standard Flange Size
Economizer Data : Direct Expansion
Economizer Evap. Temp -16.2 °F Economizer Evap. Press 20.3 psiA
Approach Temperature 10.0 °F Economizer Press. Loss 3.0 psi
Liquid Supply Temperature -6.2 °F Port Pressure 17.3 psiA
Economizer Mass Flow 287.6 lbm / hour Economizer Capacity 11.0 Tons
Description Vilter Single Screw Compressor Time 11:44:00 AM

VSM701 @ 20.2 % Capacity 3,550 rpm

Heat Rejection 276.2 MBH Volumetric Efficiency 63.8 %

Suction -40.0 °F 234.5 lbm / hour 101.4 ACFM
Discharge 153.3 °F 291.6 lbm / hour 8.6 ACFM
Sizing Data



Sizing Data



Sizing Data



Sizing Data



Sizing Data



Sizing Data



Sizing Data



Sizing Data
MYCOM SCREW COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE SINGLE STAGE (BOOSTER) 11-14-2008
MODEL : N200VM*-M
REFRIGERANT : AMMONIA
RECOMMENDED PORT : H
BOOSTER : False
COMPRESSION RATIO : [-] 14.5
CAPACITY : [kBTU/H] 852.8

CAPACITY : [TR] 71.1
ABSORBED POWER : [HP] 229.5
DRIVE SHAFT SPEED : [rpm] 3550

COMPRESSOR SPEED : [rpm] 3550
INDICATOR POSITION : [%] 100
CONDENSING TEMP. : [F] 95.0
EVAPORATIVE TEMP. : [F] -31.0
SUCTION SUPERHEAT : [F] 0.00
LIQUID SUBCOOLING : [F] 9.00
SUCTION TEMP. : [F] -31.0
OIL SUPPLY TEMP. : [F] 104
SUCTION PRESS. : [PSIA] 13.5
DISCHARGE PRESS. : [PSIA] 196
OIL SUPPLY PRESS. : [PSIA] 224
SUCTION PRES. DROP : [PSIA] 0.0
DISCHARGE PRES. DROP : [PSIA] 0.0
SWEPT VOLUME : [CFM] 718

LOAD(VOL. FLOW RATE) : [%] 100
DISCHARGE TEMP. : [F] 173
REFRIG. FLOW RATE SUC. : [CFM] 602
REFRIG. FLOW RATE DIS. : [CFM] 59.6
REFRIG. FLOW RATE SUC. : [LB/H] 1852
REFRIG. FLOW RATE DIS. : [LB/H] 1852
INJECT. OIL FLOW RATE : [USGPM] 15.0
LUB. OIL FLOW RATE : [USGPM] 13.6
F.SIDE OIL FLOW RATE : [USGPM] 2.36
*TOTAL* OIL FLOW RATE : [USGPM] 30.9
OIL HEAT REJECTION : [kBTU/H] 430.0
OIL SPEC HT : [Btu/lbF] 0.46
OIL DENSITY : [lb/USgal] 7.34
COP : [-] 1.46
--- SUPER HEAT is NOT counted in refrigeration capacity ---
--- WITH WATER COOLED OIL COOLER ---
--- Refrigeration oil is not soluble with refrigerant (mineral oil) ---
--- When choosing the motor set a safety factor of more than 10% for the brake power ---
1/2
E/AP * Data from the Swept Volume downwards is for reference.
2005-04-08 * Contents subject to change without notice.
MYCOM SCREW COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE 12.0
MAYEKAWA MFG. CO., LTD.
MYCOMW 12.0ep
COMPARISON OF SINGLE vs. TWIN SCREW COMPRESSORS
USING AMMONIA AS THE REFRIGERANT
CONDITIONS:
SYSTEM TONS : 70 NON-ECONOMIZED -31 °F Suction
95 °F Condensing
CFM CAPACITY
% LOAD 100 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30%
VILTER TR 72 65 58 51 43 36 29 26
VSS751 Single Screw BHP 211.8 193 174 154 137 120 104 94
C.O.P. 1.61 1.60 1.57 1.55 1.50 1.42 1.32 1.30

COMPETITOR TR 71 64 57 50 43 36 28 26
N200VM-M Twin Screw BHP 229.5 216 202 187 172 158 145 136
C.O.P. 1.46 1.40 1.33 1.26 1.17 1.06 0.93 0.89
HOURS OF OPERATION HOURS 8,760 7,884 7,008 6,132 5,256 4,380 3,504 3,154
ALL FIGURES ARE A CLOSE APPROXIMATION 8/20/2009


VSS-751 @ 100 % Capacity 3,550 rpm


Sizing Data
Poly(p-phenylene sulfide) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of 2
Poly(p-phenylene sulfide)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Polyphenylene sulfide ("PPS") is an organic polymer consisting of

aromatic rings linked with sulfides. Synthetic fiber and textiles
derived from this polymer are known to resist chemical and thermal
attack. PPS is used to make filter fabric for coal boilers,
papermaking felts, electrical insulation, specialty membranes,
gaskets, and packings. PPS is the precursor to a conducting polymer Polyphenylene sulfide
of the semi-flexible rod polymer family. The PPS, which is
otherwise insulating, can be converted to the semiconducting form
by oxidation or use of dopants.[1]
Chevron Phillips manufactures the most common form in industry under the brand name Ryton.
Contents
1 Fiber characteristics
2 Production
3 References
4 External links
Fiber characteristics
PPS is one of the most important high temperature polymers because it exhibits a number of desirable
properties. These properties include resistance to heat, acids and alkalies, and to mildew,to bleaches,
aging, sunlight, and abrasion. It absorbs only small amounts of solvents and resists dyeing.
Production
The Federal Trade Commission definition for sulfar fiber is "A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is a long chain synthetic polysulfide in which at least 85% of the sulfide (—S—)
linkages are attached directly to two (2) aromatic rings."
The PPS (polyphenylene sulfide) polymer is formed by reaction of sulfide with p-dichlorobenzene:
ClC6H4Cl + Na2S → 1/n [C6H4S]n + 2 NaCl
The process for commercially producing PPS (Ryton) was developed by Dr. H. Wayne Hill Jr. and Mr.
James T. Edmonds at Phillips Petroleum Company.[2] N-methylpyrrolidone is used as the reaction
solvent since it is stable at the high temperatures required for the synthesis and it dissolves both the
sulfiding agent and the oligomeric intermediates. The major challenge is controlling the degree of
polymerization, which is in part controlled by managing the water content of the reaction mixture. The
polymer is extruded by melt spinning to produce both staple and filament fibers.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(p-phenylene_sulfide) 11/20/2008
Poly(p-phenylene sulfide) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 2 of 2
The first U.S. Commercial Sulfar Fiber was produced in 1983 by Phillips Fibers Corporation, a
subsidiary of Phillips 66 Company. Approximately 46M kg were produced in 1995 with a projected
growth of 11% per year.[1]
PPS is marketed by different brand names and companies. Examples of these are: Fortron by Ticona, as
a linear polymer, Ryton PPS by Chevron Phillips, as cross-linked type of polymer, and Sulfar.
References
1. ^ a b David Parker, Jan Bussink, Hendrik T. van de Grampel, Gary W. Wheatley, Ernst-Ulrich
Dorf, Edgar Ostlinning, Klaus Reinking, "Polymers, High-Temperature" in Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. DOI:
10.1002/14356007.a21_449
2. ^ H Wayne Hill Jr., James T. Edmonds, to the Phillips Petroleum Company Research Center
(Bartlesville, Oklahoma, US). Patent 3,354,129, 1963. issued November 21, 1967
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(p-phenylene_sulfide) 11/20/2008
For more information and technical
assistance contact:
Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

P.O. Box 4910
The Woodlands, TX 77387-4910
877.798.6666
haht.product_family: Ryton, haht.content_type: TDS, cpchem.advancedSearch.section: =strFinalString%>
Ryton® R-7-120
Polyphenylene Sulfide Resins
Ryton® R-7-120 PPS is an advanced glass/mineral filled polyphenylene sulfide compound developed to provide good weld line strength and
low maintenance molding using conventional molding equipment.
Nominal Engineering Properties(1) R-7-120NA R-7-120BL Test Method
Tensile Strength, Ksi 19.0 19.0 ASTM D638
Elongation, % 1.0 1.0 ASTM D638
Flexural Strength, Ksi 32.0 31.0 ASTM D790
Flexural Modulus, Msi 2.8 2.8 ASTM D790
Notched Izod Impact, ft·lb/in, 1/8 in specimen 1.0 1.0 ASTM D256
Unnotched Izod Impact, ft·lb/in, 1/8 in specimen 4.0 4.0 ASTM D256
Compressive Strength, Ksi 37.0 37.0 ASTM D695
Heat Deflection Temperature 264 psi,°F(2) >500 >500 ASTM D648
UL Temperature Index,°C 220 / 240 220 / 240 UL 746B
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Exp., X 10-6 in/in/°C ASTM E831
Axial Direction, -50°C to 50°C 15 15
Axial Direction, 100°C to 200°C 15 15
Transverse Direction, -50°C to 50°C 30 30
Transverse Direction, 100°C to 200°C 70 70
Flammability Rating V-0 / 5VA V-0 / 5VA UL 94
Thermal Conductivity, BTU·in/hr·ft2·°F 4.1 4.1
Dielectric Strength, V/mil 400 400 ASTM D149
Dielectric Constant, 78° F ASTM D150
1kHz 4.8 4.8
1MHz 4.8 4.8
Dissipation Factor, 78°F ASTM D150
1 kHz 0.004 0.004
1 MHz 0.002 0.002
Volume Resistivity, ohm·cm 1 x 1015 1 x 1015 ASTM D257
Arc Resistance, sec 180 180 ASTM D495
Comparative Tracking Index, V 250 250 UL 746A
Insulation Resistance, ohm (90°C, 95% RH, 48 hr) 1 x 1011 1 x 1011
Mold Shrinkage(3) in/in, Flow/Transverse 0.002 / 0.006 0.002 / 0.006
Density, g/cc 1.98 1.98 ASTM D792
Water Absorption, % 0.02 0.02 ASTM D570
Color Natural Black
(1) Test specemin molding conditions: Stock Temperature, 600 - 650° F; Mold Temperature, 275 ° F
(2) Annealed 2 hours at 400° F
(3) Measured on 4 in X 4 in X 1/8 in Plaques, Edge Gated
The nominal properties reported herein are typical of the product but do not reflect normal testing variances and therefore should not be used
for specification purposes.
MSDS #440880 Revision Date June, 2006
Before using this product, the user is advised and cautioned to make its own determination and assessment of the safety and
suitability of the product for the specific use in question and is further advised against relying on the information contained herein as
it may relate to any specific use or application. It is the ultimate responsibility of the user to ensure that the product is suited and the
information is applicable to the user's specific application. Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP does not make, and expressly
disclaims, all warranties, including warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose, regardless of whether oral or
written, express or implied, or allegedly arising from any usage of any trade or from any course of dealing in connection with the use
of the information contained herein or the product itself. The user expressly assumes all risk and liability, whether based in contract,
tort or otherwise, in connection with the use of the information contained herein or the product itself. Further, information contained
herein is given without reference to any intellectual property issues, as well as federal, state or local laws which may be encountered
in the use thereof. Such questions should be investigated by the user.
For more information and technical
assistance contact:
Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP

P.O. Box 4910
The Woodlands, TX 77387-4910
877.798.6666
Ryton® R-7-120
Polyphenylene Sulfide Resins
Ryton® R-7-120 PPS is an advanced glass/mineral filled polyphenylene sulfide compound developed to provide good weld line strength and
low maintenance molding using conventional molding equipment.
Nominal Engineering Properties(5) R-7-120NA R-7-120BL Method
Tensile Strength, MPa 140 130 ISO 527
Elongation, % 1.0 0.9 ISO 527
Flexural Strength, MPa 220 205 ISO 178
Flexural Modulus, GPa 19 19 ISO 178
Notched Izod Impact, kJ/m 2 6.0 5.0 ISO 180A
Unnotched Izod Impact, kJ/m2 17 15 ISO 180A
Compressive Strength, MPa 255 255 ISO 604
Heat Deflection Temperature 1.8 MPa,°C(6) >260 >260 ISO 75
UL Temperature Index,°C 220 / 240 220 / 240 UL 746B
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Exp., X 10-6 m/m/°C ISO 11359-2
Axial Direction, -50°C to 50°C 15 15
Axial Direction, 100°C to 200°C 15 15
Transverse Direction, -50°C to 50°C 30 30
Transverse Direction, 100°C to 200°C 70 70
Flammability Rating V-0 / 5VA V-0 / 5VA UL 94
Thermal Conductivity, W/m·K 0.59 0.59
Dielectric Strength, kV/mm 16 16 ASTM D149
Dielectric Constant, 25°C ASTM D150
1kHz 4.8 4.8
1MHz 4.8 4.8
Dissipation Factor, 25°C ASTM D150
1 kHz 0.004 0.004
1 MHz 0.002 0.002
Volume Resistivity, ohm·cm 1 x 1015 1 x 1015 ASTM D257
Arc Resistance, sec 180 180 ASTM D495
Comparative Tracking Index, V 250 250 UL 746A
Insulation Resistance, ohm (90°C, 95% RH, 48 hr) 1 x 1011 1 x 1011
Mold Shrinkage(7) m/m, Flow/Transverse 0.002 / 0.006 0.002 / 0.006
Density, g/cc 1.98 1.98 ISO 1183A
Water Absorption, % 0.02 0.02 ASTM D570
Color Natural Black
(5) Test specemin molding conditions: Stock Temperature, 315 - 345° C; Mold Temperature, 135 ° C
(6) Annealed 2 hours at 200° C
(7) Measured on 102 mm X 102 mm X 3.2 mm Plaques, Edge Gated
The nominal properties reported herein are typical of the product but do not reflect normal testing variances and therefore should not be used
for specification purposes.
MSDS #440880 Revision Date June, 2006
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suitability of the product for the specific use in question and is further advised against relying on the information contained herein as
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Screw Compressors: Selection Considerations for Efficient Operation
Douglas T. Reindl, Ph.D. P.E. and Todd B. Jekel, Ph.D., P.E.
Industrial Refrigeration Consortium
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Madison, WI USA
Abstract
The majority of industrial refrigeration systems today utilize screw compression technology.
With a proper volume ratio choice, fixed volume ratio compressors offer good energy efficiency
performance as system head pressure floats to achieve efficient system operation. Variable
volume ratio machines will deliver improved energy performance over a wide operating envelope
but a price is paid for that benefit. Variable volume ratio compressors have slightly higher capital
costs, increased maintenance cost, and reduced reliability when compared to their fixed Vi
counterparts. The increased maintenance costs and reduced reliabililty are attributed to the
additional components needed for volume ratio control.
This paper presents a brief overview of screw compressor technologies including methods of
capacity control and volume ratio concepts. Then, energy efficiency aspects of screw compressor
technologies are discussed for both fixed and variable volume ratio configurations. Finally,
guidelines for screw compressor selection are outlined. Although our focus here is on the
selection of screw compressors for industrial refrigeration systems, many of the concepts
presented here are equally applicable to commercial refrigeration systems and air-conditioning
systems that utilize screw compression technologies.
Key Words: screw compressor, energy efficiency, ammonia refrigeration, system optimization
Background
Compressors are an essential component in a vapor compression industrial refrigeration
system. Compressors are the principle prime movers responsible for providing the motive force
for circulating refrigerant throughout a system and for creating a sufficiently high refrigerant
pressure differential that allows the transport of heat from spaces or products to the outside
environment. Compressors are the single largest consumer of primary energy (usually electricity)
in a refrigeration system. Although a number of alternative compressor technologies are
available including: reciprocating and rotary vane, many refrigeration end-users are gravitating
toward the specification and installation of screw compressors. For that reason, this paper
focuses on the selection of screw compressors for energy efficient operation.
The first screw compressor was patented (#4121) in Germany by Heirich Krigar in 1878
[Cashflo 2000]. The modern day twin screw compressor was patented a half century later by Alf
Lysholm in the 1930’s and commercialized by the Swedish company, Ljunstroms Angturbin AB
(today known as Svenska Rotor Maskiner or SRM) [Cashflo 2000]. In the time period from the
issuance of the first patent on screw compressor technologies through today, screw compressors
have undergone considerable advancement. Many of the advancements that underpin the success
in industrial applications of this technology are the result of progress in computer-controlled
machining equipment which facilitates manufacture of complex rotor geometries while
maintaining close tolerances. Screw compressors and their application continue to be fertile
ground for the issuance of patents. In the period from 1976-2001, over 370 patents on screw
compressors and associated applications were issued by the U.S. patent office alone.
Screw compressors are available in sizes ranging from 50-3,000 BHP for application in
refrigeration systems (commercial and industrial), gas compression, and air compressors. Screw
compressors are the fastest growing compression technology in the industrial refrigeration
marketplace today. Figure 1 shows the installation of an industrial refrigeration screw
compressor in the machinery room of a plant.
Figure 1: Twin screw compressor installation.
Two screw compressor configurations are currently available for industrial refrigeration systems:
single screw and twin screw. The single screw is a relatively new technology and has found good success
in the industrial refrigeration marketplace considering its age. The twin screw compressor has been around
since the 1930s and comprises 80% of the industrial refrigeration screw compressor market [Stosic, et al.
1997].
Screw Compressor Capacity Control

It is extremely rare for refrigeration loads in an industrial refrigeration system to remain constant.
Rather, the loads on a refrigeration system vary with time. This variability may be weather dependent,
product dependent, or both. The time-variability of loads could be on the order of minutes or days. The
magnitude of the load can vary from full to no (or low) load during operating hours. Since the refrigeration
load varies, compressors must be equipped with means of capacity control. Capacity controls function to
modulate the compressor’s rate of gas compression to match the prevailing refrigeration load. There are
multiple approaches for achieving capacity control with screw compressor technologies including: capacity
control slide valve, poppet valves, twin slide valves (for both volume ratio and capacity control), and
variable speed drives.
The most common approach for capacity control in screw compressors is the use of a capacity control
slide valve. The capacity control slide valve, effectively, changes the location along the axis of the screw
1
where the compression process commences. As the required refrigerant flow rate decreases (load
decreases), the slide valve delays the point at which the compression process begins. The shift in the
location initiating the compression process results in a smaller volume of gas trapped by the pocket of the
screw’s rotor. Less volume of gas translates into less volumetric flow.
An alternative to a capacity control slide valve that affects the suction volume is a “hot gas bypass.”
For some compressors operating with halocarbon refrigerants, the twin screw is equipped with slide valves
to decrease the discharge port area and allow some of the discharge gas to shunt back to the compressor
suction (hot-gas bypass). This approach allows a single slide valve to achieve capacity control and volume
ratio control; however, its operation results in an energy efficiency penalty.
Volume Ratio Concepts

Inherent in their designs, screw compressors are “fixed geometric compression devices”. That is, a
screw compressor operates by a repetitive sequence of processes that involve:
1. drawing a fixed volume of gas through the suction port of the compressor housing and into
the gulley between intermeshing screw thread threads
2. trapping a fixed volume of gas and
3. decreasing the trapped gas to a reduced fixed volume to expel it at a higher pressure on the
discharge end of the screw (opposite the suction end).
The ratio of the volume of gas trapped in the thread of the screw at the start of the compression process
to the volume of trapped gas when it first begins to open to the discharge port is known as the compressor’s
“volume ratio” or “volume index”, Vi (ASHRAE 1996). Figure 1 illustrates the concept of a volume ratio
for a screw compressor. The volume of trapped gas on the suction side internal to the compressor,
Vsuction,int, is larger than the volume of trapped gas on the discharge side internal to the compressor,
Vdischarge,int. The ratio of suction volume to discharge volume is the screw compressor’s volume ratio or
volume index, Vi.
Vsuction,int
Vsuction,int Vi = Vdischarge,int
Vdischarge,int
Figure 1: Volume ratio illustration for a screw compressor.
There is a relationship between the compression or pressure ratio a screw compressor is able to
develop and the compressor’s volume ratio as given by the following equation.
Pdischarge, int
= (Vi )
k
Psuction ,int
where Pdischarge,int is the pressure of the trapped gas in the rotor gulley at a point just as the leading edge of
the rotor gulley begins to uncover the discharge port and Psuction,int is the pressure of the gas in the rotor
2
gulley on the suction side of the compressor just prior to the rotor lobe closing off the suction port to begin
the compression process, k is the specific heat ratio (constant pressure specific heat over the constant
volume specific heat) for the refrigerant being compressed.
Historically, screw compressors were only available in fixed volume ratio designs. Today, screw
compressor have been developed to provide end-users of their equipment designs that vary the volume ratio
for efficient performance over a wide range of operating conditions.
What is variable volume ratio screw compressor and why is it important? First, it is important to
understand how volume ratio can impact the operation of a screw compressor. Consider a screw
compressor that has fixed volume ratio of 3.6. That is, the volume of trapped gas on the suction side of the
compressor is 3.6 times larger than the volume of trapped gas on the discharge side of the screw
compressor. In our example, the compressor is configured as a single stage operating at 0°F saturated
suction temperature (30.4 psia saturation pressure). The pressure of the trapped gas just before the screw
opens to the discharge port can be estimated by using the above equation assuming a ratio of specific heats
of k=1.37 (for ammonia1).
Pdischarge , int = Psuction , int ⋅ (Vi ) = 30 .4 ⋅ (3.6 ) = 176 psia

k 1.37
In other words, the pressure of trapped gas internal to the compressor can be expected, theoretically, to
reach 176 psia just prior to the rotor lobe uncovering the discharge port opening.
In situations where the prevailing condensing pressure downstream of the compressor discharge is
above 176 psia, the fixed volume ratio of the screw compressor will result in “under compression”. In
other words, the pressure of the trapped refrigerant gas internal to the compressor is not high enough to
immediately move out into the discharge port of the compressor when the gulley of the screw begins to
“see” the high-side pressure as the discharge port is uncovered leading edge of the rotor’s lobe. In this
case, the screw must continue to rotate further; thereby, decreasing the gas volume and raising its pressure
to a level sufficient to force the compressed vapor out the discharge port. The impact of under compression
is a loss in efficiency since the compressor is not raising the pressure of the gas high enough to immediately
move it out the discharge port.
On the other hand, when the prevailing condensing pressure is below 176 psia, the screw compressor
with a 3.6 Vi will “over-compress” the refrigerant vapor. If the condensing pressure is 125 psia, the screw
compressor will have theoretically raised the refrigerant vapor to 176 psia (internally) just before the lobe
on the rotor begins to uncover the discharge port and the over-compressed refrigerant will quickly drop in
pressure as it flows to the significantly lower pressure in the discharge line. The impact of over
compression is a loss in efficiency since the compressor works harder than necessary to accomplish the
compression process. Another consequence of over-compression is that the discharge temperature (or oil
cooling load) will be higher than if the compressor’s volume ratio is matched to meet the required
discharge pressure conditions.
Figure 5 shows both the compression ratio and the volume ratio for a compressor operating over a
range of system discharge pressures with a saturated suction temperature of 0°F. As expected, the
compression ratio increases proportionally with the discharge pressure for a fixed suction pressure.
1
k for anhydrous ammonia varies in a range between 1.34 – 1.51.
3
6.5
6.0
o
ati
nR
Volume or Compression Ratio
5.5 sio
es
m pr
5.0 Co
4.5
4.0
o
me Rati
3.5 Volu
3.0
k = 1.37
2.5
Saturated Suction Temperature = 0 F
2.0
120 140 160 180 200
Discharge Pressure (psia)

Figure 5: Compression and volume ratios for fixed suction pressure screw compressor operating over a
range of system discharge pressures.
Figure 6 illustrates the volume ratio required to match condensing pressures that range from 120 psia
to 195 psia (design summertime operation) over a range of suction temperatures. The variability in volume
ratio is more pronounced for lower suction pressure conditions. Notice the volume ratio of a single
compressor to serve the entire operating envelope shown would have to vary from 2.0 to 5.9. For a 20°F
saturated suction temperature, the screw compressor’s volume ratio would only need to vary from 2.0 to
2.5. At a -20°F saturated suction temperature, the compressor’s span of volume ratio would increase from
4.0 to 5.8.
4
Figure 6: Variable volume ratio requirement for an ammonia compressor operating at over a range of
suction temperatures.
Volume Ratio Control

Virtually all of the screw compressor manufacturers have developed the ability to vary
the effective volume ratio of their machines. The general principle behind a variable volume
ratio or variable Vi screw compressor is that the location on the screw at which the
refrigerant vapor being compressed is allowed into the discharge port is movable. When a
variable Vi compressor operates at low condensing pressure conditions, a “volume ratio slide
valve” in the compressor moves in a direction toward the suction side. This allows the
trapped refrigerant vapor out of the compressor earlier in the compression process before
it has the opportunity to decrease the volume and overcompress the gas. During high
condensing pressure conditions, the discharge of the compressed gas is delayed until
further in the compression process (the volume ratio slide valve is moved away from
compressor suction).
How is the volume ratio controlled in a variable volume ratio screw compressor?
Compressor manufacturers have developed volume ratio control strategies that range from
discrete (i.e. the volume ratio can be changed to discrete values e.g. 2.6, 3.2, 3.8, etc.) to
infinitely variable. Figure 7 shows a dual slide valve configuration for a single screw
compressor. The volume ratio slide valve provides “infinitely variable volume ratio control
and is shown in its minimum position (minimum Vi). Essentially, the volume ratio slide valve in
this position allows the trapped gas to leave the compression process at the lowest
developed internal pressure. The volume ratio slide valve is typically found in this position
during operation under low head pressure situations. The goal in varying the volume ratio
slide valve position is to match the pressure of the gas trapped in the rotor groove or gulley
just prior to uncovering the discharge port with the prevailing system discharge or
condensing pressure. In contrast to the volume ratio slide valve that, effectively,
5
repositions the location of the discharge port (i.e. the ending point for the compression
process), the capacity control slide valve functions to reposition the location of the suction
port (i.e. the starting point for the compression process).
For higher head pressure conditions, the compressor needs to raise the refrigerant to a
higher pressure to match the system discharge or condensing pressure. To accomplish this,
the variable Vi compressor operates with a larger volume ratio by moving the volume ratio
slide valve to its maximum position as shown in Figure 8. In this case, the compressor has
delayed the discharge of gas out into the system until later in the compression process;
thereby, allowing the refrigerant to be compressed to a higher pressure.
Volume ratio
Slide valve
Volume ratio
Slide valve
Figure 7: Single screw compressor volume

ratio slide valve at its minimum position
(source: Vilter Manufacturing).
Figure 8: Single screw compressor volume

ratio slide valve at its maximum position
(source: Vilter Manufacturing).
It is interesting to note that if the compressor unloads (i.e. moving the capacity control
slide) and the volume ratio slide valve position remains unchanged, the compressor’s volume
index would decrease since the volume of trapped gas at the suction is decreasing while the
volume of trapped gas at discharge remains the same. In many situations, this is
6
undesirable and would lead to under compression if left unchecked. To compensate,
compressors equipped with dual slide valves are configured work in concert with one
another. As the compressor unloads using its capacity control slide valve, on-board controls
also decrease the volume ratio slide valve to establish and maintain the required volume
ratio.
By better matching the compressor discharge pressure with the system discharge
pressure, variable volume ratio screw compressors eliminate the inefficiency caused by
over-compressing or under-compressing the refrigerant. Variable volume ratio screw
compressors are often recommended for applications where the discharge (and suction)
pressures will vary over the operational life of the machine. Good applications for variable
volume ratio screw compressors include: swing compressors and compressors serving loads
that have highly varying loads (pull-down or process). Recognize however, that variable
volume ratio screw compressors will have higher maintenance costs and potential for
greater reliability problems due to the operation of the volume ratio control slide valve,
hydraulic circuitry, and controls.
Energy Efficiency Considerations

Fixed or variable volume? The volume ratio of a screw compressor should be one of the
factors considered when selecting a new compressor or modifying the operation of an
existing screw compressor installation. Fixed volume ratio compressors offer the advantage
of lower capital cost, lower maintenance costs, and greater reliability; however, the chief
disadvantage is diminished operational flexibility. In this section, we will evaluate the
operational disadvantage more closely to determine the extent it constrains or limits the
energy efficient operation of an industrial refrigeration system. We will look at both full-
load and part-load performance of fixed volume ratio screw compressors and assess the
impact of volume ratio mismatch that arises under both floating discharge and suction
pressure operation. We conclude the section by comparing the energy performance of the
fixed volume ratio machines with variable volume ratio designs. Note, the results of the
analysis presented in this section are based on data as published in compressor
manufacturer’s selection programs.
Since fixed volume ratio compressors are available in a finite number of increments,
designers must be judicious in the process of compressor selection to achieve efficient
operation upon integration into a system. To explore the influence of volume ratio on
compressor efficiency under floating head pressure conditions, the full-load compressor
package efficiency for five unique volume ratios (1.7, 2.2, 2.8, 3.0, 3.5, and 5.0) is compared
for three separate saturated discharge temperatures (95°F, 85°F, and 75°F) while
operating at three separate saturated suction temperatures: 0°F, 20°F and -20°F. Figure 9
below shows results of analyzing manufacturer’s performance data for a screw compressor
operating at a saturated suction temperature of 0°F.
7
Figure 9: Influence of volume ratio on full-load efficiency for a fixed Vi compressor
operating at 0°F saturated suction temperature.
For a fixed suction pressure, the compression ratio (and ideal volume ratio) changes as
the discharge pressure varies. At 0°F saturated suction temperature and a typical design
condensing or head pressure of 181 psig (95°F saturation temperature), the compressor
needs to develop a compression ratio of 6.45:1. At this condition, an ideal2 volume ratio for
the screw compressor would be 3.90. The dots in Figure 9 denote the calculated ideal
volume ratios for each condensing temperature case. A compressor selected with a lower or
higher volume ratio than the ideal will operate at lower efficiency; however, the impact of
the penalty for this suction pressure does not start to become significant until the volume
ratio drops below 2.8.
If the compressor shown in Figure 9 operates at 95°F saturated condensing

temperature with a fixed volume ratio of 1.7, it would require 2.60 BHP/ton. Increasing the
volume ratio to 3.5 would decrease the required BHP/ton to 1.61 – a 38% improvement in
efficiency! As the condensing temperature drops to 75°F, the ideal volume ratio will also
decrease. At a condensing temperature of 75°F, a 3.5 Vi compressor would operate at 1.19
BHP/ton while the 1.7 Vi compressor efficiency would degrade to 1.58 BHP/ton. In this
particular case, the penalty for the low Vi selection drops from 38% to 25% as one would
expect since the compressor’s compression ratio is decreasing which decreases the required
volume ratio. At 75°F condensing temperature, a 3.0 Vi compressor is near optimal and its
performance would be 1.18 BHP/ton which is less than a 1% improvement over the next
highest available Vi selection at 3.5. In this case, selecting a screw compressor with volume
2
The “ideal” volume ratio is estimated by applying the following: Pressure Ratio = Vik where k is the ratio
of specific heats.
8
ratio of 3.0 would yield good performance over the entire range of condensing
temperatures.
Figure 10 shows the influence of volume ratio on compressor efficiency for a fixed
saturated suction temperature of 20°F. As expected, the volume ratio for peak efficiency
is less than that for the 0°F suction case. Although the shape of the curves for the 20°F
suction temperature differs somewhat from the 0°F case, both illustrate the importance of
matching the compressor volume ratio with the anticipated operating conditions. The full-
load performance at high suction temperatures is fairly insensitive to volume ratio over a
broad range of fixed volume ratio choices. In this case, selecting a screw compressor with
volume ratio of 2.8 would yield good performance over the entire range of condensing
temperatures.
operating at 20°F saturated suction temperature.
Figure 11 shows the full-load performance of fixed volume ratio machines operating in a
single stage at a fixed suction temperature of -20°F over a range of condensing
temperatures. At condensing temperatures above 85°F, the ideal volume ratio exceeds the
largest available volume ratio in this compressor series. Operating low volume ratio
compressors under these conditions leads to significant performance penalties.
9
operating at -20°F saturated suction temperature.
The previous results are all for compressors packages operating at full-load. As a screw
compressor is unloaded, its part-load operation will also impact the fixed volume ratio
compressor efficiency. Figure 12 shows the trend in part-load performance for a 0°F
saturated suction and 75°F saturated discharge temperature. Under these conditions, the
compressor operates at a compression ratio of 4.63:1 with an estimated ideal volume ratio
of 3.34. At full load conditions, the best performing compressor, Vi=3.5, matches closely
with the ideal volume ratio compressor; however, the efficiency of the compressor
diminishes as it is unloaded. At full-load, the compressor package has an efficiency of 1.19
BHP/ton. When the compressor is unloaded to 50%, the efficiency degrades to 1.48
BHP/ton – a 25% increase in required horsepower for each ton of refrigeration. This
reinforces the guidance to operate screw compressors at or near full-load as much as
possible [Manske, et al. 2002].
10
4.0
SST = 0 F
Vi=3.5 SDT = 75 F
3.5 PR = 4.63:1
Efficiency [BHP/ton] Viideal = 3.34
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Part-Load Ratio [%]

Figure 12: Compressor part-load efficiency for a range of fixed volume ratio compressors.
Figure 13 illustrates the performance of both fixed and variable volume ratio screw
compressor selections operating over a range of saturated discharge temperatures for
three separate saturated suction temperature (-20°F, 0°F, and 20°F). At a saturated
suction temperature of -20°F, the variable volume ratio compressor operates at the
compressor’s maximum volume ratio (Vi=5.0 in this case). It is not until the saturated
condensing temperature reaches 65°F when the variable volume ratio compressor begins to
offer any performance benefits. The efficiency advantage of the variable volume ratio over
the fixed Vi compressor at this full-load condition is rather small. At a 20°F suction
temperature, the fixed Vi of 2.8 compares well with the variable volume ratio machine until
low discharge temperatures are reached. The variable volume ratio machine then begins to
exhibit an improvement in efficiency.
At a 0°F suction temperature and below 90°F discharge, the fixed volume ratio
compressor (Vi=3.0) compares favorably to the variable volume ratio compressor. The
differences in performance between fixed and variable volume ratio are slight because the
fixed volume ratio compressor has been selected to match its anticipated operating
pressure (or saturation temperature) envelope. Without a careful selection of the
compressor’s volume ratio, significant performance penalties will be assured. For example,
Figure 14 illustrates the performance of three different twin screw compressors operating
at 0°F suction over a range of discharge temperatures. The variable volume ratio and fixed
volume ratio machine with Vi of 3.0 offer similar performance. Had a fixed volume ratio
compressor with a Vi=2.2 been selected, the compressor would have reduced performance
for a considerable range of discharge temperatures (anything above 70°F condensing).
11
Figure 13: Fixed and variable volume ratio full-load efficiency characteristics.
Figure 14: Fixed (Vi = 2.2 and 3.0) and variable volume ratio full-load efficiency
characteristics at 0°F saturated suction temperature.
12
Selection Considerations
There are several factors that should be considered during the course of evaluating
potential selections for a new screw compressor or changing the operating conditions of an
existing screw compressor. Items that should be considered include:
1. Expected range of operating suction and discharge pressures

a. single stage or two stage operation (booster or high-stage)
b. swing duty (boosters operating as a single stage)
c. load variability over time (large pull-down loads vs. relatively constant loads)
2. Climate type and system minimum head pressure constraints
3. Oil separator sizing/selection
4. Oil cooling methods
5. System and package losses for check valves, service valves, strainers installed
around the compressor
6. Expected maintenance costs over machine’s life
One of the key selection criteria is the expected operating suction and discharge
pressures for the compressor. Many compressors operate with a fixed or relatively narrow
compressor suction temperature; however, some compressors are designed for swing duty
to serve loads at different suction levels. All compressors will operate over a range of
discharge pressures and some will run over a wider range of discharge pressures due to
seasonal fluctuations in condensing pressures. The greatest challenge for selecting a fixed
volume ratio screw compressor are systems that operate over the widest range of
condensing pressures. Table 1 below provides suggested volume ratio selections for fixed Vi
compressors that will operate over high, medium, and low ranges in head pressure. In all
cases, the data in Table 1 assumes that the maximum saturated condensing temperature is
95°F. The minimum head pressure for the “Medium” head pressure range case would be
70°F (95 – 25 = 70°F).
Table 1: Fixed volume ratio screw compressor selection ranges.

Head Pressure Range1
Saturated Suction High Medium Low
Temperature [°F] 180 – 100 psig 180 – 115 psig 180 – 135 psig
(95 - 65°F SCT) (95 – 70°F SCT) (95 - 80°F SCT)
-40 5.0 or higher 5.0 or higher 5.0 or higher
-20 3.5 – 5.0 3.5 – 5.0 4.0 – 5.0
0 2.5 – 3.5 2.7 – 3.5 3.0 – 4.0
20 1.5 – 2.7 1.7 – 3.0 2.0 – 3.5
40 1.4 – 2.5 1.5 – 2.7 1.5 – 3.0
1
The head pressure range is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum saturated
condensing temperatures.
2
SCT is the saturated condensing temperature.
13
Ideal volume ratios for fixed Vi machines operating over a range of suction and
discharge conditions were shown earlier in this TechNote (see Figure 6). Below, Figure 15
shows ideal volume ratios for fixed Vi compressors operating under booster duty in two-
stage compression systems. If a compressor will operate as a swing machine, select a
variable volume ratio compressor due to its ability to deliver superior performance in
comparison to its fixed Vi counterpart. If a compressor is expected to operate over a wide
range of suction pressures (due to pull-down or process variability) select a variable volume
ratio screw compressor.
Figure 15: Ideal volume ratios for booster compressors operating in two-stage compression
systems.
The head or condensing pressure of a system is dictated, in part, by the outside air wet
bulb temperature. As the outside air wet bulb temperature decreases, the condensing
temperature decreases until the system’s minimum is reached. The minimum condensing
temperature depends on a number of system-specific constraints such as: thermostatic
expansion valves, hot gas defrost (main and run-out sizing, defrost relief regulator
setpoints, gas-pumping requirements, etc.), presence of liquid injection oil cooling, sizing of
high pressure liquid lines, and others. Figure 16 illustrates the theoretical frequency of
saturated condensing temperatures for a system with a lower limit on condensing
temperature constrained at 100 psig (63°F) in Madison, WI. The system would operate at
its minimum condensing temperature for 3,925 hours (45% of the time) during the year.
For fixed volume ratio machines, select a volume ratio that will match the suction and
discharge conditions expected during the majority of yearly operating hours but check to
be sure it will meet the peak load requirements at design conditions.
14
4000
Madison, WI
3500
3000
2500
Hours per Year
Dry Operation
Wet Operation
2000
1500
1000
500
0
63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95
Saturated Condensing Temperature [F]
Figure 16: Frequency analysis of theoretical condensing temperatures for an evaporatively

condensed industrial refrigeration system in Madison, WI.
In the course of selecting a screw compressor for peak performance during off-design
conditions, oil separator sizing becomes important because the full-load volume flow rate of
gas at the discharge of the compressor will increase as the head pressure decreases. The
discharge volume flow rate will also increase with an increase in suction pressure because
the mass flow rate of refrigerant through the compressor increases. Individually or
combined, lowering condensing pressures and raising suction pressures are two widely
pursued strategies for effectively improving the energy efficiency of refrigeration
systems. Both have the net effect at increasing the volume flow rate of gas through the
compressor and through the oil separator. If the volume flow rate of gas through the
separator exceeds the rate assumed in the sizing of the separator, the efficiency of oil
separation will decrease. As the oil separation efficiency decreases, the concentration of
oil leaving the separator and migrating out into the system will increase. This results in the
need for greater frequency of oil draining from points out in the system. Select the oil
separator for full-load operation at the maximum expected suction pressure coincident with
the lowest expected discharge pressure.
The choice of oil cooling methods also influences the compressor efficiency. Liquid
injection oil cooling is the least first cost option; however, it results in a loss of compressor
capacity and necessitates a higher minimum head pressure to maintain the required
pressure differential across the oil cooling thermostatic expansion valve to maintain control
authority. Maintenance costs for liquid injected oil cooled compressors will be higher than
thermosiphon oil cooled. Finally, the life expectancy of a liquid injected screw is shorter
than a thermosiphon oil cooled alternative. Thermosiphon oil cooling is the most efficient
and lowest compressor maintenance cost option but has the largest capital cost. The
payback thermosiphon oil cooling is often less than 3 years. Thermosiphon oil cooling is
money well spent.
15
It is worthwhile to recognize that the selection of components around the compressor
itself will influence its efficiency when integrated into the system. All compressor
manufacturers have provisions for selecting alternative trim components including service
valves, check valves, and strainers. Those options include low pressure drop components for
minimum parasitic losses. Be sure to look at the difference in compressor performance with
and without low pressure loss trim.
Finally, maintenance costs for compressor selections should be included with energy
costs in the economic analysis of alternatives being considered. In general, maintenance
costs for liquid injection oil cooled compressors are greater than thermosiphon (or water-
cooled) oil cooled counterparts. Maintenance costs for variable volume ratio screw
compressors are higher than fixed volume ratio machines. The increased maintenance costs
for variable volume ratio screw compressors are attributed to the additional components
needed for volume ratio control.
Conclusions
With a proper choice of volume ratio, fixed Vi compressors offer good energy
efficiency performance as system head pressure floats to achieve efficient system
operation. Variable volume ratio machines will deliver improved energy performance over a
wide operating envelope but a price is paid for that benefit. Variable volume ratio
compressors have slightly higher capital costs, increased maintenance cost, and reduced
reliability when compared to their fixed Vi counterparts. The increased maintenance costs
and reduced reliabililty are attributed to the additional components needed for volume ratio
control.
If you have an opportunity, perform a life-cycle analysis for alternative compressor

selections. The life-cycle cost should include capital, operating, maintenance, and
replacement costs over a specified time horizon. Keep in mind that, based on evidence from
the field, some ancillary equipment alternatives (such as liquid injection oil cooling) will lead
to shortened compressor lifetimes when compared to others (such as thermosiphon oil
cooling).
References
ASHRAE, “Handbook of HVAC Systems and Equipment”, American Society of Heating

Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta GA, (1996).
Cashflo, Ltd., “The History Of Screw Compressors”,
http://www.cashflo.co.uk/Screw.html, (2000).
Manske, K. A., Klein, S. A., & Reindl, D. T., ”Load Sharing Strategies In Multiple
Compressor Refrigeration Systems“, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 108, Pt. 1, (2002).
Stosic, N., Smith, I. K., Kovacevic, A. and Aldis, C. A., “The Design of a Twin-Screw
Compressor Based on a New Rotor Profile”, Journal of Engineering Design, Vol. 8, No. 4,
(1997).
16
TECNOLOGÍA DE
COMPRESORES PARA
REFRIGERACIÓN
Departamento de Investigación y Desarrollo - Vilter
Manufacturing Corporation
Capítulo 1 — El proceso de compresión

Capítulo 2 — Componentes de los compresores de tornillo
Capítulo 3 — Rendimiento y aplicaciones de los compresores
Capítulo 4 — Introducción al compresor de un solo tornillo
Capítulo 5 — Compresor de tornillo con relación de volumen variable
Capítulo 6 — Ventajas del compresor de un solo tornillo Vilter
La información contenida en este documento no

puede reproducirse total ni parcialmente sin el
consentimiento por escrito de un directivo
autorizado de Vilter Manufacturing Corporation.
PUBLICADO POR
VILTER MANUFACTURING CORP 5555 South
Packard Avenue, Cudahy, Wisconsin, 53110 -
U.S.A.
CAPÍTULO 1
EL PROCESO DE COMPRESIÓN
Éste es el primer artículo de una serie que describe Una diferencia importante entre los equipos de tornillo
compresores de tornillo y los compara con equipos y los reciprocantes es que estos últimos usan válvulas
recíprocos. El objeto de los artículos es proporcionar de succión y descarga para cada cilindro. Funcionan
información básica sobre la teoría y el funcionamiento como válvulas de retención de una dirección. La
de los compresores para que puedan apreciarse las válvula de succión permite el flujo del gas hacia el
ventajas del compresor de un solo tornillo de Vilter cilindro durante la carrera de admisión, mientras que la
cuando éste se presente para la venta. Este artículo es válvula de descarga permite que el gas comprimido
un análisis del proceso de compresión y cómo difiere salga del cilindro durante la carrera de descarga. Las
entre los compresores reciprocantes y los de doble válvulas se abren por la presión del gas que introduce
tornillo. una caída de presión a lo largo de la válvula. La
presión del gas debe superar la fuerza del resorte de la
Una excelente ayuda para comprender por qué los válvula, fuerza que se debe al área de la placa de la
distintos compresores funcionan de determinada válvula diferencial y a pérdidas de caudal. Esta caída
manera es el diagrama P-V. El diagrama P-V de presión se muestra en el diagrama P-V (fig. 1a)
representa la presión y el volumen en el interior del como un área sobre la presión de descarga para la
cilindro de un compresor reciprocante o la hélice en el válvula de descarga y el área de presión por debajo de
caso de un compresor de tornillo. El área encerrada por la succión para la válvula de succión. Estas áreas
el diagrama P-V representa el trabajo que se requiere representan las pérdidas de potencia asociadas con el
para la compresión siguiendo la expresión W= ∫Pdv. funcionamiento de las válvulas. Además de generar
Las pérdidas mecánicas y por fricción no se tienen en una pérdida de potencia, las válvulas son componentes
cuenta en el diagrama: sólo las pérdidas de compresión que requieren mucho mantenimiento.
y caudal. Los puntos que se enumeran en el diagrama
son: Los compresores de tornillo no tienen válvulas pero,
1. comienzo de succión en cambio, tienen puertos. Veamos una hélice en
2. fin de succión, comienzo de compresión particular. En un compresor de doble tornillo, una
3. fin de compresión, comienzo de descarga hélice es el volumen encerrado entre una ranura de
4. fin de descarga cada rotor y la carcasa externa. Durante la admisión, la
hélice queda expuesta a la succión y se llena de gas.
Cuando se ha alcanzado el máximo volumen de la
hélice,
PRESIÓN DEL CILINDRO

VOLUMEN DEL CILINDRO
POTENCIA DE COMPRESIÓN
PÉRDIDAS DE LAS VÁLVULAS
RELACIÓN DE ALTA PRESIÓN
RELACIÓN DE BAJA PRESIÓN
Figura la - Diagrama P-V de un compresor reciprocante 1
el rotor gira más allá de la apertura del puerto y el gas Para que un compresor de tornillo funcione con la
queda atrapado en la hélice. A medida que los rotores máxima eficiencia, la relación de volumen integrado
siguen girando, el volumen de la hélice disminuye y se debe hacerse coincidir con las presiones del sistema
produce la compresión. Después de cierta cantidad de por la ecuación anterior. Si la relación de volumen es
compresión, la hélice se abre al puerto de descarga y el demasiado alta (puerto de descarga pequeño), se
giro adicional reduce el volumen a cero, expulsando el produce sobrecompresión, es decir, la presión de la
gas de los rotores. Como se observa en el diagrama P-V hélice aumenta por encima de la presión de descarga
(fig. lb), las pérdidas de flujo asociadas con el puerto antes de que la hélice se abra al puerto de descarga. Si
de succión son insignificantes. Se produce una pequeña la relación de volumen es demasiado baja (puerto de
pérdida de energía durante la descarga cuando el descarga grande), se produce subcompresión, es decir,
puerto de descarga se comienza a abrir y el área de la hélice se abre al puerto de descarga antes de que se
flujo es pequeña. alcance la presión de descarga. Esto resulta en
retroceso de gas a la hélice, presurizando de inmediato
El tamaño y la posición del puerto de descarga la hélice a la presión de descarga. Como se muestra en
determinan la relación de volumen (índice de volumen) el diagrama P-V (fig. lb), la sobre o la subcompresión
integrado del compresor. La definición real de relación agrega área al diagrama, agregando así pérdidas de
de volumen integrado es el máximo volumen de la energía.
hélice en la succión (volumen barrido) dividido por el
volumen de la hélice cuando la hélice se abre al puerto Las pérdidas de energía incurridas por el
de descarga. La relación de volumen se relaciona con la funcionamiento lejos de la relación de volumen
relación de compresión por la expresión integrado óptima se muestran en la figura 2. Se pueden
termodinámica: hacer varias observaciones a partir de esta curva:
P2/P1 = (V1,/V2)k a. Para cada relación de volumen integrado hay una
relación de compresión donde no ocurren pérdidas
donde: por sobre o subcompresión.
P2 = presión de descarga, psia (presión absoluta) b. El rango completo de cocientes de presión de 3 a 10
P1 = presión de admisión, psia ( presión absoluta) puede cubrirse con (3) cocientes de volumen
V2 = volumen de descarga, pies3/min. o pies3/rev. integrados, con un requisito máximo de 1 1/2% de
V1 = volumen de admisión, pies3/min. o BHP adicional (asumiendo que las condiciones de
pies3/rev. presión son constantes).
k = exponente isentrópico (1,28 para NH3)
c. Debe observarse que la curva sólo es válida para
PRESIÓN HÉLICE
VOLUMEN HÉLICE
POTENCIA DE COMPRESIÓN
PÉRDIDAS EN LOS PUERTOS
ÍNDICE DE VOLUMEN DE SOBRECOMPRESIÓN DEMASIADO ALTO
ÍNDICE DE VOLUMEN DE SOBRECOMPRESIÓN DEMASIADO BAJO
Figura lb - Diagrama P-V de un compresor de tornillo
2
amoníaco. Las curvas cambian levemente hacia la CP = 165 + 14,7 = 5,2
izquierda para halocarburos que tienen valores 19,6 + 14,7
inferiores para el exponente isentrópico.
Como se muestra en la figura 2, ésta es una condición
d. La curva muestra el efecto de un compresor con ideal para un índice de volumen de 3,6, ya que no hay
cociente de volumen variable similar a los que se pérdidas debidas a sobre o subcompresión. La figura
introdujeron recientemente en el mercado. Puede 3a muestra el diagrama P-V para esta condición.
verse que, excepto que las condiciones de presión
se modifiquen sustancialmente, la característica de Para la condición de 185 psig de condensación, la
volumen variable se presionará manualmente para relación de compresión es:
ahorrar más del 1% en los costos globales de CP = 185 + 14,7 = 5,8
energía. 19,6 + 14,7
Por ejemplo, consideremos un compresor de tornillo Esta condición requiere más potencia, como lo
en una aplicación de almacenamiento frío que requiere muestra el área adicional en el diagrama P-V (fig. 3b).
una temperatura de evaporador de 5 °F (19,6 psig) El área rayada muestra la potencia adicional para la
usando amoníaco. El sistema normalmente funciona a apertura prematura del puerto de descarga
165 psig (90 °F) de condensación. Sin embargo, en los (subcompresión). La figura 2 muestra que la
días más calurosos, la presión condensante se eleva a subcompresión agrega un poco menos de 1% de
185 psig (96 °F). Durante el invierno, la presión pérdida de potencia.
condensante puede descender hasta 125 psig (75 °F). Para la condición de 125 psig de condensación, la
Suponiendo un índice de volumen de 3,6, ¿cuáles son relación de compresión es:
las pérdidas asociadas con sobre o subcompresión en CP = 125 + 14,7 = 4,1
cada condición? 19,6 + 14,7
Solución:
Para la condición de funcionamiento normal (165 psig
de condensación), la relación de compresión es:
PORCENTAJE DE POTENCIA ADICIONAL
RELACIÓN DE COMPRESIÓN P2/P1
FIGURA 2 POTENCIA ADICIONAL REQUERIDA PARA HACER FUNCIONAR UN COMPRESOR DE

RELACION DE VOLUMEN FIJO A VARIOS COCIENTES DE PRESIÓN CON AMONÍACO
3
Esta condición requiere menos potencia, como lo inyección de aceite; la mayoría son a inyección de
muestra el área más reducida en el diagrama P-V (fig. aceite. Los compresores sin aceite requieren
3c). Sin embargo, hay una pérdida al funcionar en esta engranajes sincronizados para evitar que los rotores
condición, representada por el área rayada. Un índice entren en contacto entre sí y con los sellos de aceite
de volumen perfectamente coincidente requerirá entre los cojinetes y rotores, lo que los hace más
menos potencia que el índice de volumen de 3,6. Esta costosos. La inyección de aceite tiene las siguientes
pérdida debida a sobrecompresión se eleva a una ventajas:
pérdida del 2%, como se muestra en la fig. 2.
a. sella los ajustes de funcionamiento.
Otra diferencia básica entre el compresor reciprocante b. proporciona lubricación para los rotores, evitando el
y el de tornillo es el volumen de punto muerto de la contacto entre metales.
máquina recíproca. El volumen de punto muerto es c. enfría el gas comprimido y permite que los
necesario en una máquina recíproca para proporcionar compresores se usen a cocientes de presión más
espacio para las válvulas y ajuste entre el pistón y el altos que los compresores reciprocantes y los sin
conjunto de la válvula. El volumen de punto muerto aceite. (La temperatura de descarga depende de la
tiene un efecto mínimo sobre la eficiencia global relación de compresión.)
(BHP/tonelada) porque el gas comprimido atrapado en d. amortigua el ruido del compresor.
el espacio de ajuste devuelve la mayor parte de su Se requiere el agregado de un sistema de separación de
energía al pistón por reexpansión. Sin embargo, el aceite con la inyección de aceite, pero es un precio
volumen de punto muerto reducirá la eficiencia bajo que se debe pagar para las ventajas que
volumétrica (y por lo tanto la capacidad) del proporciona. Incluso las instalaciones de compresores
compresor. Con respecto al diagrama P-V (figura la - P- reciprocantes requieren separación de aceite, como lo
V), V2-VcL representa el desplazamiento barrido del evidencia la reciente introducción por parte de Vilter
compresor y V1 es el volumen del gas reexpandido que del Super Separator™.
quedó atrapado en el espacio de ajuste. El
desplazamiento efectivo de la máquina es V2-V1. PREGUNTAS
También puede verse que la pérdida de desplazamiento
1) Un proceso de refrigeración funciona a una succión
empeora con relaciones de presión altos.
de 10 °F y a una presión condensante de 185 psig.
El compresor de tornillo no tiene volumen de punto Durante el invierno, la presión condensante
muerto pero sí fugas internas que reducen su eficiencia desciende a 135 psig. Se utiliza un compresor de
volumétrica. Las fugas son un resultado de que haya tornillo con un cociente de volumen integrado de
ajustes de funcionamiento entre los 2 rotores y entre 3,6. ¿Cuál es la pérdida de eficiencia a la presión
los rotores y las carcasas. Generalmente, sin embargo, condensante menor por usar un cociente de
el compresor de tornillo sufre pérdidas de capacidad volumen integrado de 3,6? Dibuje el diagrama P-V
menores que el recíproco, especialmente con y coloque el nombre en las presiones de succión,
relaciones de presión más altos. descarga e interna del compresor (use la figura 2).
Para una aplicación con alto coeficiente de presión,
Hay diseños de compresores de tornillos sin aceite y a proporcione dos motivos por los que un compresor
de tornillo es más adecuado que uno recíproco.
3a. V1 del compresor concordante con las condiciones 3b. V1 del compresor menor que lo que requieren las
condiciones BHP agregada 3c. V1 del compresor mayor que lo que requieren las condiciones BHP agregada
4
CAPÍTULO 2
COMPONENTES DEL COMPRESOR DE TORNILLO
Visualizar cómo funciona un compresor de tornillo impulsan en la línea de paso. Por ello, cuando están
con doble rotor es un poco más difícil que visualizar fabricados correctamente, no existe contacto deslizante
un compresor reciprocante. Las ranuras helicoidales de entre los rotores y esto sirve para minimizar el
los rotores y las formas poco habituales de los puertos desgaste.
complican el panorama. A pesar de su aparente
Con el fin de transportar las cargas generadas por las
complejidad, el compresor de tornillo tiene
presiones del gas, deben usarse cojinetes tanto radiales
relativamente pocas piezas móviles: dos rotores,
como de empuje. (Ver fig. 2.) En un compresor de
cojinetes y una válvula de corredera. La simpleza es
tornillo de doble rotor, las cargas de los cojinetes son
uno de los puntos de venta fuertes del compresor de
bastante altas y, como resultado, la falla de los
tornillo. En este artículo se analizarán los diversos
cojinetes es la causa principal de la falla del
componentes del compresor de doble tornillo.
compresor.
Los rotores son el alma del compresor de tornillo. Un
En la mayoría de los compresores de refrigeración de
rotor tiene lóbulos helicoidales y se lo denomina
doble tornillo giratorio, las cargas radiales son
macho. El otro rotor tiene ranuras de acoplamiento
transportadas por cojinetes de manguito. Los cojinetes
helicoidales y se lo denomina hembra. El diseño de
de manguito tienen varias desventajas. Una es que
rotor más común es el perfil asimétrico 4 + 6
requieren cajas maquinadas con mayor grado de
patentado por SRM en Suecia. (Ver fig. 1.) Se ha
exactitud (más costosas) que los cojinetes antifricción,
comprobado que este perfil proporciona buena
porque los de manguito no toleran desalineaciones. En
eficiencia y maquinabilidad. El diseño asimétrico
segundo lugar, los cojinetes de manguito consumen
minimiza las rutas de fuga a través del engranaje del
potencia debido al arrastre viscoso del aceite. Del lado
rotor y proporciona un pequeño "agujero de soplado".
positivo, sin embargo, la trayectoria de confiabilidad
El agujero de soplado es el área de fugas entre la
de los cojinetes de manguito es excelente. Siempre que
carcasa y las puntas del rotor en el engranaje. Cuando
se mantenga una buena presión de aceite y que el
está en funcionamiento, el rotor macho absorbe
sistema esté relativamente limpio, la vida útil de los
aproximadamente el 85% de la torsión y el hembra,
cojinetes de manguito es prácticamente eterna.
aproximadamente el 15%. Por este motivo, en los
compresores inundados de aceite, el compresor macho El diseño más común de los cojinetes de empuje es un
impulsa directamente cojinete de bolas dobles de contacto angular. Los
cojinetes de empuje son la conexión débil del
compresor de tornillo doble y la causa más común de
falla del compresor. La carga de empuje es causada
básicamente por la diferencia de presión de descarga a
ROTOR HEMBRA
succión que actúa contra el área proyectada de las
caras del rotor. La carga de empuje en el rotor macho
es mayor que en el rotor hembra porque el gas ejerce
fuerza sobre el engranaje del rotor. Por ejemplo, la
carga de empuje del rotor macho sobre un compresor
de 255 mm que funciona con amoníaco en condiciones
típicas es 4450 lb. Por este motivo, se utiliza un pistón
de equilibrio en el eje del rotor macho para ayudar a
equilibrar la carga de empuje. Para ser efectivo, el
pistón de equilibrio depende de la presión de aceite
que tiene atrás. De este modo, la vida del pistón de
empuje es muy sensible a la presión del pistón de
ROTOR MACHO equilibrio. Bajo condiciones de funcionamiento
normales, los cojinetes de empuje del rotor hembra
Figura 1 – Perfil de rotor asimétrico 4 + 6 tienen una vida aceptable sin un pistón de equilibrio.
Incluso en un sistema correctamente mantenido, los
al hembra ya que un engranaje impulsa al otro. De esta cojinetes de empuje generalmente son las partes que se
manera, sólo el 15% de la energía de entrada se desgastan primero y, en algunos casos, deben ser
transmite a través del engranaje del rotor. Existe una considerados componentes de mantenimiento.
acción pura de rodamiento entre los rotores porque se
5
PRESIÓN DE SUCCIÓN
PRESIÓN DE DESCARGA
TORNILLO HEMBRA
FUERZA NETA DEBIDA A DIFERENCIAL DE PRESIÓN
TORNILLO MACHO
FUERZA DEBIDA A PISTÓN DE EQUILIBRIO
APROX. 40 PSI DE PRESIÓN DE ACEITE + PRESIÓN DE DESCARGA
PISTÓN DE EQUILIBRIO
COJINETES DE EMPUJE
COJINETES RADIALES
Figura 2 – Configuración de cojinetes y pistones de equilibrio en un compresor de doble tornillo giratorio
La reducción de capacidad en un compresor de Compresor reciprocante, la descarga generalmente se

refrigeración de doble tornillo giratorio generalmente logra manteniendo abiertas las placas de la válvula de
se logra con una válvula de corredera. La válvula se succión; esto permite que el gas entre y salga del
encuentra en la caja del estator y forma una parte del cilindro pero no permite que se produzca compresión.
orificio del rotor. (Ver fig. 3.) Para descargar el Se consume muy poca energía al hacer funcionar un
compresor, la válvula se mueve hacia el extremo de cilindro en carga parcial. Sin embargo, la descarga
descarga, Que abre el área de compresión del rotor debe lograrse en pasos, mientras que el control de
nuevamente a succión. Esto proporciona un método de capacidad en el compresor de tornillo es continuo.
descarga continuo, infinitamente variable. Como se
muestra en la fig. 3, hay un puerto de descarga radial Al diseñar un compresor de tornillo, se debe
en la válvula de corredera y un puerto axial en la cara considerar la velocidad de funcionamiento. La
del extremo. Además de la reducción de capacidad, el referencia que utiliza el diseñador del compresor es la
puerto de descarga radial móvil mantendrá en líneas velocidad periférica del rotor macho medida en metros
generales la relación de volumen integrado del por segundo (m/seg.). El rango de velocidad periférica
compresor. Esto sólo es efectivo hasta que desciende a generalmente aceptado para compresores inundados
aproximadamente el 75% de la capacidad total, de aceite que usan el perfil asimétrico 4 + 6 de SRM
dependiendo del diseño. Después de este punto, la es 30 a 60 m/seg. El funcionamiento a menos de 30
relación de volumen integrad cae abruptamente y m/seg. es antieconómico porque el compresor es
causa la caída de la eficiencia de la carga parcial. El físicamente grande en comparación con su capacidad.
motivo de esto es que el puerto de descarga radial ya Por encima de 60 m/seg., la eficiencia y la
no controla el punto en el cual el gas de descarga sale confiabilidad descienden abruptamente. Teniendo
presentes estas consideraciones con respecto a la
de la cámara de compresión.
velocidad, podemos examinar las diversas
En comparación, el compresor reciprocante tiene una configuraciones de mando de uso común.
ventaja de eficiencia sobre el compresor de tornillo
para el funcionamiento con carga parcial. En un
6
Los compresores grandes de 163 mm a 321 mm En el enfoque de transmisión integral por engranajes,
(aproximadamente 600 a 3400 ft3/min., se incorpora un conjunto de engranajes al diseño del
respectivamente) generalmente son impulsados de compresor, el cual proporciona un aumento de
manera directa a través del rotor macho por un motor velocidad para alcanzar una velocidad económica en la
bipolar (3550 rpm). Esto se traduce en velocidades de punta del rotor. El costo agregado y la complejidad de
la punta del rotor macho de 30 m/seg. para el de 163 un conjunto integral de engranajes se justifican por las
mm y de 60 m/seg. para el de 321 mm. siguientes ventajas.
En el caso de compresores de menos de 163 mm, la a.) Permite manejar diversas capacidades mediante
velocidad debe aumentarse para mantener una un solo tamaño de rotor del compresor.
velocidad eficiente y rentable en la punta. Dos b.) Permite que un compresor físicamente pequeño
métodos para lograr esto son: transmisión integral por produzca la misma capacidad que una máquina más
engranajes y transmisión de rotor hembra. grande y más cara.
c.) Permite mayor flexibilidad al ajustar el tamaño
de las máquinas. Una capacidad fuera de lo normal
requiere sólo un cambio de engranaje.
d.) Minimiza el inventario de herramientas y
repuestos.
El enfoque con transmisión de rotor hembra
proporciona un aumento del 50% en la velocidad
periférica del rotor macho en comparación con la
transmisión del rotor macho. Esto se debe al cociente
de velocidad macho/hembra de 1,5 inherente al perfil 4
+ 6. Sin embargo, debido a que el rotor macho absorbe
el 85% de la torsión de entrada, toda esta torsión debe
transmitirse a través del engranaje del rotor. Esto
requiere el endurecimiento de los rotores a lo largo de
la línea de paso para manejar las fuerzas impulsoras
adicionales. Se corre mayor riesgo de desgaste o daño
del rotor si se utiliza un sistema de transmisión de este
tipo.
A pesar del bajo número de piezas móviles en el
compresor de doble tornillo y de su evidente
simplicidad, no podemos ignorar algunas de las
ventajas del compresor reciprocante. El compresor de
tornillo funciona a velocidades aproximadamente tres
veces superiores a las de un compresor reciprocante y
con altas cargas de cojinetes que afectan de manera
adversa la vida útil del compresor. El compresor
reciprocante también es más eficiente en el
funcionamiento con carga parcial. Los diversos puntos
fuertes y débiles tanto de los compresores
reciprocantes y de tornillos giratorios le aseguran a
cada uno un lugar en el mercado.
PREGUNTAS
PUERTO DE DESCARGA AXIAL 1) ¿Cuáles son los motivos para aumentar la velocidad
VÁLVULA CORREDIZA de giro a más de 3600 rpm en el caso de
PUERTO DE DESCARGA RADIAL compresores de tornillo de menos de 163 mm?
2) ¿Por qué sufre la eficiencia de la carga parcial en
Figura 3 – Puerto axial fijo y puerto radial móvil un compresor de tornillo?
3) ¿Cuál es el motivo principal para impulsar el rotor
macho en un compresor de tornillo?
7
CAPÍTULO 3
RENDIMIENTO Y APLICACIONES DE LOS

COMPRESORES
Con el paso del tiempo, nuestra sociedad está cada vez (Consultar la fig. 1.) La condición uno (P1) es la
más preocupada por el alto costo de la energía. Al succión del compresor y la condición dos (P2) es la
considerar la compra de un equipo, con frecuencia se descarga del compresor. El trabajo real del compresor
pone más énfasis en los costos de funcionamiento es igual a h2 - h1. El trabajo isentrópico es igual a h2s -
(energía) que en cualquier otra cosa. Por este motivo, h1. La potencia y el flujo de masa (M) de refrigerante a
la relación BHP/tonelada es cada vez más importante través del compresor pueden determinarse a partir de
al seleccionar equipos de refrigeración. Desde el punto pruebas de rendimiento. Estos números luego pueden
de vista del compresor, BHP/tonelada puede traducirse utilizarse para calcular lo siguiente: Trabajo
en eficiencia. Este artículo analiza la eficiencia de los isentrópico:
compresores y los factores que la afectan.
Wi = (h2s - h1) x M
La eficiencia de los compresores normalmente se
describe en términos de eficiencia volumétrica y 42,42
eficiencia isentrópica.
donde:
La eficiencia volumétrica puede describirse como el
cociente entre el rendimiento real del compresor Wi = BHP isentrópica
(ft3/min.) comparado con el desplazamiento de barrido
(ft3/min. teóricos), de acuerdo con la siguiente
h2s , h1 = BTU/lb
relación:
M = lb/min. de flujo a través del compresor
E.V. = pcm real x 100
Eficiencia isentrópica:
pcm barridos
E.I. = Wi x 100
La eficiencia isentrópica (también llamada eficiencia
adiabática o global) puede describirse como el Wa
cociente entre el trabajo real y el teórico del
compresor para producir una capacidad dada (pcm). El donde:
trabajo teórico puede determinarse a partir del
diagrama de presión-entalpía para el refrigerante en Wa = BHP real
cuestión.
La eficiencia isentrópica tiene mayor significado
cuando se habla sobre eficiencia de la energía, porque
depende directamente de la cantidad de capacidad de
refrigeración proporcionada por cada entrada de BHP.
Cualquier cosa que cause el aumento de la potencia
del compresor (para condiciones de presión
constantes) reducirá la eficiencia isentrópica. Además,
si la potencia permanece constante y la capacidad
(eficiencia volumétrica) se reduce, la eficiencia
isentrópica también se reduce. La eficiencia
volumétrica, por otro lado, tiene poco significado
cuando se habla de eficiencia de energía. Su
importancia se relaciona con la estimación de la
capacidad del compresor.
Para analizar los factores que afectan el rendimiento
del compresor, se muestran curvas de eficiencia
típicas para un compresor de tornillo y un compresor
reciprocante en la figura 2.
Entropía constante
8
Fig. 1 — Presión típica – Diagrama de
entalpía
Algunas observaciones y explicaciones de la figura 2 pueden expresarse de este modo:
PORCENTAJE DE EFICIENCIA
RELACIÓN DE COMPRESIÓN P2/P1
E.V. COMPRESOR DE TORNILLO
E.I. COMPRESOR DE TORNILLO
E.V. COMPRESOR RECIPROCANTE
E.I. COMPRESOR RECIPROCANTE
Figura 2 – Curvas típicas de rendimiento del compresor
9
1. La eficiencia volumétrica de un compresor de vapor entrante y reduce su densidad, reduciendo así la
tornillo se reduce a medida que aumenta la relación capacidad de la máquina. En segundo lugar, el aceite
de compresión (la relación de compresión absoluta de inyección contiene algo de refrigerante arrastrado
es el relación entre las presiones absolutas de que se enciende cuando se introduce en el compresor.
descarga y de succión). Esta curva depende Si esto ocurre en la succión del compresor, el
primariamente de los ajustes internos del compresor refrigerante expandido desplaza parte del gas de
que permiten fugas del lado de alta presión de succión lo cual, a su vez, reduce la capacidad de la
regreso a la succión. Los ajustes totales pueden máquina. Por este motivo, se inyecta aceite después de
visualizarse como un solo orificio de tamaño que la compresión comienza (la hélice cerrada) para
equivalente. A medida que la relación de evitar los problemas antes mencionados.
compresión a través del orificio (ajustes) aumenta, Muchos compresores de tornillo llevan la inyección
el flujo (fuga) también aumenta. Una máquina con de hélice cerrada un paso más allá e inyectan el aceite
ajustes muy pequeños tendrá una curva de E.V. a través de la válvula de corredera. De esta manera, el
relativamente plana y una con ajustes grandes agujero para inyección de aceite se mueve a medida que
tendrá una curva de E.V. con pendiente empinada. la válvula descarga el compresor, manteniendo el
2. La eficiencia volumétrica (E.V.) de un compresor aceite inyectado en la hélice cerrada durante el
reciprocante también se reduce a medida que funcionamiento con carga parcial. Esto mejora el
aumenta la relación de compresión. Sin embargo, la rendimiento (la eficiencia) de la carga parcial.
pendiente es generalmente más empinada que la de En un compresor reciprocante, también debe evitarse
un compresor de tornillo. Esto depende el precalentamiento del gas de succión. Aunque no
primariamente del volumen de punto muerto (ajuste hay inyección de aceite que contrarrestar, el cilindro
restante en el centro muerto superior) del compresor se calentará más que el compresor de tornillo
reciprocante. A medida que aumenta la relación de inundado de aceite. La temperatura aumenta a medida
compresión, el volumen de punto muerto reduce que aumenta la relación de compresión. Parte de este
cada vez más la eficiencia volumétrica (ya que el calor no puede evitar sumarse al sobrecalentamiento
refrigerante restante después de cada ciclo de de la succión, reduciendo así la capacidad.
compresión ocupa mayor porcentaje del volumen Si la capacidad del compresor se considera constante,
disponible). la eficiencia isentrópica es afectada por las cosas que
3. La eficiencia isentrópica de un compresor de consumen potencia. La fricción y las pérdidas de las
tornillo es máxima con una relación de compresión válvulas (caídas de presión en las válvulas) para el
en particular. El pico de la curva se relaciona con la compresor reciprocante y la fricción, el arrastre viscoso
relación de volumen integrado ideal del compresor. del aceite, la relación de volumen integrado
La curva cae bastante abruptamente a medida que la discrepante y la fuga de “hélice a hélice” para el
relación de compresión se aleja del punto óptimo compresor de tornillo son factores que afectan la
porque las pérdidas asociadas con la relación de potencia. Al comparar el rendimiento de un
volumen integrado también aumentan. Por este compresor de tornillo giratorio con un compresor
motivo, una relación de volumen integrado en reciprocante, debe recordarse que la eficiencia global
particular se limita a una banda de relación de
o isentrópica debe ser el punto de comparación. La
compresión alrededor del pico de la curva de
eficiencia global está directamente relacionada con
eficiencia isentrópica. Además, la fuga de una
hélice de alta presión de regreso a una hélice de BHP/tonelada. Aunque las comparaciones de eficiencia
menor presión resultará en un aumento de energía. volumétrica son importantes para el diseñador del
compresor, no deben usarse para comparaciones de
4. La eficiencia isentrópica de un compresor
reciprocante es máxima cerca de la de un eficiencia de energía. Deben tenerse en cuenta las
compresor de tornillo, pero no cae tan rápido en características de rendimiento para cada tipo de
ninguno de los lados de su pico. El motivo de esto compresor cuando se evalúa una aplicación en
es que el compresor reciprocante no tiene relación particular. PREGUNTAS
de volumen integrado sino que siempre se hace 1. Calcule la eficiencia volumétrica e isentrópica para
concordar con las condiciones de presión. Por lo un compresor VSS-751 que funciona a una succión a
tanto, no tiene las pérdidas asociadas con la relación 10 °F y una descarga a 185 psig. La capacidad del
de volumen integrado. Un compresor reciprocante es compresor es de 161 toneladas y 225 BHP. Por
una verdadera máquina de relación de volumen motivos de simplicidad, asuma una succión saturada
variable. y ausencia de subenfriamiento.
Hay varios factores adicionales que afectan la 2. En las mismas condiciones que las antes
eficiencia volumétrica. En un compresor de tornillo, mencionadas, calcule la eficiencia volumétrica e
además de las fugas, es importante mantener el aceite de isentrópica de un compresor 458 con una capacidad
inyección alejado de la succión del compresor. Hay dos de 99,3 toneladas y 138 BHP. Una vez más, asuma
motivos para esto. Uno es que el aceite caliente una succión saturada y ausencia de
introducido en la succión precalienta (sobrecalienta) el subenfriamiento.
10
CAPÍTULO 4
INTRODUCCIÓN AL COMPRESOR DE UN SOLO

TORNILLO
compresor de aire.
El compresor de un solo tornillo es una máquina

giratoria, a inyección de aceite, de desplazamiento
positivo. Comprende un tornillo ranurado
helicoidal central, con un par de rotores de
compuerta con dientes en forma de estrella planos
a los costados (ver las figuras la y lb). Los rotores
de compuerta se engranan con el tornillo y forman
una pared o sello de la cámara de compresión. El
mono tornillo puede considerarse como dos
compresores en uno, ya que cada lado del
compresor funciona como un compresor
independiente. Por una revolución del tornillo, se
produce el ciclo de compresión y descarga a
ambos lados de la máquina. El resultado de este
compresor de dos lados es que las fuerzas radiales
sobre el tornillo, debidas a la presión del gas, se
equilibran. Además, el lado de la descarga del
tornillo incorpora un sello de laberinto que
permite que tanto el extremo de succión como el
de descarga del tornillo se mantengan a la presión
de succión. Además, las fuerzas del gas dentro de
Figura 1a – Vista superior
las hélices del tornillo no producen cargas axiales
TORNILLO
PUERTOS DE DESCARGA desequilibradas. Como resultado, las cargas
AMORTIGUADOR TORSIONAL axiales se mantienen en un mínimo. De este
ROTOR DE COMPUERTA FLOTANTE modo, los cojinetes para el tornillo tienen carga
SOPORTE DE ROTOR DE COMPUERTA DE HIERRO liviana, lo cual se traduce en un ciclo de vida
DÚCTIL prolongado. Los cojinetes en los rotores de
Figura 1b — Vista de extremo del lado de la descarga compuerta transportan una carga axial excéntrica
debido a la presión a lo largo de las hojas de los
rotores de compuerta que se engranan con el
El compresor de un solo tornillo es el concepto más tornillo. Sin embargo, estas cargas son también
reciente en tecnología de compresores de tornillo. A relativamente livianas, proporcionando un ciclo de
pesar de su novedad, se está acercando rápidamente al vida prolongado también a los cojinetes de los
punto donde ya no puede considerarse experimental rotores de compuerta.
sino más bien tecnología comprobada.
La lubricación de los cojinetes en el compresor de
La tecnología y el diseño básico están patentados un solo tornillo está simplificada por el hecho de
y tienen licencia a través de Bernard Zimmern de que todos los cojinetes se encuentran en regiones
Single Screw Compressors, Inc. (SSCI), en de baja presión. Esto significa que pueden ser
Norwalk, Connecticut. Dentro de EE.UU., sólo lubricados sin necesidad de una bomba de aceite.
Vilter Manufacturing Corporation tiene La diferencia de presión a lo largo del compresor
actualmente licencia de SSCI para fabricar un de la succión a la descarga es adecuada para
compresor de tornillo de rotor único para proporcionar el flujo de aceite requerido a los
aplicaciones de refrigeración y aire acondicionado cojinetes.
industriales. Esta licencia fue obtenida por Vilter
en 1983. Sin embargo, hay otros fabricantes de Los rotores de compuerta se producen en dos piezas
Europa y Japón que actualmente construyen y que comprenden una parte flotante de compuesto
venden compresores de un solo tornillo para liviano y un soporte de hierro dúctil para transportar
aplicaciones tanto de refrigeración como de las cargas. (Ver las figuras 1a y 1b.) Estas dos piezas
compresor de aire. También hay algunas empresas no están sujetadas de manera rígida sino que pueden
estadounidenses que construyen compresores de girar una con respecto a la otra dentro de los límites
un solo tornillo, pero sólo para aplicaciones de de un amortiguador torsional, de ahí el término de
11
"rotor de compuerta flotante" para la pieza de
compuesto liviano. El razonamiento que respalda
este diseño es reducir las fuerzas impulsoras entre el
tornillo y los rotores de compuerta. Al impulsar la
parte masiva del rotor de compuerta a través de un
amortiguador torsional (resorte), las aceleraciones
durante las puestas en marcha y las paradas no
producen grandes fuerzas impulsoras entre el tornillo
y las compuertas. Esto es importante para la vida útil
y la confiabilidad de los rotores de compuerta.
También inherente al compresor de un solo tornillo
es la transferencia mínima de torsión (y así mínimas
fuerzas impulsoras) entre el tornillo y el rotor de
compuerta durante el funcionamiento a velocidad
constante. Las fuerzas requeridas para impulsar los TORNILLO
rotores de compuerta sólo se deben a la fricción en
PUERTO DE DESCARGA DE CAPACIDAD
los cojinetes y al arrastre viscoso del aceite. Los
rotores de compuerta no tienen que superar fuerzas PUERTO DE DESCARGA
de presión de gas diferencial en el sentido del giro. VÁLVULA DE CORREDERA
El tornillo es maquinado, de hierro fundido de alta TOPE CORREDIZO FIJO
calidad. El hierro fundido, combinado con los rotores ROTOR DE COMPUERTA
de compuerta de compuesto plástico, resulta en PUERTO DE DESCARGA FIJO
características de bajo desgaste cuando se combina
con la lubricación hidrodinámica que proporciona la Figura 2 — Configuración de las válvulas de corredera
inyección de aceite. El tornillo tiene seis ranuras y
cada rotor de compuerta tiene once dientes acoplados. (generalmente ajustada para un relación de volumen
Esto resulta en una velocidad de giro para los rotores integrado de aproximadamente 5,0) para asegurar un
de compuerta de 6/11 veces la velocidad de giro del área mínima del puerto de descarga cuando las
tornillo. El motivo primario para esta combinación de válvulas de corredera se mueven completamente
ranuras y hojas es para la "búsqueda" de la acción de hasta el extremo de la descarga de la máquina para
los dientes, es decir, cada hoja del rotor de compuerta capacidad mínima. El principio de funcionamiento
se engrana sucesivamente con cada ranura del tornillo. de la válvula de corredera es similar al del doble
Esto elimina la necesidad de combinar selectivamente tornillo en movimiento axial pero en resultados
una hoja de rotor de compuerta en particular con una opuestos de eficiencia.
ranura del tornillo en particular durante el armado.
Como en un compresor de doble tornillo, el tornillo A medida que las válvulas de corredera se mueven
único requiere ajustes de funcionamiento cerrados en la dirección descargada, el extremo de baja
para el sellado. Esto, a su vez, requiere una presión abre un pasaje hacia la cámara de succión,
maquinación muy precisa de los componentes clave. bajando así la capacidad del compresor. El punto
La inyección de aceite se usa para sellar los ajustes, inicial de la compresión se mueve con el extremo de
lubricar las piezas móviles y enfriar la descarga del baja presión de las válvulas de corredera. Como la
compresor. capacidad se reduce, el extremo de la descarga de la
El compresor de un solo tornillo, similar al de doble válvula de corredera se mueve hacia el extremo de
tornillo, funciona con puertos de succión y de la descarga del compresor, casi manteniendo la
descarga, eliminando la necesidad de válvulas, como relación de volumen integrado. Sin embargo, en Un
las que se usan en un compresor reciprocante. De esta doble tornillo, una vez que está por debajo de
manera, la máquina funciona con un relación de aproximadamente el 95% de la capacidad, ya no
volumen integrado, que debe concordar con las puede mantenerse la relación de volumen. Una
condiciones de presión del sistema para que el caída bastante abrupta de la relación de volumen por
funcionamiento sea eficiente. debajo del 95% de la capacidad resulta en un
La tecnología actual para el control de la rendimiento bastante deficiente en carga parcial de
capacidad comprende una válvula de corredera los compresores de doble tornillo en general. Esta
para cada lado del compresor que controla el única situación se produce en los compresores de
tamaño del puerto de descarga y el tamaño del doble tornillo.
puerto de descarga de capacidad (ver la figura 2).
Además, hay un puerto de descarga fijo Una ventaja del tornillo único sobre el tornillo doble
es su flexibilidad en esquemas de descarga, debido al
hecho de que el mono tornillo tiene dos válvulas de
corredera, una por cada lado del compresor, para un
12
total de 2. Por este motivo, algunos fabricantes han usar la tecnología de maquinado más reciente, sus
elegido descargar el compresor de manera asimétrica. costos deben ser extremadamente competitivos
La descarga asimétrica es una técnica por la cual una con otros tipos de compresores.
válvula de corredera se acciona hasta que el lado
correspondiente del compresor está completamente PREGUNTAS
descargado. La otra válvula de corredera permanece a 1) ¿Cuál sería el diámetro del rotor de un solo
carga completa. Como un lado se descarga por tornillo para obtener 1500 ft3/min?
completo (0% capacidad, 0% BHP) mientras el otro 2) Nombre dos (2) ventajas principales del
está al 100%, la eficiencia de carga parcial al 50% es compresor de un solo tornillo frente al tornillo
mucho mejor con respecto a la descarga simétrica de rotor doble.
(ambas válvulas de corredera al 50%) o al doble
tornillo (con una sola válvula de corredera) al 50%. 3) ¿Por qué no se requiere una bomba de aceite en
el compresor de un solo tornillo?
Sin embargo, la descarga asimétrica también tiene 4) ¿Por qué las cargas de los cojinetes del rotor
sus desventajas. En primer lugar, para accionar dos principal son dramáticamente menores en el
válvulas de corredera de manera independiente se tornillo único que en el doble tornillo?
requiere el doble de componentes de accionamiento,
lo cual aumenta los costos. En segundo lugar, con un
lado del compresor funcionando a carga plena y el
otro sin carga, hay una carga desequilibrada en el
rotor del tornillo. Esto requiere un cojinete adicional
para transportar la carga radial impuesta. Aunque
esta carga puede ser manejada fácilmente por un
cojinete de rodillos, hay un costo adicional y una
pequeña reducción de la confiabilidad debido al
componente adicional. Para ello, se escoge entonces,
el método de carga simétrica y se descarga ambos
lados del compresor (superior e inferior),
devolviendo la virtud del equilibrio o balanceo de
fuerzas.
El compresor de un solo tornillo entra en un rango
de capacidad similar al del compresor de doble
tornillo. Los requisitos de maquinado preciso
tolerancias estrechas son costosos, lo cual hace
difícil competir con el compresor reciprocante en lo
económico. Esta misma situación se produce en los
compresores de doble tornillo. Sin embargo, como
el desplazamiento barrido del mono tornillo es
proporcional a D3 (donde D es el diámetro del
tornillo), un pequeño aumento del diámetro produce
un gran aumento de la capacidad. Por ejemplo, un
compresor de 240 mm desplaza 580 ft3/min. Para
duplicar este número a 1160 ft3/min se requiere un
compresor de 300 mm o simplemente un aumento
del 25% en el diámetro del tornillo. En el rango de
tamaño medio y grande, esto resulta en una
máquina muy compacta. El extremo más alto de la
escala de capacidad está limitado principalmente
por la velocidad periférica del tornillo. 65 m/seg.
(metros por segundo) se considera el máximo por
consideraciones de eficiencia, confiabilidad y ruido.
Para 3600 rpm, esto limita el mono tornillo a 3000
ft3/min con un diámetro de tornillo de 350 mm. Un
compresor como ése, entonces, podría manejar
capacidades de hasta 3600 ft3/min.
El compresor de un solo tornillo es una fuerza

importante en el mercado por su potencial de
funcionamiento confiable y eficiente. Además, al
13
CAPÍTULO 5
COMPRESOR DE TORNILLO CON RELACION DE VOLUMEN

VARIABLE
Hasta hace poco, el compresor de tornillo tenía la de volumen. En algún punto del ciclo de descarga, el
desventaja de un relación de volumen integrado fijo. puerto de descarga móvil desaparece (se mueve más
No era que no existiese una solución mejor: las ideas allá del extremo de los rotores (o tornillo). Como ya
de la relación de volumen variable han estado no existe una descarga radial, el gas debe salir
rondando desde hace un tiempo. Pero sólo axialmente a través de un puerto fijo. En un
recientemente el costo agregado de esa característica compresor de doble tornillo, el puerto fijo se
se pudo recuperar en costos de funcionamiento. El encuentra en la cara del extremo axial, Como se
motivo de este cambio, por supuesto, es el creciente observa en la figura 1.
costo de la energía. En este artículo se examina la
tecnología de doble tornillo actual para relación de
volumen variable y se muestra por qué el compresor
de un solo tornillo de Vilter es incluso mejor.
Antes de entrar en una explicación de la relación de
volumen variable, examinemos la configuración de la
descarga de la válvula de corredera convencional en
un compresor de tornillo doble y en uno de un solo
tornillo. El principio de funcionamiento de los dos
tipos de compresor es el mismo, aunque el compresor
de un solo tornillo tiene dos válvulas de corredera,
una por cada lado de la máquina mientras que el
doble tornillo tiene solo una y debajo de los tornillos.
Consulte las figuras 1, 2 y 3 para la explicación que
sigue. En ambos casos, las válvulas de corredera se
encuentran en la caja o la carcasa principal,
formando una parte del orificio del rotor o del
tornillo. La descarga se logra moviendo la válvula de
corredera hacia el puerto de descarga de la máquina,
que abre la hélice nuevamente al puerto de succión.
Esto permite que una parte del gas que se comprime
se desvíe de regreso a la succión, bajando así la
capacidad. El grado de reducción de la capacidad
depende de cuánto se abre las hélices a la succión.
Además de desviar el vapor de regreso a la succión,
el movimiento de la válvula de corredera hace varias PUERTO DE DESCARGA AXIAL FIJO
cosas:
VÁLVULA DE CORREDERA
1. Cambia el punto en el cual comienza el proceso
de compresión o inicio de compresión. El PUERTO DE DESCARGA
volumen de succión se reduce porque la
longitud del tornillo lleno de gas es menor. La CARGA
compresión no se produce hasta que las hélices
pasen mas allá de los rotores (o el tornillo) DESCARGA
girando más allá del extremo de succión de la PUERTO DE DESCARGA RADIAL MÓVIL
válvula de corredera y el puerto de descarga. La
figura 3b muestra esta reducción del volumen Figura 1.
de succión de V1 a índice de volumen.
2. Cambia el punto en el cual comienza el proceso CONFIGURACIÓN DE VÁLVULAS DE CORREDERA EN
UN COMPRESOR DE DOBLE TORNILLO CON ÍNDICE
de descarga o inicio de descarga. Esto se DE VOLUMEN FIJO
evidencia por el hecho de que la válvula de
corredera forma una parte del puerto de
descarga.
El proceso de descarga, como se describió antes, es
sólo parcialmente efectivo para mantener la relación
14
En un compresor de un solo tornillo, se encuentra volumen de 2,6, al 70% para un equipo con índice de
justo debajo de la válvula de corredera, como se volumen de 3,6 y de inmediato (100%) para un equipo
muestra en la figura 2. con índice de volumen de 5,0. De modo que puede
verse que el control de la relación de volumen con
carga parcial resulta en una importante mejora de la
eficiencia de funcionamiento con carga parcial. Ahora
veamos la tecnología actual para compresores de
doble tornillo con volumen variable. Esto se logra
agregando otra válvula de corredera en el extremo de
succión de la válvula de corredera convencional (ver
la figura 4). Esta configuración de extremo a extremo
de las válvulas de corredera se puede denominar una
configuración en serie. Para el funcionamiento con
carga plena, las dos válvulas de corredera se mueven
juntas como una unidad para controlar la relación de
queda atrapado dentro de las hélices del tornillo antes
de permitirle salir. El movimiento de las válvulas de
corredera hacia atrás y hacia adelante en respuesta a
las condiciones de funcionamiento controla
efectivamente la relación de volumen. Para una
aplicación que funciona con presiones que no son las
condiciones ideales del diseño, el ahorro en costos de
funcionamiento se muestra en la figura 2 del capítulo
1. Puede verse que el control de la relación de
volumen con carga plena ahorra del 1 al 2% en los
que en el sistema convencional. Puede sostenerse que
el movimiento de la válvula de corredera de succión
hacia la descarga aumenta la relación de volumen.
VÁLVULAS DE CORREDERA Esto realmente aumenta la relación de volumen, pero
ROTOR DE COMPUERTA también aumenta las pérdidas asociadas con succión
aumentando así las pérdidas. Nuestras pruebas,
PUERTOS FIJOS
muestran una pérdida importante de eficiencia con
VISTA A-A una velocidad alta a través del puerto que con
PUERTO DE DESCARGA velocidades más altas y caídas de presión a través del
PUERTO DE DESCARGA FIJO puerto de descarga. Al acercar más el lado de la
VÁLVULA DE CORREDERA
succión al extremo de descarga se eleva la presión del
surco antes de que se desvíe a la costos de
CARGA
funcionamiento al ajustarse a las variaciones normales
DESCARGA en la presión de cabeza debido a las condiciones
PUERTO DE DESCARGA ambientales cambiantes. Sin embargo, con carga
parcial este sistema dejar de ser eficiente que un
sistema de válvulas de corredera convencional. El
Figura 2 motivo de esto es que el extremo de succión de la
CONFIGURACIÓN DE VÁLVULAS DE CORREDERA EN UN válvula de corredera de descarga (leyenda B en la
COMPRESOR DE UN SOLO TORNILLO figura 4) controla el grado de descarga del compresor.
Apenas el compresor comienza la descarga, la
relación de volumen se mantiene igual en volumen.
Durante el ciclo de descarga, apenas el puerto de La mayor extensión de las dos válvulas de corredera
descarga móvil se mueve más allá del puerto fijo, la hacia la descarga del compresor prolonga el tiempo
relación de volumen integrado comienza a caer. El que el gas
resultado neto es el funcionamiento ineficiente con
carga parcial. La figura 3 ilustra esto mediante
diagramas P-V Dependiendo el diseño de la válvula
de corredera, la relación de volumen comienza a caer
al 50% de la capacidad para un equipo con índice de
15
descarga. El resultado de todo esto es que, con la
válvula de corredera de descarga y de succión
organizadas en serie, sólo es posible muy poco (o
ningún) ahorro de energía funcionando con carga
parcial.
Carga plena
V1 = V1/V2 puerto móvil
V1/V3 puerto fijo
V1 = volumen de succión de carga plena
V1 = volumen de succión de carga parcial
V2 = volumen de descarga
V3 = volumen de descarga cuando se abre el
puerto fijo
Los puertos fijos y móviles se abren
Carga parcial
el puerto móvil concuerda con el fijo
V1 = V1/V2
Los puertos fijos se abren
Pérdida de eficiencia
Descarga plena
El puerto de descarga se abre apenas se
cierra la succión
V1 = V1/V2 = 1,0
Figura 3.
DIAGRAMAS DE PRESIÓN-VOLUMEN QUE
MUESTRAN EL PROCESO DE DESCARGA
16
CARGA PLENA
Válvula de corredera de succión móvil
Válvula de corredera de descarga
V1 bajo
Puerto de descarga
V1 alto
Alto o bajo V1 de descarga
Figura 4.
CONFIGURACIÓN EN SERIE DE RELACION DE VOLUMEN VARIABLE PARA EL COMPRESOR DE DOBLE

TORNILLO
Esto nos lleva a la característica de relación de con las condiciones de funcionamiento tanto para la
volumen variable patentada por Vilter PARALLEX carga parcial como para la carga plena. Además, se
TM
para el compresor de un solo tornillo. Este diseño ha ajustado el tamaño del puerto de descarga fijo de
usa una configuración de válvulas de corredera lado a modo que el índice de volumen se controla hasta el
lado o paralela (ver la figura 5) para un total de 4, 30% de la capacidad con carga plena con un índice de
dos a cada lado. La ventaja de esta configuración es volumen de 3,6. El control de la relación de volumen
que el tamaño del puerto de descarga (y por lo tanto para el funcionamiento con carga parcial le
el índice de volumen) es completamente proporciona a la configuración paralela de las
independiente del control de la capacidad. Para el válvulas de corredera una ventaja evidente sobre la
funcionamiento con carga plena, no hay diferencia en configuración en serie.
la eficiencia en comparación con la configuración en Otro punto de descarga que debe mencionarse
serie. La válvula de corredera de relación de volumen (exclusivo del compresor de un solo tornillo) es la
se ubica simplemente para mantener la relación de ubicación de descarga simétrica opuesta a 180
volumen correcta. Para el funcionamiento con carga grados. Este método aprovecha dos áreas de
parcial, la válvula de corredera de descarga se ubica compresión independientes del compresor de un solo
para mantener la capacidad deseada mientras que la tornillo. Como cada lado requiere una válvula de
de relación de volumen se ubica para mantener la corredera, el compresor puede descargarse de manera
relación de volumen correcta. Esto significa que la simultánea pero a los lados. El resultado es un
relación de volumen se hace coincidir con precisión rendimiento igual a un compresor convencional con
17
válvulas de corredera simple pero con el efecto de control de la relación de volumen mejora la
balancear las fuerzas y eliminar tanto ruido como eficiencia, elimina los ruidos y vibraciones en
vibración del compresor. De este modo, un mejor comparación a una descarga axial y guía simple.
EXTREMO DE DESCARGA
EXTREMO DE SUCCIÓN
VÁLVULA DE CORREDERA DE DESCARGA
Carga
Descarga
Nota: válvula de corredera de descarga mostrada en posición de carga plena.
PUERTO DE DESCARGA VARIABLE
VÁLVULA DE CORREDERA DE RELACION DE VOLUMEN
Aumento de V1
Reducción de V1
PUERTO DE DESCARGA FIJO
SUPERFICIE SELLANTE DE ROTOR DE COMPUERTA
Figura 5 COCIENTE DE VOLUMEN VARIABLE – CONFIGURACIÓN EN PARALELO PARA EL COMPRESOR DE

UN SOLO TORNILLO
18
La figura 6 proporciona una comparación del
rendimiento entre las diversas configuraciones de
válvulas de corredera. Del 100% hasta el 50% de la
capacidad, la configuración en paralelo de las
válvulas de corredera ahorra del 2 al 3% con respecto
a una configuración convencional y una en serie de
dichas válvulas. Por debajo del 50% de capacidad, el
ahorro es muy superior. Si se traduce esto en dólares
ahorrados para un compresor de 600 ft3/min que
extrae 250 BHP a carga plena y a 7¢/kWh, el ahorro
en costos de funcionamiento es de $3430/año. Este
ahorro se basa en el supuesto de ciclos de
funcionamiento con carga plena y con carga parcial
de la siguiente manera:
20% de capacidad ...... 20% del tiempo
60% de capacidad ...... 40% del tiempo PORCENTAJE DE BHP CON CARGA PLENA
100% de capacidad........ 40% del tiempo IDEAL
Así puede verse que, para obtener la mejor eficiencia VÁLV. CORREDIZA CONVENCIONAL Y EN
posible del compresor de tornillo, el control de la SERIE VARIABLE (V)
relación de volumen es muy importante. La VARIABLE EN PARALELO (V)
configuración de válvulas de corredera en paralelo PORCENTAJE DE CAPACIDAD CON CARGA
PLENA
para la relación de volumen variable tiene una clara
ventaja sobre otros métodos por el ahorro de energía
para el funcionamiento con carga parcial. Figura 6 COMPARACIÓN DEL RENDIMIENTO CON
PREGUNTAS CARGA PARCIAL
1) Si un compresor de tornillo funciona en
condiciones ideales de cociente de volumen (por
ej. evaporador a 5 °F, 165 psig condensante y
relación de volumen de 3,6), explique por qué la doble o uno solo?
potencia se reduce si la presión condensante
desciende (por ej. a 135 psig). Éste es un
compresor de relación de volumen fijo, de modo
que el gas se comprime hasta 165 psig, 3) Calcule el ahorro de energía anual en dólares de un
independientemente de las condiciones de compresor de tornillo de volumen variable frente a
funcionamiento. ¿La energía para comprimir no un cociente de volumen fijo convencional si hay
debe permanecer constante? un ahorro promedio "pequeño" del 2% de la
2) ¿Por qué siempre debe haber un puerto de potencia de freno. El compresor es VRS-1700 o
descarga fijo en un compresor de tornillo, sea éste equivalente y funciona a 20 °F y 185 psig
condensante durante 6000 horas/año y con una
carga de electricidad de 20¢ por kWh.
19
CAPÍTULO 6
Ventajas del compresor de un solo tornillo Vilter
En resumen se ha visto entonces que el Mono tornillo El sistema de guías o piezas deslizantes de capacidad
es un compresor dentro de la familia de compresores y relación de volumen variable en forma Separada e
tipo Tornillo que tiene bondades y características Independiente, brinda mayores ahorros de energía o
superiores a sus hermanos los Doble Tornillo por consumo de energía por la ubicación exacta sin
efectos de su diseño y principio de operación, las interferirse la una a la otra, para cada punto de
cuales son: capacidad y descarga, sobretodo para cargas parciales
donde se elimina los efectos de sobre compresión o
La virtud de poder igualar las presiones o el permitir subcompresion que estos representa un desgaste
que el gas de succión se pueda ubicar tanto en la parte innecesario de energía, en comparación con sus
frontal como la parte posterior del compresor, logre hermanos de tornillo pareja, que la posición de una se
un equilibrio dinámico de sentido axial, eliminando ve afectada por el sobre comando de la otra,
cualquier fuerza de empuje axial o flecha horizontal. ubicándose en puntos equivocados de capacidad y
descarga para cargas parciales, aumentando el
El tener dos compresiones ( una estrella o compuerta consumo de energía.
rotor se encarga de una sección o parte superior del
tornillo mientras que la otra estrella se encarga de la El uso de dos estrellas o compuertas de compresión en
otra sección o parte inferior del tornillo, como si oposición a una pareja macho-hembra tornillo,
simulara dos compresores en uno) y dos descargas permite, una compresión equilibrada, de mejor
ubicadas en forma radial simétrica y opuestas, permite eficiencia y de bajo nivel de ruido y con menos
que cualquier tipo de esfuerzo generado por el gas exigencia de freno o potencia. De esta manera se
comprimido y por el gas descargado, se equilibren o exige menos lubricación o aceite inyectado en el
anulen por ir en direcciones contrarias, logrando una compresor en forma opuesta a las parejas de tornillos
vez más el equilibrio dinámico para esfuerzos o que exigen mayor lubricación o aceite inyectado ya
cargas de sentido radial o flecha vertical. que se debe lubricar bien las parejas y formar sello de
compresión entre ella con aceite, entre menos aceite
Siendo entonces, los rodamientos o puntos de apoyo sea inyectado al compresor, menos se penaliza la
la columna vertebral de cualquier compresor, y en capacidad del compresor logrando mayores
especial y con mayor importancia en los compresores eficiencias y menor freno se consume o menos
de tipo tornillo, el equilibrio de cargas o esfuerzos en potencia se consume, ya que no se debe comprimir
forma absoluta permite que estos esfuerzos o cargas mas cantidad de mezcla gas - aceite.
nunca actúan sobre los rodamientos, logrando que no
los desgaste en forma severa y logrando así como Las estrellas al ser fabricadas en materiales de resinas
resultado final una mayor vida útil o larga vida de los y termoplásticos ultra resistentes, tienen vida útil larga
rodamientos del compresor. De esta manera se y son casi indeformables y resistentes a cualquier tipo
reducen al mínimo los cambios constantes o de solvente, gas, liquido y otras materias dando mayor
mandatarios de rodamientos exigidos por otro tipo de resistencia que un compresor de tornillo pareja. Pero,
compresores o fabricantes, reduciendo al mínimo los no solo brinda eficiencia y larga vida, sino que el
costos de mantenimiento, reduciendo al mínimo las reemplazo de ellas devuelve la eficiencia de
paradas de mantenimiento, reduciendo al mínimo los compresión a su 100% original en comparación al
tiempos muertos de producción y reducción de desgaste de las parejas tornillos que no pueden
inventarios de producto final. De esta manera el recuperar su eficiencia sin el cambio absoluto del
Mono Tornillo se convierte en un compresor más compresor o de la pareja de tornillos. De esta manera,
confiable y eficiente por larga duración y baja el compresor Mono Tornillo se convierte en un
exigencia de mantenimiento. No requiere de elemento de casi toda la vida sin su reposición o
seguimiento o análisis de vibraciones, no se debe reemplazo a comparación de otros estilos o
preocupar uno de cuando los rodamientos piensan fabricantes.
fallar y de antemano pronosticarlo con el seguimiento
por medio de análisis de vibraciones. La relación de Longitud/Diámetro (L/D) del tornillo
es siempre constante y es una relación 1:1 en todos los
20
Monos, logrando siempre un tornillo robusto que reducir al mínimo, el efecto cascada, efecto que
nunca sufrirá de deflexión a comparación de otros permite el retorno de gas comprimido a la cavidad
tornillos que para lograr mayores capacidades sin anterior restando eficiencia. Este efecto es común de
aumentar mucho la potencia extienden la longitud del todos los tornillos, pero es mínimo en los Monos por
tornillo, resultando en problemas de deflexión, su variación de espesor de pared y no uso de vena o
logrando desgaste prematuros del tornillo y por ende perfil.
el cambio o reemplazo prematuro de ellos.
La combinación de descargas opuestas, permite que
las pulsaciones de gas, se anulen, la no carga en los
rodamientos y el ciclo combinado de estrellas y no
El Mono Tornillo no usa venas de compresión o sello pareja de tonillos, logra un compresor libre de más
de compresión, su sello lo hace las estrellas o bajo nivel de ruido comparado con otros compresores
compuertas. Al no usar sello o perfil o vena de en la industria.
compresión y usa pared de espesor variable, permite
21
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABOUT THIS VOLUME

EDITORS

Suite 300
+1-202-857-1110 (voice)
+1-202-223-4579 (fax)
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www.iiar.org ms
P
m
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c
c
Screw Compressor Basics
Joseph Pillis
Frick Company
Waynesboro, PA
157
Introduction
Rotary screw compressors are widely used today in industrial refrigeration for
compression of ammonia and other refrigerating gases. Simple in concept, the screw geometry is
sufficiently difficult to visualize that many people using screws today have only a vague idea
how they actually work. An understanding of the basics of their operation will help in applying
them correctly, avoiding nuisance problems in operation, and achieving the best overall system
designs.
Construction
A typical oil flooded twin screw compressor consists of male and female rotors mounted
on bearings to fix their position in a rotor housing which holds the rotors in closely toleranced
intersecting cylindrical bores. (See Figure 1.) The rotors basic shape is a screw thread, with
varying numbers of lobes on the male and female rotors. The driving device is generally
connected to the male rotor with the male driving the female through an oil film. In
refrigeration, four or five lobed male rotors generally drive six or seven lobe female rotors to
give a female rotor speed that is somewhat less than the male speed. Some designs connect the
drive to the female rotor in order to produce higher rotor speeds thus increasing displacement.
However, this increases loading on the rotors in the area of torque transfer and can reduce rotor
life.
Oil Injection
All common refigeration screws use oil injection into the compression area for
lubrication, sealing of leakage paths, and cooling. Injected oil quantities are approximately
10-20 gal/min per 100 HP. The use of such large oil quantities transfers most of the heat of
compression to the oil and allows discharge temperatures to be very low even at high
compression ratios. Running single stage at 20: 1 compression ratio on ammonia would yield
650" F discharge temperatures in non-flooded types of compressors. With oil flooding, the
screw discharge temperature does not exceed 200" F. Running screws at 20: 1 or even higher,
single stage, though not energy efficient compared with two stage systems, will not harm the
compressor. Many such systems are running today.
Fundamentals of Operation
A screw compressor is best described as a positive displacement volume reduction
device. Its action is analogous to a reciprocating compressor more than any of the other common
compressor types. It is helpll to refer to the equivalent reciprocating process to visualize how
compression progresses in a screw. Gas is compressed by pure rotary motion of the two
intermeshing helical rotors. Gas travels around the outside of the rotors, starting at the top and
159
traveling to the bottom while it is transferred axially from the suction end to the discharge end of
the rotor area.
Suction Process
Suction gas is drawn into the compressor to fill the void where the male rotor rotates out
of the female flute on the suction end of the compressor. Suction charge fills the entire volume
of each screw thread as the m e s h i n g thread proceeds down the length of the rotor. This is
analogous to the suction stroke in a reciprocating compressor as the piston is drawn down the
cylinder. (See Figure 2.)
The suction charge becomes trapped in two helically shaped cylinders formed by the
screw threads and the housing as the threads rotate out of the open suction port. The volume
trapped in both screw threads over their entire length is defined as the volume at suction, (Vs).
In the reciprocating analogy the piston reaches the bottom of the stroke and the suction valve
closes, trapping the suction volume, (Vs). (See Figure 3.)
The displacement per revolution of the reciprocating compressor is defined in terms of
suction volume, by the bore area times the stroke length times the number of cylinders. The total
displacement of the screw compressor is the volume at suction per thread times the number of
lobes on the driving rotor.
Compression
The male rotor lobe will begin to enter the trapped female flute on the bottom of the
compressor at the suction end, forming the back edge of the trapped gas pocket. The two
separate gas cylinders in each rotor are joined to form a "V" shaped wedge of gas with the point
of the "V"at the intersection of the threads on the suction end. (See Figure 4.) Further rotation
begins to reduce the trapped volume in the "V" and compress the trapped gas. The intersection
point of the male lobe in the female flute is like the piston in the reciprocating compressor that is
starting up the cylinder and compressing the gas ahead of it. (See Figure 5.)
Discharge Process
In the reciprocating compressor, the discharge process starts when the discharge valve
first opens. As the pressure in the cylinder exceeds the pressure above the valve, the valve lifts,
allowing the compressed gas to be pushed into the discharge manifold. The screw compressor
has no valves to determine when compression is over. The location of the discharge ports
determine when compression is over. (See Figure 6.) The volume of gas remaining in the "V"
shaped trapped pocket at discharge port opening is defined as the volume at discharge, (Vd).
A radial discharge port is used on the outlet end of the slide valve and an axial port is
used on the discharge end wall. These two ports provide relief of the internal compressed gas
and allow it to be pushed into the discharge housing. Positioning of the discharge ports is very
important as this controls the amount of internal compression.
160
In the reciprocating compressor the discharge process is complete when the piston
reaches the top of the compression stroke and the discharge valve closes. The end of the
discharge process in the screw occurs as the trapped pocket is filled by the male lobe at the outlet
end wall of the compressor. (See Figure 7.) The reciprocating compressor always has a small
amount of gas (clearance volume), that is left at the top of the stroke to expand on the next
suction stroke, taking up space that could have been used to draw in more suction charge. At the
end of the discharge process in the screw, no clearance volume remains. All compressed gas is
pushed out the discharge ports. This is a significant factor that helps the screw compressor to be
able to run at much higher compression ratios than a reciprocating compressor.
Volume Ratio
In a reciprocating compressor, the discharge valves open when the pressure in the
cylinder exceeds the pressure in the discharge manifold. Because a screw compressor does not
have valves, the location of the discharge ports determine the maximum discharge pressure level
that will be achieved in the screw threads before the compressed gas is pushed into the discharge
pipe.
Volume ratio is a fundamental design characteristic of all screw compressors. The
compressor is a volume reduction device. The comparison of the volume of trapped gas at
suction (Vs) to the volume of trapped gas remaining in the compression chamber when it opens
to discharge (Vd) defines the internal volume reduction ratio of the compressor. This volume
index or "Vi" determines the internal pressure ratio of the compressor and the relationship
between them can be approximated as follows.
Vi = VsNd
where:
Vi = Volume ratio or index
Vs = Volume at suction
Vd = Volume at discharge
Pi = Vik
where:
Pi = Internal pressure ratio
k = Specific heat ratio of the gas being compressed.
Only the suction pressure and the internal volume ratio determine the internal pressure
level in the trapped pocket before opening to the discharge port. However, in all refrigeration
systems the condensing temperature determines the discharge pressure in the system, and the
evaporating temperature determines the suction pressure.
If the internal volume ratio of the compressor is too high for a given set of operating
conditions the discharge gas will be kept trapped too long and be raised above the discharge
pressure in the piping. This is called overcompression and is represented in the pressure-volume
curve in Figure 8. In this case the gas is compressed above discharge pressure and when the port
161
opening occurs, the higher pressure gas in the screw thread expands out of the compressor into
the discharge line. This takes more energy than if the compression had been stopped sooner,
when the internal pressure was equal to the system discharge pressure.
When the compressor volume ratio is too low for the system operating pressures this is
called undercompression and is represented in Figure 9. In this case the discharge port opening
occurs before the internal pressure in the compressor trapped pocket has reached the system
discharge pressure level. The higher pressure gas outside the compressor flows back into the
lower pressure pocket, raising the thread pressure immediately to the discharge pressure level.
The compressor then has to pump against this higher pressure level, rather than pump against a
gradual build up to discharge pressure level if the volume ratio had been higher, keeping the
trapped pocket closed longer.
In both cases the compressor will still function, and the same volume of gas will be
moved, but more power will be required than if the discharge ports are correctly located to match
the compressor volume ratio to what the system needs. Variable volume ratio compressor
designs are used in order to optimize discharge port location and minimize compressor power( 1).
The fact that screws have an internal volume ratio and internal compression sets them
apart fiom screw pumps or roots blowers even though their structure may look similar. A roots
blower traps gas and moves it to the discharge, but only raises pressure by pushing against an
external resistance. A roots blower always takes more power to compress gas than a screw
because it always runsundercompressed, with a built in volume ratio of 1:1.
Capacity Control
Capacity control is used in screw compressors to vary the amount of gas drawn into the
compressor. This is necessary in order to provide accurate suction temperature control as
evaporator load varies. Common capacity control methods are:
1. Slide valve controlling discharge port
2. Slide valve controlling discharge port and volume ratio
3. Slide valve not controlling discharge port
4. Plugvalves
5. Variable speed
Slide valves controlling the discharge port are a very common type of capacity control
device used in screw compressors. They are popular because they can give infinitely adjustable
control of capacity, often from 10 to 100%. This type of slide valve works by opening a
recirculation passage in the high pressure cusp which allows a portion of the trapped gas in the
"V" shaped compression chamber to be recirculated back to the suction cavity before it begins
compression. (See Figure 10.) This method offers good efficiency at part load for two reasons.
First, the recirculated gas only has to overcome a slight pressure drop in order to bypass back to
suction since the recirculation slot opens to the trapped pocket before compression has started,
avoiding a precompression loss. Second, as the slide valve moves, the radial discharge port is
also being moved. As the trapped volume at suction is decreased, the discharge port opening is
162
also delayed, thus maintaining approximately the same volume ratio at part load as at full load
for optimum part load eficiency.
A compressor designed to control capacity and volume ratio is shown in Figure 11. In
this design a movable slide stop is adjustable in the same bore as the slide valve. In this design
the discharge port position and the recirculation slot position can both be adjusted. This allows
an infinite number of adjustable positions for both valves, which provides volume ratio and
capacity adjustment from full load to approximately 40% load, with continuing capacity
adjustment down to 10% load. This arrangement offers improved energy efficiency at full and
part load.
Slide valves that do not control the discharge port come in several varieties, the most
common being a round slide valve intersecting with slots in the rotor bore. (See Figure 12.)
This type of unloader still gives good reduction of capacity but not as good a reduction in part
load power because it does not maintain the volume ratio during unloading. There can also be
some leakage across the slots in the rotor bore which can hurt performance at all loads. These
devices are lower in cost than conventional slide valves and are used in some smaller
compressors.
Plug valves are radial or axial devices which lift to open a recirculation passage from the
trapped pocket back to suction. They will typically give unloading in steps of 75, 50, and 25% of
full load as each progressive plug is opened. These devices also do not give part load volume
ratio correction like the first slide valves, thus part load efficiency is comparable to slide valves
that do not regulate the discharge port. Plug valves also tend to be lower cost and simple in
control method. (See Figure 13.)
Variable Speed
Variable speed is occasionally used as a method of capacity control with screws. This
can be provided with speed controlled engines, steam turbines, or variable frequency electric
drives. Compressor power does not decrease linearly with speed reduction but rather decreases
as a function of rotor tip speed and operating compression ratio. In general, the compressor part
load efficiency will be slightly better at low compression ratio and significantly better at high
compression ratio with reduced speed compared to slide valve control, but this is before taking
into account the losses in the driver at reduced speed.
Typical variable frequency drives will cause a loss in efficiency of around 3% at full load.
They will also cause an additional loss of motor efficiency of 2.5%. This gives a full load
efficiency loss of about 5.5%. With some drives this loss may stay at the same relative
horsepower level as the drive speed is reduced, effectively becoming a larger percentage loss at
lower speeds. If a compressor will operate at part load and at high compression ratio for many
hours per year, the cost of the drive may be justified. If a compressor operates near full load for
a high percentage of time, or operates primarily at low compression ratios, it is unlikely that there
is any advantage with a variable speed drive, or that the cost of the drive can be justified against
slide valve control. See typical curves below for differences in power consumption. (See
163
Figures 14 & 15.) These curves are calculated assuming drive and motor losses are a fixed
percentage of power not fixed kw at reduced speed.
The load profile and operating conditions that are expected in a particular application
must be considered in determining whether or not variable speed is justified as a part load
method.
Variable speed control with screws should not be implemented without consulting the
compressor manufacturer. There are lower speed limits for compressors below which bearings
may fail due to inadequate bearing lubrication. Large compressors will have lower minimum
speeds than small compressors. Many small compressors may be able to accommodate drive
speeds above the input line frequency, but separator limits, oil cooler size, and other package
limitations must be investigated. It is also possible to fill a compressor up with oil and cause
failure if the speed is reduced below an acceptable range with the compressor unloaded. Many of
these limits are not published but should be investigated early in a variable speed proposal or
study.
Oil Systems: Separation and Cooling

As pointed out, oil injection performs many useful functions in the screw compressor,
however, since oil is not desirable in other parts of the refrigerating system, oil flooded screws
bring with them the need for oil separators. One type of oil separator design is seen in Figure 16.
The mixture of discharge gas and oil leaving the compressor is directed against one head of the
oil separator where it experiences a change in direction and a large reduction in velocity. The
larger oil particles are drawn to the oil sump by gravity, with the smallest particles, or oil smoke
being carried into the coalescing filters. Here, these small particles impact on the internal fibers
in the filters and coalesce into larger oil droplets which can then be collected in the dry end sump
and returned to a low pressure area in the compressor. Besides removing oil from the gas stream,
the separator also gives the oil in the main sump time for any liquid refrigerant droplets to absorb
heat and vaporize, or entrained bubbles to rise to the surface of the oil, giving a purer oil for
reinjection in the compressor.
Since most of the heat of compression is transferred to the oil during compression, this
heat must be removed by an oil cooling system. The three most common systems are water
cooling, thermosyphon cooling, or liquid injection. While air-cooled coolers are possible, they
are not as popular as the above three systems and will not be addressed here.
Water Cooled Oil Cooling

Referring to Figure 17, the hot oil leaves the oil separator, passing through a strainer into
the oil pump. The oil is pumped through a shell and tube or plate type heat exchanger where the
heat is rejected to circulating water or glycol. The cool oil is then filtered and returned to the
compressor for reinjection. The primary disadvantages of this system involve the initial cost and
maintenance of the water or glycol system, and risks of tube rupture or plugging if proper water
condition is not maintained. It is generally preferred to leave water flow to the cooler at a fixed
164
rate and to use a temperature-regulated mixing valve on the oil side of the cooler to blend hot and
cold oil to the desired reinjection temperature. This will help to minimize water side fouling of
the tubes by maintaining a higher minimum water velocity. The use of closed loop glycol
eliminates fouling risks.
Thermosyphon Oil Cooling

Today, thermosyphon is the most common type of oil cooling in industrial plants. A
typical thermosyphon system is shown in Figures 18 and 19. The thermosyphon system is
similar to the water-cooled system except the water is replaced by refrigerant boiling on the tube
side of the oil heat exchanger. The thermosyphon system is basically a flooded evaporator, fed
by the gravity head of a tank of liquid refrigerant in a thermosyphon receiver, elevated above the
level of the heat exchanger . As hot oil enters the shell side of the heat exchanger, refrigerant
boils in the tube side with the bubbles rising in a return line back to the thermosyphon receiver.
Vapor generated by this process is vented back to the condenser inlet where it gives up heat and
returns with the system liquid. In effect, the thermosyphon oil cooler is a gravity flooded
evaporator, with its evaporating temperature set by the pressure at the condenser.
Thermosyphon systems are popular because they require virtually no maintenance and
they do not degrade compressor performance. Modest cost is required for installation, and piping
can occasionally be challenging, particularly in systems with little headroom, or old engine
rooms where the piping contractor has to get creative. This subject will be left for another
paper.
Liquid Injection Oil Cooling

Liquid injection cools the oil by direct injection of refrigerant liquid into a low pressure
screw thread, part way down the compression process as seen in Figure 20. The oil and the
discharge gas are controlled to the desired temperature by a thermal expansion valve. This valve
controls the injected liquid flow to maintain the temperature of a thermal bulb installed in the
compressor discharge line.
Some of the injected liquid expands through the expansion valve into the screw threads,
requiring additional power to compress it. All of the remaining liquid mixes with the oil and is
carried down the discharge line with the discharge gas. The injected liquid remains in the
compressor less than 0.01 second. As heat transfer takes time, much of the cooling takes place in
the discharge line and the oil separator, where the liquid has time to absorb heat and be
evaporated. Some of the liquid mixed with the oil will leak through internal compressor
clearances to the suction. Oil leaked to suction has little effect, however, the liquid will expand
into the suction as vapor, with a large increase in specific volume, reducing the amount of
suction charge that can be drawn in. This causes a reduction in capacity with liquid injection,
with larger effect at high compression ratios.
Low initial cost, and low maintenance made liquid injection popular several years ago,
however, the power and capacity penalties make it unattractive for most applications with high
165
heat of compression. Liquid injection is also not recommended for systems with even temporary
conditions of high suction, and low head, where inadequate differential across the expansion
valve causes erratic liquid feed.
Economizers and Sideloads

Since the pressure in a screw compressor is gradually increasing along the length of the
rotor, it is possible to locate holes down the rotor bore at any pressure between suction and
discharge. An economizer port is a hole located at a fixed volume ratio from suction that can be
used as a secondary suction port on the compressor. Additional gas can be drawn into the screw
thread while it is open to the economizer port, raising the pressure in the thread, with the
combined mass flow being compressed together to discharge.
In the case of a sideload, the additional gas generally comes from a second evaporator.
The refrigerant pressure at the evaporator must be higher than the economizer port pressure by a
sufficient amount to overcome pressure drop and be able to force gas into the screw thread. As
an example Figure 21 gives a comparison of how much sideload capacity would be available at
various suction pressures if the economizer port is located at 1.6 Vi.
An economizer is a special case of a sideload where a portion of the liquid from the
condenser is evaporated, with the flash gas going to the economizer port in order to subcool the
remaining condenser liquid to the saturated temperature at the port pressure. (See Figure 22).
This allows an increase in capacity because the liquid going to the main evaporator is colder, and
an increase in overall efficiency because of the thermodynamic advantage of subcooling and the
fact that the compression of vapor at the economizer port is generally very efficient.
When the compressor is spinning, there are certain sources of inefficiency that must
always be overcome; friction in the bearings and at the walls, shearing of the oil films, leakage of
a certain amount of oil from thread to thread, and friction at the shaft seal. The addition of the
economizer gas does not significantly increase any of these losses, and thus the economizer
compression is almost like it is performed in a frictionless, "loss-less" compressor.
Installation Requirements
Following a few simple guidelines will add greatly to trouble free compressor operation.
First, it is always important to follow manufacturer's recommendations, but the following
summarizes a few of the basic issues that are frequently overlooked in typical installations.
1. Install compressors on proper foundations. Level the package to eliminate stress and
grout under feet to assure full contact with the floor. Good quality anchors should be
used to attach the package to the foundation.
2. Use pipe hangers on the suction line within 2 ft of the vertical riser to avoid adding pipe
stress to the compressor housing. The discharge line should also be supported in the case
of long pipe runs.
3. During fabrication, keep dirt out of the system as much as possible. A dirty installation
will cause problems for years with plugged valves, damaged parts, and potential
166
compressor damage. Screw compressors are very rugged and forgiving, but ingestion of
dirt will eventually affect performance or longevity.
4. Use only refrigerant grade ammonia in systems, never agricultural grade. Use proper
service techniques to avoid contaminating the system with water. A properly maintained
system should not have over 80 ppm of water. Most good systems are 25-35 ppm.
5. Use the right oil for the application. Not all oils are equivalent. Very low suction
temperatures, (<-50"F),should use special low pour point oils. Do not mix different oils
in the same compressor, and make sure to store engine and hydraulic oils away from the
screw compressors. Additives in non-refrigeration oils are not compatible with
refrigeration systems.
6. Proper sizing of suction accumulators is vital to trouble free compressor installations.
While screw compressors can accept some amount of liquid without hydraulic damage, it
is possible to cause rotor galling failures in low temperature ammonia systems with
continuous wet ammonia return. Proper sizing of suction accumulators to avoid liquid
carryover can avoid expensive problems.
Maintenance
Follow manufacturer's recommended maintenance schedules as requirements vary
between products. However, some general comments can be made that should fit most
applications.
Oil analysis is an important part of any compressor maintenance program. It is most
important to watch for water content (Karl Fischer test), and viscosity change over time which
would indicate oil breakdown or dilution. Excessive water will kill compressors if allowed to
remain in the system. Metals analysis may detect some problems, but usually indicates
problems rather late in the failure cycle.
Vibration analysis is the best method of monitoring bearing condition. It is very effective
with anti-friction bearings, giving an indication of bearing deterioration in the very early stages
of failure. A good vibration monitoring program or onboard vibration monitoring employed with
anti-friction bearing compressor designs can eliminate the need for routine disassembly
inspection if properly implemented, and can greatly minimize the risk of catastrophic compressor
failure.
Troubleshooting
Despite our best efforts, compressors may sometimes have problems. It is the purpose of
thoughtful troubleshooting to pinpoint the cause of problems without expensive component
replacement or teardowns of the wrong components.
One of the most usefbl troubleshooting aids is a carefbl consideration of discharge
temperature. A discharge temperature higher or lower than predicted at operating conditions
should be investigated, as it may be indicating a potential problem. A logical troubleshooting
process should be followed to determine why the discharge temperature might be out of line.
167
Low Discharge Temperature
1. Discharge temperature could be too low because liquid refrigerant is being carried into
the suction or economizer lines. Excessive foaming in the separator or frost appearing far
down the compressor suction housing can also indicate this.
2. Low discharge temperature may indicate refrigerant condensing in the discharge line
during the off cycle, running back into the oil separator, and feeding excess liquid to the
compressor until the package warms up.
3. Low discharge temperature could indicate oil flow above design level. Is the main
injection adjusted properly, or could balance piston wear be increasing the flow of oil?
High Discharge Temperature
1. High discharge temperature can be caused by suction or economizer superheat running

above design level.
2. Restricted oil flow to the compressor will cause high discharge temperature. Check for
main injection valve, oil orifice, or filter blockage.
3. Is the volume ratio and slide valve correctly calibrated and working properly? If the
compressor is running at the incorrect volume ratio for the application, excessive
horsepower will be consumed in the compression. Excess power consumption always
shows up as excessive discharge temperature.
4. Is the compressor in the early stages of failure or losing axial rotor position due to thrust
bearing wear? Any condition that causes a loss of rotor position will lead to excessive
thread to thread leakage and higher discharge temperatures. If this is suspected, vibration
analysis is the best way to assess compressor condition. If vibration analysis is not
possible, teardown inspection may be called for if all other possibilities have been
investigated.
5. Is the oil cooling working correctly? This is easy to sort out as a possibility with rating
software for the compressors if the actual operating oil temperature is input to the rating
program. If the measured discharge temperature at an elevated oil temperature is still in
agreement with predictions, it is fairly certain the compressor is healthy but perhaps the
oil cooler should be investigated.
The Future of Screw Compressors in Refrigeration

Conditions in our industry are changing and screw compressors are also changing to meet
customer's demands. Some of the areas that we see as opportunities with today's screw
compressors are listed below.
Modern machine tools and automated inspection equipment are making it possible to
hold tighter tolerances in day to day manufacturing environments. This improves compressor
performance and consistency from one compressor to the next.
168
I
I Greater use of electronics to save energy, simplify maintenance, and anticipate problems
before they occur will reduce energy consumption, operating costs, and maintenance costs. Just
as personal computers have changed all our lives, they are also changing the engine room. I
I believe these changes are still in their infancy. Our industry is significantly behind the
automotive industry in the use of electronics but I believe it is inevitable and coming very fast.
We see the regulatory requirements and concern over leakage driving compressor designs
I to new levels. New shaft seal designs, elimination of pipe threads, smaller charge requirements,
and more welded construction are all areas that are here now or coming fast.
I Lower noise requirements in engine rooms are becoming increasingly important. Quieter
compressor and motor designs are being specified in an increasing number of applications.
It is certain that change will occur in our industry. The screw compressor has proven to
I be a strong central component in many of our systems because of its inherent efficiency, safety,
and flexibility. It is certain that continuing innovation in screw compressor design will be key in
improving our system designs for the future.
I References
I 1. Pillis, Joseph W., "Development of a Variable Volume Ratio Screw Compressor", Proc.
IIAR Ann. Mte., 1983.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
169
I
I
I
1
I
I
Figure 1: Screw Compressor Rotor Detail
I
170
I
I
I
Suct. Dlsch.
Valve Valve
r-
Of
Figure 2: Beginning of Suction

171
Suct. Disch.
Valve Va Ive
Maximum
I 1
Suction
Volume (Vs)
Trapped
Figure 3: Maximum Suction Volume Trapped
172
Suct.
Valve
Figure 4: Compression, Early Stage

173
Suct. Disch.
Figure 5: Compression, Late Stage

174
Suct. Dlsch.
Valve Valve
Beginning
Of
Discharge
Volume at
Discharge
Figure 6 : Beginning of Discharge

175
Suct. Disch.
Valve Valve
e---Clearance
Volume
End of
Discharge
All compressed
gas is expelled -
no clearance
volume
Figure 7
Figure 7: End of Discharge

176
Po Internal - - -- -- - - - - - -
Po System
Y a3
5
cn
P cn
E
a
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I
3
1
Po System
1
PD Internal
e
1
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Figure 9: Undercompression, P-V Diagram
178
a
Recircu lati on
Passage
on
179
Recirculation
Passage
ir*\ 1 Regulating
Slide Stop
Volume Ratio
Slide Valve Regulating
~ Capacity and Discharge
Figure 11: Slide Stop Regulating Volume Ratio

180
n Recirculation
Passages
Slide Valve Regulating

Plug Moves in Capacity but not Discharge
This Bore
Port Location
Figure 12: Slide Valve Regulating Capacity but not Discharge Port Location
181
\ \ \ \ \
Suction
Gas
Discharge
Gas
Valve Open Gas Valve Closed

Bypasses
No Gas Bypasses
Figure 13: Plug Valve
182
Diff in KW Usage 20 F Evap.
Slide Valve vs. Vari Speed
I I
300 .:. .. .. ..: ... ... ... ... ...
: : i : : : : : :
. "-.........
.................. :
. ..........;..........;.........+.........; .....;.........+.........
:
.I..
50 100 150 200 250 300

Tons Refrig.
Figure 14: Compressor Power, 20°F Evaporating, Slide Valve vs. Variable Speed Drive
183
I Diff in KW Usage -20 F Evap I
I Slide Valve vs. Vari Speed
............&............i.....................e. ........... ...........

I 9 .I...... ......
I............
200 m.
.
..
.
..
.
. 5............. :............
............ .................................... ............
lrl
Q)
P) I
tu
-......... .............
+VariSpd
............ ........... ........................i............
100 -......... ........... ....................................
............
&............I........................ ........... ....................................
I 9 0 1 I
50 I t t
Figure 15: Compressor Power, -20°F Evaporating, Slide Valve vs. Variable Speed
184
I
I
COMPRESSOR
-
1
T COALESCENT
FILTER
7 i
TOOIL 1
1 %+
"
FROM OIL
PUMP
PUMP
51
I
Figure 16: Oil Separator
185
1
43 (zz+G)
.............
*WATERCOOLED
MPANSIONDMCE
WAPORATOR .........................................................................................................
Figure 17: Screw Compressor with Water-cooled Oil Cooler

186
II
I
N...........T
....
r l CONDENSER
i
I
OILPUMP i
........................... MINIMUM t
HEAD 1.5m i
......................................
K-........
I
I- I EXPANSION DEVICE
I-m .........................................................................................................
I EVAPORATOR
Figure 18: Screw Compressor with Thermosyphon Oil Cooler

187
36WFT3
OIL OUT
A
OIL IN
Compressor Not Running
TO SYSTEM CONDEN
105OF OIL OUT

A
OIL IN
Com pressor Runni ng
Figure 19: Thermosyphon Oil Cooling
188
a ...........
I.....
COMPRESSOR
TXVALVE
................................................
.
....... ...................................
I CONDENSER
]nLm
u OILSEPARATOR
(3 OILPUMP (*)
....................................................... J
..........:
EXPANSION DEVICE
EVAPOFIATOR ......................................................................................................
Figure 20: Screw Compressor with Liquid Refrigerant Injection Oil Cooling
189
Sideload Capacity
as a % of suction capacity
I ISideload Temp.
?I
I
400%, t
=-1OF
-40 -20 0 20
Sat. Suct Temp. F
190
I Economizer Piping
I I
Condenser
Evaporator
1 Sideload - Secondary Evaporator Piping I

I
I 4SscmdaryEvaporator I/-
I
I
I
L&--{
I
I
Condenser
Evaporator
I
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P
-
A
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\
Figure 22: Economizer vs. Suction Load Piping Schematic

191
Variable Frequency Drives Applied
To Single Screw Compressors
Jean-Louis Picouet
Kevin Polzean
Wayne Wehber
Vilter Manufacturing LLC
Cudahy, Wisconsin
Introduction
The operating efficiency of refrigeration systems is becoming increasingly important as

energy prices continue to increase. The optimum choice or selection of a compressor for
an application should be based on the design of the compressor system and the design
attributes of the compressors being evaluated. There also is a significant increase in the
use of VFD’s (Variable Frequency Drives) on system components including compressors
to consider. The advantage of utilizing a VFD is dependent on the specific design of that
equipment. This paper explains and evaluates part load performance of single screw
compressors including when to use VFD’s on single screw compressors.
Any system that is designed will have to adjust to transient conditions, the load profile at
the customer’s site and the ambient conditions. As a result, all equipment must be
adaptable to multiple conditions. Additionally, as the cost of energy continues to
increase, system operating parameters are adjusted to optimize performance and
minimize energy costs. A significant factor which leads to this success is the ability to
operate refrigeration compressors efficiently at part load conditions.
Variable Frequency Drives Applied © Vilter 2009 1

Screw Compressors and Part Load Performance
Different screw compressor designs have different part load characteristics. The single
screw compressor is unique in that it has two sets of parallel slides independently
operating at all times. One slide is only for the capacity control. The other slide,
completely independent, is only for the control of the discharge port location, or VI
(volume ratio), which ensures that the compressor does not under-compress or over-
compress the gas at any operating conditions. Such inefficiencies result in wasted energy.
While the traditional screw compressors in the industry have a variable VI that is limited
between the volume ratios of 2.0 to 5.0, it is further limited in part load conditions. The
Vilter single screw compressor allows the compression ratio to vary between 1.2 and 7.0
under full load conditions and part load conditions. A microprocessor or PLC panel
supplied with every compressor unit, not only adjusts the capacity slide to match the
mass flow required at the operating conditions, but also automatically adjusts the volume
slide to optimize the compression efficiency and reduce energy costs.
The use of a VFD is an alternate method which allows the control of the capacity by
varying the operating speed (RPM) of the compressor. The standard approach taken with
a screw compressor is to keep the capacity slide in the full capacity position and adjust
the volume ratio slide, or discharge port location to optimize the compression efficiency.
The VFD, controlled by set points in the microprocessor or PLC panel, varies the speed
of the compressor to match the mass flow requirements to meet the cooling load demands
of the system. This approach does provide benefits or opportunities for improved
performance at operating conditions where the compressor slides may not work as
efficiently. The question to evaluate is when this would be the optimum solution.
The answer to this question is dependent on the type of compressor. All compressors are
not designed the same nor do they operate the same. In the Vilter single screw
compressor, the Parallex slides allow totally independent adjustment of the capacity slide
and volume slide to optimize the part load efficiency. In a twin screw compressor, there
is only one slide assembly which is designed with two parts which must interact or

engage with each other. The slides of the twin screw compressor become less effective as
the compressor unloads. Thus the part load characteristics of a single screw compressor
are not the same as a twin screw compressor and the application benefits of utilizing a
VFD are at different operating conditions. This paper is focused on the Vilter single
screw compressor design. Specifically, it is focused on when to utilize just the Parallex
slides for optimum part load operation, and when to utilize a VFD for part load operation.
Operating a screw compressor utilizing a VFD results in performance efficiencies which

are based on the internal leakage within the compressor commonly referred to as
cascading. For VFD capacity control operation, the capacity slide valve is located in the
100% fully loaded condition and the compressor is initially operated at full speed,
typically 3600 rpm in 60 Hz applications and 3000 rpm in 50 Hz applications. As the
machine unloads, the speed of the compressor is reduced which then reduces the mass
flow rate. As the compressor speed is reduced, the slower rotation allows more time for
the compressed gas to cascade (or leak) from the higher pressure groove to the lower
pressure groove next to it. As the speed continues to be reduced, the losses increase. As a
result, the volumetric efficiency and adiabatic efficiency of the compressor both drop
together in a fundamentally linear relationship.
Additionally, when considering a VFD for energy saving, one must also recognize that
there are electrical penalties within the VFD drive system. The VFD creates a square
electrical wave by design. This non-sinusoidal wave is supplied to the electrical motor
which drives the compressor. The typical power losses for the motor and VFD combined,
dependent on the manufacturers, is typically in the range of 3-5 %. This means that the
actual electrical current (equivalent horsepower) consumed will be at least 3% greater
than the brake horsepower transmitted through the shaft of the compressor at full speed.
This also means that when a decision is made to utilize the VFD, the savings must also
offset the electrical inefficiencies of the VFD system.

Single Screw Compressor Design for Variable Frequency Drives
The single screw compressor does not have a minimum operating speed from a design
standpoint. This results from two significant advantages of the single screw compressor
design. One is that it is both axially and radially balanced resulting in extremely low
bearing loads. The second is that the tribology of the gaterotor and screw is the perfect
couple for boundary lubrication applications where lubrication properties are
questionable. This has allowed the use of unusual lubricants and unconventional
applications.
The bearings are lightly loaded allowing the compressor to operate with lubrication
viscosities less than those required for the heavily loaded bearings in twin screw
compressor designs. While traditional applications do require close attention to a
reduction in oil viscosity due to temperature and oil dilution from the refrigerants, Vilter
has multiple applications operating with oil injection temperatures over 200°F(93°C) and
viscosities down to 5 cSt (Centistokes).
VFD Application Concerns
One concern that must be recognized when using a VFD is that at lower speeds the fan in
the motor is also operating at the same lower speed thus providing less air and cooling
over the motor windings. A motor that is applied with a VFD must be designed for
inverter duty service and may require a separate blower motor to provide consistent
cooling at all operating speeds.
Due to harmonics that are generated, and depending on physical placement of the VFD
and motor, line reactors and filters may also be required to ensure minimum interference
with facility communications or other control wiring. When there are multiple VFD’s on
the same power line, harmonic disturbances within the electrical power grid can result

and must be analyzed in advance to implement appropriate protection equipment into the
electrical system.
Similarly, all mechanical equipment has natural frequencies of subsystems and/or

components that are part of an assembly within the screw compressor unit. The center
frequencies and band widths will vary depending upon the size of the compressor, the
horsepower of the motor, the refrigerant, the operating conditions, the unit foundation
and mounting, as well as variations within the manufacturing process. Any compressor
unit that is operated utilizing a VFD must have a field test conducted to identify these
natural frequencies. The drive can then be programmed to avoid operating at these
frequencies.
Part Load Efficiency
The part load efficiency is highly dependent on the operating conditions to which the
compressor has been applied. If the system has been designed for energy savings, one
would expect that the system was designed with a low discharge pressure or condensing
pressure.
The characteristics of the unloading of the compressor can be analyzed by evaluating the
percent of full load horsepower versus the percent of full load capacity for different
compression ratios. The data that is presented was measured in a test laboratory using
ammonia as the refrigerant. The tested model, a VSM-601 compressor, is a mid sized
single screw compressor. The main screw is a 240mm diameter rotor utilizing a standard
design with 6 grooves and two mating gaterotors, each with 11 teeth. The standard
Parallex slides in the compressor have an infinitely variable VI range between 1.2 to 7,
which is equivalent to compression ratios of 1.26 to 12.0 for ammonia. While the
compressor has a maximum speed of 4800 RPM (which is actually limited by the bearing
cage material), the testing was completed at 3600 RPM utilizing external oil cooling.

When the compressor was tested, each data point was first recorded utilizing the Parallex
slides for unloading. The capacity slide position setting was systematically lowered, to
reduce the mass flow. The volume slide was automatically located in the appropriate
position to maximize efficiency. The horsepower was recorded for each data point. The
compressor was then operated with a VFD at reduced speeds to match capacity of the
tested part load conditions. While operating at reduced speeds with the VFD, the capacity
slide was fixed at the 100% loaded position. In all cases, the horsepower measured and
presented in this paper represents the compressor brake shaft horsepower measured with
a torque meter located between the electric motor drive and the compressor. Thus, these
horsepower measurements do not include any electrical losses which occur when
utilizing a VFD. All of the data was taken at a constant condensing pressure on ammonia
of 181.1 psig (12.3 barg), or a saturated condensing temperature of 95°F (35°C).
As can be noted on the graph, (Figure 1), the VFD does provide a fundamentally linear
line for a reduction in capacity and horsepower for a single screw compressor. The trend
to note, however, is where the Parallex slides are able to match the performance of the
VFD. When the compressor is operating at a compression ratio of four or less, (Please
note that CR=4 for common operating conditions of 20°F(-7°C)/95°F(35°C) for
ammonia), the single screw compressor is able to match the brake horsepower of a VFD
utilizing the Parallex slides down to approximately 50% of full capacity. At that point,
the VFD becomes slightly more efficient than the Parallex slide design, although the
graph does not account for the additional electrical losses in the VFD as previously noted.
This means that while operating a single screw compressor with Parallex slides for
unloading between 100% and 50% capacity, the slide unloading system is equivalent to a
machine utilizing a VFD for unloading.
Similarly, at a compression ratio of six (CR=6), the single screw compressor is able to
match the VFD performance down to approximately 75% of full capacity as tested
utilizing a straight mechanical brake horsepower comparison. Considering the VFD
electrical losses, at some point lower than 75%, the VFD can provide a reduction in the
horsepower or energy consumed. For the next highest compression ratio tested of ten

(CR=10), the compressor horsepower utilizing the slides matches the VFD until the
compressor is unloaded to approximately 85% of full load.
Comparison with other Screw Compressor Designs
This data was then compared with similar data published by twin screw compressor
manufacturers. The chart (Figure 2) that is shown presents two twin screw compressor
designs compared to the single screw compressor. The advantages of using a VFD are not
feasible when operating a single screw compressor at a compression ratio of four or less
(CR=4) as with the twin screw compressors. While a VFD can provide performance
improvements at higher ratios, it must be evaluated on the basis of the compressor design
and the operating/design conditions in the application.
Future Developments
The increased interest in part load efficiency due to the increase in energy costs has
opened the door for additional developments and patents utilizing the Parallex slides.
While all of the testing presented in this paper was conducted utilizing the standard single
screw compressor designs, new high mass flow slide designs for low compression ratios
have been recently applied in the field providing additional energy savings. With this
new, patent pending design, there is additional discharge port area through the capacity
slide which significantly increases the discharge flow area supporting much higher mass
flows under low compression ratio conditions. This exciting development, along with the
much higher suction pressure limitations due to the wide volume ratio range (1.2 to 7.0),
provide many more opportunities for the application of single screw compressor
technology. Additional testing and modifications are currently in process to further
improve the part load energy efficiency, which will be shared in a future paper.

Conclusion
Single screw compressors have different part load characteristics than other types of
screw compressor designs. While a VFD is required to provide a significant improvement
in part load performance of a twin screw compressor, the Parallex slides allow the Vilter
compressor to match the energy usage of a VFD at compression ratios of four (CR=4) or
less. When operating a single screw compressor unloaded at higher compression ratios
for considerable time, the benefits of utilizing a VFD may become more evident. The
electrical VFD losses, however, will increase the energy usage at full load (100%)
capacity and also be a factor at the part load conditions. When specifying the use of a
VFD, three factors must be considered: the compressor type or design, the actual
operating conditions or compression ratio, and the load profile of the application.

Figure 1
Vilter Single Screw
Ammonia Part-Load Slide Valve vs VFD (240mm)
110
100
90
80
% o f F u ll L o a d B H P
© Vilter 2009
70 4:1 CR
60 6:1 CR
10:1CR
50
13:1 CR
40 VFD
CR=4
30 Note: Does Not
Include VFD
20 Losses of
Approximately
10 3%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
% of Full Load Capacity
9
Figure 2
Screw Compressor Part-Load Performance
20F/95F Ammonia (CR = 4)
110
100
90
80
Twin Screw #1 Vilter W/ Parallex

70 Slides
© Vilter 2009
VFD Twin Screw #1

60
Twin Screw #2
Twin Screw #2
50
VFD
40
30 Note: Does Not
Vilter Single Screw
Include VFD
20 Losses of
10 Approximately 3%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
10
Ammonia Properties
°F psia psig °C bar
-100.0 1.24 -13.46 -73.3 0.09
-90.0 1.86 -12.83 -67.8 0.13
-80.0 2.74 -11.96 -62.2 0.19
-70.0 3.94 -10.76 -56.7 0.27
-60.0 5.54 -9.15 -51.1 0.38
-50.0 7.66 -7.04 -45.6 0.53
-40.0 10.40 -4.30 -40.0 0.72
-30.0 13.89 -0.81 -34.4 0.96
-28.0 14.70 0.00 -33.3 1.01
-25.0 15.96 1.27 -31.7 1.10
-20.0 18.28 3.58 -28.9 1.26
-15.0 20.86 6.16 -26.1 1.44
-10.0 23.72 9.03 -23.3 1.64
-5.0 26.90 12.20 -20.6 1.85
0.0 30.40 15.70 -17.8 2.10
5.0 34.25 19.56 -15.0 2.36
10.0 38.49 23.79 -12.2 2.65
15.0 43.13 28.43 -9.4 2.97
20.0 48.19 33.50 -6.7 3.32
25.0 53.72 39.02 -3.9 3.70
30.0 59.73 45.03 -1.1 4.12
35.0 66.26 51.56 1.7 4.57
40.0 73.32 58.63 4.4 5.06
45.0 80.96 66.27 7.2 5.58
50.0 89.21 74.51 10.0 6.15
55.0 98.08 83.39 12.8 6.76
60.0 107.63 92.93 15.6 7.42
65.0 117.87 103.17 18.3 8.13
70.0 128.85 114.15 21.1 8.88
75.0 140.59 125.89 23.9 9.69
80.0 153.13 138.43 26.7 10.56
85.0 166.51 151.81 29.4 11.48
90.0 180.76 166.06 32.2 12.46
95.0 195.91 181.21 35.0 13.51
100.0 212.01 197.31 37.8 14.62
105.0 229.09 214.39 40.6 15.80
110.0 247.19 232.49 43.3 17.04
115.0 266.34 251.64 46.1 18.36
120.0 286.60 271.90 48.9 19.76
125.0 307.98 293.28 51.7 21.23
130.0 330.54 315.84 54.4 22.79
135.0 354.32 339.62 57.2 24.43
140.0 379.36 364.66 60.0 26.16
145.0 405.70 391.00 62.8 27.97
150.0 433.38 418.68 65.6 29.88
155.0 462.45 447.75 68.3 31.88
160.0 492.95 478.25 71.1 33.99
165.0 524.94 510.24 73.9 36.19
170.0 558.45 543.75 76.7 38.50
175.0 593.53 578.83 79.4 40.92
180.0 630.24 615.54 82.2 43.45
185.0 668.63 653.93 85.0 46.10
190.0 708.74 694.04 87.8 48.87
195.0 750.64 735.94 90.6 51.75
200.0 794.38 779.68 93.3 54.77
205.0 840.03 825.33 96.1 57.92
210.0 887.64 872.94 98.9 61.20
215.0 937.28 922.58 101.7 64.62
220.0 989.03 974.33 104.4 68.19
225.0 1042.96 1028.26 107.2 71.91
230.0 1099.14 1084.44 110.0 75.78
235.0 1157.69 1142.99 112.8 79.82
240.0 1218.68 1203.98 115.6 84.03
245.0 1282.24 1267.54 118.3 88.41
250.0 1348.49 1333.79 121.1 92.98
260.0 1489.71 1475.01 126.7 102.71
USO DE SU SISTEMA DE
REFRIGERACION
INDUSTRIAL DE
AMONIACO PARA
GENERAR BOMBA DE
CALOR Y AHORRAR
ENERGIA EN SU PLANTA
TRANFORME LA ENERGIA DE SU
CONDESADOR, NO LA RECHAZE O
DESPERDICIE A LA ATMOSFERA !!
Recupere su calor de
condensación . . .
. . . No lo rechace o
Desperdicie a la
Atmosfera !!
1
BOMBA DE CALOR - DEFINICION
• Definición:
– El calor fluye en forma natural de Alta
temperat ra hacia Baja temperat
temperatura temperatura.
ra
– Sin embargo, las Bombas de Calor pueden

forzar el flujo de calor en la dirección o
sentido contrario, usando una cantidad
relativamente
l ti t pequeña
ñ ded energíaí
(electricidad o combustible fósil o Calor
Rechazado de algún proceso).
Luego, Que es una Bomba de Calor ??

100oC 212oF
De Proceso a De Ambiente
Proceso a a Proceso a Adición
elevadas T
Temperaturas
t
Temperaturas
Escalada de
De Proceso a Elevadas
Inyección
Proceso a de Calor
temperaturas
normales o Inyección de
ambientes Calor
Aumento de
Calor De Proceso a
Reclamo o Proceso a
Reciclo de Extra -
Calor Elevadas
Temperaturas
“TODOS ESTOS SON
0oC 32oF
TRANSFORMADORES DE
ENERGIA o BOMBAS DE CALOR”
2
Bomba de Calor
• Las bombas de calor pueden entonces
TRANSFERIR CALOR de:
– alguna fuente natural como aire, tierra o
agua
– O de alguna fuente artificial hecha por el
hombre sea de uso Industrial o Domestico.
• Ambas opciones pueden ser usadas en

forma Industrial o Domestica
Bomba de Calor
Para poder Transportar el calor de una
f
fuente
t natural
t l o artificial
tifi i l hacia
h i un Uso
U
o Banco de calor, se requiere el uso de
una Energía Externa para impulsar la
Bomba de Calor.
• El uso mas común de energía de

IMPULSO es la Electricidad.
3
Bombas de Calor
• Debido a que la Mayoría de las Bombas de
Calor usan menos Energía que los Sistemas
Convencionales de Calefacción o
Calentamiento ( ejemplos: Calderas), son
probablemente la tecnología mas importante
por Reducir la Emisión de Gases que
contaminan el Ambiente.
TIPOS de Bombas de Calor

• Tipos de Bomba de Calor:
– La Mayoría de las Bombas de Calor en
Operación, son de tipo:
• “COMPRESION DE VAPOR”
• o de tipo
• “CICLO DE ABSORPCION”.
• Existen otras tecnologías para Bombas

de Calor.
4
Tipos de Bombas de Calor –
Compresión de Vapor
• COMPRESION DE VAPOR:
– La Mayoría de las Bombas de Calor trabajan
con el Ciclo de Compresión de Vapor.
– Existen varias formas, ciclo abierto, semi-

abierto y ciclo cerrado.
– Para nuestro caso, veremos Ciclo Cerrado.

La Mayoría de los Ciclos Cerrados pueden
entregar temperaturas hasta de 120 °C o
248°F.
Bombas de Calor – compresión

de vapor, ciclo cerrado
• COMPRESION DE VAPOR CICLO CERRADO:
– Se hace uso de un fluido volátil, denominado fluido de trabajo o
REFRIGERANTE, que circula por los cuatro componentes del
Ciclo. Su Funcionamiento es similar al ciclo de Refrigeración. El
refrigerante absorbe el calor del evaporador, el refrigerante en
estado gaseoso cede o entrega su calor en el condensador, y allí
se hace USO de este calor.
– Los componentes principales son:

• COMPRESOR
• VALVULA DE EXPANSION
• EVAPORADOR
• CONDENSADOR
5
Bomba de Calor - Operación
• Asi como el refrigerante se vaporiza en un evaporador
por absorber el CALOR LATENTE del espacio o medio ,
de igual manera se necesita un elemento o medio que
remueva el CALOR LATENTE del refrigerante.
refrigerante
• Este elemento se conoce como fluido CONDENSADOR

EN EL CICLO DE REFRIGERACION, y al igual que el
refrigerante fue el medio para remover el calor de otro
medio en el evaporador, en el condensador se requiere
de un medio o substancia condensante para remover
este CALOR LATENTE al refrigerante.
• Este medio usara el CONDENSADOR o

INTERCAMBIADOR DE CALOR como BOMBA DE CALOR
o FUENTE DE CALOR. El medio se calentara, y al mismo
tiempo condensara el refrigerante
• para así repetir el ciclo.
PUNTO CRITICO
GAS
SOBRECALENTADO
LIQUIDO CONDENSACION
SUBENFRIADO
EXPANSION
FLASH GAS EVAPORACION H.P.
6
En un Ciclo de Refrigeración, el trabajo del
Condensador es equivalente a la suma de
Evaporación + el Trabajo de Compresión o
calor agregado y es denominado como
CALOR TOTAL DE RECHAZO!!
CONDENSACION
SOBRE-
CALENTAMIENTO
EVAPORACION
EVAPORACION
7
En un BOMBA DE CALOR , el trabajo es
equivalente a la suma deL CALOR
EXTRAIDO + el Trabajo de Compresión
CALOR EXTRAIDO
8
Bombas de Calor - Usos o Aplicaciones:
El uso mas común para Bombas de Calor son:
– Calefacción de Espacios ( Oficinas,
Industrial, Domestico))
– Calentamiento y Enfriamiento de Procesos
– Calentamiento de Agua para Procesos,
Limpieza y Esterilización, Pasteurizacion,etc
– Producción de Vapor
– Secado / Deshumidifacion / Deshidratación
– Evaporación
– Destilación
– Concentrado
Bomba de Calor – Usos -

Aplicaciones
• Para que la bomba de calor caliente un
medio o fluido
fluido, por ejemplo: agua,
agua el
compresor debe llevar el refrigerante a
presiones de descarga que correspondan en
temperatura a un proceso de Intercambio
Térmico.
• Si se desea tener agua de 50 °CC, el
refrigerante deberá estar a una temperatura
de 60°C PARA QUE SURGA UN EFECTO DE
INTERCAMBIO TERMICO
9
Bombas de Calor - Fluidos de
Trabajo
• Tradicionalmente, los medios o fluidos de
trabajo de las Bombas de Calor de tipo de
Compresión de Vapor de Ciclo Cerrado han
sido :
¾ CFC-12 De baja y Media Temperatura ( máx. 80 °C)
¾ CFC-114 De Alta Temperatura (máx. 120 °C)
¾RR-500
500 Media Temperatura (máx. 80°C)
80 C)
¾ R-502 De Baja Temperatura (máx. 55°C)
¾ HCFC-22 De Baja Temperatura (máx. 55°C)

Trabajo
• Debido al contenido de Cloro y estabilidad
Quimica los CFCs son nocivos a la capa de ozono
y calentamiento global
• Los HCFCs contiene algo de Cloro pero son mas
bajos en ODP ( deterioro de la capa de ozono) y
GWP ( calentamiento global)
• Los HFCs y Mezclas son considerados
refrigerantes alternos a los anteriores
anteriores, pero su en
aplicaciones Industriales o a tamaños industriales
es limitado debido al alta consumo energético o
bajo COP y alto mantenimiento.
10
Trabajo
• Luego, existe la forma de usar Fluidos Naturales como:
• Amoniaco (NH3 – R-717)

• Hidrocarburos
• Agua
• Algunos de ellos tiene manejo Toxico como el Amoniaco

y otros son de riesgo Inflamables o explosivos como los
Hidrocarburos, pero ninguno de los anteriores generan
p de Ozono y tiene bajo
daño a la capa j nivel de
Calentamiento Global
• Y su selección dependerá del punto Critico del

Refrigerante y Temperatura en la Bomba de Calor
PUNTO DE CRITICO PARA

REFRIGERANTES
11
Amoniaco como Fluido en
Bombas de Calor
• Amoniaco, termodinámicamente y
económicamente ($Kw.
($Kw eléctrico / Tonelada
de Refrigeración) es el refrigerante por
excelencia en la Industria de Refrigeración.
• Pero solo ha sido usado en algunas plantas

como Fluido de Bomba de Calor,
Calor ya que su
limitante, es encontrar compresores de Alta
Presión.
12
Bombas de Calor – Fuentes mas
comunes:
• Las fuentes mas comunes de CALOR
RECHAZADO o DESPERDICIADO en la
industria son:
– Torres de Enfriamiento
– Enfriadores de Fluidos ( Fluid Coolers)
– Condensados
– Y calor rechazado en Sistemas de Refrigeración.
condensación . . .
Desperdicie a la
Atmosfera !!
13
USE SU SISTEMA DE REFRIGERACION
DE AMONIACO PARA GENERAR BOMBA
DE CALOR
• La Industria al mismo tiempo requiere

grandes cantidades de agua para sus
procesos.
• Para ello, la Industria usa Bombas de Calor o
CALDERAS usando combustibles fósiles
• Estos combustibles Fósiles son cada vez
son mas inestables en precio y son mas
restringidos en su contaminación ambiental.
USE SU SISTEMA DE REFRIGERACION

DE AMONIACO PARA GENERAR BOMBA
DE CALOR
• Luego
Luego, una forma de ahorra energía y evitar un
fuente de calor que usa combustibles fósiles; y
PODERLE DAR PROVECHO A ALGO QUE YA ES
SUYO; y existe en su sistema de Refrigeración; es
usar el calor de rechazo de Condensación y darle un
uso adicional o nuevo.
• Generar una Bomba de Calor usando su Sistema de

Refrigeración de Amoniaco y así poder SUBSTITUIR
O REEMPLAZAR EL USO DE CALDERA O
COMBUSTIBLE FOSIL
14
COMO USAR SU SISTEMA DE
REFRIGERACION POR
AMONIACO
• P
Para ello,
ll usando
d ell mismo
i Amoniaco
A i de
d sus
sistema de Refrigeración, se llevara ESTE
AMONIACO a puntos de alta presión o
temperatura que servirán como fuente de
calor o BOMBA DE CALOR.
• Estos puntos de presión, serán de Alta

Presión.
15
El Reto
•De Acuerdo a la ORGANIZACION MUNDIAL DE BOMBAS DE CALOR o sus

sigla en Ingles HEATPUMP CENTRE , Amoniaco seria un excelente medio o
fluido para ser usado en las bombas de Calor siempre y cuando exista un
compresor que pueda manejar las altas presiones
El Reto
• Debido a que los sistemas
t di i
tradicionales
l ded Refrigeración
R fi ió por
Amoniaco se diseñan para
Condensaciones entre 75°F (140.59
psiA o 125.89 psiG) y 115°F (266.34
pisA o 251.64 pisG), la mayoría de los
compresores de la Industria están
diseñados para presiones máximas de
350 psiA promedio.
16
El Reto
• Un sistema convencional de Refrigeración
diseñado para 95
95°F
F o 35
35° C de
Condensación, solo podría calentar agua
hasta +/- 25°C aprox. o un poco mas por el
sobrecalentamiento de descarga del
compresor.
• P
Para temperaturas
t t mayores a 25°C,
25°C ell
sistema requeriría de trabajar con presiones
mas altas, para lograr así el intercambio
térmico requerido.
LIMITANTES DE LOS DOBLE

TORNILLOS
• Entre mas alta la presión:
¾ Mayor la relación de compresión (CR) para el
compresor
¾ Mayor el empuje axial en los rotores ( mayor
desgaste de los rodamientos y sellos mecánicos)
¾ Mayores cargas y esfuerzos sobre los rodamientos
¾ Mas grande la deflexión en los rotores (mayor roce
entre rotores y carcasa
carcasa, mayor desgaste prematuro
del compresor)
¾ Logrando así una vida útil baja o nula y su
reposición o reemplazo de la maquina en forma
seguida, casi nada rentable.
17
18
GEA-FES Systems
EMPUJE
AXIAL
19
DEFLEXION
EMPUJE
AXIAL
DEFLEXION
SOLUCION PARA BOMBAS DE

CALOR Y USO DE AMONIACO A
ALTAS PRESIONES
20
La Solución Simple
Compresor Tipo MONO
TORNILLO o ROTOR SIMPLE
•Fuerza balanceadas o anuladas alrededor
del compresor gracias a su diseño y
configuración interna
Todos los rodamientos están libres de

esfuerzos o carga, alargando axial su vida
útil, sin importar a que presión se
expongan
La Solución Simple
Compresor Tipo MONO
TORNILLO
•La construcción geométrica del Rotor de

Relación de Largo sobre Diámetro (L/D) en
forma 1:1 en todos los tamaños, evita la
deflexión del rotor.
21
22
23
La Solución Simple
Fuerzas Axiales y Radiales

Equilibradas o Anuladas
COMPRESOR MONO TORNILLO

Relación de Longitud / Diámetro (L/D) es
siempre proporcional
L/D relación 1:1 Existe en todas los modelos y
tamaños de rotores Vilter
L
No existe Deflexión del
Rotor
24
395 mm 1:1
350 mm
L
310 mm
280 mm
D
240 mm
205 mm
La Solución
Simple
Compresor Mono Tornillo
Compresores que ya
Operan a
Altas Presion
25
La Solución Simple
Recuperación de
Metano
Pacific Northwest
Succión
Descarga
17 Compresores
5 Presiones Distintas de Operación
26
USO DE SU SISTEMA DE
REFRIGERACION
INDUSTRIAL DE
AMONIACO PARA
GENERAR BOMBAS DE
CALOR Y AHORRAR
ENERGIA EN SU PLANTA
TRANFORME LA ENERGIA DE SU
CONDESADOR, NO LA RECHAZE O
DESPERDICIE A LA ATMOSFERA !!
TRANSFORMADOR DE ENERGIA o
BOMBA DE CALOR
187°F & 181 PSIG
(95°F Cond.) 107°F & 180 PSIG
Una parte del Gas Amoniaco del Sistema de

Refrigeración antes de los Condensadores se lleva
a un Eliminador de Calor para bajarlo en
Temperatura antes de la entrada del Compresor de
la Bomba de Calor
27
LADO AMONIACO – NH3
233°F &
737 PSIG
(195°F Cond.)
Una vez comprimido el Gas Amoniaco por el

Compresor de la Bomba de Calor, se lleva a un
Intercambiador de Calor para Calentar el Agua , en
este caso sale a 737 psiG de Descarga / 233 °F (111°C)
LADO AMONIACO – NH3
De
retorno al
Sistema
de
Refrigera
ción
95°F &
195°F & 181 PSIG
737 PSIG Liquido /
Una vez el gas pasa por el Intercambiador, Allí se Vapor
Calienta el agua y el agua a su vez condensa el gas Liquido
a una presión de 737 psiG / 195³F. De allí se Condensado
retorna el Amoniaco liquido de 195F al sistema de
Refrigeración y se expande a la presión del
recibidor de alta del Sistema de Refrigeración
28
LADO AGUA – H20
1.
75°F / 23.89°C
2.
2.
89°F / 31.6°C
3.
1.
3 Sale
3.
190°F / 87.7°C
El agua pasa primero por el Enfriador de Aceite
75 GPM (17.03 m³/h), del Compresor para ir subiendo en
Temperatura, luego por el Eliminador de Calor de
55°F (12.7°C) Gas y por ultimo en el Intercambiador que ya la
Agua de la Calle lleva a la temperatura deseada
29
EFICIENCIA DE LA BOMBA DE
CALOR
• Teóricamente, el CALOR TOTAL entregado
por la bomba de calor, es igual al CALOR
EXTRAIDO de la fuente Natural o Artificial,
mas la cantidad de Energía usada para
impulsar la Bomba.
• La Eficiencia de un Ciclo de Compresión de

V
Vapor, esta
t d
denominada
i d como ell
COEFICIENTE DE EFICIENCIA o sus siglas
en Ingles COEFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE =
COP.
30
CONDENSACION
h4
h1
h4 – h3
C.O.P. =
h3 – h2
h2 h3
EVAPORACION H.P.
CALOR
• Al igual que un Ciclo de Refrigeración,
d d ell COP es equivalente
donde i l t all uso ded
1kW de Energía Eléctrica para Generar
1 Kw. de Refrigeración, en la Bomba de
Calor se define como la relación del
Calor Suministrado o Generado por la
Bomba y la Cantidad de energía usada
por el Compresor (BHP o Kw.).
31
CALOR
• Al igual que un Ciclo de Refrigeración,
d d ell COP es equivalente
donde i l t all uso ded
1kW de Energía Eléctrica para Generar
1 Kw. de Refrigeración, en la Bomba de
Calor se define como la relación del
Calor Suministrado o Generado por la
Bomba (MBtu/hr y la Cantidad de
energía usada por el Compresor (BHP o
Kw.).
CALOR
• La experiencia de muchas personas, es
que en ell momento
t que la
l Bomba
B b de d
Calor presenta COP de 2.8 o 3.0 ,
GENERA el punto de equilibrio
comparado contra el COP de la Caldera
32
BOMBA DE CALOR DE
AMONIACO – VENTAJAS
• Ayuda a reducir o mejorar la Cabeza de
P ió o Presión
Presión P ió de d Condensación
C d ió del
d l
Sistema de Refrigeración al ayudar a
usar el calor rechazado que
normalmente lo asume el
Condensador. De esta manera, ahora el
condensador queda
Sobredimensionado mejorando el COP
del Sistema de Refrigeración
33
BOMBA DE CALOR DE
AMONIACO – VENTAJAS
• Ayuda a eliminar el gasto de agua en el
Condensador Evaporativo o Torre de
Enfriamiento, al bajar el calor
rechazado en el condensador habrá
menos consumo de agua.
• Dado la mejora del COP del sistema de
Refrigeración ayuda a aumentar el
Refrigeración,
Efecto Neto Refrigerante del Sistema o
Capacidad del Sistema
condensación . . .
Desperdicie a la
Atmosfera !!
34
New Approach Offers Opportunity for More Efficient Waste Heat Recovery
from Refrigeration Systems
By Randy Wynn, Industrial Sales Manager - Alabama Power
Energy costs seem to be on an endless rise. They are beginning to represent a significant portion of the
cost of production for the poultry processor. The typical poultry facility purchases some form of
petroleum product to heat water for use in processing poultry. Then in the same process the facility
purchases electricity to remove heat from the poultry being processed. The heat removed from the
poultry is typically discharged to the environment. The processor spends money to buy heat and then
spends money to reject heat to the environment. As a result of utility cost increases, processors can no
longer afford to continue this vicious circle and remain competitive.
What can be done to stop

this? The answer lies in
waste heat recovery. The
processing facilities use
refrigeration systems to
remove heat from the
poultry being processed.
Depending on the plant
size, the heat removed can
be 70,000 MMbtu/h
annually or more.
Ironically, the energy
purchased to heat water for
the process can be 50,000
MMbtu/h annually or
Schematic of ammonia heat recovery system concept (shown in shaded area). Installing an
more. That means most
ammonia heat recovery system will capture the heat rejected from the ammonia refrigeration
poultry processing facilities cycle, boost the temperature of that rejected heat, and use it to generate 145° F hot water for
are rejecting more heat the purpose of pre-feeding the existing hot water system. This will displace some (if not most)
from refrigeration than of the heating demand supplied by the boiler.
they are generating using
purchased fuel oil and
natural gas. The challenge in trying to recover the waste heat for use in hot water generation is that the
rejected heat is typically verylow-grade heat. Typically, heat is rejected from the facility at temperatures
around 95° F to 100° F. However, this low-grade heat can be recovered and raised to higher
around 95° F to 100° F. However, this low-grade heat can be recovered and raised to higher
temperatures through the use of the refrigeration cycle.
Most poultry facilities use an ammonia refrigeration system to remove heat from the process. The
refrigeration system sends liquid ammonia to the process where it removes heat from the poultry by
boiling the refrigerant at temperatures of approximately 34° F to 40° F. The ammonia vapor then is
piped back to the refrigeration plant carrying the heat from the product. The vapor is compressed to a
higher pressure through the use of a compressor. This gas then goes to a condenser (typically an
evaporative condenser) where the gas has the heat removed at temperatures of approximately 85° F to
90° F. The existing refrigeration systems raise the state of the heat from around 35° F to 90° F. Why
stop at 90° F? Why not raise the gas pressure up to a higher pressure and condense the gas at a higher
temperature and use the higher state of the waste heat to heat water to 145° F?
This can be accomplished through the use of a high pressure ammonia compressor. The gas discharged
from the existing ammonia compressors can be piped to another compressor which will raise the
ammonia gas to a pressure of approximately 450 psi. The condensing temperature of the ammonia gas
will now be 155° F. The gas can be condensed in a shell and tube or plate and frame heat exchanger
using water. This will heat the water to 145° F which can be used for process and cleaning. The cost of
the power required to run the additional compressor will be a fraction of the cost required to purchase
natural gas or fuel oil to heat the water.
Using a 275,000 birds per day processing plant as an example, a typical facility uses 350,000 gallons of
145° F water per day (process water is used at lower temperatures than 145° F, but the usage has been
converted to 145° F for these calculations). The facility also has a minimum continuous refrigeration
load of 800 tons. The heat recovery ammonia system will be sized to recover the heat from 800 tons of
refrigeration which is equal to 9,516 Mbtu/h. The compressor motor will add an additional 1,690
Mbtu/h of heat to the gas stream for a total 11,206 Mbtu/h heat output from the recovery system. This
will be capable of heating a 260 gpm water flow from 60° F to 145° F which will provide all the process
hot water needs of the facility. The following are the operating parameters of the system:
• The equivalent natural gas required for the steam boiler system with a net thermal efficiency of 75%
to heat the 350,000 gallons per day will require 92,435 MCF of natural gas.
• At a cost of $10 per MCF, the annual natural gas cost will be $920,435.
• The power requirements for the ammonia heat recovery system will be 3,034,900 kWh.
• At $0.06 per kWh, the operating cost of the heat recovery system will be $182,100 annually.
• The net annual cost savings are $783,335.
• The installed cost of the heat recovery system is estimated to be $1,200,000 with a simple payback of
1.6 years.
The heat recovery system will reduce the load on the existing evaporative condensers by 800 tons. This
will result in a reduction of water usage and fan power providing additional savings not included in the
analysis.
The use of this heat recovery system will also reduce the production of greenhouse gases from natural
gas combustion. The example given will reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 10,815,000 pounds per
gas combustion. The example given will reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 10,815,000 pounds per
year. Nitrous oxide and sulfur dioxide emissions will also be reduced which will benefit facilities in
non-attainment areas.
Waste heat recovery can provide some stability to operating cost budgets by reducing the process
facility’s dependence on fossil fuels and lower operating cost. It will also reduce environmental
pollution. Waste heat recovery is a win-win for all involved. Can poultry processors afford not to
consider an ammonia heat recovery system in their processing operations?
PoultryTech is published by the Agricultural Technology Research Program,

Food Processing Technology Division of the Georgia Tech Research Institute.
Agricultural Technology Research Program – GTRI/FPTD, Atlanta, GA 30332-0823
Phone: (404) 894-3412 • FAX: (404) 894-8051
Angela Colar - Editor - angela.colar@gtri.gatech.edu
Vilter High Temperature 155°F Heat Recovery Unit
Including the following components:
• VSSH-341 Single Screw Compressor package unit, 150 psig suction,
480 psig discharge 160ºF condensing, 650 psig design
• Oil Cooler – shell & tube, 304SS tubes seal welded to tubesheet,
all 304SS water side, 750 psig design shell side, 150 psig design
tubeside
• Motor – 400 HP, 460/3/60 ODP, 3600 RPM
• Desuperheater – shell & tube, 304SS tubes seal welded to tubesheet,
tubeside, with water bypass control valve
• Condenser – shell & tube, 304SS tubes seal welded to tubesheet,
tubeside with level controller and control valve
• Vission NEMA 4 Micro-Controller with sensors and wiring
• Steel Base with above equipment mounted, piped and painted
Heat recovery capacity:
• 95 GPM of water from 55ºF to 155ºF

• 4,790 M Btu/Hr (1360 KW) heat recovered
• 363 BHp (270 KW) shaft power required
• COP 5.0
Pay Back to heat the water – natural gas versus heat pump:
• Natural gas at $10.00 per 1000 MBtu

4,790 M Btu/Hr x $10.00 /1000 MBtu / 80% heating efficiency = $59.88 per
hour, $523,950 per year
• Electricity at $.06 kWh
363 BHp x .746 kW/Hp / 96% motor efficiency x $.06 per kWh = $16.92
per hour, $148,050 per year
• $375,900 savings per year using a heat pump versus natural gas
Vilter High Temperature 190°F Heat Recovery Unit
Including the following components:
• VSSH-341 Single Screw Compressor package unit, 181 psig suction,
737 psig discharge 195ºF condensing, 950 psig design.
• Oil Cooler – shell & tube, 304SS tubes seal welded to tubesheet,
tubeside
• Motor – 600 HP, 460/3/60 ODP, 3600 RPM
• Desuperheater – shell & tube, 304SS tubes seal welded to tubesheet,
tubeside, with water bypass control valve
• Condenser – shell & tube, 304SS tubes seal welded to tubesheet,
tubeside with level controller and control valve
• Vission NEMA 4 Micro-Controller with sensors and wiring
• Steel Base with above equipment mounted, piped and painted
Heat recovery capacity:
• 75 GPM of water from 55ºF to 190ºF

• 5,063 M Btu/Hr (1438 KW) heat recovered
• 539 BHp (402 KW) shaft power required
• COP 3.57
Pay Back to heat the water – natural gas versus heat pump:
• Natural gas at $10.00 per 1000 MBtu

5,063 M Btu/Hr x $10.00 /1000 MBtu / 80% heating efficiency = $63.28 per
hour, $553,765 per year
• Electricity at $.06 kWh
539 BHp x .746 kW/Hp / 96% motor efficiency x $.06 per kWh = $25.13
per hour, $219,895 per year
• $333,870 savings per year using a heat pump versus natural gas
VILTER MANUFACTURING LLC
PRESENTS
Single Screw Compressor

Tear Down
Shaft Seal
1
Shaft Seal History
z O i i l shaft
Original h ft seall was fixed
fi d mirror
i face
f and
d rotating
t ti carbon.
b
– Tapered Teflon seal under carbon
– Heavy spring loading
– Installation clips
z Overheated carbon
z Breakage during installation 3
Shaft Seal History
z Second generation shaft seal was fixed mirror face and rotating carbon.
– O-ring between two Teflon washers
– Lighter spring loading
– No installation clips
z Overheated carbon
z Less breakage during installation
z Added more oil passageways in cover.
4
2
Shaft Seal History
z Third generation shaft seal has fixed carbon and rotating mirror face.
– O-rings only
onl
– Easy installation
– Less dynamic forces on seal cartridge
– Light spring loading
– No installation clips
– Original mirror face had extra puller grooves
z Relatively few with overheated carbon
z Less breakage during installation 5
Shaft Seal Facts

z Due to the design the seal face needs oil for lubrication, therefore it will leak oil
– Up to 3 to 4 drops per minute
– Will leak more until broken in
– Must change if leaking refrigerant while running
z Do not touch carbon or mirror face with fingers
z Most seal failures due to mishandling on installation
z If unit is not used for a period of time, the oil pump should be started and the
compressor shaft should be rotated to prevent seal from drying out
z Restarting after long shutdown, the oil pump should be run for a period of time
before starting the unit to prevent seal damage
3
Shaft Seal Differences
VSM and VSS Shaft Seals

With Baffle Plate
4
Shaft Seal Issues
Over Heating
z Carbon face will pop when

over heated
z Causes seal to lift and leak
z Causes
– High oil temperature
– Dry start
– Wrong oil viscosity
Shaft Seal Issues

Installation
z Pi not in
Pin i groove
z Mirror face too far out
z Cracks when cover is drawn down
z Use mirror or gauge to make sure pin is fully
engaged 10
5
Shaft Seal Issues
Installation
z Scratches in carbon
z Handling issue
– Do not wipe carbon
– Use spray bottle to
lubricate
– Do not press on carbon
when installing
– Do not hit shaft
z If seal needs to be
cleaned use sterile cotton
© Vilter Manufacturing LLC 2006 balls and alcohol
11
Shaft Seal Issues Copper Plating

z Copper is deposited on
carbon
z Causes
– High Moisture +50 PPM
– Turns to acid in R22
– Eats away at copper
– Deposits it on hot
running parts
z Solution REMOVE
MOISTURE and neutralize
acid
12
6
Shaft Seal Issues
Corrosion
z Corrosion of the mirror face
z Causes
– High moisture +50 PPM
– Sweat contains acidic
compounds
– Reacts with available oxygen
and forms oxides
z Do not touch seal mirror face or
carbon
b face
f
z Remove moisture, eliminate any
acid forming compounds
13
Seal Installation
z Clean shaft and cover
z Install new lip seal in cover
z Do not clean carbon or mirror face by rubbing
with any kind of cloth
z Push on outer edge of seal cartridge to seat in
cover
z Do not touch carbon or mirror face with bare
fingers
z The seal may require at least 10 to 15 hours of
break in before oil drippage reduces.
14
7
Review of Operational Seal
Problems
z Too high of oil temperature

z Wrong
g oil
z Dry start
z Copper plating
z Dirt
z Old style baffle, seal in vacuum on booster applications
z Contamination
15
Gate Rotor
16
8
Gate Rotor
z Gate Rotor
– Support made of cast iron
– Blade made of Glass impregnated Phenolic Resin
– 11 teeth
– Damper bushing and pin to allow movement between blade
and support
– Support has 2 angular contact rolling element bearings and
1 roller bearing
z Blade is wearing component of compressor,
estimated life of over 100,000 hours
z VSS support, thrust bearings remain stationary
z VSM support, thrust bearings rotate with Support
z Damper pin is line to line fit with support, should not
be loose 17
VSM Compressor
18
9
Gate Rotor Blade
z Blade forms compression
seal with rotor
z The blade wears,
wears not main
rotor
z Lip on tip of blade and
leading edge of blade
conforms to rotor through
use of carbide deposits on
main rotor
z Washer and snap ring force
blade down on support,
bevel on snap ring must be
up
z Bushing should be checked
for wear
19
Gate Rotor Measurements Float

z The float is the amount
of movement between
the damper pin and
bushing
– If there is no play blade
will wear quickly
– Too much play will
result in damage to the
main rotor and support
– Check manual for
amount of movement
20
10
Gate Rotor Measurements Lash
z Blade Lash is the amount of play

between the blade and rotor
z The play is relative, there is no
fixed amount, once the blade
reaches operating temperatures,
wear should slow
z Measurement is taken to keep
track of clearance between blade
and rotor
z Wh taking
When t ki the
th measurement;
t
– Must measure with blade in
same place
– The machine should also be at
the same temperature
21
Gate Rotor Measurements

Thrust Bearing Wear
z The bearings on the
compressor must be
periodically checked
for wear
z The gate rotor thrust
bearings should be
checked
– Maximum float 0.002”
– Maximum force applied
200 to 300 lbs.
– Too much force will
damage the thrust
bearings
22
11
Gate Rotor Bearing
and Blade
Replacement
23
Gate Rotor Support Removal

z Turn compressor main
rotor until the leading edge
of main rotor is just above
the back of the support.
– Prevents blade from rotating
main rotor as support is
removed
– Use wooden or Teflon wedge
to hold the main rotor in
place
z Install gate rotor stabilizer

– Stabilizer prevents strain on
blade when thrust bearing
housing or spindle is
removed
24
12
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABOUT THIS VOLUME

EDITORS

Suite 300
+1-202-857-1110 (voice)
+1-202-223-4579 (fax)
-i
www.iiar.org ms
P
m
I
N
c
c
Effects of Water Contamination in Ammonia Plants
Per Skaerbaeck Nielsen
DanfossDanvalve
Hasselager, Denmark
89
Introduction
Water contamination is often an underestimated problem in industrial ammonia
refiigeration systems. The aim of this paper is to point out which problems, often seen in
industrial ammonia refrigeration systems, can be related to water contamination. Often these
water contamination related problems are the reason for a severe increase in service, maintenance
and running costs without the cause of the problems being realized and cured.
Water Contamination Sources

In industrial ammonia refrigeration plants, the water contamination sources can be
divided into two groups: the contamination sources in the construction and initial start up phase,
and the contamination sources after the plant has been put into normal operation.
Contamination sources during construction and initial start up

1. Water remaining in new vessels which are not properly drained after pressure test
2. During construction, water may enter through open piping or weld joints which are only
tacked in place when either are exposed to the elements.
3. Condensation which may occur in the piping during construction.
4. Condensation which may occur when air has been used as the medium for the final
system pressure testing.
5. Water which remains in the system as a result of inadequate evacuation procedures on
start up.
6. The use of impure ammonia when charging the system.
Water contamination during construction and initial start up, can and should be avoided
by: using pure anhydrous ammonia; assuring that all vessels, evaporators, condensers, etc. have
been properly drained before installation; applying proper procedures during construction, and
pressure testing: flushing with hot dry nitrogen and pulling sufficient vacuum at sufficiently high
ambient temperatures; and using dry clean tubes when charging, etc.
Contamination sources during normal plant operation

1. Rupture of tubes on the low-pressure side of the system, especially in chillers.
2. Improper procedures when draining oil or refrigerant from vessels or pipes below
atmosphericpressure into water-filled containers.
3. In a plant operating below atmospheric pressure or being pumped down: leaks in valve
stem packing, flexible hoses, screwed and flanged piping joints, threaded and cutting ring
connections, pump and compressor seals, and leaks in the coils of evaporator units.
91
I
4. Improper procedures when evacuating the plant or parts of the plant, while service and
maintenance work is carried out.
t
5. Complex chemical reactions in the system between the ammonia, oxygen, water, oils and
sludges can create more “free”water in the system. 1
Water contamination after the plant has been put into normal operation can be very
difficult to avoid. Very often it will happen without being noticed by the staff operating the plant
or the service and maintenance engineers. It is important to remember that unless steps are being
P
taken to drain the water, all of the water that gets into the plant will stay there, and the
concentration will rise over time. So let us have a closer look at how the water gets into a plant,
and especially how this can happen without being noticed.
1
A bottle test is a very useful example to show the strong affinity between ammonia and
water. If a bottle is turned upside down, filled with ammonia vapor from the plant and placed in 1
a bucket of water, the water will be slowly sucked into the bottle until it reaches a certain level.
The reason for this is that the ammonia vapor dissolves in the water, resulting in a decrease in
pressure, which causes water to be sucked into the bottle.
1
This little test shows why it is always necessary to use a check valve in the drain line
when evacuating the system or parts of the system into water-filled containers, while service and
maintenance work is carried out. Very often a valve, connected to a tube leading into a water-
I
filled container, is left open during this kind of work. This is to make sure the pressure in the
plant or parts of the plant will not rise while the work is done. In this situation, when no check
valve is being used, it may be possible to observe whether or not water is being sucked into the
I
system by using a clear tube.
1. When draining oil or refrigerant into water-filled containers from vessels or pipes that are
below atmospheric pressure, a check valve should also always be fitted in the drain line to
avoid possible back flow of water. It should always be ensured that the pressure is above
atmospheric, but leaks in valves or mistakes in the procedures could allow the pressure to
drop below atmosphere and create back flow of water.
I
2. In processing equipment located in areas where water is present, especially ice machines,
the pressure is normally above atmospheric. Some of this equipment performs a pump
down sequence before shut down, and in some cases the pump down is adjusted to take
P
the pressure below atmospheric in order to save time and/ or prevent compressors from
starting and stopping many times during this process. If the equipment is using seals,
1
which are only meant to seal against internal, pressure (for example U-lip sealing rings)
and not external pressure, the pump down pressure can cause water to enter the system.
Even if the sealing arrangement is meant to work in both directions, small axial
J
movements of the shaft or the sealing tips - due to the change in direction of forces
coming with the change in direction of pressure - can easily make the seals leak water
into the system.
I
3.
On this type of equipment, it is recommended to use a pressure regulator in the
suction line, to ensure the pressure in the evaporator remains above atmospheric.
Leaks on the low-pressure side of a system, where the pressure is below atmospheric,
m
will allow air with humidity to be drawn into the plant. The moisture in the air will
I
92
I
1
immediately react with the ammonia and stay there, while the air will pass through the
compressor and be trapped in the condenser and/or receiver.
When too much air has accumulated on the high-pressure side of the system, the
condensing pressure will rise, because air will take up the space in the condenser, leading
to an increase in power consumption on the compressors.
NOTE: If air is caught in the condenser/receiver, and the high pressure receiver
runs out of liquid, the accumulated air containing oxygen (0,)will pass through the
compressors many times and may react with the oil. The same could happen if a high
pressure float valve system with a small high pressure gas bypass is used. If this happens,
it will speed,upthe oxidation of the oil and other chemical reactions in the system
considerably.
4. Air accumulated on the high-pressure side can be purged from the system manually or by
means of an automatic air purger, but the moisture from the air remains, and accumulates
over time. The amount of water which enters into a system this way will depend on the
amount of air drawn into the system, and the water content of the air.
If air is purged manually on demand, the operating personnel should get an idea of
the amount of air drawn into the system, and should be alerted by increases in the need
for purging. However, if an automatic air purger is used, leaks in areas which operate
below atmospheric pressure can stay unnoticed for years, because no high-head pressure
problem is noticed (as long as the capacity of the air purger can handle the load.) For this
reason it is strongly recommended to always use a counter device on an automatic air
purger, with alarms andor warnings for increasing purging activity if possible. A
logbook for the air purger activity is also recommended, where running conditions and
plant activity is noted. This could be an important tool for locating leaks in the part of the
system operating below atmospheric.
To try to get an idea of how much water could accumulate unnoticed in a system
because of air drawn into the system, a “worst case” situation is imagined with a very
leaky plant:
Information given by an air purger manufacturer indicates a maximum air purging
capacity of approximately. 10 liters air/min (at atmospheric pressure). Air purger
manufacturersalso recommend mounting two air purgers on large systems to handle
“peak load” situations. Based on this information, the following theoretical “worst case”
calculation is made:
An automatic air purger purges continually at 5 liters airlmin. The ambient
temperature where the leaks are located is 20°C and the humidity of the air is 80% on
average. The air entering the plant will then contain 13.84 grams of water/ 1000 liters air
(table values).
This means:
5 liters x 1/1000 liters x 13.84 g x 60 min = 4.15 p H,O each hour or:
4.15 g / hour x 24 hours x 365 days = 36.35 kp H,O each vear
After 10 years we have: 363.5 kg H,O in the plant
If the (small amount of) water on the high-pressure side is ignored, it means a
plant, which on the low pressure side has approximately 363.5 1 / 10 xl00 = 3635 kg
93
refrigerant which is equal to approximately V0.6~3635= 6058 liters refrigerant, will have
approximately 10 YOwater in the ammonia on the low-pressure side.
If approximately 18 17.5 kg (equal to approximately 3029 liters) ammonia were on
the low-pressure side, we would have approximately 20% water in the ammonia on the
low-pressure side.
5. Major contamination can occur within a very short time due to rupture of a tube or tubes
in the system. Operating personnel are alerted to incidents of this type because of the
upset to normal operating conditions which follows and/or the resulting release of
ammonia. After such an incident, it is very important that the water Contamination be
detected, and the necessary steps taken to drain the water from the system.
How to Detect Water Contamination

How the water contamination is detected, and what can be done to drain the water from
the plant, is very well described in IIAR Bulletin 108; refer to this Bulletin for further
information on these subjects.
It is recommended to make water contamination measurements on ammonia samples as a
normal procedure during the periodic service and maintenance work on the plant.
When a sample of ammonia is taken and the water content is detected, it is very important
to understand what is being measured. It will be the percentage of water contamination at a
given place in the plant, at a given time. When evaluating the results it will be necessary to take
into consideration the plant design and the exact running conditions at the time the sample was
taken.
An ammonia plant with water-contaminated ammonia is like a big distillery where, due to
the large difference in vapour pressure between water and ammonia, the water will concentrate
wherever there is evaporation. It is important to know how much of the total charge of the
system is actually on the low-pressure side of the system, when the sample for water detection
was taken. In many pump circulation systems more than one third of the total charge can be
stored in the high-pressure receiver in some running conditions. The same plant could have
situations where the high-pressure receiver runs nearly empty. As almost all the water will stay
on the low-pressure side, this will have a big influence on the water percentage measured in the
low-pressure receiver and evaporators.
Plant Design Influence on Water Contamination Effects

Some systems have evaporators with hot gas defrost, where the liquid during defrost is
drained to the high-pressure side of the system. These systems will drain the water from the
evaporators to the high-pressure side of the system every time they defrost. This also means that
quite a lot of water will be found in the high-pressure receiver in these plants. These types of
plants are especially sensitive to water contamination when compressors with liquid injection
systems for oil cooling or refr-igerant intercoolers are used. The injection systems will feed the
contaminated ammonia directly into the compressors, and once in contact with the compressor
94
oil, it will quickly break down the oil and create large amounts of sludge. Incidents of this kind
have been seen where an extension to an old, very polluted plant was made this way. Two-stage
reciprocating compressors with liquid injection were used on the extension, and more ammonia
was added to the old polluted part of the system. After a while, the reciprocating compressors
could only run three days at a time on new mineral oil before the oil got so soapy that it clogged
the oil filters and the compressors lost oil pressure.
Plants with water contamination and inefficient liquid separators can have water flowing
back to the compressors, leading to oil and corrosion problems. Large amounts of free water
have often been found “trapped”in valves or low points in the “dry” suction lines on such
systems.
In flooded systems with liquid separators at the evaporator and pump down in connection
with water or electric defrost, the water will always stay in the evaporator. In such a system the
water content in these evaporators can reach very high levels, while the water content in the rest
of the plant is much lower. One advantage of this type of system is the possibility of pumping
down the evaporators and then draining water from them. In this way, the evaporators can be
used as water rectifiers, and the plant can be kept free from water.
On dry expansion systems, the water will normally be “dropped”by the evaporating
ammonia and driven as free water with the high velocity superheated suction gas back towards
the compressors. If a suction accumulator is mounted as normally recommended, the water will
settle there. If no suction accumulator is used, the water will go to the compressors, where some
of it will mix with the oil. Part of the water will pass on to the condenser, to the high-pressure
receiver, on to the expansion valve and back to the evaporator. Water contaminated ammonia
liquid will increase the wear in all kinds of expansion devices due to increased cavitation, erosion
and corrosion in the orifice area, as described later in this paper.
If water gets the opportunity to accumulate in evaporators using thermostatic expansion
valves to regulate superheat, we will face another problem. It could be because of low suction
gas velocities, part-load operation, or a flooded evaporator with an expansion valve used as
liquid level regulator. The problem will be due to the change in saturation temperature for the
ammonia water mixture (this change is described later in this paper). The thermostatic expansion
valve will see this change as superheat, and it will not be able to control the evaporator correctly.
The same problem will occur in both mechanical and electronic thermostatic expansion valve
systems. In some situations, this could lead to overfeeding of the evaporator and possible liquid
carryover to the suction line even with a perfectly working thermostatic expansion valve system.
If these relations are not known, valve systems often get the blame for these water-related system
problems.
How Much Water Is Actually Found in Plants

A large investigation of the water content in more than one hundred ammonia plants has
been carried out in Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
The method used to determine the water content in the ammonia was a simplified version
of the usual technique. When the sample is taken at evaporating temperatures higher than -33 “C,
95
this method shows a slightly exaggerated water content because the flash gas created when
taking the sample is not taken into consideration.
Water contents between 2% and 6% are seen very often. Water contents of 10.8%, 18.5%,
24% and 26% were measured, but these measurements could be exaggerated, as they were taken
at temperatures over -33 "C (-27.4"F) and no corrections for flash gas were made.
As described earlier, the measured water content will depend on where the sample was
taken, the design of the plant, and the running condition when the sample was taken. Other test
samples taken on the same plants in different running conditions could show different results.
On 64 of the plants with water contamination, water rectifiers were installed. From the
data, it can be concluded:
1. Many plants have a much higher water content than the normally recommended
maximum of 0.3%.
2. Some of these have such contamination that it must be expected to cause serious
problems with capacity, COP value, and chemical reactions in the systems.
3. None of the plants involved in the investigation had any knowledge of water
contamination in the system, or which problems could be related to water contamination.
4. Water contamination checks should be carried out regularly in connection with service
and maintenance work.
Effects of Water Contamination on Plant Capacity and

Power Consumption
When ammonia is contaminated by water, the thermodynamic and physical properties of
the solution change. A lower pressure in the evaporator is needed to maintain the same
temperature. There will be a penalty for the system in terms of reduced capacity and higher
power consumption in the compressors.
Example: If a 500 kW (142 TR) chiller with plate heat exchanger (as evaporator) is
designed to work at 3 bar abs. (43.5 psia) the evaporating temperature with 100% pure ammonia
will be -9.23 "C (15.39"F). Chiller units with plate heat exchangers often have a high capacity
with a very small ammonia charge, and a temperature difference between the evaporating
temperature and the chilled liquid of 3 to 4°C (5.40 to 7.20"F).
If we are talking about a plate heat exchanger working as a flooded evaporator, the charge
in the evaporator and liquid separator could be approximately 22 kg on a 500 kW (142 TR) unit.
2.2 kg of water in this system means 10% water contamination and 4.4 kg of water would be
20% water contamination.
A unit with dry expansion could have a charge of 5 liters in the evaporator on a 500 kW
(142 TR) unit. In this case, 0.5 kg of water means 10% water contamination, and 1 kg water
means 20% water contamination. With 10% water in the evaporator, the evaporating
temperature at the suction pressure, 3 bar abs (43.5 psia) will be -6.69"C (19.96"F). With 20%
water in the evaporator, the evaporating temperature at 3 bar abs will be -3.16"C (26.3 1 OF).
Such a chiller unit will no longer be able to keep the capacity or the temperatures it was
designed for, and very often a service engineer is called to solve the problem. If the engineer is
96
not familiar with the saturation temperature induced by the water, he will easily draw the
conclusion that the unit is operating with high superheat on the evaporator. In the search for
reasons for what seems to be superheat, many things can be anticipated as the cause of the
problem: valves, filters, heat transfer in the evaporator, temperature and pressure sensors, etc. In
these situations, it is very important to understand that what can be read on a pressure gauge with
a temperature scale on it is not necessarily true for the refrigerant any more.
Note! On systems controlled by thermostatic expansion valves, water contamination
could be the cause for liquid flow to the suction line, as the expansion valve will try to
compensate for what it will see as an increase in superheat by injecting more and more liquid.
The penalty in terms of power consumption and capacity will be worse at low evaporating
temperatures, as the COP value of the compressors will be affected more at low suction
pressures. In order to get an idea of how bad the situation can get, a worst case calculation
example is made.
If a plant is running at an evaporating temperature of -42°C (-43.6"F) and a condensing
temperature of 30°C (86 OF) with screw compressors, what will happen to power consumption
and capacity if we assume a water contamination in the evaporators of 10% and a worst case of
20%?
Computer calculations on a screw compressor give the following results: (Note: the lower
pressures which the compressor has to maintain in order to keep the evaporating temperature
constant were put into the computer calculations on screw compressor performance as a suction
line pressure drop. The thermodynamic and physical properties are taken from ref. 5.)
100% NH, and 0% H,O in the evaporators:

ET = -42°C (-43.6"F)
EP = 0.64 bar (abs) (9.28 psia)
CT= 30°C (86°F)
Cooling capacity: 361.7kW (102.7 TR)
Power consumption: 252.6 kW
COP = 1.43

ET = -42 "C (-43.6"F)
EP = 0.59 bar (abs) (8.56 psia)
CT= 30°C (86°F)
Cooling capacity: 327.1 kW (92.9 TR)
COP = 1.32

ET = -42°C (-43.6"F)
EP = 0.5 1 bar (abs) (7.40 psia)
CT=3O0C (86°F)
Cooling capacity: 278.8 kW (79.2 TR)
97
COP = 1.16
As water contamination progresses, the compressor loses both capacity and COP value.
If it is assumed that a plant is running with these screw compressors 10 hours a day, 300 days a
year under these running conditions, how many extra kWh do we have to use to produce the
same refrigeration effect?
By using the definition of COP: COP = (refrigeration effect)/(power consumption)
At 100%NH, and O%H20in the evaporators:

For every 1000 kW(28.4 TR) cooling capacity power consumption is:
1 000/1.43 = 699.3 kW
10~300~699.3 = 2.097.900 kWh each year
At 90% NH3 and 10%H20 in the evaporators

For every 1000 kW (28.4 TR) cooling capacity power consumption is:
1000/1.32 = 757.6 kW
10~300~757.6 = 2.272.800 kWh
Additional power consumption:

2,272,800 - 2,097,900 = 174.900 kWh / year per 1000 kW (284 TR)
= $8.750 at $O.OS/kWh
At 80%NH3and 20%H 2 0 in the evaporators:

For every 1000 kW (284 TR) cooling capacity power consumption is:
1000/1.16 = 862.1 kW
10 x 300 x 862.1 = 2.586.300 kWh
Additional power consumption:

-
2,586,300 2,097,900 = 488.400 kwh / vear per 1000 kW (284 TR)
= $24.420 at $O.OS/kWh
Apart from the additional cost, this is also an environmental issue, as the increase in
power consumption means more pollution.
Water Related Chemical Reactions

Pure anhydrous ammonia is not very chemically reactive in a refrigeration plant, but
water contaminated ammonia is very chemically reactive. Actually, pure ammonia without any
water at all will not attack copper, but as soon as a little bit of water is dissolved in the ammonia,
it will form the very reactive “ammoniumhydroxide”:
98
NH, +H,O * pH,' + OH-]
NH4+is an ammonium ion and O H is a hydroxide ion. A solution which contains ions
can carry electrical current and create a galvanic cell with metals which have different electric
potentials. This gives the possibility of galvanic corrosion in valves, pipes, etc., especially in
areas of the plant where oil is not present.
Ions are chemically reactive and can lead to chemical reactions in the plant. Some of the
chemical reactions will create more free water in the system.
Reactions with acid from oxidation of oil:
AMMONIA+ ACID * AMMONIUM CARBOXYLATE * AMIDE + WATER
NH, + RCOOH * RCOONH, * RCONH, +H,O
RCOOH is an acid created by oxidation of oil. RCONH, is an amide which can be a
solid sludge and can settle anywhere in the system.
Atmospheric air always contains some CO,.
Reactions with air containing carbon dioxide include:
AMMONIA + CARBON DIOXIDE * AMMONIUM CARBAMATE * UREA+WATER
2NH3 + CO, * H,NCOONH, * H,NCONH, + H,O
HNCOONH, is ammonium carbamate, a substance corrosive to steel, and H,NCONH, is
urea (a sludge.)
What happens to the oil in the system?

The oil is broken down in the plant under the influence of water and oxygen in three
ways: oxidation, nitrition and the resulting formation of nitro compounds. Oxidation is:
WATER + OXYGEN + OIL * PRECURSORS + WEAK ORGANIC ACIDS
Precursors are very complex compounds which color the oil. These processes are
amplified by heat and catalysts (metals). Nitriding is:
WATER + NITROGEN + OIL * PRECURSORS + WEAK ORGANIC ACIDS
These processes are also amplified by heat and catalysts (metals).
Nitro compounds are:
ORGANIC ACIDS + AMMONIA * NITRO COMPOUNDS (SLUDGES, SOAPS)
Nitro compounds will only be formed if oxidation or nitriding have taken place. The
created nitro compounds have a catalytic effect, speeding up the process of creating more nitro
99
compounds. The nitro compounds are not soluble in oil but are partly soluble in ammonia and
can escape through the oil separators into the plant. Due to this, the sludge from the nitro
compounds will be found in the compressors, valves, pipes, vessels, filters, and anywhere it can
settle throughout the system and cause operating problems. The dissolved nitro compounds give
the ammonia a yellowhrown color.
Water Related Problems on Valves and Controls

Rust and sludge
The aggressive environment created by the contaminated ammonia can lead to the
formation of rust in valves and pipes. The rust, together with the sludge, can cause problems with
valves, controls and regulating devices. The filters get clogged, and valves get stuck in the dirt
and rust, unable to operate correctly. The particulate matter in the refrigerant from the rust and
sludge will increase wearing problems due to erosion in orifices and expansion valves.
Fretting corrosion
Definition: Fretting is a wear phenomenon occurring between two surfaces having

oscillatory relative motion of small amplitude. Fretting corrosion is a type of fretting in which
chemical reactions predominates. It is characterized by the removal of particles and subsequent
formation of oxides, which often are abrasive and increase wear. Fretting corrosion can involve
products of other chemical reactions, which may not be abrasive.
Many places where valves and controls are located will be exposed to vibrations andor
pulsations. Those mounted on compressors or in connection with other machines will be
exposed to vibrations. Valves and controls in many lines will be exposed to pressure pulsations,
especially in the pipelines close to the compressors. These vibrations or pulsations can cause
many small oscillatory movements between parts. These small movements can lead to fatigue in
the surface of the metal and as a result small particles break off. When this happens in a very
corrosive environment, the particles are attacked by corrosion and grow larger and more
abrasive. This will increase the friction and create more wear. Due to this, valves and controls
can become “stuck” and unable to control the plant correctly. The chemical reactions involved
are:
2Fe+02 * 2Fe0 black
3Fe0 + !/z O2 * Fe304 blue / black
2Fe0, + % O2 * 3Fe203 red / brown, abrasive leads to wear
Fe203+ H20 * FeOOH red / brown (rust)
100
If fretting corrosion takes place, increased friction and severe wear can happen very
quickly. To avoid fretting corrosion it is necessary to eliminate the vibrations/pulsationsor the
corrosive environment. Since the pulsations and vibrations will always be present in a plant the
best protection is to try and avoid a corrosive environment.
Cavitation, Erosion and Corrosion

On plants with significant water contamination, an increase in wear problems in all kinds
of expansion devices will be noticed. The exact reason for this is not known, but below are some
possibilities:
1. More erosion in the orifice due to more particulate matter carried by the liquid.
2. The combination of corrosion with the erosion and eventually cavitation in the orifice
area.
3. The collapse of water vapor from the flash gas into very small water drops with a kind of
cavitation effect on the orifice area.
None of these ideas has been proven, but the explanation is probably a combination of the
above. Problems of this kind will be seen especially in systems where the water reaches the
high-pressure receiver during hot gas defrost or because of liquid carryover from the low-
pressure receivers, as previously mentioned.
How Can the Water Be Taken out of the System,

and Is It Economical to Do So?
The water can be removed from the plant by emptying the entire system, drying it with
nitrogen, pulling vacuum, and recharging with pure anhydrous ammonia. This procedure can be
recommended for small systems with a limited charge such as liquid chiller units with plate heat
exchangers. The cost of recharging these systems and the time involved to do the job is limited.
An evaporator can be used as a water rectifier and drained regularly. This can only be
done if there is an evaporator suitable for this function in the system. Suitable evaporators could
be:
1. Evaporators with gravity circulation and liquid separators in connection with electric
defrost or water defrost.
2. A flooded chiller with liquid separator.
3. Intermediate coolers able to be pumped down.
Applying a water rectifier to the system is often the only way to clean a pump circulation
system. With a water rectifier, a “batch” of liquid is taken from the low-pressure receivers andor
the intermediate coolers and carefully evaporated, making sure no water drops return with the
vapour. This is done many times until the water concentration in the rectifier is very high. A
pump down is performed, and the rectifier vessel is emptied. Experience shows it is very
important that the rectifier is controlled, to avoid heavy boiling. This procedure is described in
IIAR Bulletin 108, so the issue will not be treated further in this paper.
101
The following should be taken into consideration when deciding whether or not to
remove the water from the system:
1. What is the cost of water Contamination in terms of lost capacity and extra power
consumption?
2. How much of the service and maintenance cost could be related to water contamination?
3. Are the risks of system breakdown increased because of the water problem, and what will
be the consequences?
4. What is the cost of changing the charge (including the cost of system downtime)?
5. Can an existing evaporator be used as a water rectifier?
6. What is the cost of having a water rectifier built into the system?
7. Can a water rectifier be rented for cleaning the system economically?
For very small ammonia plants, we have investigated the possibility of making ammonia-
drying filters. These investigations have not led to the development of any efficient working
filter cores. The filter cores on the market at the moment have also been tested and shown not to
work well. Further research and development on this has been stopped at the moment for the
following reasons: Very small ammonia systems (0 to 10 kg charge) can be manufactured and
charged so that they are very dry. If such a system had a drying filter, a trained service man
would be needed for changing the filter core in connection with normal maintenance. The price
-
for filter cores - if they can be developed will probably be somewhat more than the cost of
changing the charge on the system with pure dry ammonia. Another problem is finding evidence
of a "wet" system, and determining when to change a filter core.
Conclusion
Ammonia plants very often contain much more water than recommended. The
relationship between water contamination and related problems seen in systems is normally not
very well known among service and maintenance staff.
Plant design plays an important role in determining which effect water-related problems
will have on a system. Improper procedures during service and maintenance work are an
important source of water contamination.
Air purgers can solve the high-pressure problems due to incoming air from leaks, but they
let leak problems go unnoticed for years and so hide an increasing water contamination problem.
Water contamination detection should be carried out as a part of normal service and
maintenance procedures, taking into consideration the actual plant design and running
conditions. Installation of water rectifiers or other methods of water draining from a
contaminated system can prove to be a very attractive investment.
102
References:
1. Trelle Pedersen, J.: The Refrigerant Ammonia, Internal compendium, LA 23 18 1,
Ddoss.
2. Finn Broesby-Olsen, “ChemicalReactions in Ammonia, Carbon Dioxide and
Hydrocarbon Systems,”Proc. IIR Conf ‘Ypplicationsfor Natural Refrigerants ‘96,”1996
3. Sabroe Match Master computation program
4. “Water Contamination in Ammonia Refrigeration Systems,”International Institute of
Ammonia Refrigeration Bulletin 108.
5. Tables and diagrams
- for the refrigeration industrv: NH,&O Thermodvnamicand
phvsical properties, International Institute of Refrigeration.
103
CORPORATION
PRESENTA
VILTER 717 OIL
ACEITE REFINADOS POR PROCESO

“SOLVENT” - DEBILIDADES
6 Pobre Lubricacion
6 Alto Contenido de Carbono
6 Bajo Punto o Indice de Viscosidad
6 Alta Volatilidad
6 Alto grado de Oxidacion
6 Alto Contenido de Aromaticos
6 Debe ser cambiado en forma Frecuente
6 Alta Solubilidad con Amoniaco
6 Altos Costos de Mantenimiento
6 1
ACEITE REFINADOS POR PROCESO
“SOLVENT” - FORTALEZAS
6 Bajo Contenido de Ceras

6 Punto Bajo Natural de Fluidez
6 Bajo Costo Inicial o de Inversion
En respuesta a la debilidades mas

comunes de los aceites estandares
de la Industria de Refrigeracion,
Refrigeracion,
Vilter decidio desarrollar una aceite
de Alto Grado de Viscosidad,
Viscosidad, por el
proceso de “HYDROCRACKED” ,
con Doble Proceso p para una aceite
de Base Mineral para Amoniaco
VILTER 717 OIL
6 2
VILTER 717 OIL -
DEBILIDADES
6 No muy conocido en Aplicaciones de
Amoniaco por muchos Usuarios
6 Solo por aquellos que compran

Compresores Marca Vilter
VILTER 717 OIL - FORTALEZAS

6 Excellente Lubricacion
6 Baja Volatilidad
6 Poco Arrastre o Perdida del Separador
6 No Formaciones de Carbon or Similares
6 Limpia Lodos o similares que se forma en el sistema
6 Intervalo de Cambio en forma esporadica y no seguida
6 Bajo Punto de Fluidez
6 Buena Estabilidad al desgaste o uso
6 Mejora
j el Sello de Compresion
p en componentes
p
6 Alto Punto de Anilinos
6 Compatible con Elastomeros
6 3
METAS de los Lubricantes
6 El Aceite debe permanecer en el compresor
– Baja Solubilidad
– Bajo O no arrastre - No Carry-over
– No formacion de Lodos
6 Buen Lubricante para el compresor debe:
– Reducir el Desgaste
– Mantener el sistema limpio
– Ser Compatible con otros tipos de aceites y Elastomeros
– Reducir el frecuente cambio de el
Aceite VILTER 717

cumple con
6 VILTER 717 OIL Superiorida de Fluidez de Base
6 Hi h Viscosity
High Vi it Index
I d
6 Superior Temperature Stability
6 Low Carry-over
6 Better Shear Stability
6 S l Between
Seals B t Gate
G t and
d Main
M i Rotors
R t
6 Cleaner Systems
6 4
PROCESO DE REFRINACION DE ACEITE CRUDO
REFINACION SOLVENTE
Extracccion
Destilacion
Atmosferica y de Vacio
Des-Cerado
Torre de E
Acabado de
Unidad Recuperadora Base
primaria
REFINACION PATENTADA DE HydroCracked

Destilacion Destilacion
Atmosferica y de Atmosferica y de
Hydrocrackiing
Hydrocracking
V i
Vacio V i
Vacio De waxing
De-waxing
2nd Stage
e
1st Stage
Acabad
o de
Base
primaria
VILTER 717 OIL

Meeting The Needs
6 VILTER 717 OIL Base Fluid Superiority
6 High Viscosity Index
6 Estabilidad Superior a Temperaturas
6 Low Carry-over
y
6 Seals Between Gate and Main Rotors
6 Cleaner Systems
6 5
Viscosity/Temperature
Relationship
PAO
VILTER 717 OIL
Solvent Refined
Alkyl Benzene
TEMPERATURE
VILTER 717 OIL

Meeting The Needs
6 Hi h Viscosity
High Vi it Index
I d
6 Bajo Arrastre o Carry Over
6 Seals Between Gate and Main Rotors
6 Cleaner Systems
6 6
Volatilidad de Varios
ISO 68
% Weight Loss
2.0
1.5
1.0
05
0.5
0.0
VILTER 717 OIL PARAFFINIC NAPHTHENIC
Loss (22 Hrs. @ 100°C)
Solubilidad conAmmonia
ISO 68
VILTER 717 OIL 1.9
70°F
PAO 2.1
SR PARAFFINIC 2.6
NAPHTHENIC 2
VILTER 717 OIL 2.1

15°F
PAO 2.2
11
SR PARAFFINIC 2.78
NAPHTHENIC 2.9
1.7 2 2.3 2.6 2.9

Percent Solubility
6 7
VILTER 717 OIL
Cumple con
6 High Viscosity Index
6 Low Carry-over
6 Mejor Estabilidad a desgaste
6 Mejor Sello de Compresion
6 Sistemas mas Limpios
VILTER 717 OIL

Cumple Con
6 Mejor Estabilidad a la Oxidacion
6 Mantener la Viscosity po Largos Periodos
6 Separates from Water
6 Oil Change Interval, 20,000 hrs. vs. 2,000 hrs.
for Solvent Refined oils
6 Lower Pour Point -39°C (-38°F) Permits Easier
Removal of Oil
6 8
VILTER 717 OIL
Cumple Con
6 Better Oxidative Stability
6 Maintains Viscosity for Longer Period of Time
6 Separacion del Agua Water
6 Intervalos de , 20,000 hrs. vs. 2,000 hrs.
comparado con los aceites de Refinacion
Solvente
6 Bajo Punto de Fluidez = -39°C (-38°F)
Demulsibilidad y Emulsion
Caracteristicas, ASTM D-
D-
1401
Viscosity, cSt @ 40°C 100 H. Neutral Polars, %
SR Naphthenic 29-22-29(60) 0.6 - 2.0
SR Paraffinic (1) 35-30-15(30) 0.5 - 0.8
SR Paraffinic (2) 41-38-1(10) 0.1 - 0.3
VILTER 717 OIL 40-40-0(5) Nil
6 9
Resistencia a la Oxidacion
RBOT -- ASTM DD--2722 Results (Min.)
Viscosity @ 40°C
0°C 22 cSt
S 100 cSt
S 460
60 cSt
S % Aromatics
SR Naphthenic * 60 45 30-45
SR Paraffinic 200-300 200-300 300-350 9-20
VILTER 717 OIL 375 435 435 0.5
(0.5% DBPC Present)

* 10 cSt @ 40°C Naphthenic --- 95 Minutes
Influencia en la Pelicula de
% Heat Transfer w/ Oil Film
Aceite
100 0.0 MILS
80 0.75
60 1.50
2.25
40 3.20
4.00
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Heat Transfer Coefficient w/o Oil Film
BTU/HR/SQ.FT/F
6 10
Gracias
6 11
REFRIGERATION TERMINOLOGY
Punto de Anilina F - ANILINE POINT F
Es la temperatura minima a la cual una muestra de aceite y de anilina (tinta

aromática) son completamente solubles. El aparato caliente la anilina y la muestra
hasta que sean miscibles (que se mezclen). Luego, se enfría hasta que se
separen. La temperatura de separación es el punto de anilina.
Bajos puntos de anilina eran una forma de considerar la tendencia del aceite para
ensanchar o inflar los anillos y sellos. Altos puntos de anilina eran la forma de
considerar la tendencia para No Inflamar o ensanchar los sellos y anillos. Todo
depende del fabricante del aceite
AROMATICOS %
Los aromáticos son las partes Inestables del aceite. Aceites naftafinicos tienen
alto porcentaje de aromáticos que los parafínicos. Los porcentajes de aromáticos
presentes están asociados con el punto de Anilina.
COLOR
L 1.0 significa una valor menor que 1. Los números son determinados por
comparación con una tabla. Un número de 5 indica un aceite muy oscuro.
% de Carbo CONRADSON - CONRADSON CARBON %
Es la medición del carbón a presión atmosférica después de que un aceite se ha

evaporado y quemado en parte. Muy útil para lubricantes de refrigeración.
Cordón desnudo de Cobre - COPPER STRIP
Medición de cordón desnudo de cobre expuesto a aceite a una temperatura de 50

C (122 F) por tres (3) horas. Este test es importante en refrigeración por la
importancia de residuos de cobre en el sistema o aceite.
COEFICIENTE DIELECTRICO KV- DIELECTRIC STRENGTH KV
Una medida de propiedades eléctricas y aislamiento para aceites. El test

determina la riqueza de sequedad en un aceite. Valores por encima de 25KV son
considerados satisfactorios.
Punto de Fuego - FIRE COC, F
Este Test permite saber para cuando el test se mantiene en alta temperatura, el
aceite sigue quemando la probeta o taza.
Punto de Chispa - FLASH COC, F
Mide la tendencia de aceites en dar vapores inflamables cuando son calentados

COC (Cleveland Open Cup). El aceite es calentado en una taza. Una pequeña
llama es acercada a la taza y causar chispa pero no se logra fuego.
Punto de Floculación - FLOC POINT F
Una mezcla rica de aceite es congelada y observado a intervalos de a 1° F hasta

que se vea material floculante.
GRAVEDAD - GRAVITY API
Mide peso o densidad
TENSION INTERFACIAL - INTERFACIAL TENSION
Componentes con la menos superficie de tensión se concentraran en la superficie

del aceite. En la medida que el aceite se oxida con el acido orgánico, estos se
concentran en la superficie del aceite y disminuyen la tensión interfacial. El Test es
usado en reemplazo del No Total de Acido. Un valor de 15 indica que el aceite no
es bueno.
LIBRAS POR GALON - POUNDS PER GALLON
Medido a 60 °F .
Punto de Fluidez - POUR POINT
El aceite es congelado. En la medida que el aceite se descongela en intervalos de

5 °F , el vaso de prueba o recipiente se voltea y se mide la facilidad del aceite para
escurrir.
i. El punto mas bajo donde todavía el aceite escurre, es el punto de fluidez.
Índice Refractivo - REFRACTIVE INDEX
La rata o relación de la velocidad de la luz en una muestra de aceite en vacío. Las

medidas se toman a 25 °C. Los valores normales están entre 1.45 y 1.
TUBO SELLADO - SEALED TUBE % - R-22
Una mezcla de aceite y Freon R-22A y un catalizador de acero son calentados

hasta 175°C. Al final de la prueba, la cantidad de R-22 es resultado de la reacción
de la mezcla de aceite y Freon. Entre mas pequeña la cantidad mas estable el
aceite.
GRAVEDAD ESPECÍFICA- SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Compara la densidad del aceite con agua y ambos líquidos a 60 °F.

%SULFUROS - SULFUR %
Los sulfuros provienen naturalmente o de la adición de aditivos. Exceso causan

corrosión
# TOTAL DE ACIDO - TOTAL ACID NO.
Es la cantidad de miligramos de Hidróxido de Potasio para neutralizar un gramo de

aceite.
VISCOSIDAD - VISCOSITY
Medición de la resistencia del aceite para fluir. SUS es la abreviación para

SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL SECONDS. El numero de Segundos requerido para 60
ml. de aceite para fluir en un tubo corto. Normalmente medido en dos
temperaturas: 0°F y 210°F
VISCOSIDAD CENTISTOKES - VISCOSITY, CS
Es la medición de la viscosidad cinemática y las medidas son tomadas en un tubo

capilar. Son tomadas en temperaturas de 100 F y 210 F (37.8 C y 98.9 C) y
algunos fabricantes usan 40 C y 100 C (104 F y 212 F). Viscosidad Cinemática
es considerada porque es mas rápido y brinda resultados mas rápidos
INDICE DE VISCOSIDAD - VISCOSITY INDEX
La rata o relación a la velocidad que un aceite y su viscosidad aumentan en la

mediad que son congelados y disminuye en la medida que son calentados.
Cuando el Índice es de “100” el aceite se transforma totalmente.
Partículas por Millón PPM de Agua - WATER PPM
Entre mas bajo mejor. Muchos de los aceites tienen un contenido de agua, bajo cuando
salen del fabricante. El general es que no aumente de este contenido.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
THE SUCCESS OF THE SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE INTERANA-
TIONAL INSTITUTE OF REFRIGERATION IS DUE TO THE WORK OF
THE AUTHORS WHOSE TECHNICAL PAPERS APPEAR IN THIS BOOK.
IIAR EXPRESSES ITS DEEPEST APPRECIATION TO THESE AUTHORS
FOR THEIR UNSELFISH CONTRIBUTION FOR THE BETTERMENT OF THE
INDUSTRY.
###############
O I L I N REFRIGERATIOTJ PLANTS
P r e p a r e d for:
I I A R Annual l l e e t i n g
February 19-22, 1984
P r e p a r e d by:
Vagn V i l l a d s e n , T e c h n i c a l A d v i s e r
and
F l e m i n g V . B o l d v i g , Manager I n f o r m a t i o n
SABROE TJTD. DENPIARK 1983-12-20
23-B
_.
I
7 .
i
I
I
I
a
1
THE VIEWS EXPRESSED IN THESE PAPERS ARE THOSE OF THE
INDIVIDUAL AUTHORS. THEY DO NOT CONSTITUTE THE
OFFICIAL VIEWS OF THE INSTITUTE AND ARE NOT ENDORSED
I BY IT.
2
I
I
INTRODUCTION
Failing or insufficient lubrication is a major cause of com-

I
.
pressor brcak-downs
I
The lubrication may fail for a number of reasons, a. 0 . too
much superheat of the suction gas, too high discharge gas I
temperature from too high compression ratio, too high re-
frigerant content in the oil, or too high oil temperature,
e.g. due to failing compressor cooling.
I
A considerable part of all break-downs could be avoided ei-
I
ther by selecting a more suitable oil, by small improvements
in plant lay-out, or by minor changes in operating condi- I
tions.
Compressor lubrication is therefore a n important subject,

I
which, so far, has not been given the attention it deserves.
1
OIL PROPERTIES
I
Lubricating oils for refrigeration compressors were previ-
ously pure mineral oils produced from naphtenic-base crude
oil. During recent years this has changed, one of the rea-
I
sons being development of synthetic oil types, and today a
wide range of different oils is available.
I
Table 1 shows a summary of some of the most important pro- I
perties of different oil types.
The viscosity is of vital importance for the lubrication,

I
and it is usual to recommend oils of viscosity grades VG 46
or VG 68 in the range from approx. 4 2 to 75 cSt at 4 0 ° C ,
I
corresponding to 2 2 0 to 400 SUS at 1 0 0 ° F for both R 7 1 7 arid
CFC compressors in t-he industrial field. I
24-8
I
I 3
I
I
The viscosity index ( V . I . ) is an indication of the change in
I viscosity with temperature. It is desirable to have a high
V.I. value which means relatively little change of viscosity
I with variation in temperature.
I The flashpoint can be used to yivc a rough indication o f t h c

oil vapour pressure, which h a s considerable influence on the
I ef f i.ciency o € t h e oil s e p a r a t o r .
I NAMt TYPE
! I SCOS I T
SUS AT
v. 1 3
:LASH /
I SUN O I L
4 GS
MINERAL 0
//
I SUN O I L
4 SA
MINERAL 72
I
I
ESSO
ZER I SE
S-68
SYNTHETIC
ALKYL
BENZENE
0
. .
//7z
I
SYNTHETIC
POLYALPHA-
OLEFIN
// /
245 //
473
I MOB 1 L
SHC
326
SYNTHETIC
ALK.BEN2,
POL, OLEF I
124
I
I
MOB I L
GLY GOY L E
SYNTHETIC
POLYGLYCOL
-
170
//
I TABLE 1. - O I L PROPERTIES
I
25-B
I
4
The p o u r p o i n t o f t h e o i l i s m a i n l y of i n t e r e s t f o r R 717
compressors. It i s c e r t a i n l y d e s i r a b l e t o h a v e a low p o u r
point., especially in plants operating with extremely low
evaporating temperatures.
l l o w ~ ~ v ,c i i t - ki<~:; been a m>ivwri mistcikcl t o selcct oils wi t h

pour p o i r i L s l o w e r -th,an t h e e v a p o r c l t i ng tc:mp(’rnturc for low
t e n p c r a t u r e amnonia p l a n t s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e v i s c o -
s i t y i s t o o low t o e n s u r e p r o p e r l u b r i c a t i o n .
The l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s h a l l f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t b e s u i t a b l e f o r
l u b r i c a t i o n of t h e compressors, and a p r o p e r v i s c o s i t y is
a l w a y s more i m p o r t a n t t h a n a low p o u r p o i n t .
The R 1 2 f l o c k p o i n t g i v e s a r o u g h i n d i c a t i o n of t h e misci-
b i l i t y of o i l a n d CFC r e f r i g e r a n t s a t l o w e v a p o r a t i n g t e m -
p’rat-urc~.
The a n i l i r i L J o i n t i s used a s i n d i c a t i o n of t h e i n f l u e n c e on
g a s k e t material c o n t a i n i n g s y n t h e t i c r u b b e r .
Table 2 shows t h e test r e s u l t s w i t h Neoprene O-rings im-

mersed i n d i f f e r e n t o i l t y p e s .
TABLE 2. - O I L I N F L U E N C E ON NEOPRENE 1337 O - R I N G S IN
TEST/DIN 53521 (96 HOURS AT 70°C/1580F)
- __
GARGOYLE ATM.
22 ARCTIC ARCT 1 C AIR
SHC 226 OIL 300
__ - __ - . . _. __ .
..
CHANGL I N
WEIGHT, % -1.2 -1.2 t18.2 -0.3
-- ._
CHANGE I N -
I
V O I IJMF, 9: -0.9
( tiAN(d IN
IIAI<IINLL’,,X 41
.
26-B
5
On account of this influence on gasket material it is recom-

mended always to get the accept from the compressor manufac-
turer b e f o r e changing from one oil to another with a diffe-
rent anilin point.
O I L IN AMEIOPIIA PLANTS
An ammonia compressor should always have an effective oil

separator. Any oil which is not caught in the oil separator
passes on into the plant where it separates and has to b c ?
removed by purging valves placed in suitable positions. Oil
separated in condensers and evaporators reduces thc heat
transfer coefficients, and it is well-known that o i l can
cause great problems for ammonia c i r c u L a t i n q pump:;.
The efficiency of an oil separator depends very much on oil

type and operating conditions. Even s m a l l droplets c a n be
separated nearly 100% in a good oil separator, but oil va-
pour is difficult to remove and the oil carry-over is therc-
fore very much dependent on the vapour pressure of the oil.
Fig. 1 shows the oil vapour content in ammonia gas in re-

lation to discharge temperature, presuming saturated con-
dition of the oil vapour. Generally t-hc. o i l vapour content
will be lower, especially with r c . ( - i ~ ) r c , c ; i t i n c j < - o m p r c ~ s n o r : ; .
AlLhougli t h c t h c o r c : t i c . c i l v , i p o u r cont (.lit W II 1 1 s r i c ’ 220 1 c; . I F ) -
prox. one tenth of that with Arctic 300, a change to the
synthetic oil will not reduce the oil consumption quite as
much.
A l s o note, that a 10 K ( 1 8 ° F ) reduction in discharqe tcmpcr-

ature reduces the o i l vapour content to a p p r o x . onc I m L r ,
which results in a considerable reduction in oil coIisurap-
tion.
27-B
Fig. 2 gives the oil carry-over in relation to the refriger-
ation capacity for different parts per million (ppm) values.
Too high oil carry-over with the correct oil type night be
due to defects in equipment or due t o unacceptable operating
conditions.
Today it is possible to manufacture special oil separators

reducing the oil consumption to 5 ppm or less, and it is
proposed that most low temperature refrigeration plants
should be fitted with such high effective oil separators to
reduce the c o s t of maintenance and increase the plant effi-
ciency.
It is a l s o possible to reduce the influence of oil carry-

over considerably by means of careful component design and I
plant lay-out. As an example a comparison between Fig. 3 and
Fig. 4 shows that the oil carry-over to the LP side is re-
duced considerably by means of a change in plant design from
I
one type of intermediate cooler to another.
I
In connection with the system shown in Fig. 4 it is also
possible to install an extra oil separator in the common HP I
discharge line to the condenser, reducing the oil carry-over
t o an a b s o l u t v minimum. I
Fiq. 5 shows such an oil separator installed after n desu-
perheater which reduces the discharge temperature and there- I
by increases the efficiency of the oil separator.
I
All evaporators in the plant should be equipped with oil
purging valves. As a rule, oil drained from the low pressure
side of the plant should not be re-used, because it is often
I
contaminated with rust, water, and other impurities.
I
28-B
OIL IN CFC PLANTS
The p r o b l e m s w i t h o i l and t h e CFC r e f r i g e r a n t s d i f f e r v e r y

much from t h o s e w i t h o i l a n d R 7 1 7 . The m i s c i b i l i t y w i t h o i l
i s much h i g h e r , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r -
e n c e b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s CFC r e f r i g e r a n t s .
Normally, the o i l h a s no p r a c t i c a l influence on t h e h e a t

t r a n s f e r c o e i f i c i c n t s i n e v a p o r a t o r s and c - o n d c n s c r s - p r o -
vided the o i l q u a n t i t y i ri c-irculation 1:; k.c-~)b w i t h i 11 ~)C\L--
missible l i m i t s .
The e f f e c t i v i t y o f a p o s s i b l e o i l s e p a r a t o r i s n o t a s c r i t i -
c a l as i n t h e case o f R 7 1 7 , a n d i n many cases a n o i l s e p a -
r a t o r can be omitted. However, t h e e v a p o r a t o r s and c o n n e c t -
i n g p i p e s of t h e p l a n t s h o u l d be s i z e d and r u n w i t h due con-
s i d e r a t i o n t o proper o i l return.
During t h e y e a r s so much h a s b e e n w r i t t e n and s a i d about

s i z i n g and d e s i g n r u l e s f o r c o n n e c t i n g p i p e s , t h a t t h i s sub-
j e c t w i l l n o t he c o v e r e d i n d e t a i l h e r e . I t i s a f a c t , how-
ever, t h a t a g r e a t number of r e f r i g e r a t i o n p l a n t s a r e not
made with full consideration to the accepted rules for
proper connecting pipes, and n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e y work s a t i s -
f ac t o r i I y .
When using an oil separator and reducing the circulated

q u a n t i t y o f o i l , t h e r i s k of o i l r e t u r n p r o b l e m s duc> t o i n -
correct piping is of course reduced considerably. It is
t h e r e i o r e a good i d e a t o u s e o i l s e p a r a t o r s i n p l a n t : ; witli
29-B
I
I
1
extensive piping systems, and specially in low temperature
plants. I
It is obvious that also evaporators should be designed to
allow o i l return to the compressor. Reasonably well designed
I
evaporators with thermostatic expansion valve control will.
normally have no oil return problems. In case of flooded I
evaporators, the oil return is more complicated and some
practical solutions shall be discussed. I
Fig. 7 shows the miscibility between a good, mineral type
refrigeration oil and R 22. In practice, the oil content
I
should be kept within area B, at evaporating temperatures
below 0 ° C (32'F). The oil concentration in the evaporator at I
minus 4 O o C ( - 4 0 ° F ) f o r example should always be kept below
o n c p e r r e n t with thc oil in question. I
Fig. 8 shows the miscibility of various refrigeration o i . 1 ~
in R 22.
Fig. 9 shows the miscibility in R 502, and it will be noted I

to be less than with R 22.
R 12 has much better miscibility with oil than both R 502

I
and R 22, a n d it has therefore been common practice to a d d
up to 10-15 per cent of R 12 to improve the miscibility with
I
oil at low cvaporatinq temperatures. However, this is not
ncccusary t o d a y , since the synthetic o i l s on alkyl benzene I
basis have sufficiently good miscibility with all the common
refrigerants at a l l normal operating conditions. I
Fig. 10 shows one method of oil return to the compressors in
a two- stage R 22 or R 502 plant with pump circulation of
I
the refrigerant. Fig. 11 shows the basic calculation for
such a system. It will be noted that the oil content in the I
30-E)
8
9
I
I low side liquid is 25 times as high as the oil content in
the liquid feed line. This type of plant t-hereforc requires
a good oil separator.
Fig. 13 shows an oil return arranqcment ror (I t lootlc:d c~v;rr,o-

rator with self-circulation. Only a very ljmited pressure
difference is available for return of thc oil, and the
piping system a n d expansion valve should therefore he carp-
fully sized.
LUBRICATION OF COI4PRESSORS
I The miscibility between oil and refrigerant is very imp'ort-

ant for lubrication of the compressors.
I Fig. 13 shows the relation between pressure, oil tempcr-

ature, and viscosity for a naphthenic type mineral o i l with
1 a viscosity of 5 4 cSt at 4 O o C corresponding to 300 SIJS at
100°F.
1 The diagram shows clearly the importance of maintaining a
I relatively high oil temperature - or a low pressure in the

compressors during stand-still to avoid a too high content
of refrigerant in the oil.
I
At start-up the pressure in the crank case is quickly
1 lowered and a high refrigerant content in the oil will cause
heavy foaming due to evaporation of refrigerant.
I This will result in oil carry-over to the plant with the

risk of too little oil remaining in the compressor, and the
I risk of valve failure due to oil slugginq. There 15 also a
risk of damage to bearings and cylinders due to failing or
insuff icicnt o i l s u p p l y .
31-B
10
Screw compressors have other conditions and problems than

reciprocating compressors. The oil reservoirs are normally
on the discharge side of the compressor and the refrigerant
content in the oil is therefore much higher than with reci-
procating compressors because of the higher refrigerant
pressure above the oil.
Ammonia has a low miscibility with oil. However, in com-

pressors operating with high condenser pressure and oil
coolinq k)y in j c ~ r t i o n 01- rcfriqcrant thcrc? c,ln be u p t o 2-3%
ammonlil in t h e oil, a:; crin be seen i n Fig. 14.
This reduces both the COP value and the life of the com-
pressor thrust bearings.
With K 22 it is, as a r u l e , fairly easy to keep the refrig-

erant content in the oil at an acceptable l e v e l . With R 12
it is more difficult to obtain acceptable operating condi-
tions and especially for heat pump application it is neces-
sary to take special precautions to ensure proper lubri-
cation of the compressor. R 502 should generally be avoided
for screw compressors. It is preferred instead of R 22 only
for plants with evaporating temperatures below - 4 5 O C .
Fig. 15 shows an example of an R 22 screw compressor running

at O°C evaporation and 40°C condensation. If the discharge
temperature is 7 O o C , the R 22 content in the oil will be
npprox. 2 0 % . P r c s u m i n q a n o i l tcmperaturc o f 5 O o C n f t c r the
oil cooler, the viscosity of the oil, in this case an Arctic
oil 300 will be approx. 5 cSt against 35 cSt for the pure
oil.
The pressure in the bearings will be lower than the dis-

charge pressure, and therefore the refrigerant content in
the oil will be reduced. Consequently t h e viscosity will be
32-8
I. 1
higher than above-mentioned 5 cSt.
A reduction of the oil flow to the compressor will increase

the discharge temperature and reducc? thc rcfriqcrant content
in the oil as seen in the diagram. A high content of refrig-
I erant in the oil has, as shown, very much influence on the
oil viscosity and accordingly on the lubrication of the com-
I pressor. It a l s o h a s sonic influence on the compressor c a p -

city and efficiency. It is therefore important to use the
correct oil both to ensure proper lubrication and to obtain
I the best possible efficiency of the compressors.
I CONCLUSION
1 It has been the aim of this paper to point out some of the
problems which influence the oil selection and plant design,
I to ensure proper lubrication of the compressors and to avoid

oil problems in the evaporators.
1
I
I
1
33-8
12
OIL VAPOUR CONTENT IN R 717 GAS CONVERSION OF OIL CONSUMPTION
02th
-. ..
Fig. 2
Fig. 1
TWO STAGF R717 PLANT WITH ONE I.P.VF= TWO STAGE R717 PI AN T - PRINCW
-
-
Fig. 4
34-8
13
m
- OIL PURGINGJRPM. R717 SEPARATOR
TO COMPRESSOR
Fig.
- 6
MISCIBILITY OF NAWTENE -BASE OIL AND R22

I
-
I MISCIBILITY
___ OF VARIOUS OILS IN R 2 2
I
I
R 22, '/o WEIGHT

I l l 1
OIL.% WEIGHT "/o OIL BY WEIGHT
Fig. 7 Fig. 0
35-B
14
&llSClBlLTY OF VARIOUS OILS IN R502 TWO STAGE R 2 2 PLANT WITH PUMP CIRCULATION
20
10
0 0
-10
3
I-
$ -20
w
a
I: -30
E!
-40
Fig. 10
-50
-60
'/o OIL BY WEIGHT

Fig. 9
__ ___
SIZING OF - --
R22/01L RECTIFIER
OIL RETURN FROM FLOODED SYSTEM
r l O O . / a WITH 100 PPM OIL
-. 4 G KGlS
n L
I I
I
EXAMPLE: TSMC 108l R22/ 1200 RPM

48.8 KW AT -40/+30'C Calculate on same basis as for pump circulation
Refrlgerant mass flow G = 0.248 kgls. systems.
With G': 0.04 G the evaporator liquid will MXE:
have oil content of approx. 2500 PPM.: 0.25 '/( 1 ) Selection of expansion valve
Required oil rectifier capacity :
2 ) Gas speed in oil rectifier and in leaving pipe
0.OA x 0.248 x 235 = 2.33 kw . 3) Position of outlet for mixture from evaporator
corresponding to cooling the liquid from
- 7 to - 15 'C. not critical (not from surface)
F i g . 11 -ig. 1 2
36-8
15
“I”
100 I20 I40 160 160 200 220’F

OIL TEMPERATURE
Fig. 1 4
20
i
i
d
M
a 5
15
lo
O’ 4 0 b zb l o $0 do :oo *c
Fig. 1 s
37.8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Refrigeration is due to the work of the authors whose technical papers appear in this
book.
IIAR expresses its deepest appreciation to these authors for their unselfish contribu-
tion for the betterment of the industry.
Thank you.
Notice
The views expressed in the papers contained in

this book are those of the individual authors. They
do not constitute the official views of IIAR and are
not endoned by it.
HYDROTREATED O I L S FOR AMMONIA R E F R I G E R A T I O N
P r e p a r e d for:
I I A R Annual M e e t i n g
March 1 0 - 1 3 , 1985
Prepared by:
Glenn D . S h o r t , Manager, L u b r i c a n t s Development

C P I E n g i n e e r i n g S e r v i c e s , 1 n c . - M i d l a n d , Michigan
149
HYDROTREATED OILS FOR AMMONIA REFRIGERATION
G l e n n D. S h o r t IIAR Annual M e e t i n g
C P I E n g i n e e r i n g S e r v i c e s , Inc. San Antonio, Texas
P.O. Box 1 9 2 4 March 1 0 - 1 3 , 1 9 8 5
Midland, Michigan USA 48641-1924
The d e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h q u a l i t y ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n oils

u s i n g h y d r o t r e a t e d oligomers of a l p h a o l e f i n s ( P A O ) ,
s y n t h e t i c h y d r o c a r b o n f l u i d s , a n d from h y d r o t r e a t e d h i g h -
v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x (HVII base s t o c k s i s described. T h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e base s t o c k s a n d t h e r e l a t i o n t o
p e r f o r m a n c e i n ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n s y s t e m s is d is c u s s e d .
Comparisons t o c o n v e n t i o n a l n a p h t h e n i c r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s are
made. T h e s e h y d r o t r e a t e d base s t o c k s p r o v i d e s e v e r a l
p e r f o r m a n c e a d v a n t a g e s t h r o u g h better t h e r m a l a n d chemical
s t a b i l i t y , less s o l u b i l i t y w i t h a h m o n i a a n d e x c e l l e n t
v i s c o s i t y temperature characteristics.
INTRODUCTION
T h e r e c e n t d e c i s i o n of m a j o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s of n a p h t h e n i c
r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s to discontinue production has r e s u l t e d
i n a r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t b y m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d u s e r s of
i n d u s t r i a l ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n s y s t e m s i n f i n d i n g o t h e r
s o u r c e s of h i g h q u a l i t y r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s .
P a r a f f i n i c s y n t h e t i c h y d r o c a r b o n oils w e r e f i r s t m a r k e t e d
i n 1 9 2 9 a n d were c o n s i d e r e d f o r r e f r i g e r a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n s
p r i o r t o 1 9 7 0 (1). The h i g h c o s t o f t h e s e s y n t h e t i c s w a s
a drawback t o a l l b u t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s y s t e m d e s i g n e r who
c o u l d foresee t h e f u t u r e b e n e f i t s .
S u p p l i e r s of p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n (PA01 t y p e s y n t h e t i c h y d r o c a r b o n
o i l s have been promoting t h e i r products for s e v e r a l years f o r
t h e i r better chemical a n d t h e r m a l s t a b i l i t y , wide o p e r a t i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e , s u p e r i o r l o a d - c a r r y i n g a b i l i t y a n d lower
v a p o r p r e s s u r e (less o i l c o n s u m p t i o n ) , T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s
combine t o p r o v i d e b e t t e r o p e r a t i n g e f f i c i e n c y , t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n c r e a s e d p l a n t c a p a c i t y a n d lower m a i n t e n a n c e
costs. The r e s u l t i s t h a t p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c o i l s
provide b e n e f i t s which e a s i l y j u s t i f y t h e i r higher'costs.
T e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e m e n t s i n m i n e r a l o i l p r o d u c t i o n methods
have produced h y d r o t r e a t e d high-viscosity-index ( H V I ) o i l s
w h i c h h a v e many of t h e same a d v a n t a g e s of t h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n
synthetics. T h e s e o i l s h a v e l e d t o t h e commercial p r o d u c t i o n
of h i g h q u a l i t y i n d u s t r i a l o i l s i n c l u d i n g t h e development
of a u n i q u e ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l .
T h i s p a p e r describes t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n
o i l s based o n p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c h y d r o c a r b o n o i l s
a n d t h o s e based o n h y d r o t r e a t e d h i g h - v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x base-
s t o c k s a n d t h e f o r m u l a t e d oils are c o m p a r e d t o t h e more
conventional naphthenic r e f r i g e r a t i o n oils.
PERFORMANCE FEATURES OF POLYALPHAOLEFIN SYNTHETIC HYDROCARBON O I L S

T h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n o l i g o m e r ( s m a l l p o l y m e r ) i s d e r i v e d from
t h e c o n v e r s i o n of e t h y l e n e t o n o r m a l a l p h a o l e f i n s which a r e
p o l y m e r i z e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h y d r o t r e a t e d t o form t h e h y d r o -
g e n a t e d ( s a t u r a t e d ) s y n t h e t i c o i l ( F i g u r e 1). T h e r e s u l t i n g
h i g h l y b r a n c h e d , compact s t r u c t u r e is a v e r y s t a b l e molecule
w i t h e x c e l l e n t low t e m p e r a t u r e p r o p e r t i e s a n d h i g h t h e r m a l
s t a b i l i t y ( F i g u r e 2) ( 2 ) . T h i s o i l i s sometimes referred t o
as a n i - s o p a r a f f i n i c oligomer due t o i t s s i m i l a r i t y t o a
h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d p a r a f f i n i c m i n e r a l o i l . Similar o i l s
h a v e b e e n i s o l a t e d from selected c r u d e o i l s f o r t h e i r
d e s i r a b l e s t r u c t u r e ' b y P r o f e s s o r s F e n s k e a n d K l a u s of t h e
C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g D e p a r t m e n t of P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y u s i n g a l o s u p e r r e f i n i n g process . I 1 The s y n t h e t i c
a p p r o a c h p r o v i d e s a more u n i f o r m p r o d u c t a n d i s preferred
b e c a u s e of better v o l u m e e c o n o m i c s ( 2 ) .
Superior Lubricity
P o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c hydrocarbon o i l s have a proven

t r a c k record of s o l v i n g wear r e l a t e d problems. The S h e l l
F o u r - B a l l Wear S c a r f o r t h e s e f l u i d s i s 0 . 6 t o 0 . 8 mm
( 1 2 0 0 rpm, 4 0 k g , 1 6 7 ' F , 1 h r . ) a s compared t o a t y p i c a l
n a p h t h e n i c o i l wear scar of up t o 2 mm, In addition,
p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s h a v e u p t o a t w e n t y p e r c e n t lower
c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n .
The u s e of t h e F a l e x ( p i n a n d v e e b l o c k ) m a c h i n e h a s b e e n
described b y S a n d v o r d e n k e r ( 3 , 4 ) a s modified so t h a t i t c a n
o p e r a t e w i t h a closed p r e s s u r e t i g h t chamber t o test t h e
e f f e c t of r e f r i g e r a n t s o n o i l l u b r i c i t y . Other s t u d i e s using
t h i s t y p e of t e s t e q u i p m e n t showed t h a t ammonia s i g n i f i c a n t l y
r e d u c e d t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s . In
t h e l a t t e r r e p o r t , a s y n t h e t i c p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n w a s shown t o h a v e
t h e l o w e s t wear v a l u e s of t h e f o u r o i l s t e s t e d , t h e o t h e r t h r e e
being naphthenic mineral o i l s . The r e p o r t c o n c l u d e d t h a t " t h e
wear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s y n t h e s i z e d h y d r o c a r b o n a p p e a r
e x c e l l e n t when c o m p a r e d t o t h e n a t u r a l h y d r o c a r b o n o i l s " ( 5 ) .
The report a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s less wear
w i t h t h e s y n t h e t i c o i l , t h e OK load f o r a l l t h e o i l s tested
was r e d u c e d from s i x p o u n d s t o f o u r p o u n d s a n d t h a t c e r t a i n
i n o r g a n i c E x t r e m e P r e s s u r e (EP) a d d i t i v e s w o u l d i n c r e a s e t h i s
l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y t o twenty pounds f o r t h e n a p h t h e n i c o i l
and t o t w e n t y - f i v e pounds f o r t h e s y n t h e t i c . The m e t h o d u s e d
w a s a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e Timken Method i n ASTM D2782-77. The "OK
Load" w a s d e f i n e d as t h ? maximum l o a d a t w h i c h +he r o t a t i n g
c u p does n o t r u p t u r e t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m . A l o a d of f o u r pounds
c a l c u l a t e s t o a n i n i t i a l H e r t z i a n S t r e s s l e v e l of 2 8 , 2 3 0 p s i
w h i l e a s i x pound l o a d c a l c u l a t e s t o 3 4 , 6 0 0 p s i .
These a d d i t i v e s and o t h e r a d d i t i v e s are under c u r r e n t i n v e s t i -

g a t i o n f o r s y s t e m c o m p a t i b i l i t y ( w i t h t h e ammonia) a n d f i e l d
tests a r e recommended. An i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t of t h i s s t u d y i s
t h a t u s e r s of n a p h t h e n i c r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s c a n e x p e c t l e s s
w e b r w i t h t h e s y n t h e t i c a n d a t l e a s t a n e q u i v a l e n t load-
carrying ability.
152
Immiscible With Ammonia
P o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c o i l s h a v e e x t r e m e l y low s o l u b i l i t y
w i t h ammonia. N a p h t h e n i c r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s h a v e been s a i d
t o be immiscible w i t h ammonia, L a b o r a t o r y t e s t s h a v e shown
t h a t n a p h t h e n i c o i l s have g r e a t e r t h a n one p e r c e n t by weight
s o l u b i l i t y w i t h ammonia a t p r e s s u r e s a s low a s 979 k P a ( 1 4 2 p s i ) .
O t h e r r e p o r t s show l e v e l s c a n r e a c h a s h i g h a s two t o t h r e e
p e r c e n t ( 6 1 . T h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n o i l s o l u b i l i t y tests are n o t
completed b u t e a r l y r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s o l u b i l i t y is
less t h a n h a l f t h a t o f t h e n a p h t h e n i c . The p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n
a l s o h a s a v e r y l o w t e n d e n c y t o foam w i t h t h e ammonia a n d
entrainment is p r a c t i c a l l y n i l (Figure 3 ) .
The i m m i s c i b i l i t y w i t h ammonia r e s u l t s i n b e t t e r s e a l i n g i n
compressor c y l i n d e r s . G a s e n t r a i n m e n t c a n c a u s e l o s s of
e f f i c i e n c y i n o i l s e p a r a t i o n and i n h e a t exchangers. Degassing
can a l s o occur i n t h e bearing housings of oil-flooded r o t a r y
screw c o m p r e s s o r s r e s u l t i n g i n p o t e n t i a l b e a r i n g wear. In
p r i v a t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , o n e b e a r i n g m a n u f a c t u r e r described
t h e p o t e n t i a l b e a r i n g f a i l u r e as follows:
" I n t h e case of ammonia, w e c o u l d i m a g i n e t h a t e i t h e r a v e r y

s t i f f o i l o r a foam c o u l d r e s u l t i n i n a d e q u a t e b e a r i n g
l u b r i c a t i o n . ..we could a l s o imagine t h a t t h e r e f r i g e r a n t , i n
c h a n g i n g from a l i q u i d t o a g a s , m i g h t a l s o be c a p a b l e of
t a k i n g away t r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t s of h e a t t h a t m i g h t be t h e r e s u l t
of m a r g i n a l l u b r i c a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . , . . t h i s might r e s u l t i n
l o c a l a d h e s i v e wear a t t h e r i b w i t h o u t t h e u s u a l a t t e n d a n t
symptoms of r i b b l a c k i n g a n d b l u i n g a n d r o l l b a c k . "
The lower l e v e l o f ammonia e n t r a i n m e n t a n d t h e b e t t e r l o w

t e m p e r a t u r e f l u i d i t y of t h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c p r o v i d e
added p r o t e c t i o n from t h i s c o n d i t i o n .
Viscosity-Temperature C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The n a t u r a l l y h i g h v i s c o s i t y i n d e x of p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n
s y n t h e t i c s p r o v i d e s a h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y for s e a l i n g and l u b r i c a t i o n
a t high temperatures without s a c r i f i c i n g l o w temperature
fluidity. An e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e v i s c o s i t y - t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r t s
s h o w s t h a t i t is p o s s i b l e t o s u b s t i t u t e a lower IS0 v i s c o s i t y
grade ( c S t a t 40'C) s y n t h e t i c for a naphthenic o i l (or aromatic
s y n t h e t i c ) a n d o b t a i n t h e same v i s c o s i t y a t a h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e
(Figure 4).
Example: A 3 2 I S 0 grade P A 0 (32 c S t a t 40'C) h a s t h e
same v i s c o s i t y a t 100'C (212'F) a s a 68 IS0 n a p h t h e n i c
oil b u t i s a b o u t 2 5 c S t lower i n v i s c o s i t y a t 4 0 ' C
(104'F).
A p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n 6 8 I S 0 may be selected t o replace t h e
6 8 IS0 n a p h t h e n i c o i l t o o b t a i n a h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y a t t h e
h i g h e r compressor c y l i n d e r temperature f o r b e t t e r v o l u m e t r i c
e f f i c i e n c i e s w i t h o u t i n c r e a s i n g v i s c o s i t y a t lower
temperatures. In f a c t , t h e v i s c o s i t y of t h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n
w i l l be lower t h a n t h a t of t h e n a p h t h e n i c o i l a t t e m p e r a -
t u r e s below 4C"C.
Some o i l i s a l w a y s assumed t o be c a r r i e d i n t o t h e l o w
t e m p e r a t u r e s i d e i n r e f r i g e r a t i o n s y s t e m s . The amount
t r a n s f e r r e d i s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e separator e f f i c i e n c y and t h e
amount of m u t u a l s o l u b i l i t y w i t h t h e r e f r i g e r a n t . I t is
desirable t h a t t h e r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l n o t r e d u c e h e a t t r a n s f e r
e f f i c i e n c y or produce c l o g g i n g through i n c r e a s e d o i l v i s c o s i t y
o r wax s o l i d i f i c a t i o n . The p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n h a s b e t t e r h e a t
t r a n s f e r p r o p e r t i e s ( F i g u r e 5 ) , lower v i s c o s i t i e s a t l o w
t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d does n o t c o n t a i n wax d u e t o i t s s y n t h e t i c
r c u t e of m a n u f a c t u r e . N a p h t h e n i c o i l s may be dewaxed b u t t h e y
s t i l l c o n t a i n wax. The p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n o i l h a s a v e r y low
pour p o i n t and i s e x t r e m e l y f l u i d t o v e r y l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s .
Hiqh T e m p e r a t u r e T h e r m a l a n d C h e m i c a l S t a b i l i t v
B e c a u s e of t h e i r c l o s e d , h i g h l y s a t u r a t e d m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e ,
t h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n f l u i d s have s u p e r i o r chemical and t h e r m a l
stability. N a p h t h e n i c r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s h a v e b e e n described
as h i g h l y r e f i n e d " n e a r l y w h i t e " o i l s . The p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s
u s e d f o r ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n a r e w h i t e o i l s . T h i s t y p e of
s y n t h e t i c h a s been used f o r y e a r s i n harsh chemical environments
a n d f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s a t e x t r e m e l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s (7, 8 ) .
F i g u r e 6 s h o w s t h e r e s u l t s of a 288°C ( 5 5 1 ° F ) t h e r m a l s t a b i l i t y
test a f t e r twenty-one days. T h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n d i d n o t show
s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r a d a t i o n o r f o r m a t i o n o f s o l i d s . The ASTM
D2879 T h e r m a l D e c o m p o s i t i o n T e m p e r a t u r e f o r t h i s o i l is
g r e a t e r t h a n 327°C (620°F).
T h e r m a l a n d c h e m i c a l d e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e t h o u g h t t o be t h e
c a u s e of t h e v a r n i s h - l i k e d e p o s i t s f o u n d i n r e f r i g e r a t i o n
p i p i n g , h e a t exchangers and compressor v a l v e s . Cleaner operation
t r a n s l a t e s i n t o l o n g e r f l u i d l i f e , b e t t e r h e a t t r a n s f e r , less
m a i n t e n a n c e a n d o v e r a l l b e t t e r c o s t p e r f o r m a n c e ( see Appendix 1).
Modern i n d u s t r i a l ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n p l a n t s are b e i n g d e v e l o p e d

f o r lower t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e s e p l a n t s u s e t h e newer h i g h s p e e d
compressors. Compression t e m p e r a t u r e s have been measured
a s h i g h a s 1 6 0 ° C (320°F) i n ammonia p l a n t s . T h i s makes i t
p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t o s e l e c t a n o i l w i t h good t h e r m a l
s t a b i l i t y a s w e l l a s good l o w t e m p e r a t u r e p r o p e r t i e s a s
F r e v i o u s l y described.
Low V o l a t i l i t y i n R e l a t i o n t o V i s c o s i t y
A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y of t h e PA0 s y n t h e t i c f l u i d i s
low v o l a t i l i t y . B e t t e r oil-gas s e p a r a t i o n r e s u l t s i n less
l u b r i c a n t t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o h e a t e x c h a n g e r p i p e s and o t h e r
system components. F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e h a s p r o v e n t h a t PA0
s y n t h e t i c f l u i d s h a v e more t h a n t h i r t y p e r c e n t b e t t e r o i l -
gas s e p a r a t i o n t h a n n a p h t h e n i c ( o r a r o m a t i c s y n t h e t i c ) o i l s .
One r e p o r t i n d i c a t e s t h a t n e a r l y a t e n - f o l d r e d u c t i o n i n
o i l c a r r y o v e r may be p o s s i b l e when u s i n g t h i s t y p e of
s y n t h e t i c w i t h t h e p r o p e r s e p a r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t (6). F i g u r e s
7 and 8 provide a v o l a t i l i t y comparison t o mineral o i l s .
Low Water C o n t e n t
P o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c f l u i d s are h y d ro p h o b ic d u e t o
their highly saturated structure. Typical moisture content
i s 20 ppm. T h i s p r o p e r t y is s h a r e d b y h i g h l y r e f i n e d
n a p h t h e n i c o i l s t o a lesser e x t e n t . Water s o l u b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s
w i t h aromatic c o n t e n t a n d w i t h a n i n c r e a s i n g degree o f
u n s a t u r a t i o n . T h e s y n t h e t i c o i l w i l l n o t absorb w a t e r e v e n
upon p r o l o n g e d e x p o s u r e t o humid a i r . T h i s p r o p e r t y i s
i m p o r t a n t a s w a t e r i n ammonia s y s t e m s c a n p r o d u c e ammonium
hydroxide which can cause corrosion. Another p o t e n t i a l problem
i s t h e " i c i n g " of t h e r m o e x p a n s i o n v a l v e s w h i c h c a n r e s u l t i n
m a i n t e n a n c e p r o b l e m s a n d t h e loss of e f f i c i e n c y . Water i s
a l s o a s o u r c e of o x y g e n w h i c h may c o n t r i b u t e t o o x i d a t i o n
and c o r r o s i o n .
E x c e l l e n t Materials C o m D a t i b i l i t v
A major c o n c e r n f o r m o s t when c o n s i d e r i n g a s y n t h e t i c o i l a s
a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o n a t u r a l o i l s is t h a t o f c o m p a t i b i l i t y
with t h e e x i s t i n g system. Remembering t h a t t h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n
oligomer c a n be f o u n d b y " u l t r a r e f i n i n g " a n a t u r a l c r u d e
o i l h e l p s describe t h e c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s .
T h e s e o i l s h a v e p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same e f f e c t o n elastomers
a n d rubber t h a t n a t u r a l oils do. An a r e a f o r c o n c e r n w o u l d be
w i t h t h e s h r i n k i n g of t h e n e o p r e n e r u b b e r (6). I n p r a c t i c e ,
there h a v e b e e n n o o b s e r v e d p r o b l e m s w i t h e x i s t i n g ammonia
systems. T h i s may be d u e t o t h e e f f e c t of t h e ammonia o n t h e s e
materials. These s y n t h e t i c s are t o t a l l y compatible w i t h
ammonia a n d w i t h m i n e r a l o i l s u s e d i n ammonia s y s t e m s a n d c a n
be added d i r e c t l y to e x i s t i n g s y s t e m s .
I55
PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF HYDROTREhTED HIGH-VISCOSITY-INDEX OILS
A two-stage h y d r o t r e a t i n g process, a s shown i n F i g u r e 9 , i s

c a p a b l e of p r o d u c i n g v e r y h i g h q u a l i t y l u b e base s t o c k s from
a wide r a n g e of c r u d e o i l s . The f e e d s t o c k i s s u b j e c t e d t o
h y d r o g e n a t i o n u n d e r h i g h p r e s s u r e , f r a c t i o n a t i o n , t h e n dewaxed
followed by a s e c o n d s t a g e h y d r o g e n t r e a t m e n t u n d e r less s e v e r e
c o n d i t i o n s , b u t s t i l l a t h i g h p r e s s u r e ( 9 ) . When v e r y h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d p r e s s u r e s are u s e d i n t h e first stage, 400°C
(752°F) a n d 1 3 , 0 0 0 kPa ( 1 3 0 bar or 1886 p s i a ) , t h e c r u d e i s
converted i n t o high molecular weight i s o p a r a f f i n s w i t h v i s c o s i t y
i n d e x e s u p t o 150. T h e s e n o v e l h y d r o c a r b o n o i l s may be
considered N s e m i s y n t h e t i c ' l (10). G e n e r a l l y , t h e process i s
l i m i t e d t o p r o d u c i n g o i l s w i t h a v i s c o s i t y i n d e x r a n g i n g from
1 0 5 - 120 f o r economic r e a s o n s . This r e f i n i n g process yields
base s t o c k s w i t h good a d d i t i v e r e s p o n s e , h i g h t h e r m a l s t a b i l i t y
a n d low v o l a t i l i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o v i s c o s i t y (11). T h e r e a r e
s e v e r a l close s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e s e h y d r o t r e a t e d h i g h -
v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x (HVI) i s o p a r a f f i n i c base s t o c k s a n d t h e i s o -
p a r a f f i n i c p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c o i l s p r e v i o u s l y discussed.
T h e s e s i m i l a r i t i e s l e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a formulated series
of ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s w h i c h h a v e many a d v a n t a g e s o v e r
n a p h t h e n i c r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s . The p e r f o r m a n c e p r o p e r t i e s of
t h e t w o h y d r o t r e a t e d o i l s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n a l r e a d y p r e s e n t e d a n d c o m p a r i s o n s made w i t h
naphthenic mineral oils.
Lubr i c i t Y
S h e l l F o u r B a l l Wear Scar d a t a ( 4 0 k g , 1 2 0 0 rpm, 1 6 7 " F , 1 h r . )

g a v e a wear s c a r of 0 . 8 t o 0 . 9 mm. T h i s is s u b s t a n t i a l l y better
t h a n t h e n a p h t h e n i c o i l s w h i c h r a n g e f r o m 1 . 0 t o 2 . 0 mm a n d
s l i g h t l y worse t h a n t h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c w h i c h w a s
0 . 6 t o 0 . 8 mm. Falex test r e s u l t s have n o t been completed b u t
a r e e x p e c t e d t o h a v e t h e same l i m i t i n g v a l u e s s h a r e d by t h e
n a p h t h e n i c a n d P A 0 s y n t h e t i c o i l s . The wear r a t e of t h e HVI
h y d r o t r e a t e d o i l i s e x p e c t e d t o be l o w e r t h a n t h e n a p h t h e n i c
as t h e r e i s l e s s s o l u b i l i t y ( a s w i t h t h e s y n t h e t i c ) w i t h
ammonia t h a n t h e n a p h t h e n i c . T h e e f f e c t of t h e ammonia o n
wear w a s s e v e r e a s p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d .
Immiscible w i t h Ammonia
T h e i s o p a r a f f i n i c s t r u c t u r e of t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d h i g h - v i s c o s i t y -
i n d e x o i l i s s i m i l a r t o t h e PA0 s y n t h e t i c oil described. T h e r e
i s l i t t l e u n s a t u r a t i o n o r aromatic c o n t e n t . A low amount of
n a p h t h e n i c c o n t e n t h a s some e f f e c t o n t h e s o l u b i l i t y w i t h
ammonia. Preliminary r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s o l u b i l i t y is
156
c l o s e r t o t h a t of t h e s y n t h e t i c o i l t h a n t h e n a p h t h e n i c .
Foaming c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d ammonia e n t r a i n m e n t were
c o n s i d e r a b l y less t h a n w i t h t h e n a p h t h e n i c o i l and compared
favorably w i t h the synthetic (Figure 3 ) .
Viscosity-Temperature C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
As t h e name h i g h - v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x i n d i c a t e s , t h e H V I o i l h a s
a much i m p r o v e d v i s c o s i t y - t e m p e r a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p o v e r o t h e r
t y p e s of m i n e r a l o i l s . F i g u r e 10 g r a p h i c a l l y compares t h e
v i s c o s i t y - t e m p e r a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f f o u r t y p e s of 68 I S 0 o i l s .
The v i s c o s i t y i n d e x f o r n a p h t h e n i c o i l s c a n be 0 o r l e s s .
T h e f a v o r a b l e low t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f o r m u l a t e d
h y d r o t r e a t e d H V I o i l are d ep en d en t upon pour p o i n t d e p r e s s a n t s
a n d / o r t h e a d d i t i o n o f p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c o i l s . The
l a t t e r i s d e s i g n a t e d a p a r a s y n t h e t i c w h i c h w i l l be d i s c u s s e d
later under t h e heading, "Additives." Very s m a l l a m o u n t s o f
a pour p o i n t d e p r e s s a n t is r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n a pour p o i n t o f
- 4 0 ° C (-40'F). Good l o w t e m p e r a t u r e p r o p e r t i e s are t h e r e s u l t
of d e w a x i n g a n d t h e p a r a f f i n i c s t r u c t u r e .
Hiah T e m D e r a t u r e T h e r m a l a n d C h e m i c a l S t a b i l i t y
The e x c e l l e n t t h e r m a l a n d c h e m i c a l s t a b i l i t y of t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d
h i g h - v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x o i l s i s a r e s u l t of t h e . h i g h degree of
s a t u r a t i o n and t h e i s o p a r a f f i n i c s t r u c t u r e . The r e f i n i n g
process a l s o r e m o v e s s u l f u r , o x y g e n a n d n i t r o g e n w h i c h h a v e
a d e t r i m e n t a l effect on thermal s t a b i l i t y .
F i g u r e 11 s h o w s t h e r e s u l t s of a P a n e l C o k e r t e s t r u n a t
293°C ( 5 6 0 ° F ) f o r f o u r h o u r s . T h i s test i s u s e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y of o i l s i n c o n t a c t w i t h h o t metal
surfaces. The s o l v e n t r e f i n e d m a t e r i a l shows h e a v y b u i l d - u p o f
d e c o m p o s i t i o n p r o d u c t s w h i c h i s t h e m a j o r reason t h a t p a r a f -
f i n i c o i l s h a v e s u f f e r e d t h e r e p u t a t i o n of h a v i n g carbon-
forming tendencies. The h y d r o t r e a t e d o i l s h a v e v e r y l o w r e l a t i v e
carbon-forming t e n d e n c i e s and are s u i t a b l e f o r high temperature
operation. Appendix 1 c o n t a i n s a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n o n
s t a b i li t y.
Low V o l a t i l i t y i n R e l a t i o n t o V i s c o s i t y
T h e l o w v o l a t i l i t y of t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d h i g h - v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x
o i l s i s t h e r e s u l t of h i g h p u r i t y a n d s t r i c t c o n t r o l o v e r t h e
vacuum d i s t i l l a t i o n process. The molecular w e i g h t of t h e s e o i l s
is o v e r t w e n t y p e r c e n t h i g h e r t h a n n a p h t h e n i c r e f r i g e r a t i o n
o i l s or a l k y l b e n z e n e t y p e s y n t h e t i c s of e q u a l IS0 v i s c o s i t y
grade ( F i g u r e 1 2 ) .
D i s t i l l a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d o i l a n d
t y p i c a l r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s (Figure 7) indicate t h a t t h e
h y d r o t r e a t e d o i l s h o u l d have l o w e r o i l consumption t h a n
n a p h t h e n i c o i l s . E v a p o r a t i v e w e i g h t loss d a t a agree w i t h
t h e s e test r e s u l t s (Figure 8 ) .
Low Water C o n t e n t
The h i g h l y r e f i n e d , s a t u r a t e d s t r u c t u r e of t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d
o i l r e j e c t s water a n d t y p i c a l l y h a s a water c o n t e n t of l e s s
t h a n 50 ppm. Water s e p a r a t i o n b y ASTM D 1 4 0 1 o c c u r s i n l e s s
than f i v e minutes.
Materials C o m p a t i b i l i t y
The h y d r o t r e a t e d o i l s a r e m i n e r a l oils a n d no s p e c i a l
p r e c a u t i o n s n e e d be t a k e n i n t h e i r h a n d l i n g .
ADDITIVE SYSTEMS FOR HYDROTREATED P A 0 AND H V I OILS
C e r t a i n a d d i t i v e s a r e n e c e s s a r y , s u c h a s pour p o i n t d e p r e s s a n t s ,
t o f o r m u l a t e a n ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l from t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d
h i g h - v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x base s t o c k s . Naphthenic o i l s are
commonly u s e d w i t h o u t a d d i t i v e s . They a r e o f t e n modified w i t h
defoamants and l u b r i c i t y a d d i t i v e s . S u p p l i e r s h a v e also
i n c l u d e d a d d i t i v e s i n s y n t h e t i c base o i l s , commonly d e f o a m a n t s ,
t o improve t h e i r performance. The i n c l u s i o n of a d d i t i v e s i n
ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l s does n o t p r e s e n t a s l a r g e a
s o l u b i l i t y p r o b l e m a s i n o t h e r r e f r i g e r a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s as t h e
o i l s a r e immiscible w i t h t h e ammonia. C e r t a i n p r e c a u t i o n s
m u s t be made t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e a d d i t i v e s do n o t i n t e r f e r e
w i t h t h e t h e r m a l o r c h e m i c a l s t a b i l i t y of t h e o i l .
The h y d r o t r e a t e d o i l s may i n c l u d e a p o u r p o i n t d e p r e s s a n t
w h i c h i s n e c e s s a r y i n s y s t e m s w h e r e t h e o i l has a c h a n c e of
g e t t i n g i n t o t h e low t e m p e r a t u r e s i d e of t h e s y s t e m . This
d e p e n d s upon t h e degree t o w h i c h t h e o i l h a s been dewaxed.
A n t i f o a m a g e n t s may be i n c l u d e d i n f o r m u l a t i n g t h e h y d r o -
t r e a t e d ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l i f i n d i c a t e d b y foam t e s t
results, Foaming i s u s u a l l y t h e r e s u l t of o t h e r a d d i t i v e s i n
t h e new o i l . D e f o a m a n t s may a l s o be i n d i c a t e d i f t h e o i l i s
t o be m i x e d w i t h o t h e r t y p e s of o i l s w h i c h h a v e poorer d e f o a m i n g
q u a l i t i e s o r c a u s e t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d o i l t o foam.
158
Antiwear and extreme p r e s s u r e a d d i t i v e s have been d i s c u s s e d .
The i n c l u s i o n of t h e s e a d d i t i v e s s h o u l d n o t be a u t o m a t i c a s
t h e y a r e o f t e n r e a c t i v e by d e s i g n . A s with a l l additives,
e x t e n s i v e l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d t e s t i n g is r e q u i r e d . Most
r e f r i g e r a t i o n c o m p r e s s o r s have b e e n d e s i g n e d t o overcome t h e
l u b r i c i t y p r o b l e m s c a u s e d b y ammonia. T h i s is e v i d e n t by
t h e s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n of many compressors u s i n g n o n - a d d i t i v e
n a p h t h e n i c o i l s . The p r o p e r t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d
o i l w i l l go a l o n g way i n s o l v i n g wear-related problems.
P a r a s y n t h e t i c o i l s a r e made b y t h e a d d i t i o n of s y n t h e t i c o i l t o
t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d base s t o c k . The u s e of s y n t h e t i c s i n t h e
f o r m u l a t i o n may p r e c l u d e t h e a d d i t i o n of o t h e r a d d i t i v e s s u c h
as pour p o i n t d e p r e s s a n t s . These a d d i t i o n s w i l l have t h e e f f e c t
of blending p r o p e r t i e s such as thermal s t a b i l i t y and v i s c o s i t y
index. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e is a cost p e n a l t y . T h i s cost
u s u a l l y is o f f s e t by t h e improved p r o p e r t i e s . The d e s i g n e r
should t a k e a c l o s e look a t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s and requirements
of h i s p a r t i c u l a r system.
S p e c i a l t y a d d i t i v e s are b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d f r e q u e n t l y . A
p r o p r i e t a r y s i l i c o n e h a s shown e x c e p t i o n a l r e s u l t s i n c o m b a t i n g
c o r r o s i o n w h i c h i s r e l a t e d t o c e r t a i n c h e m i c a l s y s t e m s ( 7 , 8).
T h i s a d d i t i v e has been used f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s i n o i l - f l o o d e d
r o t a r y screw c o m p r e s s o r s h a n d l i n g m e t h y l c h l o r i d e a n d m o i s t
h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d gases. T e s t s i n ammonia s y s t e m s w h i c h w e r e
p l a g u e d w i t h c o r r o s i o n a n d c o n t a m i n a t i o n p r o b l e m s showed
e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s i n prolonging o i l l i f e as w e l l as reducing
corrosion.
O x i d a t i o n i n h i b i t o r s h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d i n some f o r m u l a t i o n s .
T h e s e may be i n c l u d e d t o i n h i b i t t h e e f f e c t of o x y g e n l e f t i n
t h e s y s t e m i n t h e form of a i r o r w a t e r . Oxidation or other
i n h i b i t o r s h a v e a l s o b e e n i n c l u d e d i n some f o r m u l a t i o n s t o
combat free radical r e a c t i o n s which h a v e been p r e s e n t e d as a
p o s s i b l e c a u s e o f s l u d g e f o r m a t i o n i n ammonia s y s t e m s (12).
Appendix 1 o f f e r s a more d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n .
DISCUSSION
A f o r m u l a t e d ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n o i l h a s b e e n m a n u f a c t u r e d
u s i n g t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d h i g h - v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x base s t o c k .
Additives i n c l u d e d a pour p o i n t d e p r e s s a n t , defoamant, and
inhibitors. T h i s o i l h a s b e e n marketed w i t h e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s .
Comments o n p e r f o r m a n c e i n c l u d e r e p o r t s of l o n g e r o p e r a t i n g
l i f e , c l e a n e r system operation, e x c e l l e n t compatibility with
e x i s t i n g o i l s a n d c o m p o n e n t s a n d much lower l e v e l s of o i l
c o n s u m p t i o n i n r o t a r y screw compressors. No d a t a h a s b e e n
159
r e p o r t e d o n t h e e f f e c t of t h e o i l o n s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c y .
T h e r e are a n estimated o n e h u n d r e d p l u s compressors o p e r a t i n g
o n t h i s new o i l .
A s p r e v i o u s l y stated, p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c s have been

used s u c c e s s f u l l y i n r e f r i g e r a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r f i f t e e n
y e a r s o r more. T h e s e o i l s h a v e a p r o v e n t r a c k record i n
i n c r e a s i n g compressor e f f i c i e n c y and reducing maintenance
c o s t s . T h e r e h a v e b e e n repeated r e p o r t s of much lower o i l
c o n s u m p t i o n l e v e l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e o i l s e p a r a t o r s h a v e been
d e s i g n e d w h i c h c a n t a k e a d v a n t a g e of t h e lower v a p o r p r e s s u r e s
of t h e s e oils. The p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s h a d e n j o y e d i n c r e a s e d u s e
e v e n before t h e r e c e n t u p s e t s i n t h e n a p h t h e n i c r e f r i g e r a t i o n
oil s u p p l y . T h i s g a i n was d u e t o t h e i r s u p e r i o r t h e r m a l a n d
chemical s t a b i l i t y w h i c h w a s r e q u i r e d i n modern s y s t e m s w h e r e
h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e common. Another r e a s o n f o r t h e i r
i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a r i t y w a s t h e a d v e n t of worldwide o i l s h o r t a g e s
w h i c h b e g a n i n t h e l a t e s i x t i e s arid p r e d o m i n a t e d t h e s e v e n t i e s .
Once s y s t e m o p e r a t o r s b e g a n u s i n g t h e s e s y n t h e t i c s , t h e y were
convinced t h a t t h e r e a r e c o s t - b e n e f i t a d v a n t a g e s which o u t -
w e i g h e d t h e h i g h e r c o s t of t h e s y n t h e t i c s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
t r u e f o r l a r g e s y s t e m s w h e r e t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f f e r e d by t h e
s y n t h e t i c o i l is i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t v e r y c o s t l y s y s t e m component
replacement. The i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a r i t y of r o t a r y screw c o m p r e s s o r s
is a n o t h e r r e a s o n for t h e i n c r e a s e d u s e of s y n t h e t i c o i l s .
R o t a r y screw compressors b e n e f i t from t h e l o n g e r o i l l i f e a n d
i n c r e a s e d e f f i c i e n c y of t h e s y n t h e t i c ,
CONCLUSIONS
H y d r o t r e a t e d o i l s h a v e much t o o f f e r i n i m p r o v i n g p e r f o r m a n c e i n
ammonia r e f r i g e r a t i o n s y s t e m s . P r o p e r t i e s which compare
f a v o r a b l y w i t h naphthenic mineral Qils are e x c e l l e n t thermal
a n d c h e m i c a l s t a b i l i t y , low v o l a t i l i t y , i m p r o v e d low t e m p e r a t u r e
f l u i d i t y and e x c e l l e n t l u b r i c i t y . Polyalphaolefin synthetics
h a v e p r o v e n t h e m s e l v e s f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s t o be a n e x c e l l e n t
a l t e r n a t i v e to naphthenic r e f r i g e r a t i o n oils. Hydrotreated
h i g h - v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x base s t o c k s h a v e b e e n f o r m u l a t e d ,
sometimes w i t h p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c s , a s a p a r a s y n t h e t i c
and have g i v e n e x c e l l e n t f i e l d r e s u l t s .
* x *
160
APPENDIX 1
THERMAL A N D CHEMICAL STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS

~ _ _ ~~
I N A M M O N I A REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
O i l s w h i c h l a c k p r o p e r t h e r m a l and c h e m i c a l s t a b i l i t y c a n
undergo polymerization or depolymerization. The r e s u l t s
can be a h u i l d - u p o r breakdown of o i l v i s c o s i t y . The o i l
may react w i t h t h e r e f r i g e r a n t , metals a n d c o n t a m i n a n t s
i n t h e s y s t e m t o form s l u d g e a n d gums. Carbon d e p o s i t s
c a n form on v a l v e s . Good o i l s t a b i l i t y i s r e q u i r e d i f
h y d r o d y n a m i c l u b r i c a t i o n i s t o be m a i n t a i n e d , c o m p r e s s o r
c y l i n d e r s a r e t o be s e a l e d a n d s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s a r e t o
remain c l e a n .
The r e a c t i o n of ammonia w i t h o r g a n i c a c i d s f o r m e d b y t h e
d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e c o m p r e s s o r o i l t o form ammonium s a l t s h a s
b e e n described ( 1 3 ) . The ammonium s a l t s a r e d e s c r i b e d a s .
s o a p s w h i c h c a n f u r t h e r 6.ecompose t o f o r m amides ( s l u d g e ) a n d
water. The p o s s i b i l i t y of t h i s t y p e of r e a c t i o n c a n be reduced
b y u s i n g a more s t a b l e o i l w h i c h resists o x i d a t i o n and keeps t h e
s y s t e m d r y and f r e e o f a i r . A d d i t i v e s may be u s e d t o p r e v e n t
t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e o r g a n i c a c i d s b y i n h i b i t i n g t h e o x i d a t i o n
of t h e o i l . O t h e r a d d i t i v e s may i n h i b i t f r e e r a d i c a l s f o r m e d
--
d u r i n g t h e r e a c t i o n w h i c h is e x p l a i n e d a s f o l l o w s ( 1 4 1 , (15):
R- + 0 ROO.
PROPAGATION
ROO* + RH ROOH + R.
NH3 + RCOH # ROONH4 RONH2 FORMATION OF AMMONIUM

SALTS, SLUDGE A N D WATER
T h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e h y d r o t r e a t e d h i g h - v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x o i l a n d
t h e p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n s y n t h e t i c a r e s i m i l a r . Both o i l s a r e
h i g h l y saturated. R e a c t i v e double b o n d s , C=C, h a v e b e e n
removed by t r e a t m e n t w i t h h y d r o g e n . These o i l s are i s o p a r a f f i n i c
i n s t r u c t u r e w h i c h means t h e y h a v e a h i g h deqrze o f b r a n c h i n g .
T h e r e s u l t of t h i s s t r u c t u r e i s a more c o m p a c t , t h e r m a l l y
s t a b l e , less r e a c t i v e m o l e c u l e . B o t h of t h e s e o i l s h a v e b e e n
p r o v e n t o o p e r a t e w i t h less d e g r a d a t i o n a t h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s
161
in all t-ypes of industrial lubrication applications. The
polyalphaolefin synthetic hydrocarbon oil has been described
as one of two oils found to be thermally and chemically
acceptable in high temperature heat pump applications (16).
These oils have a l s o been used in rotary screw compressors
handling corrosive gases for several y e a r s , as mentioned in
the text.
* * *
162
REFERENCES
1. S a n d v o r d e n k e r , K. S . a n d L a r i m e , M . W . , Review o f
S y n t h e t i c O i l s f o r R e f r i g e r a t i o n U s e , " Symposium, L u b r i c a n t s ,
R e f r i g e r a n t s a n d S y s t e m s - Some I n t e r a c t i o n s . Presented
a t t h e A S H R A E M e e t i n g , N a s s a u , 1 9 7 2 . Symposium B u l l e t i n
N A 72-5.
2. C a m p e n , M., " S y n t h e t i c L u b r i c a n t s a n d Related F u n c t i o n a l

F l u i d s , S e m i n a r , "The A B C I s of S y n t h e t i c L u b r i c a n t s ,
I' 'I
p r e s e n t e d a t t h e ASLE M e e t i n g , L o s A n g e i e s , C a l i f o r n i a ,
April, 1976.
3. S a n d v o r d e n k e r , K. S . , " L u b r i c a t i o n b y O i l - R e f r i g e r a n t
M i x t u r e s : B e h a v i o r i n The F a l e x Tester, 'I A S H R A E M e e t i n g ,
Kansas C i t y , 1984. ASHRAE T r a n s a c t i o n s , V o l . 9 0 , 1 9 8 4 ,
P a r t 2,. KC-84-14 N o . 3 .
4. S a n v o r d e c k e r , K. S . a n d G r a m , W., I I L a b c r a t o r y T e s t i n g
Under C o n t r o l l e d E n v i r o n m e n t U s i n g a F a l e x M a c h i n e , "
P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e 1 9 7 4 P u r d u e Compressor T e c h n o l o g y
C o n f e r e n c e , 1 9 7 4 , P. 67.
5. H o c k e n b e r r y , H. R . , " A d h e s i v e Wear of Metals i n Ammonia

A t m o s p h e r e , " A p p l i c a t i o n D e v e l o p m e n t L a b o r a t o r y Report T e s t
No. 81130-002, F e b r u a r y , 1 9 8 4 ,
6. V i l l a d s e n , V . a n d B o l d v i g , F. V . , 1 8 0 i li n F . e f r i g e r a t i o n
Plants." P r e s e n t e d a t I I A R Meeting, 1984.
7. S h o r t , G l e n n , "Development of S y n t h e t i c L u b r i c a n t s f o r
E x t e n d e d L i f e i n Rota& Screw C&npressors, L u b r i c a t i o n
It
E n g i n e e r i n g , Vol. 4 0 , N o . 8 , A u g u s t , 1 9 8 4 , P . 4 6 3 .
8. Miller, J. W i l l i a m , "Synthetic Lubricants and Their

I n d u s t r i a l Applications.'I Presented a t t h e 4th International
Colloquium, S y n t h e t i c L u b r i c a n t s and O p s a t i o n a l F l u i d s ,
J a n . ; 1 9 8 4 , T e c h n i s c h e Akademie E s s l i n g e n , O s t f i l d e r n ,
West Germany.
9. H a m i l t o n , G. S . , " H y d r o t r e a t e d E n g i n e O i l f o r t h e C a n a d i a n
R a i l r o a d I n d u s t r y , " L u b r i c a t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 3 8 , No. 5 ,
May, 1 9 8 2 , P . 2 7 9 .
10. Klamann, D . , " L u b r i c a n t s a n d Related P r o d u c t s , Weinheim:

F l o r i d a ; B a s e l , 1 9 8 4 , P. 1 0 6 .
163
11. Swinney, B., e t a l , slDevelopment of Long Drain Multi-
g r a d e D i e s e l Engine O i l s f o r t h e Canadian M a r k e t ,'*
78095 SAE, I n c . , I n t e r n a t i o n a l F u e l s and L u b r i c a n t s
Meeting, November, 1978, T o r o n t o , Canada.
12. ASHRAE Handbook, Systems, C h a p t e r ' 2 5 , 1984
1.3. ASHRAE Handbook, S y s t e m s , C h a p t e r 27, 1984.
14. K o r c e k , S . and J e n s e n , R . K., " R e l a t i o n Between Base

O i l Composition and O x i d a t i o n S t a b i l i t y a t I n c r e a s e d
Temperature, ASLE T r a n s a c t i o n s , V o l . 19, No. 2, A p r i l ,
1976, P. 83.
15. S t e i n l e , H . , "Development and T e s t i n g of L u b r i c a n t s for

R e f r i g e r a t i o n Machines," ASHRAE T r a n s a c t i o n s , V o l . 7 0 ,
1964, p . 195.
16. Kruse, H. H. and S c h r o e d e r , M., '8Fundauientals of

L u b r i c a t i o n i n R e f r i g e r a t i o n Systems and Heat Pumps ,I'
ASHRAE T r a n s a c t i o n s , Vol. 9 0 , 1984, P a r t 2, KC-84-14,
N o . 1.
* * *
SYNTHESIS OF HYDROGENATED POLYALPHAOLEFINS ( P A O )
Figure 1
165
I
. . -
-
Aromatic c-c
Baric s t r u c t u r e of P o i y v l p h a o l d i u (PA01 Synthetic Hydracarbon

and Three General Catergorres o f Crude Oils
Frgure 2
ANHYDROUS AMMONIA GAS FOAM TEST
TEST OIL DESCRIPTION FOAM LEVEL ML*

Start 1 min. 3 min. 5 min. 30 m i n .
Naphthenic O i l 125 155 210 325 500+
PA0 S y n t h e t i c O i l 125 125 125 125 125
H y d r o t r e a t e d HVI O i l 125 128 128 128 140
(1) Overflowed test cylinder

( 2 ) B r e a k time 24 sec.
*Foam T e s t P r o c e d u r e is a modified ASTM T u r b i n e O i l s e q u e n c e I1
The t e s t gas is r e f r i g e r a t i o n grade a n h y d r o u s ammonia. The

t e s t c y l i n d e r is a 500 ml c y l i n d e r g r a d u a t e d e v e r y 5 ml. All
t e s t s were carried o u t a t 9 0 ° C . A s t a n d a r d ASTM a i r s t o n e was
u s e d t o disperse t h e gas i n t o the oil a t 500 cc/min.
Figure 3
E7
...
.I. -
ASTM STAXVARD VISCOSITY-TEMPERATURE CHART
PA0 Synthetic Lubricants and Saphthenic Lubricants
TEMPERATURE. CEGRBES. CE-SILS
Figure 4
I
COMPARISON OF HEAT TRANSFER PROPERTIES
I
PA0 Synthetic v s Naphthenic Mineral Oil
1
PA0 M i n e r a l Oil
Thermal C o n d u c t i v i t y
BTU/(hr - ft2 - ' F / f t )
8 100°F 0.091 --
8 300'F 0.087 0.071
S p e c i f i c Heat, C
P
Q 100°F 0.54 0.47
8 300'F 0 -62 0.56
Figure 5
169
THERMAL STABILITY OF PA0
2 1 Days Exposure i n Nitrogen--288'C (551°F)
Before After
V i s c o s i t y , C s t Q77'F .
92 36 56.50
B r o m i n e Index 405 4021
C o l o r , Saybolt +30 -
T o t a l Acid No. (0.03 (0.03
F l a s h Point, D 92:'F 505 265
F i r e P o i n t , D 92:'F 555 47 0
Oligomer D i s t . , W t .%
IBP--C9
0.02 0.60
-10 - '17 0 .oo 2.50
'18 - '20 0.00 1.35
'30 2.93 6.81
'40 47.07 48.02
49.99 40.73
.......................
'50
No s o l i d s were o b s e r v e d i n the P A 0 a f t e r e a c h t e s t .
Figure 6
3.70 J
I GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC DISTILLATION OF
68 IS0 BASE STOCKS (ASTH D2887)
600
I
0 Hydrotreated H V I O i l
I @ PA0 S y n t h e t i c O i l
550
@
1 @
S o l vent Refined P a r a f f i n i c O i l
D i a l k y l Benzene S y n t h e t i c O i l
I 500
@ Naphthenic Ref r i g e r a t i o n O i l
I
8 450
I u
0
tu
a
L
3
+I
2
a,
400
a
I E
2
I 350
I
1
I
300
f
.
I 250
I
1 1 I I 1
I 20 40 60
Percent D i s t i l l a t e
80 100
I Figure 7 ..
I l7Y. ,i
I
V O L A T I L I T Y OF HYDROTREATED H V I , PA0 S Y N T H E T I C ...
.. .
AND N A P H T H E N I C 68 IS0 R E F R I G E R A T I O N O I L S ...
1 1 1 a 1 b . . 4
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

% WEIGHT LOSS ( 2 2 HOURS AT 1 0 0 O C )
.. . .
LUBE O I L HYDROTREATING PLANT ..*.....
c3r5
GAS
c INAPHTHA
F I R S T STAGE
1 e,
ATMOSPHERIC KEROSENE
HYDRO-TREATER FRACTIONATION
I
L i FURNACE OIL
CRUDE U S I T
T & V I VACUUM
FRACTIONATION
CRUDE GAS
# WAXY LUBE STOCK
-
OILS
CHARGE
m
-l1
- DEWAXING SLACK WAY
REDUCED
CHARGE
c
SECOND STAGE
PROPANE HYDRO-TREATER
DEASPHALTER [ STOCKS ]
ASPHALT
Figure 9
..*
ASTM STANDARD VISCOSITY-TEMPERATURE CHART FOR LlOUlD P E T R O L E U M PRODUCTS
RELATIONSHIP OF FOUR ( 4 ) 6 8 IS0 REFRIGERATIOS O I L S
0
.4
Q)
TEMPERATURE. DEOREES. CELSIUS
F i g u r e 10
.
P A N E L COKER TESTS
(CONTINUOUS S P R A Y I N G AT 560°F F O R 4 H O U R S )
.....,..
TEST 1
HT BASE STOCK: SOON

1>ze--
Figure 11
1
I
I
I
MOLECULAR WEIGHT COMPARISON OF FOUR IS0 6 8
I
AMMONIA REFRIGERATION OILS
I
Molecular Weight
I
PA0 780
I
Hydrotreated HVI
Naphthenic
460
370
1
Dialkyl Benzene 3 75 I
1
I
I
m
m
I
I
Figure 12 I
I
176 m
TIPOS DE ENFRIAMIENTO DE
ACEITE
Diseño del Sistema y Accesorios
Por que Enfriar el Aceite ?

z Todos los compresores de tipo tornillo de
tipo inudando de aceite usan el aceite
para:
– Lubricacion de partes internas
– Sello de compresion entre elementos y
carcasa
– Absorber el calor de compresion o generado
por el trabajo de compresion
– En algunos compresores, para dar movimiento
a piezas internas como un piston hidraulico
z El aceite debe ser soluble o compatible con el Refrigerante,
para ello, a una determinada Temperatura, tiene un punto
de fluidez
fluidez, viscosidad y solubilidad
solubilidad.
z Entre el giro del compresor y la temperatura, el aceite
adquiere la viscosidad adecuada para la lubricacion de los
rodamientos y el sello de compresion.
z En promedio se desea que el compresor descargue de 20
a 25°
25°F por encima de la Temperatura de Saturacion de
Condensacion p para evitar la condensacion dentro del
Separador de Aceite y para lograr separar el Aceite del
Flujo de Gas del refrigerante y que no viaje junto con el por
el sistema y mas bien se quede en el compresor o
separador de aceite del compresor
VSS Oil Separator

VSM and VSR Oil Separator

La potencia
consumida del
compresor es el
resultado de
absorber el cambio
de entalpia del gas y
del aceite
Power = mGAS CpGAS

dTGAS + mOIL CpOIL dTOIL
Formas de Enfriamiento
z Indirecto
– Enfriar
E f i ell aceite
it en forma
f externa
t del
d l
compresor usando algun medio enfriante
z Directo
– Permitir el enfriamiento dentro del compresor
y la mezcla con de gas-
gas-aceite que es
descargado del compresor
Los Indirectos son mas costos de Inversion e

Instalacion, pero ahorran mas H.P. o kW
versus los Directos que penalizan Capacidad y
Motor del compresor
z Tipos Externos
– Agua
– Glicol u otras substancias
– Aire
– Uso del Mismo Refrigerante
z A li
Aplicacion
i d dell Enfriamiento
E fi i t
– Enfriar el aceite antes de ser Inyectado
al compresor
z I di
Indirecto
z Agua o Glicol
– Uso de Intercambiadores de Calor
z Casco Tubo
z Placas y Bastidor
z Placas y Casco
z Expiral o Radiador
z Indirecto
– Intercambiador Externo
– Agua o Glicol
– Termosifon
z Directo
– Inyeccion de Refrigerante Liquido
z Inyeccion de Liquido
z V-Plus
– Refrigerante Liquido en el mismo

proceso de Compresion
Agua o Glicol o Similares
z Tipos de Intercambiadores
z Casco - Tubo
– Cabezas removibles para limpieza
z Placas
– Bastidor y Placas, Lado refrigerante
soldado,
Agua--Glicol o Similares
Agua
z Diseño
– Aceite fluye fuera del separador
– Una bomba o mecanismo forza el aceite por el
enfriador de aceite
– La temperatura de salida del aceite es
normalmente controlada por una valvula
termica que mezcla aceite frio con caliente
– Temp ideal de salida del aceite 110-
110-140
140°°F (120
°F promedio ).
Agua--Glicol-
Agua Glicol-Similares
z Componentes
z Intercambiador de Calor
z Valvula de Tres vias de mezcla y
termica
z Tuberia
z Valvula de Alivio
Pros & Cons
z Al costo del
Alto d l Intercambiador
I bi d ded
Calor
z En el caso de Agua o Glicol, fuente
adicional para remover el calor al
agua o Glicol, Otro costo de
inversion y operacion
z En el caso de agua, tratamientos
quimicos y limpieza
z Indirecto
– Agua o Glicol
– Termosifon
z Directo
z V-Plus
– Refrigerante Liquido en el mismo

Efecto Termosifon
z Se utiliza el mismo refrigerante como medio enfriador.
– El refrigerante viene del mismo Condensador y pasa por el
Intercambiador de Calor.
– Se usa el principio de Inundacion o Gravedad. Todo el

enfriador esta inundado de refrigerante.
– Una vez pasa o entra el aceite caliente, el intercambio termico

cambia de estado el refrigerante de estado liquido a gaseoso.
j de gas
La burbuja g sube hacia la superficie
p por
p densidad.
– Las Burbujas son arratradas por el gas de descarga que

succiona la linea de salida del Enfriador de Aceite, Efecto
SIFON.
– Fenomeno de dos Fases dentro de tuberia: Liquido y Gas
Efecto Termosifon
z Diseño
– Aceite fluye fuera del separador
– Sea por bombeo mecanico o presion
diferencial, pasa por el intercambiador de
calor
– Temperatura normalmente controlada por una
valvula termica de mezcla
– Debe existir una altura minima entre la reserva
de refrigerante y el enfriador de aceite para
que funcione el efecto sifon. La pierna
aumentara la presion del liquido sin cambiar
Temperatura.
Efecto Termosifon
z Componentes
z Intercambiador Externo
z Valvula de Tres vias de mezcla
z Tuberia
z Valvula de Alivio
z Altura
Pros & Cons
z Bajo Mantenimiento
z Simple
z Altos Costos en la inversion o instalacion
inicial
z La carga de calor debe ser agregada al
condensador, condensador debe ser
seleccionado mas grande para ello
z Diseño e Ingenieria en el tamaño de la
tuberia Mal diseño y no funciona el sistema
tuberia.
y alto costo en repararlo
z Altura minima requerida obliga a ubicar
condensador en Techos o mayores alturas
z Indirecto
z Directo
z V-Plus
– Refrigerante
R fi Li
Liquido
id en ell mismo
i
Directo
z Se permite contacto directo del flujo
fl jo
de gas-
gas-aceite de descarga y
mezclarse con refrigerante en estado
liquido
Directo
z Tipos
– Inyeccion de Liquido en la descarga de los

compresores.
– V-Plus – Inyeccion de liquido en la descarga de los

compresors
p
– Cool Compression o Proceso de COMPRESION

FRIA
z Indirecto
z Directo
z V-Plus
– Refrigerante
R fi Li
Liquido
id en ell mismo
i
Inyeccion de Liquido
z Diseño
– Boquilla o Inyector rocia refrigerane liquido en
la descarga del compresor o rotor
– Liquido se mezcla con el flujo de gas y aceite
que esta siendo descargado
– El Refrigerante se evapora o se convierte en
gas al enfriar el flujo
– Sensor de Temperatura para controlar la
valvula de Expansion y asi mantener
controlada la temperatura de Descarga
Inyeccion de Liquido
z Componentes
z Linea de Liquido
q proveniente
p del Recibidor o
Recipiente, con accesorios de valvula de corte,
filtro, visor, solenoide y valvula de Expanision
z Sensor de Temperatura y Valvula de Expansion sea
de Regulacion Termoestatica, Electronica o
Motorizada
z Boquilla en la descarga del compresor
z Entre el compresor y la Valvulas de Expansion
debe existir algunas veces una Presion Diferencial
de 50 psigDiff para que la valvula pueda inyectar
liquido dentro del compresor.
Inyeccion de Liquido en
BOOSTERS
Inyeccion de Liquido en ALTA ETAPA
Pros & Cons

z Bajo Costo de inversion e instalacion
z Sistema complejo de accesorios y de mantenimiento y
calibracion
z Se requiere de Valvula de Expansion Precisa para el
tamaño y aplicacion
z Se debe tener control preciso de temperatura
z Temperaturas Ideales 120-
120-135
135°°F de descarga = aceite =
separador de aceite
z Mal calibrada o en mal estado,, inunda el separador
p de
Aceite con Refrigerante Liquido desequilibrando la
proporcion de lubricacion y causando daño y fallas en
los rotores y rodamientos del compresor.
z Recompresion del refrigerante que se vuelve gas
penalizando capacidad y Motor al compresor
z Indirecto
z Directo
z V-Plus
– Refrigerante
R fi Li
Liquido
id en ell mismo
i
V-Plus
z Diseño
– Sensor de Temperatura controla la
velocidad de la Bomba
– Liquido entra en la descarga o tubo de
descarga del separador
– Refrigerante se mezcla con el flujo de
descarga y se evapora
V-Plus
z Componentes
z Bomba con Motor tipo DC y variador
de velocidad
z Sensor de Temperatura
z Boquilla en la tuberia de descarga del
separador
Pros & Cons
z C t lP
Control Preciso
i ded Temperatura
T t
z No penaliza Capacidad o Motor como su
sistema hermano Inyeccion de Liquido
z Uso de bomba y costos de operacion y
mantenimiento
z Mala operacion si existe Flash Gas en la
linea de Liquido
z Ideal para Barcos donde se obliga a usar o
Agua de mar o Inyeccion de Liquido
z Indirecto
z Directo
z V-Plus
– Refrigerante
R fi Li
Liquido
id en ell mismo
i
Cool Compression
z Separador de aceite con Amoniaco en Estado
Liquido dentro del Separador
z Solo para aplicaciones de Amoniaco
z Se basa en hacer el proceso de compresion en
forma Fria o rechazar el calor al mismo tiempo que
sucede la compresion.
z Se descarga a TEMPERATURAS DE SATURACION
y NO
O SO
SOBRECALENTADAS
C S
z Saturated Conditions
70°F to 100°F Discharge Gas Temperatures
(averages 2F° higher than saturated temp)
Cool Compression o Compresion Fria

z Gracias a la virtud que todos los
rodamientos del compresor se
encuentran a una sola presion = presion
de Succion ; y al mismo tiempo a una
misma temperatura, es posible el uso de
inyectar una mezcla rica de aceite y
amoniaco
i sin
i que esta
t haga
h daño
d ñ sobre
b
los rodamientos como sucede en otro
estilo de compresores
z Una mezla rica de aceite y amoniaco
se inyecta al compresor.
z Dentro del separador, se tiene una
capa de aceite y una capa de
amoniaco, formando la mezcla rica
z La capa
p de amoniaco esta encima de
la capa de aceite
z La molecula que entra esta formada
por aceite y amoniaco
z Los Rodamientos principales reciben aceite en

forma pura o de la parte inferior de la capa.
z El rotor
t y otras
t partes
t reciben
ib la l mezclal rica
i de
d
amoniaco y aceite
z Ambos se mezclan en el transcurso de la
compresion y son descargados en el flujo de gas.
z En el separador, la molecula de aceite-
aceite-amoniaco
liquido unidos y aceite se separan del flujo caen
por densidad o gotas sobre la capa.
z El manto o capa de liquido sobre el aceite, protege
el aceite de evaporase y viajar con el flujo de
descarga.
z La mezcla rica de aceite-
aceite-amoniaco reduce
el freno o deslizamiento de la piezas
internas
z La mezcla rica a Temperatura de
Saturacion de Descarga evita la
Recompresion o Flash Gas del amoniaco
liquido
q
z Este efecto Minimiza el calentamiento del
Gas durante el ciclo de compresion y al
mismo tiempo la expansion de este,
logrando asi una compresion FRIA.
z Diseño:
– La capa de amoniaco a Saturacion mantiene el aceite a
Temperatura
e pe atu a de Saturacion
Satu ac o mas as unos
u os cuantos
cua tos grados.
g ados
– Una vez entre en compresion, la mezcla rica absorbe el
calor de compresion, pero sin sobrecalentarse o
expandirse.
– Estas moleculas bajaran nuevamente de temperatura al
caer por goteo o densidad sobre la capa de Amoniaco
Liquido
– La capa o manto actua protegiendo el aceite de
sobrecalentarse.
– La capa reducira en Nivel al ceder su energia a esta
moleculas calientes que le llegan al manto y de esta
manera el manto bajara de nivel.
– Un sensor de Nivel de Amoniaco y aceite, permitira la
entrada de mas amoniaco para recuparar el nivel perdido
Monitoreo de Cool Compression
o Compresion Fria
z La temperatura de Saturacion es calculada
con base a la Presion de Descarga y
comparada con al temperatura de Descarga
para asi poderCalcular Sobrecalentamiento
z Cuando el Sobrecalentamiento es mayor que
15 grados, el comepresor deja de Cargar
25 grados,
d ell compresor comienza
i a
descargarse
35 grados, para
Vilter Cool Compression Flash.exe
Oil Separator Sump- Reserva de
Aceite de Seguridad
Dual Oil Filters – Doble Filtro de Aceite

Danfoss Motorized Valve Set
Danfoss Level Probe – Probeta de Nivel

Danfoss Level Probe Installation
Danfoss Level Probe Installed

New Electronic Modulating Level Control
Doble Indicadores de Nivel

Alarma y Paro
Doble Indicadores de Nivel
Alarma y Paro
Pros &Cons
z Bajo costo de Inversion y de Instalacion
z Simple
p
z Da Eficiencias igual o Y EN LA MAYORIA
DE LOS CASOS mejores que sistema de
termosifon
z Aunque existen personas que lo
comparan con un sistema de Inyeccion de
Liquido no tiene ni la penalizacion de
Liquido,
Capacidad, ni la recompresion de gas, ni
el aumento de Motor que los sistemas
convencionales de Inyeccion.
Pros &Cons
z Ah
Ahorra l inversion
la i i e instalacion
i t l i de d Tuberia
T b i y
sistema de Termosifon
z No usa y no tiene filtros coalescentes, un item
menos de mantenimiento
z Al estar en Saturacion y NO Sobrecalentado,
permite fabricar el separador de aceite en
diametros y longitudes mas pequenas, bajando
costo de fabricacion
z De la misma manera, en espacio pequeños, ideal
por su tamaño.
Pros &Cons
z S l sirve
Solo i para Amoniaco
A i
z Unicamente en fabricado en los Modelos VSM
z Nominal 200 CFM to 700 CFM (from about 70 to 300 tons)
z Solo se puede en aplicaciones de Una sola Etapa o en la
etapa de Alta en un sistema Doble Etapa ( no se puede
como Booster) y que no excedan relaciones de compresion
– VSM-
VSM-201 through VSM
VSM--401 Models
z Pressure Ratios 2.3:1 to 7:1
– VSM
VSM--501 through VSM
VSM--701 Models
z Pressure Ratios 2.3:1 to 11:1
Gracias
Technical Papers
29th Annual Meeting
International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration
March 18–21, 2007
2007 Ammonia Refrigeration Conference & Trade Show

Nashville Renaissance Hotel/Nashville Convention Center
Nashville, Tennessee
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Refrigeration is due to the quality of the technical papers in this volume and the labor of its
authors. IIAR expresses its deep appreciation to the authors, reviewers, and editors for their
contributions to the ammonia refrigeration industry.
Board of Directors, International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration
ABOUT THIS VOLUME
International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration. They are not official positions of the
Institute and are not officially endorsed.
EDITORS
Chris Combs, Project Coordinator
Gene Troy, P.E., Technical Director
Kirsten McNeil, Staff Engineer

1110 North Glebe Road
Suite 250
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+ 1-703-312-4200 (voice)
+ 1-703-312-0065 (fax)
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Nashville Renaissance Hotel/Nashville Convention Center
Nashville, Tennessee
Trabajo técnico #3
Diseño del
sistema termosifón
Jeff Welch, P.E.

Freeze-Pro, Inc.
Orange Park, Florida
Abstracto
Debido a razones operativas y de mantenimiento, los sistemas termosifón se han convertido en un

método muy popular de enfriamiento de aceite entre los diseñadores. A pesar de que se instalan
muchos sistemas cada año, todavía existen problemas debido a una falta de comprensión sobre cómo
deberían ser diseñados e instalados. Esta ponencia presenta un método teórico para el modelado de
un sistema inundado o termosifón que puede ser usado por los diseñadores a la hora de obtener
diseños más precisos y económicos, pero también para analizar sistemas que no rinden como se
espera de ellos. Esta ponencia también presenta una lista de guías básicas de diseño y precauciones
a tener en cuenta.
2007 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference & Trade Show, Nashville, Tennessee
© IIAR 2007 319

Diseño del sistema termosifón
Introducción
Los sistemas de enfriamiento de aceite termosifón se han convertido en el método

de enfriamiento de aceite más popular en la mayoría de las instalaciones actuales de
refrigeración con amoníaco con compresores de tornillo. Esto se debe a la sencillez
del sistema y la presencia de una sola parte o pieza en movimiento—el elemento
en la válvula de regulación de la temperatura del aceite. A pesar de que se instalan
una multitud de sistemas cada año, los problemas continúan apareciendo. Esta
ponencia presentará las herramientas matemáticas para modelar un sistema y
mostrar una gráfica de este modelo bajo diversas cargas, dando como resultado una
mejor comprensión de los parámetros de diseño. Además, ofrecerá una lista de guías
básicas de diseño y precauciones.
Fundamentos básicos
Para entender cómo funciona un método teórico, el lector debe familiarizarse con
sus fundamentos. Los siguientes conceptos están incluidos en el modelo: fuerza de
propulsión (o fuerza motriz), fuerza resistente y fuerza neta.
Fuerza de propulsión
La elevación de la fuerza de suministro de un líquido relativo al intercambiador de

calor proporciona la fuerza de propulsión o fuerza motriz. Puede ser modelada con la
siguiente ecuación:
1 gHs (1)
Cabezal estático de suministro (psi) =
144gc
Donde 1 es la densidad líquida, Hs es la altura de la columna de suministro y g/144gc

es un factor aplicado para convertir el cálculo de unidades de psi. Para la fuerza de
Trabajo técnico #3 © IIAR 2007 321

propulsión neta, el cabezal estático de retorno termosifón (TSR, por sus siglas en
inglés) debe ser sustraído del cabezal estático del suministro termosifón (TSS, por
sus siglas en inglés). El cabezal de retorno puede ser expresado con la siguiente
ecuación:
2 gHR
Cabezal de retorno estático (psi) = (2)
144gc
Dondeρ2Φes la densidad de fluido en dos fases y HR es la altura del elevador de

retorno.
Mientras las fracciones de vapor y líquido se encuentren en aumento al mismo nivel,

la densidad de fluido de dos fases, 2, se define como sigue: (Beattie y Whalley,
1982)
X = 1(1 – X) + v X (3)
Donde X es la fracción de vapor del fluido de doble fase (también conocido como
“calidad del vapor”), y v es la densidad de la fase de vapor. X puede también
definirse en términos del nivel de sobrealimentación:
1
X= (4)
Nivel de sobrealimentación
La combinación de las ecuaciones 1 y 2 da como resultado el cabezal estático neto o

el potencial total de propulsión:
(1Hs – 2HR)g
Cabezal estático neto (psi) = (5)
144gc
Ver la Figura 1.
322 © IIAR 2007 Trabajo técnico #3

Fuerza resistente
El cabezal estático neto del sistema termosifón debe superar la resistencia dinámica
al fluido de las pérdidas de presión a la fricción en los sistemas de suministro
termosifón y de tubería de retorno, junto con el intercambiador de calor (HX, por sus
siglas en inglés). Estas pérdidas de fricción pueden ser expresadas individualmente
usando la ecuación Darcy-Weisbach según sigue:
fLv2 fLv2 fLv2

PTotal = + + (6)
2d(144gc) TSS
2d(144gc) HX
2d(144gc) TSR
donde:
P = pérdidas de presión total de fricción
f = factor de fricción (depende de las condiciones de fluido y las

características de la tubería)
L = longitud equivalente calculada de la tubería, las válvulas y las

conexiones
v = velocidad de fluido
d = diámetro de la tubería
Las pérdidas de fricción en el TSS y TSR pueden calcularse usando las técnicas
señaladas en la ponencia publicada durante los Procedimientos de la Conferencia de
IIAR en 1999 (Andrews y Welch, 1999). Los fabricantes publican listados con datos,
señalando la caída de presión en condiciones de diseño para sus intercambiadores
de calor. La caída de presión en otras condiciones puede ser calculada de forma
aproximada multiplicando la caída de presión suministrada por el fabricante por el
cociente de las velocidades ajustadas en los diversos niveles de fluido, y luego por
el cociente de las densidades en las condiciones diferentes. Considerando que la

mayoría de los enfriadores de aceite termosifón operan entre 30% y 120% de la carga
de diseño, esta aproximación es razonablemente precisa.
Fuerza neta
“La madre naturaleza ama el balance.” Para que nuestro termosifón funcione
correctamente, la fuerza de propulsión debe siempre hacer un contrapeso a la
fuerza resistente. Expresamos este concepto de forma matemática combinando las
ecuaciones 5 y 6 para dar como resultado una nueva ecuación:
fLv2 fLv2 fLv2

1ghs – 2ghR = + + (7)
2d TSS
2d HX
2d TSR
Una vez el sistema es diseñado e instalado, los valores de las variables geométricas
se convierten en fijos. Si la presión del amoníaco se define a un valor fijo, luego la
densidad líquida y la densidad del vapor también se convierten en valores fijos. Para
mayor claridad, la Ecuación 7 puede ahora simplificarse sustituyendo las constantes
en lugar de las variables con valores fijos:
C1 – C22 = (C3v2)TSS + (C42v2)HX + (C52v2)TSR (8)
Entonces nos quedamos con las dos variables restantes: la densidad en dos fases y la
velocidad. La densidad en dos fases es una función del nivel de sobrealimentación,
“OF,” (por sus siglas en ingles)—o su fricción de vapor inversa. Las ecuaciones
3 y 4 pueden combinarse y ser expresadas con constantes:
1  C7
2 = 1 – + v = C6 – (9)
OF OF OF
La variable final es la velocidad, la cual es directamente proporcional a la carga en el

intercambiador de calor, Q.

Q
V= (10)
3600hfgvA
La ecuación 10 puede también ser expresada con constantes para cada caso (por
ejemplo, TSS, HX, TSR):
Q Q Q
VTSS = VHX = VTSR = (11)
C8 ; C9 ; C10
Si substituimos las ecuaciones 9 y 11 por la ecuación 8 da como resultado:
C7 Q 2
C7 Q 2
C7 Q 2
(12)
C1 – C2 C6 – – C3 + C4 C6 – + C5 C6 –
OF C8 OF C9 OF C10
En una hoja de balance o tabla, si fijamos el diseño del sistema y la temperatura de

operación se establecerá el valor de todas las constantes en la ecuación 12, dejando
Q y OF como las dos únicas variables desconocidas. Esto puede ser ajustado en
un formato de matriz y realizar una gráfica expresada visualmente a los puntos de
balance en cargas diversas. (Figura 2)
La sobrealimentación nula o cero podría representar un extremo en el balance. Bajo

esta condición, las tuberías de retorno del termosifón son puro vapor, el cabezal
estático neto aumenta al máximo y las pérdidas de presión de fricción se reducen
al mínimo. Un alto nivel de sobrealimentación representaría el otro extremo.
Por ejemplo, un nivel de sobre alimentación 10:1 o 20:1 en la tubería de retorno
del termosifón, a pesar de ser poco práctico, reduciría al mínimo el cabezal de
propulsión y aumentaría al máximo la pérdida de fricción. Un sistema funcional
operaría entre esos extremos.
La Figura 3 muestra de forma gráfica los niveles de sobrealimentación de la Figura

2 para un sistema de 500 MBH operando bajo diversas condiciones diferentes:
100%, 75%, 50% y 25% de la carga completa. Se puede ver que el nivel de

sobrealimentación de 4: 1 en condiciones de diseño puede convertirse fácilmente en

8:1 en una carga parcial y 2:1 a un nivel mayor de la carga de diseño. Debemos tener
en cuenta que la mayoría de los enfriadores de aceite termosifón están diseñados
para obtener un mejor rendimiento con una superficie del tubo totalmente húmeda.
Un objetivo del diseño cuidadoso como un nivel de sobrealimentación de 4:1
garantiza que todos los tubos se mantendrán húmedos y que el intercambiador de
calor obtendrá un buen rendimiento, independientemente del nivel de carga. Las
instalaciones típicas varían entre 30% y 120% del diseño de carga debido al cociente
de compresión, la capacidad y los cambios en el sobrecalentado (superheat, en
ingles).
Proceso de inicio
Afortunadamente, la descripción indicada arriba forma una imagen mental de la línea

de suministro de termosifón con un fluido lento llena de líquido puro y de la línea
de retorno de termosifón transportando el vapor fuera del enfriador de aceite con
un suave fluido con forma de anillo. Sin embargo, la operación del sistema típico no
comienza de esta forma. Creemos una imagen del proceso de inicio.
Sin carga – el sistema descansa
Con solo la gravedad actuando en el líquido, las tuberías de suministro y retorno se

llenaran al mismo nivel de líquido que el recipiente de termosifón.
Carga inicial
El refrigerante se evapora en los tubos del intercambiador de vapor horizontal para

fluir por cada extremo del intercambiador de calor. La flotabilidad hace que esas

burbujas de vapor se eleven y se escapen dentro del recipiente del termosifón.

A continuación, el líquido fluirá de vuelta dentro de la línea de suministro del
termosifón para reemplazar el líquido evaporado. Sin embargo, debido a que la línea
de retorno del termosifón se conecta con el recipiente del termosifón en un punto
sobre el nivel del líquido, no puede rellenarse con líquido y su nivel de líquido
disminuye. Ahora el nivel de líquido en la línea de suministro es mayor que el nivel
en la línea de retorno, estableciendo un diferencial en el cabezal estático, que es la
fuerza motriz o de propulsión que perpetua el fluido del líquido desde el recipiente al
intercambiador de calor. En este punto, la condición de fluido de la línea de retorno
del termosifón puede describirse como una columna parada con burbujas que se
elevan a lo largo. La investigación ha demostrado que la caída de presión de este
régimen de fluido es, por lo general, menor que el fluido agitado o el flujo en forma
de anillo (Petalas y Aziz, 1998). Mi modelo de tabla esta basado en este régimen, por
lo que las caídas de presión expresadas en esta serán conservadoras.
Sistema completamente operativo
En este punto, la velocidad del líquido de entrada arrastra cualquier burbuja de

vapor generada en los tubos del intercambiador de calor y las empuja hacia la salida
del intercambiador de calor. Las burbujas de amoníaco se elevarán solo a un nivel
de 0.62 pies o 18.89 cm/sec en un líquido a 35°C (Petalas y Aziz, 1998). Mientras
se genera vapor adicional a un nivel superior, la densidad de la mezcla de líquido/
vapor en la línea de retorno de termosifón se reduce más aun, aumenta la fuerza
de propulsión, resultando al final un fluido en forma de anillo. El fluido de líquido
sobrealimentado en la línea TSR no se volverá sobre si mismo y acumulará en la
línea una vez que la velocidad del vapor es superior al nivel de 304–396 cm por
segundo (Wiencke, 2000).

Revisión del diseño, revisión de la instalación, y localización

de averías
Las tuberías con el tamaño correcto son solo el principio. Para construir un sistema
“blindado” hay que recordar que las “burbujas siempre se elevan.” Usted lo aprendió
de niño en la bañera de su casa y, de momento, no ha cambiado. Los siguientes 25
puntos están pensados para ser una revisión de diseño, revisión de instalación y lista
de averías a localizar.
1. Reserve una conexión de suministro termosifón. Evite compartirla con el colector

del condensador de drenaje (condenser drain header, en inglés) si está disponible
la suficiente altura de recolección del condensador (Figura 4). Si el ventilador
del condensador o la bomba estuvieran operando, la presión del serpentin del
condensador disminuiría, teniendo que extraer líquido del colector de suministro
del termosifón (thermosiphon supply header, en inglés), y por lo tanto afectaría
negativamente al patrón de fluido y el condensador podría inundarse de forma
considerable.
2. Sitúe cuesta abajo el colector de suministro del termosifón (thermosiphon supply

header, en ingles) en dirección de los enfriadores de aceite (Figura 5). Esto
elimina cualquier efecto de agarre y proporciona una trayectoria para que escapen
las burbujas desde las tuberías al recipiente del termosifón.
3. Ventile el o los extremos de un colector grande TSS (Figura 6). Cuando la

temperatura de la sala de máquinas está aproximadamente a –9°C o a una
temperatura más alta que la temperatura de condensación, el calor acumulado
provocará que el amoníaco líquido vuelva de nuevo a la fase gaseosa, pudiendo
formarse rápidamente significativas cantidades de vapor. Considere lo siguiente:
el coeficiente de transferencia de vapor de una tubería sin revestimiento o
enchaquetado de 4" llena de amoníaco en aire en calma es aproximadamente
0.6 BTU/ft2–hr–°F. En una situación donde la sala de compresión está a 32°C y

la temperatura de condensación saturada es de 24°C, se formará una burbuja con

diámetro completo en una tubería de 4" para crecer a continuación a un nivel de
¡2.2" por minuto! (Lindenberg, 1998). El aire caliente proveniente de un motor
grande, un calentador radiante o un ventilador a máximo rendimiento pasando
sobre el colector TSS (TSS header, en ingles) afectará al máximo la situación. El
índice de expansión para amoníaco vaporizado es:
56:1 @ 35°C,
80:1 @ 24°C,
116:1 @ 13°C
4. Siempre deben caer las ramificaciones de TSS fuera del fondo del colector TSS
(Figura 7). Utilice tubos o uniones reductoras en forma de T o uniones weldolet
en ambas ramas TSS y TSR. Esto elimina el riesgo de errores en el entubado
cuando las tuberías están perforadas.
5. Es una práctica generalmente aceptada ajustar el tamaño de los colectores TSS y

sus ramificaciones para una velocidad máxima de 1.8 a 2 pies por segundo (un
pie equivale a 30 cm) a un nivel de sobrealimentación de 4:1. Esto se realiza de
acuerdo con la tabla 1–15 en el manual de cañerias de IIAR (IIAR, 1999, IIAR
Piping Handbook, en ingles) y la información técnica de uno de los principales
fabricantes. (Frick, 1995) Este autor ha utilizado más del cabezal estático neto
disponible y ha ajustado el tamaño de las ramificaciones TSS a 3.3 pies por
segundo, con un nivel de sobrealimentación de 3:1, en un proyecto realizado
en 1991, que está todavía operando con éxito. En mi opinión, una velocidad
en el rango de 3 a 5 pies por segundo debería ser el objetivo de diseño para
ramificaciones TSS considerando que existe suficiente cabezal estático neto.

6. Utilice válvulas de ángulo en vez de codos, si pueden ser ubicadas

convenientemente. Si no, utilice válvulas de globo en sistemas verticales de
tubería en la elevación más baja fácilmente accesible para facilitar el ventilado
del vapor, mientras que se proporciona suficiente cabezal estático para superar la
caída de presión en la válvula. Evite posicionar las válvulas de globo en sistemas
de entubado horizontal ya que esta configuración puede atrapar el gas y causar
una conexión del vapor.
7. Es obligatorio contar con válvulas de drenaje de aceite. A menos que el

termosifón se mantenga libre de aceite separándolo físicamente del sistema
central, el aceite se acumulará en el enfriador. Un aumento en la temperatura
del aceite es un indicador de un intercambiador de calor con aceite dentro
del sistema. Cuando localicemos la válvula de drenaje de aceite, debemos
asegurarnos de montarla donde esté protegida del tráfico de la montacargas.
(Figura 8) Considere la instalación de una válvula con retroceso por muelle
tipo “Dead Man” en este caso ya que esta válvula de drenaje podría abrir
potencialmente toda la parte superior sin ninguna recipiente de aceite para
aislar el aceite del sistema.
8. Utilice siempre reductores excéntricos, planos en la parte superior, si la entrada

y la salida del enfriador del aceite tienen distintos tamaños que el sistema de
tuberías. (Figura 9) Los reductores concéntricos en líneas verticales o los codos
reductores también son aceptables. Como en cualquier pieza de los equipos, los
tamaños de la conexión en los enfriadores de aceite son ajustados en tamaño de
forma genérica y no eliminan la necesidad de una buena ingeniería de sistemas y
del correcto tamaño de la línea.
9. Proporcione una válvula de seguridad para códigos aplicables en el lado del

amoníaco de las tuberías enfriadoras de aceite. Localícelo en la línea TSR de la
válvula de aislamiento, cuanto más alto mejor. Este diseño evita la presencia de
líquido en el asiento de la válvula y, por consiguiente, el riesgo de un choque

hidráulico. La Figura 5–15 en el manual de cañerias de IIAR (IIAR Piping

Handbook, en ingles) es un excelente ejemplo de este diseño.
10. La salida de la válvula de seguridad para la zona de casco del enfriador de aceite
debería estar conectada mediante tuberías al separador de aceite. Asegúrese de
que la válvula de seguridad es conveniente para esta aplicación y el tamaño se
ajusta a la presión de salida elevada. Esta válvula expulsará aceite cuando este
levantada, lo cual podría ser un problema en el colector de descarga (discharge
header, en inglés) para la válvula de seguridad de amoníaco, además de crear con
toda seguridad una posición no segura en caso de que se empuje un pedazo de
aceite.
11. Deben estar en cuesta las tuberías de la ramificación TSR hasta el colector de
retorno del termosifón, por ejemplo en la dirección del fluido. Evite siempre un
colector invertido o tuberías descendientes que no sea la caída final dentro del
colector TSR. Localice de forma central el recibidor TSR, de forma relativa a los
enfriadores de aceite, para reducir al mínimo las distancias horizontales en la
rama individual de retorno y colectores.
12. ¡Ojo! Siempre entube cada ramificación TSR como un elevador individual al
punto más alto en el sistema termosifón antes de conectarlo dentro del colector
TSR. No combine las ramificaciones de retorno del termosifón. El fluido de una de
estas puede, y lo hará, redirigirse hacia otra, causando problemas considerables.
13. Es una práctica generalmente aceptada ajustar el tamaño de las líneas de las
ramificaciones TSR para una velocidad máxima de 12 a 28 pies por segundo,
asumiendo que la tubería tenga entre 1¼" y 8". Tanto el manual de cañerias
de IIAR (IIAR Piping Handbook) como las instrucciones de un fabricante reflejan
esta práctica. (IIAR, 1999; Frick, 1995) Sin embargo, en consideración de la
velocidad mínima de 10 a 13 pies por segundo para fluido líquido sin sentido
inverso discutido con anterioridad (Wiencke, 2000), los diseñadores han reunido

una serie de razones para considerar velocidades mas altas en las ramificaciones
TSR que la práctica aceptada por lo general para evitar que el fluido se dirija en
sentido contrario en condiciones de carga de la parte.
14. El colector TSR debería estar ligeramente inclinado hacia abajo en dirección
del recipiente del termosifón, ¼" por pie. La aplicación consistente de un buen
tamaño de las ramificaciones garantiza un buen drenaje del líquido desde el
colector hasta el recipiente.
15. Reduzca al mínimo la altura del elevador del retorno (Figura 10). Recuerde que las
burbujas siempre se elevan y no quieren caer hasta el recipiente del termosifón.
Evite atentar contra la madre naturaleza o ella lo hará contra usted.
16. A 35°C, 45 pies por minuto es un buen objetivo de diseño para la velocidad de
separación del amoníaco. Me baso para recomendar esto en la siguiente ecuación:
1 – v
Velocidad (en unidades de pies por segundo) = 0.1 x 60
1
(Souders y Brown, 1934)
El recipiente del termosifón es un recipiente como se aplica en las guías de diseño

del recipiente de suministro y del acumulador estándar. Los condensadores no
son tan eficientes con líquido en el flujo de entrada de vapor.
17. Diseñe el recipiente del termosifón con drenaje condensador y el retorno del
termosifón en un extremo. El TSS y la ventilación deberían localizarse en el otro
extremo “tranquilo.” (Figura 11) Esto permite una mejor separación y menos
arrastre de vapor en el líquido TSS.

18. Diseñe el recipiente del termosifón con una reserva de líquido igual a la carga
anticipada del enfriador de aceite durante los primeros cinco minutos de
operación mientras que los condensadores acumulan líquido al inicio.
19. Realice el diseño para una caída total de presión menor de 0.2 psi en la tubería de
ventilación, las válvulas y ajustes, asumiendo una carga completa del enfriador
de aceite y diseño de operación a presión de condensación. Tenga en cuenta que
cualquier caída de presión en la línea de ventilación necesita ser nivelada con la
altura equivalente del líquido en las caídas del condensador. Esta altura se suma
a la caída mínima de 4 a 6 pies recomendada por los principales fabricantes de
condensadores para acomodarse a las caídas de presión en el condensador de
amoníaco. (BAC, 1996; Evapco, 1988)
20. No conecte o ajuste la línea del sistema ecualizador del recibidor con la
ventilación del termosifón. Están a diferentes presiones y realizan funciones
diferentes. El recipiente del termosifón será la ubicación con presión más alta
en el sistema de condensación debido a la pérdida de fricción en la línea de
ventilación.
21. El recipiente del termosifón y el recibidor de alta presión deberían estar

ecualizados al sistema de tuberías de entrada del condensador tan cerca a las
entradas del condensador o condensadores como fuera posible, ya que esta
ubicación es el punto de presión mas bajo en las tuberías de descarga. Conéctelo
en la zona de la tubería del condensador que operará a la presión más baja.
Esto es, por lo general, cerca de la entrada del condensador de carga en la base.
Asegúrese de conectar esta tubería de ventilación a la parte superior del colector
de descarga y en el lado del condensador de cualquier colector de descarga con
restricciones como el reclamo de calor y los depuradores maestros de aceite
(master oil scrubbers, en ingles).

22. Un vistazo reflejo en el recipiente del termosifón es suficiente para comprobar el

nivel de líquido.
23. Localice el recipiente del termosifón en la sala de maquinas si esta ubicación

todavía proporciona un cabezal adecuado. Este diseño evita penetraciones
múltiples en el tejado para las ramificaciones TSR. También reduce al mínimo
cualquier diferencia de temperatura entre distintas partes del sistema termosifón.
Líquido frío en tuberías calientes produce burbujas de vapor que necesitan
ser ventiladas. Una cámara en la parte superior del recipiente vertical es una
alternativa excelente a un recipiente dedicado (Figura 13).
24. En salas grandes de compresores, localice el recipiente del termosifón en el

centro de la sala y traiga los colectores TSR y TSS desde cada extremo de la
sala de compresores. Esto elimina la acumulación de demasiado líquido en un
colector largo TSR, lo cual puede impedir el fluido de intercambiadores de calor
ligeramente cargados en el mismo colector. Utilice una conexión TSR en cada lado
del recipiente para evitar conexiones que resultan en contra flujos.
25. Cada paquete termosifón de compresor con tornillo enfriado, sin excepción,
debería tener una válvula de control de temperatura del aceite. Incluso en
Miami, la temperatura de la bulbo húmedo, y la correspondiente temperatura
condensada, se mantiene lo suficientemente baja como para enfriar el aceite
por debajo de 21°C durante cargas de condensación ligeras. En climas mas
septentrionales con presiones del cabezal inferiores a 110 psig, los compresores
con un ciclo disparejo acumularan aceite frío y viscoso en el enfriador de aceite
del termosifón que puede provocar problemas operativos en el reinicio. Tanto
el amoníaco como el fluido de aceite deberían ser organizados en ciclos para
mantener una temperatura del aceite de 21°C.
Esta ponencia presume que la elevación del condensador es lo suficientemente alta

para conseguir la caída suficientemente necesaria y el cabezal estático suficiente

entre el recipiente del termosifón y el enfriador de aceite. Si este no es el caso

existe una solución fácil. Simplemente instale el sistema termosifón siguiendo las
instrucciones indicadas anteriormente y en vez de drenar el liquido del condensador
en el recipiente del termosifón, instale una o varias bombas por debajo del recibidor
de alta presión y bombee el amoníaco hasta el recipiente del termosifón a un nivel
de sobre alimentación de 1.5:1 y deje que el exceso de liquido fluya de regreso al
recibidor de alta presión. Con esta solución, no se requerirán controles de nivel ni
válvulas de regulación de fluido. (Figura 14)
Conclusión
Ya que hemos completado la trayectoria desde el recipiente del termosifón a través

del o los enfriadores de aceite y de regreso otra vez, ¡debería quedar claro que
el término “termosifón” es en realidad una denominación equivocada! “Termo”
implica una diferencia de temperatura o calor, cuando en realidad es una diferencia
en densidad que da fuerza al ciclo. Un sifón es un tubo o tubería llena de líquido
que es succionado sobre una elevación más alta mediante una diferencia potencial
de energía. Esto no sucede en el sistema. De hecho, un líquido saturado, como el
amoníaco en el sistema, ¡estará en ebullición hirviendo en vez del sifón!
La maestría en la ingeniería se produce cuando las leyes de la naturaleza se conjugan

en beneficio de la humanidad. Un sistema termosifón correctamente diseñado es un
clásico ejemplo de esto.

Referencias bibliográficas
Andrews, N and Welch, J. “Ammonia line sizing by spreadsheet.” Proceedings of the

International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration 1999 Conference and Exhibition.
1999.
BAC. Evaporative Condenser Engineering Manual, Bulletin E115/1-OC. Baltimore Air

Coil. 1996.
Beattie, D.R.H. and Whalley, P.B. “A simple two phase pressure drop calculation
method.” International Journal of Two Phase Flow. Volume 8, No. 1. 1982.
Evapco. Piping evaporative condensers. Bulletin 130A, Copyright 1988.
Frick. Thermosiphon Oil Cooling, E70-900E. 1995.
IIAR. Ammonia Refrigeration Piping Handbook, Table 1–15. International Institute of

Ammonia Refrigeration. 1999.
Lindenberg, M. Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, 10th Edition. Chapter 35,

1998.
Petalas, N. and Aziz, K. “A mechanistic model for multiphase flow in pipes.”

Proceedings of the Petroleum Society of the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy
and Petroleum. 1998.
Souders, M., Jr. and Brown, G.G. “Design of fractionating columns: I. Entrainment
and capacity.” Industrial Engineering and Chemistry Journal. 1934.

Wiencke, B. “Two-phase flow behavior in pipes, valves and fittings” Proceedings of

the International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration 2000 Conference and Exhibition.
2000.

Nomenclatura
Variables
H columna de altura de fluido en pies
X Χ fracción de vapor de fluido en dos fases (adimensional)
f factor de fricción, puede ser derivado iteración o repetición de operaciones

análogas usando la ecuación Churchill en una tabla (adimensional)
(Welch, 1999)
L altura equivalente, incluyendo tuberías, válvulas, ajustes y pérdidas de

entrada en pies.
 densidad (libras/pies3)
v velocidad (pies por segundo)
d diámetro de la tubería en pies
Q nivel de transferencia de calor del intercambiador de calor (BTU/hr)
A área de la tubería o sistema de tuberías en pies cuadrados (pie2)
hfg cambio de entalpía latente expresado en BTU/Libras
OF masa total circulada por masa elaborada expresada en (OF:1)
P diferencial de presión (lb/pulg2)

Subíndices
l líquido
v vapor
2 doble fase (líquida y mezcla de vapor)
TSS suministro de termosifón
TSR retorno de termosifón
HX intercambiador de calor

Figura 1: Vuelta básica del termosifón
Figura 2: Análisis de la hoja de datos

Figura 3: Salida gráfica
Figura 4: Sistema de tuberías del drenaje del condensador
Figura 5: Cuestas o caídas del condensador de suministro
Figura 6: Condensador de suministro ventilado
Figura 7: Conexiones de la ramificación del termosifón

Figura 8: Sistema de tuberías del drenaje de aceite
Figura 9: Orientación del reductor

Figura 10: Elevadores de retorno del termosifón
Figura 11: Diseño del recipiente
Figura 12: Cabezal estático acumulativo
Figura 13: Cámara del termosifón

Figura 14: Solución elevada limitada
Notas:

Notas:




Oil Cooling Type Liquid Injection Oil Type 717
Oil Injection Temperature 130.0 °F Liquid Injection Flow 16.8 lb/min
Liquid Injection Pressure 17.2 psiA

Sizing Data



Sizing Data
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The success of the 11th Annual Meeting of the

International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration is
due to the work of the authors whose technical
papers appear in this book.
IIAR expresses its deepest appreciation to
these authors for their contributions f o r the
betterment of the industry.
Thank you.
Notice
The views expressed in the papers contained in this

book are those of the individual authors. They do
not constitute the official views of IIAR and are
not endorsed by it.
111 E. Wacker Drive

Suite 600
Chicago, IL 60601
312/644-6610
FAX: 312/565-4658
i
A HISTORY OF THERMOSYPHON OIL C O O L I N G
by
Henry B. Bonar I1
Bonar Engineering
Given at International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, March

12-15, 1989, Austin, Texas.
55
A HISTORY OF THERMOSYPHON OIL COOLING
B y Henry B. Bonar I1
Given at International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration
Austin, Texas
March 12-15, 1989
I. B d
For many years I had been intrigued with the idea of using
thermosyphon oil cooling for refrigerant installations u s i n g
screw compressors. The operation of screw compressors
necessitates cooling methods for discharge gases to facilitate
separation of lubricating oils after the compression process in I
the refrigeration cycle is complete. Coalescent filters normally
used for this purpose are much more effective with discharge
I
gas oil separation temperatures lowered to the vicinity of 120 1
to 150'. Since the advent of screw compressors, the methods
used to accomplish oil cooling have been primarily water/fluid- 1
oil heat exchangers, or direct refrigerant injection into the
compressor housing side ports.
I
Thermosyphon cooling offers a viable alternative for
1
effectively cooling oil, through the use of the gravity/hydraulic
effect of two-phase refrigerant flow through an oil heat
exchanger. This would eliminate the need for secondary fluid 1
circulating pumps, maintaining and cleaning
exchangers, and would preclude mixing liquid refrigerant (in
of heat
I
injection sytems) with lubricating oils during the compression
process. This should provide a mechanically simpler and more
56
> A
History of Thermosyphon O i l Cooling, Continued Page:

Henry B . Bonar I I 1/13/89,
efficient total work process. Although applicable to all forms of

refrigerant compression, it is of particular significance to screw
compressors which require large quantities of oil to both
lubricate and seal clearances of rotating lobes during
compression.
While I was interested in this concept, I knew of no such

installations in the United States and had only heard indirectly
of thermosyphon installations in Europe. Descriptions of these
were often accompanied by disturbing comments such as, "You
need to put the receiver on the roof," and "You need to control
oil temperature."
If these comments were true, there would be some basic

problems in the overall concept. Having to put the receiver on
the roof would be costly and cumbersome in some cases from a
I structural standpoint. Having to control the oil temperature

would require placing a flow control device on the liquid
I refrigerant side of the thermosyphon cooling system. The

available pressure drop would be too small to operate
I conventional refrigerant valves, since this pressure would
thermodynamically not be available, and it might require a
I very sophisticated control valve.
I
However, my concerns regarding these potential limitations
I were alleviated at IIAR's annual technical sessions in Sarasota
57
Page: I
in 1983 when I had a lunch meeting with Birger Grinnebyl of
I
Stal Refrigeration Corporation. We discussed the technical
1
applications of thermosyphon systems he had observed in
Europe. While those applications were limited in scope, they I
did indicate that no additional controls were needed to regulate
oil temperature (except in extreme low ambient condensing
1
conditions).
I
With this information, and after some further helpful I
brainstorming with Peter Spellar of Frick Company, I resolved
to design a thermosyphon oil cooling system for a new I
installation in 1983.
designed many
Since that first installation, I have
other refrigeration systems equipped with
1
thermosyphon coolers. I
During the installation of the early systems, I was told by no I
less than six contractors and by a number of compressor
manufacturer engineers that the thermosyphon systems I had
I
designed would not work. It has been particularly rewarding I
to see the systems installed and working very well.
I
Prior to 1983, almost all domestic screw compressors were
equipped with either liquid injection or water cooled heat
I
exchangers. No major screw compressor manufacturer was I
1B. Grinneby, "Mechanical Implications of Various Oil Cooling Methods on I
Screw Compressors" (1985, T61, W3)
I
58
I
- - a - * 1
History of Thermosyphon Oil Cooling, Continued Page:
cataloguing or manufacturing thermosyphon oil coolers as

standard accessories for screw compressors. For the year 1988,
70%2 of all screw compressors manufactured by Frick, 30%3 of
the units manufactured by FES (Freezing Equipment Sales),
35%4 of Sullair's, and 95%5 of RECO's (Refrigeration Engineering
Corporation),screw compressers were equipped with ther-
mosyphon oil cooling accessories. Vilter Manufacturing
indicated the year 1988 would place about 1/3 of their screw
units with thermosyphon coolers, with the trend on the
increase6 during the latter half of the year.
Tim Allen, Sullair Corporation, indicated the percent increase in

thermosyphon cooling systems has replaced injection cooling
systems, while water cooled systems have remained constant
at 15 to 20%. Jack Copeland of RECO indicated they have been
using thermosyphon cooling for some time and have almost
gone exclusively to thermosyphon, in lieu of injection cooling
systems.
11. Case Histories
The first installation in 1983 was for a refrigerated warehouse

and freezing facility requiring three compressors totaling 850
2Frick Company, Waynesboro, Pennsylvania, per Peter Spellar.

3Freezing Equipment Sales, York, Pennsylvania, per Jack Deroche.
4Sullair, Michigan City, Indiana, per Jim Scott, Tim Allen.
SRefrigeration Engineering Corporation, per Jack Copeland.
6Vilter Manufacturing, per Bob Vig.
59
Henry B . Bonar I I 1/13/89
I
horsepower. Two of the compressors were designed for
thermosyphon oil cooling. I borrowed heavily from some I
previous design patents7 and field observations of counter-flow
desuperheater vessels which had been installed in 1976. The
I
counter-flow heat exchanger on that installation used
elevated liquid column to provide the pressure needed to
an
I
overcome the pressure drop in a counter-flow desuperheater.
As shown in Illustration 1, this elevated liquid column
technique is used to provide the pressure for the liquid supply I
to the thermosyphon cooler.
I
The design called for two Frick screw compressors I
manufactured with heat exchangers intended for
thermosyphon oil cooling, the first such compressors to be I
manufactured by Frick. The liquid supplied to the oil coolers
was fed from the bottom of the condenser liquid drain line at a
I
point between the condenser and the high pressure receiver, I
first dropping liquid to one compressor then continuing to the
second, as shown in Illustration 1. The original system was I
installed by Republic Refrigeration.
I
This system was modified in 1987. When this system
1
approached (and exceeded) design capacity in warm weather, it
was discovered that liquid refrigerant flows were disrupted I
7H. Bonar 11, "A Device for Oil Separation and Heat Exchanging for Vapor
I
Compression Refrigeration Systems" (1983, T33)
I
60 I
I
I
ILLUSTRATION #I
I EVAPORATIVE
CONDENSER
I
I
I
I PLANT DISCHARGE \ /-A
I
I
I
I \
I
I #1
I
I COMPRESSOR W
I T/S OIL COOLER
I
I
I 61
II
I
during the defrosting of large air units. This deprived the I
second screw compressor of sufficient liquid to maintain proper
oil temperatures. To correct this, Engineered Refrigeration
I
Systems, Inc. (Mobile Refrigeration) installed a reservoir tank. I
Located above the roof, this "surge pot" provided an additional
volume of liquid and prevented the second compressor from I
running short of liquid.
I
Our second installation was for an ice cream manufacturing I
facility in Cincinnati, Ohio. We took another approach on this
installation, using a substantially different thermosyphon
system which integrated the ideas of engineers at Frick
Company. Shown in Illustration 2, the system used three screw
compressors with thermosyphon oil coolers. Refrigerant flowed
to the coolers from a vertical surge pot/distribution reservoir
with gravity overflow. Feed regulating valves were installed,
but they were found to be unnecessary n the operation of the
system. They were, therefore, opened manually and left in
that position. The system was installed by Refrigeration
Systems, Columbus, Ohio.
A large meat-processing facility (2,500-ton plus) in Wisconsin

was the site of our third installation which used a Vilter screw
compressor. As shown in Illustration 3, the two-pass shell and
tube oil cooler was provided liquid refrigerant from a
horizontal distribution reservoir. The horizontal distributor I
62
I
I
I
I ILLUSTRATION #2
EVAPORATIVE
CONDENSERS I
I I
I
I
LANT DISCHARGE
I
I
I DISTRIBUTION
I
I
r
I
I
I
I THE R MOSYPHON
OIL COOLER #2
I I
I THERMOSYPHON
OIL COOLER #1
I
I 63
m
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
m
I
m
I
I
I
I
I
Henry B . Bonar I! 7 1113 / 8 9
also offered the ability to serve multiple compressors. Similar

to a liquid distribution device for air unit evaporators, its
purpose would be to evenly distribute liquid refrigerant,
through multiple outlets (equipped with flow weirs). The
system was installed by Bassett, Inc.
The fourth installation, Illustration #4, is a unit installed in

Atlanta, Georgia using a horizontal distribution reservoir placed
inside the machine room. This system was installed by The
Stellar Group. The fifth, Illustration #5, was unique in that we
encountered a very low available liquid head, because of the
existing condenser location relative to the receivers, so we
inclined the thermosyphon cooler. With less than 7 foot of
available liquid head, we used a strong "drafting" nozzle (Detail
B). This arrangement worked so well, we were able to induce
enough flow (gas and liquid) to reduce substantially the
superheated discharge temperature in the plant's refrigeration
system. The sixth installation, Illustration #6, was a multiple
compressor application. By this time, we had standardized
several of the features, including a "drafting nozzle" and piping
arrangement. The Seventh. Illustration #7, was a unit installed
in our lab in Jacksonville. It was installed on one screw
compressor, similar to the first installation. The high pressure
receivers are on the roof in this installation, and we have used
it to experiment with various operating conditions. The GiPhth
in Tampa and the ninth in Jacksonville, a new refrigerated
65
I
I
ILLUSTRATION #4 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
66 I
ILLUSTRATION #5
/ SEE DETAIL B
DISCHARGE TO CONDENSER
FROM SYSTEM
W
W
- /
EVAPORAUVE
CONDENSER
LIQUID CONDENSATE
f
I
\ GAS RETURN
TO CONDENSER
I
I
I
7 TO COMPRESSOR \
f
LIQUID SUPPLY TO \
T/S COOLER
3
1
THERMOSYPHON
OIL COOLER
OIL FROM COMPRESSOR 1
67
I
I
DETAIL ‘B’
I
I
I
I
1R DIAMETER I
m
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
DRAFTING NOZZLE
I
SCALE: “E
I
I
68 I
ILLUSTRATION #6
EVAPORATIVE
CONDENSER
69
I
I
ILLUSTRATION #7
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
1
1
U
I
1
I
70
I
I
distribution and freezing facility, were both similar to the third,
I fourth, and sixth. The tenth was a six-compressor installation
I in Columbus, Ohio, similar to these previous installations.
I 111. Design Considerations
A typical thermosyphon oil cooling system is shown in Figure

"A." Although refrigeration lubricating systems traditionally
are protected from low oil temperatures (because quite often
low temperature may indicate the presence of refrigerant),
operated as shown, oil temperatures would parallel saturated
condensing temperatures. The resulting oil temperatures are
well within temperature (viscous) requirements for the screw
compressor's mechanical lubrication needs.
If not obvious, in order to operate thermosyphon systems, the

condensers need to be placed at a significantly higher elevation
than the receivers and thermosyphon oil coolers.
As a result of these installations, we have standardized most

components and piping configurations. The major components,
shown in Figure "A," include an oil cooler, a
distributor/reservoir vessel, and a gas return to discharge
header. For multiple compressor installations, we have been
1 using a horizontal distribution reservoir as shown in Detail "A."

A designer checklist would consider the following:
I
71
FIGURE 'A' I
DISCHARGE TO CONDENSER
FROM SYSTEM
EVAPORATIVE
1
/ CONDENSER
I
LIQUID CONDENSATE
FROM CONDENSER \ L
\ TO
GAS RETURN
CONDENSER
-I---
DH = HOT GAS SUPPLY \
1 /LIQUID TO m
I
OIL TO COMPRESSOR \ 1
-L
1
T/S COOLER 1
72
DETAIL 'A
3" CONNECTION
(BALANCING) \
\ 10'-9" J
/...
I
1-1/2" CONNECTION
TOP & BOTTOM
(CONTROL COLUMN)
.. ..
..............................................................
........,
6 CONNECTION
(LIQUID FROM CONDENSER:
\
...................................................................................................................... I .................
______ _____...___.___..._.........____.___. ............. <
:
13"
! /'
I
i
4
w
2-112" CONNECTIONS
LIQUID TO TIS OIL COOLERS)
6 EE DETAIL '1-A' 6 CONNECTION
6LIQUID TO RECEIVER)
EE DETAIL '1- A
THERMOSYPHON DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIR
DETAIL '1-A'
SCALE: NONE
I
1
1 / 1
Henry B . Bonar I I 3 / 8 9 I
Page:
I
I. Major Components Considerations
1. Number of Thermosyphon Oil Coolers
(compressors) I
2. Gas Return Header (To Condenser)
a. Configuration
I
b. Location (elevation)
3. Condenser (Number, size, orientation)

I
a.
b.
Elevation
Piping configuration I
Thermosyphon Distribution Reservoir
a.
4.
Size
I
b. Elevation
c. Design 1
5. System Receiver (high pressure)
a. Elevation I
6. Hot Gas Supply for Plant
a. Configuration I
b. Location of supply point
I
Even with the unique configurations of refrigeration systems,
under steady state conditions, these were fairly straight
I
forward thermodynamic criteria to solve and provide. The 1
"simplest" of thermosyphon feed systems operated effectively
under steadv st ate conditions. I
A theoretical steady state convection flow analysis would
I
consider several design criteria as shown in Figure "B". The I
principle considerations of analyzing the fluid dynamics are
i
74 I
shown in the following fundamental general energy equation of
thermodynamics.8
I L L
I where:
V , and V, = fluid velocities @ stations 1 and 2,

I respectively, ft/sec
gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec2
static pressures @ respective stations,
lb/sq fts abs
v1 and v 2 = specific volumes @ respective stations cu
ft/lb
u 1 and u 2 = internal energies of fluid @ respective
stations, Btu/lb. /778 = ft-lb/lb
Z, andZ2 = elevations above datum @ respective
stations, ft-1b/l b
w, = work done on or by the fluid while it is in
the device, ft-lb/lb
1Q 2 = heat added to or abstracted from the fluid
while it is in the device, Btu/lb
Generally, this considers the effect of the elevation head of

primarily liquid in the downcomer and liquid and vapor in the
riser. The flow rates would be a function of the heat being
added to the refrigerant, the size of the tubes, and size of the
I downcomer and riser pipes, as well as flow friction experienced

in a steady state flow.
I
*The Babcock & Wilcox Company, Steam Its Generation and Use, Thirty-Seventh
Edition, Fifth Printing, (New York 1963) p. 8-1
75
-I
A refrigeration system in the real world however, can I

experience many "dynamics" that are far from steady state.
Primary of these "dynamics" is the intermittent disruption of I
system flows and pressures from the periodic use of hot gas.
Principle of these are:
I
hot gas defrosting of air units
heat reclaim heat exchangers
harvesting ice makers
load shedding techniques, (wide swings in
compressor discharge and use)
power failures
start -up.
A more subtle irregularity in system designs has been in the

use of multiple screw compressors side ports for economizing.
Balancing of economizing port pressure, (although an entirely
different discussion), can dramatically affect oil cooling
requirements (temperatures) for a given screw compressor
(and consequently dramatically change heat exchanger loads).
One of the most interesting phenomena we have observed in

the operation of thermosyphon systems is what we call
blowout or geyser effect. Basically, as illustrated in Figure "B,"
under certain conditions (generally accompanied with a sudden
decrease in discharge pressure) sufficient quantities of liquid
76
FIGURE 'B'
P3 (STATION3)
I I -c -L
I . . -.>
I /P2 (STATION 2)
~~~, (STATON 1)
I /RISER
I
I 1
I
I
I
77
refrigerant will flash, boiling rapidly enough to cause the

thermosyphon heat exchangers to "blowout" both the
downcomers and risers. The occurrence is very similar to a
geyser effect where liquid, near saturated conditions, becomes
trapped and is exposed to rapid heating (caused in
refrigeration systems by rapid decrease in discharge pressure).
Under these circumstances the saturated liquid will
instantaneously boil, and not only the heat received from the
oil, but the sensible heat from the metal of the heat exchanger
will contribute to a rapid heating of the liquid refrigerant as it
flashes. With a gas/liquid specific volume ratio of 70 to 1 (at
140 psig) flow pressures become much greater than the gravity
liquid head offered by the downcomers feeding the
thermosyphon oil coolers. In multiple compressor applications
the blowout happens very rapidly and can recover in many
cases rapidly enough to prevent high oil temperatures from
occurring in the heat exchangers.
AS happens in a geyser or a percolator fluid flow, the liquid

becomes trapped behind rapidly expanding gas and flow will
occur both out of the downcomers, as well as the risers. After
all liquid is evacuated from the heat exchanger the liquid will
I
then quickly return by gravity and convection flow commences
once again. If, during this period, oil temperatures have not
1
become excessive, screw compressors would continue to 1
operate. If, however, recovery time is sufficiently long or the
I
78
I
s - - F e = -
History of Thermosyphon O i l Cooling, Continued Page:
heat exchanger size marginal, recovery will not be in time to

prevent normal safety controls from shutting down the screw
compressor.
It is important to minimize Derculation or pev serin^ because o f

jhe hydraulic shock it imposes on the DipinP SYStern,
This phenomena normally would occur in a plant that has a

dominant or relatively large need for hot gas. Examples of this
would include winter offpeak refrigeration of refrigerated
storage rooms where air units are relatively large compared to
I the refrigeration load and defrosting may be infrequent. Other

examples are freezing applications where a large ice maker or
I blast freezer may defrost, requiring larger quantities of hot gas
and creating a sudden reduction in discharge pressure. The
I "geyser" phenomena rarely occurs in large plants (above 2000
I tons) with multiple condensers (more than five), or with plants

with steady operating conditions. We have also observed that
it is more prone to happen during hot summer months when
the machine room air temperature approaches or exceeds
I ambient outside air temperature.
I This occurrence can be provided or minimized in several ways.

I Primary of these is maintaining s teadv discharge pressures
(temperatures). If this is not possible, taking the hot gas
I supply from the receiver rather than the plant discharge, and
I
I 79
using o o e q condenser drains (rather than trapped drains) will

permit a more rapid recovery. Induced gas flow through the
condenser in the direction liquid (gas) normally drains will also
facilitate establishing convection flow again. It is also
important to oversize downcomers and risers and maintain a
nearly equal size for each.
There is less tendency for perculation or blowout to occur

where thermosyphon oil coolers are inclined to help induce
flow in the proper direction. Also, more rapid recovery is
provided by using a drafting nozzle, Detail "B," in the riser
system returning vapor to the discharge line. Generally, we
would try to induce enough flow to equalize the pressure drop
normally experienced in the evaporative condenser serpentine
coil. Condenser coils would normally experience pressure
drops in the range of 1/2 psi, which can be neutralized with a
riser drafting nozzle header.
IV. conclu sion
Much has been learned from the various installations, and

1
much more will be learned as new systems are designed and
1
improved, and unique operating conditions are encountered.
Many engineers and contractors, who had little or no I
confidence in the original concepts, are now using
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A
thermosyphon oil cooling systems. Techniques are being

refined, and designers are "climbing" the learning curve.
Although other manufacturers have recently provided their

own ingenuities to thermosyphon designs, as illustrated in the
following FES thermosyphon system of United States Cold
Storage, installed by The Stellar Group in Lumberton, North
Carolina, this system works very well, utilizing a much smaller
heat exchanger, sloped to help induce flow in a single pass heat
exchanger. The methods of design, and control of flows, are
going to advance substantially in the next few years.
The benefits of thermosyphon oil coolers include the

simplicity of the mechanical and fluid flow requirements for oil
cooling (no pumps are required), the power savings (improved
thermodynamic efficiency), and the elimination of the need for
high pressu re liquid (for feeding liquid injection cooling
systems).
The disadvantages are the first cost (which averages

approximately 1% of system cost) and the increase in
refrigerant quantities (which is approximately a 2% increase in
refrigerant quanti ties).
81
History- of- Thermosyphon
-- - Continued
Oil Coolinn. Page:
Henry B . Bonar I I - 1/11 3 / 8 2
There are many new developments on the horizon. Designers

willing to try the "new" will learn by experience, developing
the tools needed for the future.
We have several prototype variations of thermosyphon cooling

systems on the drawing boards. One is a "master oil cooler"
which would provide multiple circuits from one vessel or even
use the storage receiver as the heat exchanger.
Based on what we have observed of our own and other

thermosyphon systems, the evolution of designs will probably
favor distribution and liquid reservoir placement on the roof I
above machine rooms, with single pass thermosyphon heat
exchangers being placed in an inclined or even vertical I
position. On the screw compressor packages, return risers will
probably always be kept separate and return to condenser at
I
elevations 3b o v e the condenser inlets. We have been I
fortunate to work with machine rooms with fairly good heights,
particularly since we like to use vertical recirculators. These I
have permitted placement of distributors inside the machine
room. Based on our observations, assuming a common header
I
system would suffice for distribution of liquid to thermosyphon
coolers, in most installations, the distributor/reservoir would
be easier to install and change (in the future) adjacent to
condensers, located on the roof of the machine room.
82
I History of Thermosyphon Oil Cooling, Continued Page:
I Experience would probably be the final judge of whether one

type of system will be able to serve all applications.
We would hope the illustrations and technical discussions will

provide other engineers and designers with background
information sufficient to develop skills in application of
thermos yphon sys tems.
I want to especially thank all the end users, clients and

contractors with whom 'I have worked, and who have been
willing, along with me, to step into the unknown. They have
been more than understanding, in knowing that the price of
new technology is quite often as Thomas Edison said, "98%
perspiration and 2% inspiration."
I would like to add that my use of names of people and

manufacturing companies was not intended to slight or
promote anyone or anyone's company, they only represent
those parties with whom I had first hand information and with
whom many of you may wish to discuss your particular
applications.
83
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I
Technical Paper #12
Oil Cooling Methods
Wayne Wehber, P.E.

Jean-Louis Picouet
Mike Nielsen
Vilter Manufacturing
Cudahy, Wisconsin
Abstract
Refrigeration systems using screw compressors require some method of cooling the compressors.
This is usually accomplished by cooling the lubricating oil before injecting it back into the compressor.
This paper provides a guide to all of the oil cooling approaches utilized on screw compressors from
past to present, including an evaluation of the pros and cons of each.
2005 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference & Exhibition, Acapulco, Mexico
© IIAR 2005 385

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of the technical program of the 27th Annual Meeting of the
International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration is due to the quality of the technical
papers in this volume. IIAR expresses its deep appreciation to the authors,
reviewers, and editors for their contributions to the ammonia refrigeration industry.
ABOUT THIS VOLUME
International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration. They are not official positions of
EDITORS

Suite 250
Arlington, VA 22201
+ 1-703-312-4200 (voice)
+ 1-703-312-0065 (fax)
www.iiar.org
2005 Ammonia Refrigeration Conference & Exhibition

Fairmont Acapulco Princess
Acapulco, Mexico
Oil Cooling Methods — Wayne Wehber, P.E., Jean-Louis Picouet, Mike Nielsen
Introduction
Industrial refrigeration commonly uses screw compressors in systems. The present

screw compressors are oil flooded for sealing and lubricating, with the majority of
the oil absorbing the heat of compression. This results in lower discharge
temperatures at varying operating and load conditions. The oil may be cooled by
many different methods.
Oil cooling methods can be broken down into two types of cooling, direct and
indirect:
• Direct cooling allows direct contact of the liquid refrigerant and flashing of the
refrigerant for the oil cooling
• Indirect cooling utilizes a heat exchanger to complete the heat transfer process.
This paper discusses both methods in general as well as their individual subtypes.
Indirect Cooling (Figures 1 thru 7)
The most common indirect oil cooling types include:

• Water/glycol cooling
• Air cooling
• Evaporative cooling
• Refrigerant (thermosyphon) cooling
Indirect cooling methods utilize some type of external heat exchanger and a
secondary cooling medium that cools the oil prior to injection into the compressor.
Technical Paper #12 © IIAR 2005 387

Water/Glycol Cooling
Water/glycol cooling systems use shell-and-tube or plate-type heat exchangers to

cool the oil. The water/glycol is pumped through one side of the heat exchanger,
removing the heat from the oil. It is either pumped by an oil pump or flows by the
difference in pressure between the discharge and suction pressure of the compressor.
The water/glycol temperature increases as the heat load of the oil is absorbed. The
heat absorbed by the water/glycol then has to be removed by some other type of
heat exchanger so the inlet temperature stays constant.
The oil temperature can be controlled by two methods:

• A water regulating valve senses outlet oil temperature and throttles the
water/glycol flow to achieve the desired outlet oil temperature
• A three-way thermostatic valve with a preset sensing element mixes hot and
cooled oil to achieve the desired outlet oil temperature
Figure 1 shows a typical shell-and-tube water/glycol system with a mixing valve.

The oil leaves the separator and flows through a strainer. If the oil pump is on, then
the oil is pumped directly to the heat exchanger. If the pump is off, the oil will flow
through a check valve to the oil cooler by pressure differential. The three-way
mixing valve senses the outlet oil temperature and allows enough hot oil to bypass
the cooler to maintain the desired outlet oil temperature. The oil that is not bypassed
then flows through the shell side of the heat exchanger and is cooled by the
water/glycol flowing through the tubes. The cool oil flows through the filter and is
returned to the compressor.
Figure 2 shows a typical plate-type water/glycol system with a mixing valve. This
system operates the same way as previously described using the shell-and-tube heat
exchanger.
388 © IIAR 2005 Technical Paper #12

Some oil cooling systems utilize a flow regulating control valve. Figure 3 shows a
typical shell and tube water/glycol system with a flow regulating control valve.
The oil leaves the separator and flows through a strainer. If the pump is on, then the
oil is pumped directly to the heat exchanger. If the pump is off, the oil will flow
through a check valve to the oil cooler by pressure differential. The oil flows through
the shell side of the heat exchanger and is cooled by the water/glycol flowing
through the tubes. The water/glycol flow is regulated by a control valve that senses
the outlet oil temperature of the heat exchanger and adjusts the flow to maintain the
desired oil temperature. The cool oil then flows through the filter and is returned to
the compressor.
Air-Cooled
Air-cooled oil cooling is accomplished using a stand-alone air-to-oil type heat

exchanger, or with a separate circuit in another air-cooled heat exchanger. The oil is
pumped or flows by pressure differential through the coil of the air-cooled heat
exchanger and air is either blown or drawn across the coil. As the air flows across
the coil, it absorbs the heat load from the oil. A three-way thermostatic mixing valve
is used to maintain the desired oil temperature. In low ambient climates, special
precautions may be needed, such as heat tracing and insulation of the oil lines, to
prevent the oil from getting too cold.
Figure 4 shows a typical air-cooled system. The oil leaves the separator and flows
through a strainer. If the oil pump is on, then the oil is pumped to the heat
exchanger. If the pump is off, the oil will flow through a check valve to the oil cooler
by pressure differential. The three-way mixing valve senses the outlet oil temperature
and allows enough hot oil to bypass the cooler to maintain the desired outlet oil
temperature. The oil that is not bypassed flows through a check valve that prevents
the oil from draining back from the cooler (if the cooler is elevated). The oil then
flows through the coil of the heat exchanger and is cooled by the air blown over the
coil. The cool oil then flows through the filter and is returned to the compressor.

Evaporative Cooling
Evaporative cooling, as the name implies, uses an evaporative-type cooler to remove

oil heat. Oil flows through a coil that is sprayed with water, thereby reducing the air
temperature to the design wet bulb temperature. This air continues across the coil
and absorbs the heat from the oil. The lower air temperature allows this unit to have
a smaller coil area for a given air flow than an air-cooled unit. The evaporative oil
cooler can be a stand-alone unit or a separate circuit in an existing unit. A three-way
thermostatic mixing valve is used to maintain the desired oil temperature. As with
the air-cooled unit, in low ambient conditions some special precautions such as heat
tracing and insulation of the oil lines may be needed to prevent the oil from getting
too cold.
Figure 5 shows a typical evaporatively cooled system. The oil leaves the separator
and flows through a strainer. If the pump is on, then the oil is pumped directly to
the cooler. If the pump is off, the oil will flow across a check valve to the oil cooler
by pressure differential. The three-way mixing valve senses the outlet oil
temperature and allows enough hot oil to bypass the cooler to maintain the desired
outlet oil temperature. The oil that is not bypassed flows through a check valve that
prevents the oil from draining back from the cooler (if the cooler is elevated).
The oil then flows through the coil of the evaporative cooler and is cooled by the
water/air mixture blown across the coil. The cool oil then flows through the filter
and is returned to the compressor.
The components of water/glycol cooling, air-cooling, and evaporative cooling

systems are similar and consist of:
• Some type of external heat exchanger
• External oil and process piping
• Some type of fan or pump
• Control valves

The disadvantages of these systems are:

• High initial costs
• High maintenance costs (when water is utilized)
• Additional horsepower for the fan or pump
• A large unit footprint
The advantages of these systems are:

• Low condensing loads
• No compressor horsepower increase
• The oil and cooling medium are kept separate
Thermosyphon
Refrigerant-cooled oil cooling systems (i.e., thermosyphon systems) use an external

shell-and-tube or plate-type heat exchanger. As the refrigerant vaporizes, the density in
the return line becomes less than the density in the feed line. This creates a pressure
differential resulting in fluid flow. The higher the refrigerant vaporization rate (caused
by a higher oil cooling load), the greater the pressure differential, and the greater the
flow. The lower the refrigerant vaporization rate (caused by a lower oil cooling load),
the lower the flow. If low refrigerant feed temperatures are expected (usually below
60°F to 70°F), a three-way mixing valve is required to maintain desired outlet
temperature since the thermosyphon system establishes flow based on load only. The
refrigerant vapor generated is not recompressed; it is returned to the thermosyphon
receiver and then vented back to the condenser to be liquefied.
Components required for a thermosyphon system include:

• An external heat exchanger
• An elevated thermosyphon receiver
• External piping

Figure 6 shows a typical thermosyphon system with a shell and tube heat exchanger
and three-way mixing valve. The oil leaves the separator and flows through a
strainer. If the oil pump is on, oil will be pumped directly to the heat exchanger.
If the pump is off, the oil will flow across a check valve to the oil cooler by pressure
differential. The three-way mixing valve senses the outlet oil temperature and allows
enough hot oil to bypass the cooler to maintain the desired outlet oil temperature.
The oil that is not bypassed then flows through the shell side of the heat exchanger
and is cooled by the liquid refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant flows from a receiver
through the tube side of the heat exchanger where a portion of that liquid is
vaporized. This refrigerant liquid/vapor mix is then returned to the receiver where
the vapor is vented off to the condenser. Meanwhile, the cool oil flows through the
filter and returns to the compressor. Depending on the application requirements and
specifications, plate-type heat exchangers are also utilized.
Figure 7 shows a typical thermosyphon system with a plate-type heat exchanger and
a three-way mixing valve. The oil leaves the separator and flows through a strainer.
If the pump is on, then the oil is pumped directly to the cooler. If the pump is off, the
oil will flow across a check valve to the oil cooler by pressure differential. The three-
way mixing valve senses the outlet oil temperature and allows enough hot oil to
bypass the cooler to maintain the desired outlet oil temperature. The oil that is not
bypassed flows through the oil side of the heat exchanger and is cooled by the liquid
refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant flows from a receiver through the refrigerant side
of the heat exchanger where a portion of that liquid is vaporized. This refrigerant
liquid/vapor mix is then returned to the receiver where the vapor is vented off to the
condenser. The cool oil then flows through the filter and is returned to the compressor.
The disadvantages of this system are:

• High initial costs
• Large unit footprint
• An elevated liquid source is required with a special receiver
• The heat from the oil is added to the condenser load

Advantages of this system are:

• Low maintenance costs
• Low operational costs
• No increase in compressor horsepower
• No secondary medium required
Direct Oil Cooling (Figures 8 through 18)
Direct oil cooling systems mix refrigerant directly with oil to reduce the discharge
temperature of the compressor. These systems include:
• Liquid injection into the discharge from a high-pressure liquid source
• Pumped liquid injection
• Liquid injection into the compressor
• Flooded ammonia oil cooling
Liquid Injection: General
Figure 8 shows the oil circuit common to all the liquid injection systems. The cool
oil leaves the separator and flows through a strainer. If the pump is on, then the oil
is pumped to the filter. If the pump is off, the oil will flow across a check valve to
the filter by pressure differential. The oil is filtered and returned to the compressor.
Liquid Injection: Booster Applications
Booster applications represent an opportunity whenever a high-pressure liquid

supply exists. Figure 9 shows a typical booster liquid-injection system with a self-
actuated thermostatic expansion valve (TXV). The high-pressure liquid supply flows
through a strainer, solenoid valve, and sight glass to the inlet of the TXV. The TXV
sensor, located in the discharge line, adjusts the valve opening based on the
discharge temperature and regulates the refrigerant liquid flow to maintain the

desired outlet temperature. The expanded liquid is injected through a nozzle directly
into the discharge line or housing of the compressor. This creates a liquid mist that
mixes with the hot oil and gas, cooling it down to the set temperature.
Disadvantages of this system are:

• Less accurate oil temperature control
• Requirement for accurate control valve sizing
• Refrigerant vapor added to the high stage compressor
• Larger condensing load
• Adjustment required to ensure proper oil and refrigerant mixing
Advantages are:
• Low initial costs
• Simple design
• Compact size
• No increase in the booster compressor horsepower
Liquid Injection: Pumped Type
A pump provides a high-pressure liquid source to high-stage compressors for

pumped-liquid injection systems. The operation is similar to the discharge liquid line
injection except that the sensor would control the pump speed and thus increase or
decrease the amount of liquid that is fed into the discharge line or housing. The
components required include:
• Liquid refrigerant pump with speed controller
• Temperature sensor
• Injector nozzle located in the discharge
Figure 10 shows a typical pumped liquid injection system. The liquid supply flows
through a sight glass to the refrigerant pump. A temperature/speed controller senses

the discharge temperature and regulates the liquid flow by adjusting the pump speed
to maintain the desired discharge temperature. The liquid is typically pumped up to
25 psi above discharge pressure then flows through a nozzle into the discharge line
or housing of the compressor. The liquid then mixes with the hot oil and gas,
cooling it down to the set temperature.

• Additional initial costs
• Additional maintenance and pump horsepower (although typically only 1/2 to 1 HP)
• Adjustments required to ensure proper oil and refrigerant mixing
• Heat load from the oil is added to the condensing load

• Accurate oil temperature control
• No increase in compressor horsepower
Liquid Injection: Thermostatic Expansion Valve Type
Liquid injection into the compressor requires a special port located on the
compressor housing. Many compressors have multiple ports for liquid injection. The
highest operational efficiency would be achieved by injecting the liquid into a port at
the highest pressure possible for that system. A temperature sensor located in the
compressor discharge line controls the liquid feed into the compressor. The sensor
works in conjunction with a matched control valve, such as a TXV, to regulate the
feed to produce the desired discharge temperature. The liquid injected into the
compressor absorbs heat during the compression process. As the liquid refrigerant
absorbs the heat, it is vaporized and oil is discharged along with the system vapor at
the desired outlet temperature. The components required for this type of system are
a strainer and a temperature sensor with a matching control valve.

Figure 11 shows a typical liquid injection system with a self-actuated TXV valve. The
high-pressure liquid supply flows through a strainer solenoid valve and sight glass to
the inlet of the TXV. The TXV sensor adjusts the valve opening based on the
discharge temperature and regulates the refrigerant liquid flow to maintain the
desired outlet temperature. The expanded liquid flows into the injection port of the
compressor where it mixes with the oil and gas. There it is compressed and cooled
to obtain the desired outlet temperature.

• Less accurate oil temperature control
• Requirement for accurate control valve sizing
• Oil and refrigerant mixing
• Increase in compressor horsepower

• Low initial costs
• Simple design
• Compact size
Liquid Injection: Electronic Modulating Thermostatic Expansion Valve Type
A substitute for utilizing a TXV would be to use a modulating valve to regulate the
feed of the liquid to produce the desired discharge temperature. The components
utilized in this type of system include a modulating valve, an electronic sensor, and
a microprocessor to analyze the feedback to open or close the valve.
Figure 12 shows an electronic liquid injection system. The high-pressure liquid

supply flows through a strainer, solenoid valve, and sight glass to the inlet of the
modulating valve. The electronic sensor sends a signal to the microprocessor, which
in turn opens or closes the modulating valve. If power is lost, some valves are

spring-activated to close. Some utilize normally closed solenoid valves mounted in

series, while others have a separate battery power source to ensure that the valve
closes. The valve adjusts based on the discharge temperature and regulates the
liquid flow to maintain the desired outlet temperature. The expanded liquid flows
into the injection port of the compressor where it mixes with the oil and gas. It
compresses and cools down to the desired outlet temperature.

• Electronic and control valve complexity
• Oil and refrigerant mixing
• Increase in compressor horsepower

• Moderate initial costs
• Simple design
• Accurate temperature control with a modulating valve
• Compact size
Flooded Ammonia Oil Cooling
A new type of direct oil cooling method uses a flooded ammonia system. This type
of cooling currently applies only to high-stage ammonia compressors. Although the
operation of the compressor is standard, a blanket of liquid ammonia is allowed to
lie on top of the oil to provide cooling for the oil. These types of units do not utilize
an oil pump operating above a minimum pressure ratio.
The oil system is fundamentally focused on providing oil to the bearings and shaft
seal. As shown in Figure 13, oil is taken from the bottom of the separator, filtered,
and injected into the compressor by differential pressure.

As shown in Figure 14, the oil and liquid ammonia mixture provides the lubrication
and cooling to the compressor. The mixture is also injected into the compressor by
differential pressure. When the compressor starts, the mixture is immediately
injected into the screw, keeping the gas at saturation temperature through the
compression process. A separate solenoid valve provides additional oil/ammonia
mixture to the suction cavity on startup until adequate differential pressure across
the compressor is obtained.
The separation and cooling of the oil occurs through the discharge and separation
process as shown in Figure 15. A mixture of liquid ammonia and oil discharges with
the compressed gas from the compressor. The ammonia droplets cool and capture
the oil droplets in the gas stream and settle in the bottom of the separator. The
natural properties of the oil and ammonia allow the separation of the oil and liquid
ammonia in the separator. Gravity and density differences allow the oil to drain to
the bottom of the separator while the liquid ammonia resides on the top. A blanket
of liquid is formed on top of the oil that prevents any foaming and keeps the oil at
saturation. As shown in Figure 16, the liquids remain in the separator while the
discharge gas passes above the liquids, flowing through a demister element and
discharging from the separator. A primary difference with this type of cooling system
is that the discharge temperature is always at the saturation temperature of the gas.
The discharge temperature cannot be adjusted but is always a function of the
saturated condensing pressure temperature.
Maintaining a constant level or blanket of liquid ammonia in the separator

continuously cools the oil. The system for controlling the liquid ammonia level is
shown in Figure 17. The liquid supply flows through a strainer, a solenoid valve,
and sight glass as in other systems. A sensor is located in the separator, which is
covered by the blanket of liquid ammonia. The ammonia liquid makeup on a
flooded ammonia cooling type of machine utilizes a TXV, whereas the sensor (or
bulb) has a heater alongside it. When the bulb is not covered by liquid ammonia it
heats up, the pressure of the gas in the line subsequently increases, forcing the TXV

to open, which allows more liquid ammonia to be fed to the separator. The blanket
of liquid ammonia above the oil completes the cooling process of the oil, prevents
the foaming of the oil, and prevents the oil from escaping the separator.
The flooded ammonia oil-cooling system is integrated into the package. The
discharge separator and oil injection systems are all specifically designed for the oil
and ammonia injection system shown in Figure 18. This differs from other oil-
flooded compressor packages, whereas the standard oil-flooded compressor system is
the same except for externally mounted components that provide the cooling. Oil is
injected separately to the bearings and seals. Neither of these pre-heats the gas
entering into the compressor resulting in higher mass flow rates. The separator is
designed to allow the ammonia droplets and oil to separate, but also ensures
adequate volume to create a blanket of ammonia over the oil while maintaining the
discharge temperature close to saturation.
One of the disadvantages is that the heat load from the oil is added to the condenser
load. The advantages of flooded ammonia oil cooling include:
• Compact and simple package
• Fewer components
• Low oil charge
• No increase in horsepower at low and middle pressure ratios
• Low initial cost
• Low discharge temperatures
• Less maintenance

Conclusion
There are many methods to cool the oil directly and indirectly for oil-flooded screw
applications. Although there is no perfect solution to all applications, each method
provides different advantages that may provide the most feasible solution for a
specific application.
For the reader’s benefit, this paper provides a tabular comparison among the
different oil cooling methods in Figure 19. Categories assessed include:
• Unit space required
• Installation cost
• Hardware required
• Maintenance required
• Oil temperature control
• Typical applications

Figure 1: Water-cooled Heat Exchanger with Mixing Valve
Figure 2: Glycol-cooled Heat Exchanger

Figure 3: Water-cooled Heat Exchanger with External Control
Figure 4: Air-cooled Heat Exchanger

Figure 5: Evaporative-cooled Heat Exchanger
Figure 6: Thermosyphon Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger

Figure 7: Thermosyphon Plate Heat Exchanger
Figure 8: Liquid-injected Oil Cooler

Figure 9: Liquid-injected Oil Cooler for Booster
Figure 10: Pumped-liquid Oil Cooler

Figure 11: Liquid-injected Oil Cooler-High Stage
Figure 12: Liquid-injected Oil Cooler with Electronic

Modulating Valve

Figure 13: Oil Injection to Bearings and Seals
Figure 14: Oil and Liquid Injection to Compressor

Figure 15: Separation of Gas, Liquid Ammonia, and Oil
Figure 16: Discharge to System

Figure 17: Flooded Ammonia Oil Cooling - Components
Figure 18: Flooded Ammonia Oil Cooling - Operation

Table 1: Comparison of System Types

Notes:

The Cold Front
Vol. 3 No. 1, 2003
INN THHIISS ISSSSUUEE CLOSED REFRIGERANT

• Closed Refrigerant Circuit 1-6
CIRCUIT FOR SCREW
for Screw Compressor Oil
Cooling
COMPRESSOR OIL COOLING
• Upcoming Ammonia Classes 2 Thermosiphon oil cooling (TSOC) is a popular choice for screw
compressor oil cooling. An alternative approach to traditional
• Noteworthy 2 thermosiphon design is to provide one or more dedicated
evaporative condensers in a closed-loop refrigerant circuit to
• PSM Auditing Course 7 meet the oil cooling heat rejection load. Tropicana Products’
new world-class machinery room in Bradenton, FL is one
• Benchmarking Study 8 example of a successful implementation of this concept.
Invitation
This article examines the closed refrigerant circuit oil cooling
approach in detail. We begin with a brief background on oil
cooling methods followed by a description of the approach. We
conclude the article with design and operational considerations.
BACKGROUND
IRC Staff With the current state of technology, oil cooling is an integral
and necessary part of industrial refrigeration screw compressor
operation. Screw compressors rely on oil to lubricate, seal,
Director quiet, clean, and cool the compressor’s rotors and bearings
Doug Reindl 608/265-3010 during operation. Because the oil is in direct contact with the
or 608/262-6381 refrigerant being compressed, it will increase in temperature as
it absorbs a portion of the refrigerant’s “heat of compression”.
Jim Elleson 608/262-6940 To prevent the oil from overheating, some means of cooling the
oil is required.
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008
Dan Dettmers 608/262-8221 The techniques available for screw compressor oil cooling can
be split into two categories: internal and external. Internal oil
Phone 608/262-8220 cooling involves cooling the oil within the compressor at some
stage during the compression process. The most common
Toll-free 1-866-635-4721 internal oil cooling approach is “liquid injection”, which involves
FAX 608/262-6209 expanding high-pressure liquid refrigerant directly into the body
Mail of the compressor to cool the oil. In liquid injection oil cooling,
949 East Washington Ave the oil supply temperature is controlled by metering the flow of
the high pressure liquid refrigerant to maintain a desired
Suite #2 discharge temperature (typically 130°F). Alternatively, oil can
Madison, WI 53703-2969 be cooled external to the compressor using a separate heat
exchanger. The medium that cools the oil can be water, glycol,
e-mail info@irc.wisc.edu or refrigerant. Water for oil cooling could originate from an
Website www.irc.wisc.edu evaporative condenser sump or if water use is not an issue,
once-through cooling. Glycol-cooled oil cooling systems are
configured as closed-loop systems with a dedicated fluid cooler
1
located outdoors (Figure 1). The most common Upcoming Ammonia Courses
approach for external oil cooling relies on the use of
a refrigerant in a thermosiphon arrangement. Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
Although internal oil cooling offers low first-cost,
April 23-25, 2003 Madison, WI
ease of design, and installation, external
thermosiphon oil cooling (TSOC) is quickly Process Safety Management Audits Brochure
becoming the preferred choice for screw June 18-20, 2003 Madison, WI
compressor oil cooling. Compared to internal oil
cooling, external oil cooling has lower operating and Design of Ammonia Refrigeration Systems
maintenance costs as well as extended screw September 15-19, 2003 Madison, WI
compressor life. Several compressor
manufacturers are reporting that today, TSOC oil
cooling is specified in more than 50% of their new
Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
compressor sales. October 8-10, 2003 Madison, WI
Traditional TSOC designs position an elevated Ammonia Refrigeration Piping

thermosiphon pilot receiver in-line between the October 27-29, 2003 Madison, WI
condenser outlets and the high-pressure receiver
(Figure 2). Liquid from the pilot receiver falls by Intermediate Ammonia Refrigeration
gravity to feed individual oil coolers [IIAR Piping
Handbook, 2000] through the TSOC supply lines.
December 3-5, 2003 Madison, WI
The warmer oil gives up its heat to evaporate the
high-pressure liquid refrigerant supplied to the oil See http://www.irc.wisc.edu/training/ for more
coolers. The vapor generated by the evaporation information.
Figure 1: Glycol fluid cooler (left) for screw compressor external glycol oil cooler (right).
Noteworthy
• In February, we welcomed Sargento Foods as the newest IRC Member Company.
Click here for the press release.
• Check out the coverage of the 2003 IRC Research & Technology Forum in
Process Cooling & Equipment. Click here for the article.
• Send items of note for next newsletter to Todd Jekel, tbjekel@wisc.edu.
2
Equalizer line
Compressor Discharge
Evaporative
Condenser(s)
Condenser
Liquid TS
Drain Vent
Line
Alternate Equalizer line
TSOC
Return Main
Pilot Liquid Drain
from other Thermosiphon
oil coolers Pilot Receiver
TSOC Supply Main

TSOC to other oil coolers
Return
Branches
TSOC
Supply
Branches
High-Pressure
Receiver
Oil cooler
Oil cooler
Liquid Feed
to Plant
Figure 2: Traditional TSOC piping (Not to scale).
process, along with any unboiled high-pressure liquid refrigerant that undergoes a change of phase rather
refrigerant entrained and carried over from the oil than a glycol that changes temperature
coolers, migrates back to the pilot receiver through
the TSOC return lines. In the pilot receiver, liquid When to consider
separates from the vapor for supply back to the oil When should a dedicated refrigerant circuit for
coolers. Vapor is relieved to the condenser inlet thermosiphon oil cooling be considered? There are
where the heat from the oil cooling process is several points of opportunity to evaluate the feasibility
rejected to the outside environment. Any high- of this approach for your systems and plants. A
pressure liquid draining from the condensers that system expansion is always a great opportunity to
exceeds the amount required to feed the oil coolers take a step back and consider what could be done, in
overflows to the system’s high-pressure receiver. the context of the expansion, to improve the system
safety, reliability, operability, safety, and productivity.
CLOSED REFRIGERANT CIRCUIT TSOC HEAT Some companies have formed energy SWAT teams.
REJECTION These teams can evaluate the dedicated TSOC
An alternative approach to the traditional design of refrigerant circuit as one approach to improve the
high-side piping and equipment for thermosiphon oil efficiency of refrigeration system through reduced
cooling involves dedicating a closed circuit refrigerant operational costs for heat rejection. There are other
loop with separate evaporative condenser(s) that advantages beyond the efficiency and operational
operate only to meet the oil cooling heat rejection issues that can justify the use of a dedicated
load as shown in Figure 3. Like the closed-loop evaporative condenser for thermosiphon oil cooling.
glycol fluid cooler system (Figure 1), the dedicated Let’s look at some advantages and disadvantages.
TSOC system is also a closed-loop. The dedicated
TSOC differs in that the working fluid is now a
3
Equalizer line
TSOC Refrigeration System

Compressor
Evaporative Evaporative
Discharge
Condenser Condenser(s)
Condenser
Liquid
Drain
TSOC
Return Main
from other
oil coolers Thermosiphon
Pilot Receiver TSOC
Supply Main
to other
TSOC oil coolers
Return
Branches
TSOC
Supply
Branches
High-Pressure
Receiver
Oil cooler
Oil cooler
Liquid Feed
to Plant
Figure 3: Closed refrigerant circuit TSOC piping (Not to scale).
Pros and Cons
The advantages of a closed-loop refrigerant circuit for thermosiphon oil cooling include:
• Improved refrigeration system efficiency and reduced operating costs for oil cooling loads
• Reduced maintenance by maintaining an oil-free refrigerant circuit for feeding oil cooler heat exchangers
• Simplification of high-pressure receiver equalizer piping and thermosiphon relief vent line piping
• Troubleshooting high-side operational issues is simplified
The disadvantages of segregating heat rejection for oil cooling are:
• Overcoming the “We’ve never done it that way before” attitude

• Provisions for redundant oil cooling
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Control
In our short courses, technical papers, and guidebooks, we have repeatedly talked about the benefits of lowering
or “floating” head pressure in industrial refrigeration systems. However, for a closed-circuit oil cooling system,
reducing the condensing pressure does not minimize energy use. Consider an oil cooling heat rejection system
designed to accommodate the full-load oil cooling requirements with a saturated refrigerant temperature of 95°F
(181 psig). How should that refrigerant circuit be controlled for efficient operation during off-design hours?
Since the oil cooling circuit is now segregated from the refrigeration system’s high-side, we can focus on how it
can be controlled for efficient operation. It is important to recognize that, unlike the rest of the refrigeration
4
system, a dedicated oil cooling refrigeration circuit pumps during ambient temperature conditions near
does not have compressors connected that would freezing (32°F) because the magnitude of
benefit from reduced “head pressure”. So if the oil evaporative condenser capacity change associated
cooling heat rejection system is designed for full-load with wet vs. dry operation (particularly with the high
oil cooling with a circuit pressure of 181 psig (95°F saturated condensing temperatures expected in the
saturation), then maintaining a set point pressure in sub-system) can create control loop stability
the oil cooling circuit at 181 psig (95°F) will problems.
accomplish the peak heat rejection without overuse
of condenser fan energy. The lower the refrigerant Condenser fan control for the thermosiphon circuit
set point pressure in the TSOC circuit, the greater the is an important aspect of this sub-system.
fan energy consumption. This simple operating set Condenser control can be enhanced by installing a
point strategy can be extended by re-setting the variable frequency drive(s) (VFD) on the condenser
circuit set point pressure upward as the oil cooling fan(s). This allows more precise control of the
load decreases; however, it is important to monitor thermosiphon circuit refrigerant pressure to its set
the oil supply temperatures to ensure each operating point while minimizing fan energy use. VFDs will
compressor has adequate oil cooling. also reduce the energy associated with oil cooling
heat rejection during off-design conditions. Off-
In Northern climates, design conditions are only one design conditions are a reduction in oil cooling load
aspect of operation, what about operation during due either to reduced refrigeration load or ambient
wintertime? The importance of wintertime operation wet-bulb. As implied earlier, the condenser fans on
is heightened when the oil-cooling load decreases the thermosiphon circuit need to be modulated to
during cold weather due to reduced compressor maintain the thermosiphon pilot receiver pressure
discharge pressures and reduced refrigeration load. at its control set point. Nominally, the circuit set
Typically, oil cooling loads are correlated with point will be 181 psig; however, the pilot receiver
ambient weather conditions in application such as pressure can be reset upward as the oil cooling
distribution centers, cold-storage warehouses, load decreases.
storage terminals, and other applications with
weather dependant loads. In cold climates, consider Reliability and Redundancy
locating the pilot receiver in the engine room to Redundancy or reliability is important to consider in
maintain the TSOC refrigerant circuit pressure above the design and operation of an oil cooling system.
103 psig (65°F saturation temperature) so oil within Will the refrigeration system need to be available
the coolers will remain warm enough to flow freely 24 hrs per day, 7 days per week and 365 days per
during compressor shutdowns. Avoid cycling water
Equalizer
Purge
Main
Thermosiphon Refrigeration System P-traps

Evaporative Globe Valve Evaporative
Condenser Closed Condensers
Purge
Solenoid
Figure 4: Purger considerations (Not all valves shown).
5
year? How will the oil cooling arrangement support Sub-system Charging
system operation in the event that the one or more of Charging of the oil cooling refrigerant circuit can be an
the oil cooling condensers require service? There iterative process. Because there will not be any oil
are several ways of achieving redundancy for cooling load during the initial start-up, liquid refrigerant
enhanced oil cooling reliability including: 1. provide will tend to fill the liquid supply piping, oil coolers and
alternate oil cooling source, such as liquid injection, individual oil cooler return piping branches to the level
on one or more compressors; 2. provide condenser in the pilot. Once operational, the return branch piping
flexibility by specifying more than one condenser to to the pilot will only be partially filled with liquid on the
meet oil cooling loads at design conditions; 3. a active oil coolers. It is important to closely monitor the
combination of #1 and #2; or 4. provide the ability to liquid level in the pilot receiver after initial startup to
cross-connect the oil cooling circuit with the avoid overfilling the pilot. A high liquid level will result
condensers used in the main refrigeration system for in turbulent conditions in the vapor space of the pilot
heat rejection. The cross-connection option for during operation.
redundancy requires that the pilot receiver be
connected to the refrigeration system condensers Reserve liquid in the pilot is less important in a
and high-pressure receiver as shown in Figure 2. dedicated thermosiphon system because the oil cooler
circuit is a fixed charge and the oil coolers are not
Purging “sharing” liquid with the entire refrigeration system.
Automatic purgers are used in industrial refrigeration However, a nominal liquid level in the pilot receiver is
systems using ammonia for removing non- needed to ensure that liquid can be fed to each oil
condensable gases to maintain efficient system cooler supply branch lines without starving any
operation. Typically, foul gas, drawn from individual branches.
purge points located at the top of each condenser
heat exchanger outlet, is piped to a foul gas main If the cross-connect option (discussed previously for
connected to one or more purgers (Figure 4). In a redundancy) is chosen, the thermosiphon system can
dedicated thermosiphon oil cooling circuit, two be charged directly from main refrigeration system
purging-related issues need to be addressed: 1. how using the cross-connect piping.
is it accomplished, and 2. when should it be done.
Oil Management
How? With a dedicated oil-cooling refrigerant circuit, In a traditional thermosiphon system, oil carry-over in
the set point pressure of the oil-cooling condenser the discharge line from screw compressors can
will generally be higher than the refrigeration system possibly accumulate in the refrigerant-side of oil
condensing (head) pressure. If the purge points for coolers. Draining oil from the refrigerant side of oil
the oil cooling condensers are on a common purge coolers is time consuming and presents considerable
main with the refrigeration system, the pressure safety risks. With a dedicated refrigerant circuit for oil
difference between the two systems presents a cooling, the refrigerant supply to oil coolers can be
problem. When the oil cooling circuit operates at a maintained oil free, thereby, eliminating the need to
pressure higher than the system condensing manage or drain oil from the oil coolers.
pressure, the purge solenoids for the system may be
forced open whenever a purge solenoid in the oil
CONCLUSION
cooling circuit opens. To avoid this problem, we
A thermosiphon refrigerant circuit and condenser
recommend one of two alternatives: 1. purge points
dedicated to oil cooling for screw compressors is an
from the two heat rejection systems be segregated
alternative to traditional thermosiphon configuration that
onto separate foul gas mains, or 2. isolate each of
offers reduced operational costs, simplified
the thermosiphon evaporative condenser purge
troubleshooting, and eliminates oil from the
points using the stop valve at the purge point (Figure
refrigeration side of the oil cooler. In addition to
4). These recommendations allow for operation of
presenting the concept, considerations for operation,
the oil cooling condenser at a higher pressure than
maintenance, and redundancy were briefly covered.
the system condensers without back-flowing foul gas
from the thermosiphon to the purge connections on
If you have questions or comments on this article,
the refrigeration system condensers.
please contact Todd Jekel at (608) 265-3008 or
When? Since a dedicated TSOC circuit will not tbjekel@wisc.edu.
accumulate non-condensables during operation, it is
advisable to take those purge points out of the purge
“rotation” except immediately after startup and
servicing that requires line breaking.
6
Process Safety Management Audits
June 18-20, 2003 Madison, WI
Demand Forces Overflow Offering

Due to the demand for EPD’s Auditing PSM Systems course initially offered in January 2003, we have scheduled a
repeat “overflow” course for June. Don’t miss this opportunity to “raise the bar” on your plant’s process safety
management programs.
What Have Past Attendees Said About This Course?

“This is one of the most thorough, energetic, well-paced, and valuable content seminars I’ve ever attended!”
Phil Froncek, Agrilink Foods
“Very nicely laid out and thorough. The program was timely and will help us assure a safer workplace.”
Jeff Vorpahl, Packerland Packing
“Good tools to proceed with for conducting our audits and program improvements.”
Paul Brunette, Kraft Canada
Learn Sound Principles and Practices

Attend this course and learn sound principles and practices for conducting effective PSM compliance audits.
Compliance audits of PSM systems are one of the most effective means of continuously improving your plant’s PSM
program. Perform quality audits and reap the benefits of enhanced safety and more reliable “cold”.
Boost Your Understanding

The workshop format of this course will help you conduct high-performance, effective process safety management
systems audits. Our goals in offering this course are to help you
• understand a range of approaches for conducting PSM compliance audits
• assess and allocate required resources to conduct effective audits
• continuously improve PSM programs, and
• continuously improve the reliability and deliverability of “cold” as a result of conducting a compliance audit
Upon completion of the course, you will understand

• a wide range of audit types
• techniques for conducting effective PSM audits
• strategies for staffing and executing audits
• approaches for turning your audit results into PSM program improvements
Attend and Benefit

This course has been designed for
• PSM coordinators
• managers responsible for safety
• refrigeration personnel (operators, mechanics and supervisory staff)
• audit team members
• managers concerned with the reliability and dependability of “cold”
• others who want to learn more about enhanced refrigeration system safety and reliability
Take Home Valuable Compliance Audit Tools

As an attendee, you will receive a complete set of course notes. In addition, you will receive a CD-ROM with
valuable tools for conducting compliance audits at your facility.
Download a complete brochure including a course outline and registration materials by clicking here.
7
Benchmarking Refrigeration System Performance
Is your refrigeration plant energy efficient? How do you know?
Improving the energy efficiency of refrigeration systems can provide significant economic
and operational benefits. Unfortunately, very little information is currently available to
identify systems with above- or below-average energy use. The Industrial Refrigeration
Consortium (IRC) has initiated a research effort to develop benchmark data to help
refrigeration plant personnel assess their facilities' energy costs relative to other plants.
The IRC is currently seeking plants to take part in this research project. In exchange for
furnishing monthly energy use and load data, participating organizations will gain preferred
access to the benchmarking results, including:
• Prepublication copies of the final report (published reports will not be released for
18 months following completion of the work)
• Written status reports and telephone conference calls on work in progress
• Special assistance from investigators to resolve energy analysis questions
• Optional custom analysis of your plants' energy use
For more information, or to learn how to participate, download the project description from
our website at www.irc.wisc.edu.
ITT’SS NO
OTT TO
OOO LA
ATTEE!
Join the IRC in 2003
The IRC’s mission is to improve the safety, reliability, efficiency, and productivity of
industrial refrigeration systems. Our vision is to make continuous progress toward
improving the safety, productivity, and efficiency of the systems and technologies that form
the foundation of the industrial refrigeration industry.
Does your company have needs in the areas of education, technical assistance or strategic
planning for refrigeration? If so, please contact us to see how joining the IRC can benefit
you and your company.
N
NEEW
WSSLLEETTTTEERR IID SW
DEEAAS WEELLCCO
OM D!!
MEED
If it is of interest to you, it is undoubtedly of interest to
others.
Send Idea
8
PRESENTA
Economizador
Que es un Economizador ??
Elemento para subenfriar el liquido que va ser
alimentado a Evaporacion.
Evaporacion.
Un metodo de ahorrar COSTOS operacionales en

sistemas de UNA SOLA ETAPA de COMPRESION
a Baja Temperatura donde se reduce el consumo
de H.P por T.R. a comparacion del mismo sistema
pero con una sola etapa sin efecto de
subenfriamiento..
subenfriamiento
El metodo empleado en Compresores Tornillos

es usar el PUERTO LATERAL y asi poder simular
un Sistema de Doble Etapa o de Subenfriamiento
permanente
1
Cuando Debe ser
Considerado un
Economizador?
Aplicacion que esten por debajo de -20
20°° F.
Cuando las Relaciones de Compresion
Exceden 10:1 el consumo de H.P. por T.R es
alto.
Para reducir el Efecto de Flash Gas en las
lineas de liquido
liquido,, usando subenfriamiento
subenfriamiento..
DESVENTAJA: El efecto de aspiracion solo es

posible cuando la GUIA DE CAPACIDAD esta
por encima del 70%, luego solo existira
subenfriamiento en Capacidades por encima
del 70%
Beneficios del
Economizador
Aumenta la Capacidad del EFECTO NETO REFRIGERANTE
usando la misma masa de REFRIGERANTE.
El vapor generado en el Intercambio Termico del

Economizador,, se lleva a una succion intermedia que
Economizador
corresponde la puerto lateral del Compresor que no es
necesario llevarlo a la Succion principal del compresor
donde aumentaria el BHP/TON.
Reduce el flash gas en valvulas de expansion y en lineas

de liquido
liquido..
Si no se utiliza el Puerto Lateral para un Intercambiador de

Calor para Subenfriamiento
Subenfriamiento,, puede ser usados para Cargas
que esten a presiones intermedias de Succion
2
Una sola etapa sin Economizer
H.P.
Efecto Neto Refrigerante
Una Sola Etapa con Economizer
H.P.
Aumento de Efecto Neto Refrigerante
3
Sistema a Doble Etapa
H.P.
H.P 2
H.P. > H.P. 1 + H.P. 2 H.P 1
Una Etapa siempre consume mas Energia que Doble Etapa
Aumento de Efecto Neto Refrigerante
Que se require para el

Economizador?
El compresor debe tener puerto Lateral.
Lateral
Este puerto esta ubicado entre la presion
de succion y la presion de
Y un intercambiador de calor que se
denomina o se llama Tanque o
Economizador con su respectivos
controles de alimentacion de liquido y de
Succion..
Succion
4
C
Pipe Sizing
Standard Oversized
Compressor Economizer Port Economizer Port
Model Pipe Size (inches) Pipe Size (inches)
VSM-151
VSM- 1.0 2.0
VSM--181
VSM 1.0 2.0
VSM--201
VSM 1.0 2.0
VSM--301
VSM 1.5 2.5
VSM--361
VSM 1.5 2.5
VSM--401
VSM 1.5 2.5
VSM--501
VSM 1.5 2.5
VSM--601
VSM 1.5 2.5
VSM--701
VSM 1.5 2.5
VSM--751
VSM 1.5 2.5
VSM--901
VSM 1.5 2.5
VSM--1051
VSM 2.0 3.0
VSM--1201
VSM 2.0 3.0
VSM--1501
VSM 2.0 4.0
VSM--1801
VSM 2.0 4.0
5
Que tipo de Economizadors
se usan?
Tipo Flash or Open ( Abierto ) y es el solo
recipiente
Casco y Espiral por dentro
Casco y Tubos, en este tipo

p hay
y dos clases
1. Expansion Directa
2. Inundado en el casco
Sistemas
Si t Tipicos
Ti i d
de
Economizers son:
6
Sin Economizador
TIPO Flash
7
Tipo Flash
z Ventajas:
– Es el mas eficiente, logra suministrar liquido a
TEMPERATURA DE SATURACION
z Desventajas:
– El Liquido que sale hacia los evaporadores, se
encuentra al presion de Temperatura de
Saturacion, si no tiene la presio o fuerza suficiente
para vencer caidas de presion en la linea, puede
exitir problemas en la evaporacion. Debe ser
i t l d cerca de
instalado d los
l evaporadores
d o
Recirculadores .
– Equipo suelto debe ser instalado en campo cerca
del compresor
Tipo Flash
8
Casco y Serpertin
Casco y Serpetin
z Ventajas:
– El liquido
li id dentro
d t deld l espiral
i l mantiene
ti la
l
presion de Condensacion, la cual es alta y le
permite vencer caidas de presion en la linea
para largas distancias.
z Desventajas:
– El liquido que sale,
sale sale 10°F
10 F por encima de
la temperatura de Saturacion
– Equipo Suelto, debe ser instalado en campo
cerca del compresor
9
Casco y Serpetin
Casco Tubos - Inundado
10
Casco y Tubos - Inundado
z Ve tajas:
Ventajas:
– El liquido dentro del los tubos mantiene la presion de
Condensacion, la cual es alta y le permite vencer caidas de
presion en la linea para largas distancias.
– El equipo pueder ir montado por el fabricante del compresor
z Desventajas:
– El liquido que sale, sale 10°F por encima de la temperatura de
Saturacion
– Control de Nivel preciso para que no llegue liquido al
compresor
– En otros casos el equipo suelto deber ser instalado en campo al
lado o cerca del compresor
Casco y Tubos - Inundado
11
Expansion Directa
Casco y Tubos – Expansion

Directa
z Ventajas:
j
– El liquido dentro del los tubos mantiene la presion de
Condensacion, la cual es alta y le permite vencer caidas de
presion en la linea para largas distancias.
– Equipo puede ir montado por el fabricante del compresor
z Desventajas:
– El liquido que sale, sale 10°F por encima de la temperatura de
Saturacion
– Control de Nivel preciso para que no llegue liquido al
compresor
– Control del SUPERHEAT para la Valvula de Expansion
– En otros casos el equipo suelto, deber ser instalado en campo al
lado o cerca del compresor
12
Casco--Tubos EXPANSION
Casco
DIRECTA
Gracias
13
0
0
03
04 050 6 0 70
0.0
80 .0090 .010
0 0
.75
4.00
0.015
5
s=3
4.2
130
0
s=
4.5
s=
120
130 0.020
s=
5
4.7
110
100.00 120
90.00
s=
0
100
5.0
80.00 110 0.030
s=
70.00
5
100
90
5.2
60.00 0.040
60
s=
80 90
.00 0.00
80
50.00 0
v= .010 0.050
v= 0 80
70
40.00 v= 0.060
0
5.5
0.01
5 70 0.070
60
v=
s=
30.00 0.080
0 60 0.090
0. 02
50
v= 0.10
50
5
20.00
40
.030
5.7
v= 0
s=
40 0.15
.040
30
Pressure [Bar]
v= 0
30 0.20
0
6.0
20
0
10.00 0.06
s=
9.00 v= 20
8.00 0.30
10
0
7.00 v= 0.08
10
5
6.00 .1 0 0.40
6.2
v= 0
s=
0
5.00 0 0.50
.15 0.60
v= 0
0
4.00
6.5
-10
0.70
s=
.2 0 -10
3.00 v= 0 0.80
5
0.90
6 .7
-20
.30 1.0
s=
v= 0
2.00 -20
0
7.0
0
v= 0.4
s=
1.5
-30
5
7.2
0
v= 0.6 -30
s=
2.0
50
0
7.
1.00 v= 0.8
s=
0.90 75
0.80 -40 v= 1.0 -40 7. 3.0
0.70 s=
0.60 4.0
0.50
x = 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
s = 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Enthalpy [kJ/kg]
0
0
03
04 050 6 0 70
0.0
80 .0090 .010
0 0
.75
4.00
0.015
5
s=3
4.2
130
0
s=
4.5
s=
120
130 0.020
s=
5
4.7
110
100.00 120
90.00
s=
0
100
5.0
80.00 110 0.030
s=
70.00
5
100
90
5.2
60.00 0.040
60
s=
80 90
.00 0.00
80
50.00 0
v= .010 0.050
v= 0 80
70
40.00 v= 0.060
0
5.5
0.01
5 70 0.070
60
v=
s=
30.00 0.080
0 60 0.090
0. 02
50
v= 0.10
50
20.00
40
.030
v= 0 40 0.15
.040
30
Pressure [Bar]
v= 0
30 0.20
0
6.0
20
0
10.00 0.06
s=
9.00 v= 20
8.00 0.30
10
0
7.00 v= 0.08
10
5
6.00 .1 0 0.40
6.2
v= 0
s=
0
5.00 0 0.50
.15 0.60
v= 0
0
4.00
6.5
-10
0.70
s=
.2 0 -10
3.00 v= 0 0.80
5
0.90
6 .7
-20
.30 1.0
s=
v= 0
2.00 -20
0
7.0
0
v= 0.4
s=
1.5
-30
5
7.2
0
v= 0.6 -30
s=
2.0
50
0
7.
1.00 v= 0.8
s=
0.90 75
0.80 -40 v= 1.0 -40 7. 3.0
0.70 s=
0.60 4.0
0.50
x = 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
s = 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Enthalpy [kJ/kg]



Sizing Data



Sizing Data
Economizer Data : Flash



Sizing Data
Economizer Data : Flooded Shell & Coil



Sizing Data
Economizer Data : Flooded Shell & Tube



Sizing Data
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of the 22ndAnnual Meeting of the International Institute of Ammonia

Refrigeration is due to the quality of the technical papers in this volume and the labor
of their authors. lIAR expresses its deep appreciation to the authors, reviewers, and
editors for their contributions to the ammonia refrigeration industry.
ABOUT THIS VOLUME
lIAR Technical Papers are subjected to rigorous technical peer review.
EDITORS
Christopher P. Combs, Project Coordmator

Suite 250
Arlington, VA 22201
+1-703-3 12-4200 (voice)

+1-703-312-0065 (fax)
www .iiar.org
2000 ILAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference

Nashville, TN
Technical Paper #5
Single Stage vs. Two Stage

Ammonia Refrigeration Systems
Mike Zion
Refrigeration Design and Service, Inc.
West Conshohocken, PA
2000 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference

Nashville, TN
- 98 -
n
I
History
Mechanical refrigeration systems were first introduced in the late 1800s using reciprocating
steam engines modlfied for this purpose. They were limited in single stage applications to
suction temperatures of about -10°F to -20°F due to high compression ratios. Lower
temperature operation was both uneconomical due to poor volumetric efficiency and
impractical due to high discharge temperatures. Compounding, or multi-stage operation with
intercooling, was introduced to overcome these problems. This was done with individual
low stage (booster) and high stage compressors, or in some cases with a single machine
having both low stage and high stage cylinders dnven by a single motor on a common shaft.
In the 1950s, the introduction of slide vane rotary compressors as booster machines
represented a notable advance because these machines cost significantly less and were much
more compact than the reciprocating equipment that they replaced.
The large-scale application of oil flooded screw compressors that started in the 1970s
represents the single most significant technical advance in the ammonia refrigeration industry
of the twentieth century. The continuing development of these machines, including
“economizing” makes the application of single stage screw compressors a reasonable and
frequently very attractive alternate to multi stage systems.
First, with respect to high compression ratios, the screw compressor has a much better
volumetric efficiency than does the reciprocating machine because “clearancevolume” is not
a factor. All the gas “trapped” in the suction side of the machine is pushed through and out
of the compressor. Second, the oil flooding of these units absorbs the high heat associated
with high compression ratio operation resulting in a much lower discharge temperature.
Finally, the economizing of these compressors allows for operational costs that approach that
of the two stage system.
- 99 -
System Design Considerations
There are a great number of factors to consider when designing an ammonia refrigeration
system. These factors are:
1. System Application - The type of load to which the system is to be applied is one of the
most critical factors to be considered. For example, freezer storage applications often do
not have stand-by compressor capacity, as the failure of a machine can be tolerated for
some period of time due to the flywheel effect of such a storage. That is, the temperature
in a freezer storage will not increase significantly over a one- or two-day period while a
machine is off because the product within the storage will absorb a significant amount of
heat, thus maintaining a satisfactory storage temperature. A production type of
application such as an Ice Cream Plant, however, represents a much more critical
situation in that the failure of a single compressor without an available stand-by machine
can be a very significant problem. Such a failure can bring an entire plant operation to a
standstill, sometimes idling hundreds of workers and resulting in nothing short of an
economic disaster.
2. Initial Cost - The first cost of a refrigeration system varies greatly with the specific
application and the system selected. Where applicable, unitary systems will almost
always represent the lowest installed cost. As this is a presentation and comparison
between Single Stage and Two Stage Ammonia Systems, no further comments will be
made on unitary systems. On an apples-for-apples basis, the single stage economized
screw compressor system will almost always show a lower installed cost than will the
two stage system. The reasons for this will become self-evident later.
- 100 -
3. Economy Of Operation - At full load conditions, the two stage ammonia system will
almost always have a lower utility cost than will the single stage economized system.
Depending on the specific system, the utility cost for the single stage system can
approach that of the two stage system at part load operation. The two stage system will
very frequently have a higher maintenance cost than the single stage system as it usually
has more machines and is more complex.
4. Operating Complexity - Two Stage systems are almost always more complex to operate
than single stage economized systems. This results in the need for a more complex and
sophisticated control system and a higher level of operator skills. Simply stated, more
can go wrong with two stage systems.
5. Operating Flexibility - Two Stage systems are usually less flexible in operation than
comparable single stage economized systems. The booster compressors of two stage
systems are normally operable only as booster machines. And while the high stage
compressors can be piped such that Ehey can be operated for booster service, other
considerations must be taken into account. This includes the gross over sizing of the
motor, the need for a full-time oil pump and an oil cooling apparatus suitable for both
applications.
Design Details
System No. 1
Figure 1 represents the “high side” for a single stage economized system as applied to a
typical Freezer Storage. Figure 2 represents the “high side” for a two stage system as applied
to the same Freezer Storage. The full load design is 200-TR at a -25°F SST for the main
storage and 50-TR at a +23”F SST for the dock. Both systems have the same low side using
recirculated ammonia for the Freezer Storage evaporators and thermal expansion valve
- 101 -
evaporators for the Dock. The -25°F Low Temperature Pump Recirculator will likewise be
the same for both systems. The evaporative condenser will be about the same size since the
total heat of rejection for these two systems is about the same. The main differences between
the two systems are the compressors and the intermediate +23"F vessel. Some of the
possible equipment selections based on one particular equipment manufacturer and listed by
CFM gross displacement are as follows:
1. Single Stage Economized System (Single Compressor)

One (1) 1589-CFM economized screw compressor operating at 89.2% capacity with a
+95"F SCT will deliver 200.8-TR at -25°F SST (main port) and 50-TR at +23"F SST
(side port) while drawing 515.7-BHP.
2. Single Stage Economized System (Dual Compressor)

Two (2) 790-CFM economized screw compressors, one (1) operating at 100% capacity
and the other operating at 86.4% capacity, with a +95"F SCT will deliver 200.1-TR at
-25°F SST (main ports) and 50-TR at +23"F SST (side ports) while drawing 51 1.5-BHP.
Note that with one (1) of these machines off, the other will have 107.5-TR at -25°F SST
(main port) and 50-TR at +23"F SST (side port).
3. Single Stage Economized System (Best Compressor Selection)

Two (2) 790-CFM economized screw compressors and one (1) 592-CFM economized
screw compressor. With this arrangement, 190-TR capacity at -25°F SST will be
available even with the largest machine out of service. This arrangement will also
provide much better performance at less than full load conditions.
4. Single Stage Economized System Intermediate Vessel

This is a combination High Temperature Suction Trap to handle the 50-TR Dock load
and a Flash Intercooler to handle the approximate 33-TR liquid cooling load. This load
can be handled by a 20" x 8' vertical vessel.
- 102 -
5. Two Stage System (One Booster, One f i g h Stage Compressor Selection)
One (1) 1589-CFM screw booster compressor operating at 86.3% capacity and at +25"F
SDT will deliver 200.6-TR at -25°F SST and will draw 191.2-BHP. Note that this
compressor will require a 3-HP full time oil pump.
One (1) 790-CFM high stage screw compressor operating at 100% capacity, +23"F SST
e and +95"F SCT,will deliver 295-TR and will draw 320.5-Bhp.
6. Two Stage System (Best Compressor Selection)

Two (2) 790-cfm screw booster compressors, one (1) operating at 100% capacity and the
other at 77.8% capacity will deliver 200.2-TR at -25°F SST, +25"F SDT and will draw a
total of 195.1-BHP.
One (1) 790-CFM high stage screw compressor operating at 100% capacity, +23"F SST
and at +95"F SCT will deliver 295-TR and will draw 320.5-BHP.
One (1) 790-CFM "swing" screw compressor piped as both a booster and a high stage
machine to serve as a spare for any of the above machines. Note that this compressor
will require dual oil cooling controls, a full sized lube oil pump and must be motored for
the high stage operation.
7. Two Stage System Intermediate Vessel

This is a combination High Temperature Suction Trap to handle the 50-TR Dock load
and an Intercooler to handle the approximate 245-TR load of liquid cooling and
discharge vapor desuperheating. These loads can be handled by a 36" x 10' vertical
vessel.
- 103 -
A comparison of the above equipment selections reveals that the overall operating economy
is virtually identical between the single stage economized systems and the two stage systems.
The initial costs, however, will be significantly higher for the two stage systems. Further,
the operating flexibility will be much better for any of the single stage systems against all but
the “best” two stage system. It is thus fairly obvious that this is a very good application of
the single stage economized system.
System No. 2
Figure 3 and Figure 4 represent a larger, more complex and lower temperature system.
Loads are 500-TR at -40°F SST, 200-TR at -25°F SST and 450-TR at +20”F SST. Further,
this is a production facility requiring stand-by capacity at each suction level. Both systems
use recirculators at all three suction levels. The -25°F Low Temperature Pump Recirculator
and the -40°F Very Low Temperature Pump Recirculator are the same for both systems. The
+20”F vessel is a combination f i g h Temperature Pump RecirculatorRIashIntercooler in the
single stage system while it is a combination High Temperature Pump
Recirculator/Intercoolerfor the two stage system. The evaporative condenser for the two
stage system will be about 10% smaller than for the single stage system as there will be
approximately 10% less total heat of rejection from the two stage system. Note that the
single stage compressors are not economized as it is just as effective and less complex to
provide this system’s required liquid cooling through the main suction port of the high
temperature compressor. The “Best Compressor Selections” for these two systems are as
follows:
1. Single Stage System

Four (4) 1598-CFM screw compressors, each having 140.3-TR of capacity and drawing
417.6-Bhp when operating at -40°F SST and +95”FSCT and with liquid cooled to +20”F
externally.
- 104-
I
I
I One (1) 1598-CFM screw compressor having 219.8-TR capacity and drawing 475.7-Bhp
when operating at -25°F SST and +95"F SCT and with liquid cooled to +20°F externally.
J One (1) 1598-CFMscrew compressor having 576.9-TR capacity and drawing 646.2-Bhp
I when operating at +20"F SST and +95"F SCT.
One (1) 1598-CFM screw compressor piped to all three suction levels to serve as a
"stand-by" machine for any of these loads. Note that this machine must be motored for
the +20"F load. The total shaft input for these machines at the full load conditions will
be approximately 2575-BHP.
2. Single Stage System Intermediate Vessel

This is a combination E g h Temperature Pump Recirculator to handle the
450-TR high temperature loads and a Flash Intercooler to handle the approximate
111-TR liquid cooling load. This load can be handled by a 54" x 12' vertical vessel.
3. Two Stage System

Three (3) 1865-CFM screw booster compressors, each having 175-TR capacity and
drawing 220.6-Bhp when operating at -40°F SST, +20"F SDT and with liquid cooled to
+20"F by the high stage compressors.
One (1) 1598-CFM screw booster compressors having 234.3-TR capacity and drawing
199.2-Bhp when operating at -25°F SST, +20"F SDT and with liquid cooled to +20"F by
the high stage compressors.
Two (2) 1865-CFM screw compressors, each having 661.8-TR capacity and drawing
744.6-Bhp when operating at +20°F SST and +95"F SCT.
- 105 -
One (1) 1865-CFM screw compressor piped to all three suction levels and to both the
booster discharge and high stage discharge to serve as a “stand-by” machine for any of
these loads. Note that this machine must be motored for the +20”Fload, have a full sized
lube oil pump and oil cooling controls for any of its possible applications. The total
shaft input for these machines at the full load conditions will be approximately
23 15-BHP.
4. Two Stage System Intermedate Vessel

This is a combination High Temperature Suction Trap to handle the 450-TR high
temperature loads and an Intercooler to handle the approximate 865-TR load of liquid
cooling and discharge vapor desuperheating. These loads can be handled by an 84” x 14‘
vertical vessel.
A comparison of the above two systems reveals a significant advantage in utility cost
(approximately 15.7%) for the two stage system over the single stage system. The
operational flexibility of each system is comparable as each provides stand-by equipment at
each suction level. The operational complexity of the two systems is also very similar,
though still slightly more complex for the two stage system. The single stage system will
have a fairly substantial advantage in initial cost though not as significant as the smaller,
higher temperature system. Determining which system is best for this application involves
calculating the overall owning and operating cost over the life of the system. This must
include the interest rate paid for the capital needed to purchase the system and the electric
company utility rates. Where the cost of money is high and utility rates are low, the single
stage system may be the best choice. Conversely, high utility rates and low interest rates
would favor the two stage system.
- 106 -
Conclusion
The design of any refrigeration system should be driven by economic factors. Open drive
systems almost always have a lower life cycle cost than unitary systems for moderately sized
and larger applications. Ammonia systems generally have a lower life cycle cost than do
R-22 or other alternate refrigerants within a reasonable regulatory environment. The
selection of a single stage economized system or a two stage system should likewise be
driven by economic factors. Generally speaking, the single stage economized system works
best for just about all applications at -25°F SST or higher and on smaller systems even down
to -40°F SST. Conversely, two stage systems will work best on larger systems at suction
temperatures below -25°F.
- 107 -
SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
SYSTEM APPLICA TION
INITIAL COST
ECONOMY OF OPERATION
OPERATING COMPLEXITY
OPERA TING FLEXIBILITY
- 108 -
I
I
1 SYSTEM NO. 1
LOADS ... 200-TR @? -25 "F SST, 50-TR @ -1-23"F SST.
II.
BEST SELECTION, SINGLE STAGE ECONOMIZED SYSTEM
I
RC 1 - 790 CFM, 107.3 TR @ -25°F SST, 25 T R @ +23"F SST, 266.1
J BHP
I -
RC 2 790 CFM, 107.3 TR @? -25°F SST, 25 T R @ +23"F SST, 266.1
BHP
-
RC 3 592 CFM, 80.4 TR @ -25°F SST, 19 T R @ +23"F SST, 199.4
BHP
511.5 BHP 0MAXIMUM LOAD

BEST SELECTION, TWO STAGE SYSTEM
-
BC 1 790 CFM, 112.5 TR @ -25°F SST, +25"F SDT, 106.5 BHP
B C 2 - 790 CFM, 112.5 TR @? -25°F SST, +25"F SDT, 106.5 BHP
HSC 1 - 790 CFM, 295.0 TR @ +23"F SST, 320.5 BHP
-
SWING COMPRESSOR 790 CFM, PERFORMANCE A S ABOVE.
515.6 BHP 0MAXIMUM LOAD
NOTE: ALL SINGLE STAGE AND HIGH STAGE

COMPRESSORS ABOVE RATED AT +95"F SCT. ALL
COMPRESSOR RATINGS BASED ON THERMOSYPHON OIL
COOLING.
- 109 -
SYSTEM NO. 2
LOADS
500 TR @ -40°F SST, 200 TR @ -25°F SST AND 450 TR @ +20"F
SST
BEST SELECTION, SINGLE STAGE SYSTEM
-
RC 1 THRU RC 4 1598 CFM, 140.3 TR @ -40°F SST, 417.6 BHP
-
RC 5 1598 CFM, 219.8 TR @ -25°F SST, 475.7 BHP
RC 6 - 1598 CFM, 576.9 T R @ +20"F SST, 646.2 BHP
SWING COMPRESSOR, 1598 CFM, PERFORMANCE AS ABOVE.
2669 BHP @ MAXIMUM LOAD
BEST SELECTION, TWO STAGE SYSTEM
-
BC 1 THRU BC 3 1865 CFM, 175.0 TR @ -40°F SST, 220.6 BHP
-
BC 4 1598 CFM, 234.3 TR @ -25°F SST, 199.2 BHP
HS 1 & HS 2 - 1865 CFM, 661.8 TR @ +20"F SST, 744.6 BHP
-
SWING COMPRESSOR 1865 CFM, PERFORMANCE AS
ABOVE.
2307 BHP @ MAXIMUM LOAD

NOTE: ALL BOOSTERS COMPRESSORS RATED AT +20°F. INTERMEDIATE
AND HIGH STAGE COMPRESSORS AT +9S°F SCT. ALL COMPRESSOR
RATINGS BASED ON THERMOSYPHON OIL COOLING.
- 110-
L - 1 I I
I t t
MAIN SIDE DISCH.
FORT PORT (+95F)
(-2SF)(+27F)
Figure 1: Single Staged Economized System (High Side)
- 111 -
LTRS
t
BOOSTER
COMPRESSOR I I I
c I
OOOSTER
COMPRESSOR
Figure 2: Two Stage System (High Side)
- 112-
LTRS
LTPL 1 I
t
I
SINGLE STAGE
t
ICOND.
+
DISCH.
(-2sF)
HTRS
HTPL 7 1
I
I
I SINGLE STACE
COMPRESSOR
I
I
I
Figure 3: Single Stage Lower Temperature System
8
- 113 -
-I
MTRS
VLTPL
COND.
LTRS
LTPL
HTRS t
HIGH STffiE
COMPRESSOR
Figure 4: Two Stage Lower Temperature System
- 114-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Refrigeration is due to the quality of the technical papers in this volume and the
labor of their authors. IIAR expresses its deep appreciation to the authors,
reviewers, and editors for their contributions to the ammonia refrigeration industry.
ABOUT THIS VOLUME
EDITORS

Suite 250
Arlington, VA 22201
+ 1-703-312-4200 (voice)
+ 1-703-312-0065 (fax)
www. iiar.org

Gaylord Palms Resort & Convention Center
Kissimmee, Florida
I
I
I
I Spanish Technical Paper #3
I
Una etapa
I
contra dos etapas, iCual?
I
I Juan Manuel Castillon Rios
IERI S.A. DE C.V.
I Guadalajara, Mexico
I Originalmente publicado como Single-Stage Versus Two-Stage Efficiency

Considerations de Henry B. Bonar, II para la conferencia del IIAR en 2002.
I
s Resumen
Durante muchos afios, 10s ingenieros de la industria constantemente hablaban de las ventajas
I relativas de 10s sistemas de dos etapas contra 10s sistemas de una etapa de refrigeracion en sistemas
centrales. Hoy en dia, sin embargo, las consideraciones pertinentes siguen siendo pasadas por alto.
Los ingenieros deberian estudiar el sistema completo utilizando 10s diagramas de Mollier para
I determinar cuales factores son relevantes y que influyen considerablemente en la seleccion del
sistema de compresion en particular. Las consideraciones que se tienen que observar son, el tip0 de
I compresor, las condiciones de funcionamiento del sistema, el condensador, 10s parametros de

operacion y la eficiencia del sistema. La finalidad de esta ponencia, es ilustrarles como estos factores
pueden afectar las decisiones de ingenieria hechas en el diseiio o expansiones de un sistema de
I refrigeracion.
I 2004 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
I 0 IlAR 2004 427
I
I
I Una etapa contra dos etapas, CCual? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios iial
I Introduccion
I La industria de la refrigeracion utilizando amoniaco como refrigerante, se ha

desarrollado considerablemente durante 10s veinticinco aiios pasados. Nuevas
I tecnologias y el us0 de tecnicas analiticas cada vez mas sofisticadas, permiten que
10s sistemas modernos de refrigeracion con amoniaco, Sean sistemas eficientes con
I un costo de operacion menor. Sin embargo utilizando instrumentos tradicionales de
la ingenieria como el diagrama de MOLLIER en conjunto con las nuevas tecnologias
I y tecnicas, definitivamente se obtienen mejores resultados.
I El diagrama de Mollier permite a 10s ingenieros, contratistas y usuarios finales tener

una idea Clara del comportamiento teorico del ciclo de refrigeracion. Estos diagramas
I nos dan la base para la toma de decisiones importantes, comparando la eficacia del
sistema de dos etapas contra 10s diseiios del sistema de una etapa.
I Ademas el diagrama de Mollier nos ayuda en el proceso de decision entre un

compresor reciprocante y un compresor de tornillo. Sin embargo antes de que
I nosotros podamos comparar inteligentemente la eficacia de un sistema de dos etapas
contra un sistema de una etapa, es importante entender 10s diagramas de Mollier.
I
Usando el diagrama de Mollier
I
Saber utilizar el diagrama de Mollier, es la base para entender el principio de la
I refrigeracion, con el diagrama de Mollier entenderemos el ciclo de refrigeracion
proporcionandonos una gran herramienta para analizar 10s complejos diseiios de 10s
I sistemas de refrigeracion
I El diagrama de Mollier es una grafica que muestra las propiedades termodinamicas

(densidad, entalpia, entropia) de las substancias en sus diferentes estados fisicos
I
I
Spanish Technical Paper #3 0 IlAR 2004 429
I
I
iiCW 2004 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
I
(vapor, liquido, solido o la combinacion) a temperaturas y presiones diferentes
I
(Figura P 1).
I
Los diagramas de Mollier mas utiles para 10s propositos del ciclo de refrigeracion,
muestran una “cupula de vapor”, la cual es una curva en donde se indican 10s I
puntos en que la sustancia se evapora o se condensa a presiones y/o temperaturas
diferent es. I
El area a la izquierda de la curva (Figura P 13, presenta las condiciones en que la
sustancia existe solo como liquido, asi mismo el area a la derecha de la curva,
I
muestra las condiciones en que la sustancia existe solo como gas.
I
En condiciones de presion y temperatura dentro de la cuspide de vapor, la sustancia
existe como una mezcla de liquido y gas, como se encuentra el refrigerante en el I
condensador o en el evaporador.
I
Para entender como leer e interpretar la informacion de un diagrama de Mollier, es
importante primero entender las definiciones de 10s terminos usados en el diagrama: I
Densidad: es la masa por unidad de volumen. La densidad se mide en libra/pie3
(Kg/m‘) y su simbolo es p.
I
Volumen especifico: es el volumen por unidad de masa y se mide en ft3/lb I
(m’/Kg), tambien se encuentra en el diagrama de Mollier, simplemente el
volumen especifico es el inverso de la densidad. i
Entalpia: es la suma de todas las energias suministradas a una sustancia para
mantenerla en su condicion actual con respecto a una condicion inicial conocida.
I
La entalpia es la energia interna de una sustancia mas la presion y volumen, se
representa con la siguiente ecuacion:
I
I
I
430 0 IlAR 2004 Spanish Technical Paper #3
I
I
iiCX
I Una etapa contra dos etapas, C‘Cual? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios
I
h = u + -PV
I J
Donde:
I
h = Entalpia en BTU por Libra
I u = ’Energia interna en BTU por Libra
p = Presion absoluta en Libras por pie cuadrado
I v
J
= Volumen especifico en Pies Cubicos por Libra
= Equivalente energia mecanica (778 Pies-Lb por BTU)
I En procesos termodinamicos la entalpia se menciona como “el contenido de

calor” o como “el calor total”, y se representa con la letra “h”. La entalpia de
I una sustancia se modifica siempre y cuando se realice lo siguiente:
Se realiza algun trabajo sobre la sustancia
I Si se le agrega o se le quita calor a la sustancia
I La entalpia de una sustancia cambia con la compresion, la calefaccion, la

refrigeracion, la evaporacion y la condensacion.
I Entropia: es una expresion de la energia total transferida a una sustancia, por

grado de temperatura absoluta para llevar a la sustancia a su condicion real,
I desde un punto de referencia.
I La entropia, es la cantidad de energia termica disponible en una sustancia, sin

realizarle ningun trabajo, la entropia es un concept0 dificil de entender.
I Imaginemos un compresor ideal operando a1 100 % (aumenta la presion del gas),
este compresor ideal trabajaria adiabaticamente, esto es no transmitiria ningun
I calor a1 gas durante el proceso de compresion. Si el proceso de compresion fuera

reversible, a1 invertir el flujo del gas le podriamos devolver a1 compresor la
energia y con esto generar una cantidad equivalente de energia electrica en el
I motor.
I
Spanish Technical Paper #3 0 IlAR 2004 43 1
I
I
EiUK 2004 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
I
Este proceso adiabatico, no disminuye la entropia del gas, pero isontropicamente
I
la mantiene constante.
I
En la realidad 10s compresores transmiten algo de energia a1 gas que no causa un
aumento en la presion util, pero si un aumento en la temperatura del gas, a esta I
ineficiencia se le llama entropia.
I
Los compresores de refrigeracion realizan la compresion “seca”, esto es, solo
comprimen gas y no la mezcla de liquid0 con gas. En el diagrama de Mollier este
proceso es grafico, iniciando en la region del gas que es a la derecha de la curva de
I
vapor.
I
La compresion ideal (la compresion realizada sin la perdida de eficiencia), en la
figura # 1, siguiendo las lineas de entropia constante, podremos observar que tanto I
en la compresion de una sola etapa como en la compresion de dos etapas 10s
procesos de compresion siempre implican ineficiencias, como se puede observar en D
el diagrama de Mollier.
Si utiliza el diagrama de Mollier para encontrar el trabajo que se requiere para

I
comprimir un gas.
I
Usted debe de conocer la temperatura inicial, la temperatura final, la presion inicial
y la presion final. 1
Primer0 encuentre estos puntos sobre el diagrama de Mollier, lea el contenido de I
calor para cada valor (entalpia), reste el valor mas bajo a1 valor mas alto
(BTU/Libra) y usted podra determinar cuanta energia ha sido agregado a cada libra
de gas por el compresor.
1
Para encontrar la cantidad total de trabajo hecho, rnultiplique el resultado por el
I
indice de flujo de masas del compresor (Lb/Hr o Kg/Hr).
I
I
I
I
I Una etapa contra dos etapas, CCuaI? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios
I El trabajo total realizado por el compresor estara en BTU/HR (Kj/Hr), si usted desea
I el resultado en caballos de vapor o en Kilowatts, multiplique el resultado por 10s

factores de conversion correspondientes.
I Es del conocimiento comun, que bajando la temperatura de condensacion,

ahorramos energia.
I
En el diagrama de Mollier usted puede observar este aspecto, de la linea de
I compresion dibujada anteriormente, lea la entalpia del punto inicial y del punto final
y encuentre la diferencia.
I En la linea dibujada se observa el gas en su estado fisico y lo que sucede a cada

instante de la compresion.
1
Ahora dibuje una linea similar sobre la parte superior de la primera linea pero
i iniciando en una temperatura mas alta y terminando en una temperatura menor,
ahora lea la entalpia inicial y la entalpia final y obtenga la diferencia, usted podra
I observar que el cambio del contenido de calor no era tan grande como en el primer
ejemplo.
I
Eficiencia vo Iumetrica de I co mpresor
I
Ahora hablaremos de compresores reciprocantes y de compresores de tornillo.
I
Un compresor reciprocante es sencillo de entender su funcionamiento, 10s pistones
I suben y bajan dentro de 10s cilindros succionando el gas por medio de las vilvulas
de succion, localizadas en la cabeza del compresor. El objetivo es empujar el
I volumen del gas succionado y comprimirlo aumentando su presion. Cualquier

trabajo hecho para aumentar la presion que no contribuye a1 volumen m6vil
adicional es desperdiciado.
I
I
Spanish Technical Paper #3 2 IlAR 2004
t 433
I
iiCX 2004 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
La eficiencia de 10s compresores reciprocantes est6 en funcion del volumen de gas

desplazado, el gas comprimido que no es desplazado a1 llegar el piston a su punto
muerto maximo superior y queda en la parte superior del piston, regresa
nuevamente a1 cilindro perdiendo con est0 eficiencia el compresor ya que el
compresor no succionara mas gas hasta que la presion dentro del cilindro se iguale
con la presion de succion.
En 10s compresores reciprocantes, la relacion de compresion es limitada por la

velocidad del piston y las temperaturas de compresion. Los compresores con
pistones mas grandes tienden a ser mas eficientes que 10s compresores con pistones
mas pequeiios. El area libre en 10s platos de valvulas y la temperatura de
compresion que el gas alcanza durante la cornpresion influye en el limite de la
relacion de compresion de un compresor reciprocante. Con amoniaco, el gas puede
alcanzar 300°F (1SO0C), a1 estar en 10s limites de 10s 400°F (2OO0C),el aceite
perderia sus caracteristicas lubricantes, corn0 10s anillos del piston son sellados y
lubricados con aceite. El aceite debe ser enfriado para mantener su viscosidad, la
tecnologia de lubricacion de aceite forzado por medio de bombas y el enfriamiento
de aceite ha tenido poca evolucion durante 10s ultimos 100 aiios.
En compresores reciprocantes, la capacidad nominal en HP/TR (KW/TR) se obtiene

mediante el calculo directo. Si usted no entiende el termino de eficiencia total, las
curvas de eficiencia volumetricas (Figura 2) encontradas en el Libro de Datos de
Amoniaco del IIAR (IIAR, 1992), podran ser de mucha utilidad para entender que
10s compresores reciprocantes son menos eficientes que 10s cornpresores de tornillo.
Est0 no en todos 10s casos, para aclarar este mal-entendido, es importante conocer
todos 10s factores que entran en la eficiencia total.
Por Stoecker (1998), la eficacia volumetrica q es definido como:
''=
Tarifa de volumen de gas que entra a1 compresor
Tarifa de desplazamiento de piston

100%

I
I
I La eficiencia de compresion, mide cuanto del proceso de compresion real se desvia
B de un proceso de compresion isoentropico. Esto es calculado como la proporcion del

trabajo que seria necesario para la compresion isoentropica a1 trabajo real realizado
a1 gas dentro del volumen de compresion.
I
La eficiencia mecanica es la proporcion de trabajo necesario aplicado a un eje para
I comprimir un gas.
1 El product0 de la eficiencia de compresion y la eficiencia rnecanica es llamado

eficiencia isoentropica.
I La eficiencia isoentropica, se calcula utilizando el diagrama de Mollier, su formula

es:
1 h2, - 111
17, = 100%
i
~
h 2 - 11,
Donde: 17, Eficiencia isoentropica

I hl Entalpia a1 inicio del proceso de compresion
I h2 Entalpia a1 final del proceso de compresion
1 h2s Entalpia a1 final de un proceso de compresion isoentropica
I Mientras que en 10s compresores reciprocantes varios factores influyen en su

eficiencia volumetrica, 10s compresores de tornillo pueden compensar estas perdidas
I de eficiencia, sobre todo por sus condiciones de carga.
I
I
I Spanish Technical Paper #3 0 IlAR 2004 435
I
iiat? 2004 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
Compresores reciprocantes de baja velocidad
El factor restrictivo de las relaciones de compresion, es la temperatura

sobrecalentada alcanzada por el gas de amoniaco durante la compresion. Como ya
se mencion6 anteriormente, el aceite debe ser mantenido por debajo de 400°F
(2OO0C), para asegurar sus caracteristicas lubricantes.
Generalmente y dependiendo del fabricante del compresor reciprocante la maxima

velocidad permitida para 10s compresores reciprocantes es de 1,200 rpm, a este tip0
de compresores se le da el nombre de compresores de alta velocidad y la relacion de
compresion que corresponde a estos compresores es 8: 1.
El limite de velocidad para 10s compresores considerados de baja velocidad es entre

300 y 400 rpm y son del tip0 vertical (VSA) que todavia son utilizados en muchas
plantas de refrigeracion en el mundo y su relacion de compresion es de 11:1, este
tip0 de compresores son dificil de utilizarse en sistemas de refrigeracion industrial
grandes porque las exigencias de temperatura son con frecuencia por debajo de 0°F
(-l8OC) y estos compresores son limitados en 10s tamafios y capacidades
disponibles.
Compresores de tornillo
Los compresores de tornillo son una tecnologia considerablemente diferente usada

para el proceso de compresion. Estos compresores controlan mejor la temperatura
del gas de descarga.
Los compresores de tornillo, tienen muchos mas limites de relacion de compresion,

mas altos que 10s compresores reciprocantes, con algunas relaciones de compresion
tan altas como 20:l.
436 G IlAR 2004 Spanish Technical Paper #3

Una etapa contra dos etapas, K u a l ? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios iiCW
Esto se puede lograr por el efecto de enfriamiento de aceite, utilizando el proceso de

inyeccion de aceite lo que el compresor de tornillo utiliza para sellar 10s espacios
internos del compresor.
Como este aceite debe ser recuperado inmediatamente para mantener una buena
operacion del condensador y del evaporador, se utilizan filtros coalescentes en el
separador de aceite para eficientar la recuperacion de aceite en 10s separadores.
El aceite se mantiene a temperaturas adecuadas, enfriandolo pues el aceite absorbe

algo del calor de compresion del gas refrigerante.
Un factor importante en la determinacion de la eficiencia de compresion de 10s

compresores de tornillo, es el desplazamiento del gas comprimido, que se realiza
con rotores. (El diseiio de 10s rotores varia dependiendo del fabricante del
compresor).
Los disefios de 10s compresores de tornillo se han desarrollado durante 10s ultimos
30 aiios, convirtiendose en una parte muy importante para la industria de la
refrigeracion.
Sin embargo han surgido muchos mal-entendidos en relacion a su eficiencia,

esperando que esta informacion logre darle una mejor explicacion para que se
entiendan mejor 10s parametros reales que determinan la eficiencia de 10s
compresores de tornillo.
En la actualidad muchas empresas han mejorado su eficiencia, realizando

modificaciones a su diseiio e instalando compresores de tornillo y la gente se ha
convencido de las mejoras de la planta a1 utilizar compresores de tornillo.
Para continuar con el tema de la eficiencia de compresion debemos conocer 10s

factores que influyen en la eficiencia de compresion, estos factores son: la inyeccion

de liquido, las cargas intermedias, las proporciones de volurnen variables (Vi), el

motor de velocidad variable, 10s perfiles de 10s rotores avanzados, metodos
diferentes de enfriamiento de aceite y puertos econornizadores, entre otros.
Los disefios han evolucionado tanto que cada fabricante de compresores de tornillo
tiene su propio perfil de rotor unico y la proporcion del lobulo (Figura 4)
Eficiencia del compresor
Eficiencia teorica del compresor
Ahora dejamos la discusion sobre 10s diferentes tipos de cornpresores y entramos a

una nueva discusion sobre las diferentes formas de compresion.
La comparacion hecha entre sistemas de una etapa y sistemas de dos etapas,

incluira la comparacion del cambio de entalpia de un compresor de una etapa a 10s
carnbios totales de entalpia en un sistema de dos etapas.
En un sistema de una etapa el compresor descarga el gas directamente a1

condensador mientras que en un sisterna de dos etapas el arreglo del sistema de
compresion cambia, ya que se instala un enfriador intermedio (intercooler) o
desupercalentador de gas, a donde descarga el compresor de prirnera etapa
(booster), esta descarga de gas se pasa por un baiio de liquido que absorbe el calor
de compresion del gas.
Pueden observar que en el enfriador intermedio (desupercalentador), existe una

mezcla de gas y liquido, el liquido se queda en el enfriador intermedio
(desupercalentador) y el gas es succionado por el compresor de segunda etapa
(compresor de alta presion) y lo comprime nuevamente, elevandolo a la presion de
condensacion. El an6lisis realizado por el Ing. Stoecker (Stoecker 1998) muestra

Una etapa contra dos etapas, CCual? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios
como el diagrama de Mollier puede ser utilizado para el analisis simplificado teorico
permitiendonos cuantificar el empleo de la energia en un sistema de dos etapas con
enfriador intermedio (desupercalentador).
Ejemplo: Utilizando el diagrama de Mollier realice el analisis de un proceso de

inter-refrigeracion.
Calcule la diferencia de la fuerza (HP) requerida por un sistema de refrigeracion de

amoniaco de dos etapas inter-enfriado, contra un sistema de refrigeracion de
amoniaco de una etapa, considerando que las condiciones de evaporacion y de
condensacion son iguales.
El sistema de dos etapas se muestra en la figura 5a y la figura 5b muestra su

diagrama de Mollier.
La carga de refrigeracion de este sistema es de 28.4 TR (100KW) y opera con 10s

siguientes niveles de temperaturas:
Evaporador: -31 OF (-35°C)
Enfriador intermedio: + 32°F ( O O C )
Condensador: + 95°F ( + 35°C)
Primer0 encontramos las entalpias en 10s diferentes puntos de sistema:

h, =600.4 Btu/lb (1416.2 Kj/Kg) En la succion del compresor booster
h, = 688.7 Btu/lb (1621.4 Kj/Kg) En la descarga del compresor booster
h, =620.4 Btu/lb (1462.7 Kj/kg) En la succion del compresor de segunda
etapa
h, =691.6 Btu/lb (1628.2 Kj/kg) En la descarga del compresor de segunda
etapa
h, = 149.1 Btu/lb (366.4 Kj/Kg) En la salida del condensador
h, = 149.1 Btu/lb (366.4 Kj/Kg) En la entrada del liquid0 a1 enfriador
intermedio (desupercalentador)
h, = 149.1 Btu/lb (366.4 Kj/Kg) En la entrada del evaporador
Spanish Technical Paper # 3 0 IlAR 2004 439

iialc, 2004 IlAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
Utilizando la carga de refrigeracion para calcular el flujo a traves del compresor

booster y del evaporador
n'?, = n'1, = (28.4 TR)( 12,000 Btu / hr .TR) / (600.4 - 149.1) = 12.6 Ib / min (0.09526 kg / s)
El indice del flujo a traves del compresor de segunda etapa se puede calcular
utilizando un equilibrio de masas.
n'l, + n'z, = i?,

Combinando la masa con una energia balanceada
m,h, + n'i,h,
_ - = ri,l?,
Combinando estas dos ecuaciones tendremos:
r i =~ 12.6.(
~ 688*7-149*1)=14.4Ib/miii.
620.4 - 149.1
La fuerza total (Pint) de 10s compresores es:
0 IlAR 2004 Spanish Technical Paper #3

Una etapa contra dos etapas, CCual? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios iiCltc
= [12.6 (688.7 - 600.4) + 14.4 (69 1.6 - 620.4)](601nin / lir)( 1 HP . hr / 2545 Btu)
e,,, = 50.4 HP (37.58 kW)

Ahora calculamos la fuerza (P,,) del compresor de una etapa:
= ~ z l ( h , - hl) = [12.6 (777.7 - 600.4)](60 min / hr) (1 HIJ. hr / 2546 Btu) = 53.4 HP (39.84 kW)
Los ahorros de fuerza debido a1 enfriamiento intermedio se calculan:
(
Ahorro = 53.4 -
53.4
X 100% = 5.7%
Teoricamnente y de acuerdo a las condiciones de operacion mencionadas, el sistema

de dos etapas es 5.7 % mas eficiente que el sistema de una etapa.
Como 10s caballos de fuerza representan la mayoria del trabajo realizado por 10s dos
sistemas, esto no necesariamente representa el trabajo total, debido a1 enfriador
intermedio (desupercalentador).
Para realizar una verdadera comparacion se tiene que considerar todos 10s factores
de energia.
Mientras que el enfriador intermedio (desupercalentador) beneficia en el sistema de

dos etapas permitiendo mas altas relaciones de compresion totales, pero tambien el
gas que entra en el enfriador intermedio es una fuente de perdida para el sistema de
dos etapas, ya que el liquido que se evapora para enfriar el gas representa trabajo
para el compresor de segunda etapa. Este gas no solo requiere la compresion
efectuada por el compresor de segunda etapa tambien requiere condensarlo para
volverlo a su estado original, esta es la energia adicional.
I Spanish Technical Paper #3 0 IlAR 2004 44 1

Eficiencia real del compresor
Si en la practica general solo consideramos las condiciones ideales de operacion y

no tenemos cuidado con 10s factores como el super-calor (super-heat) excesivo que
entra en el compresor de segunda etapa o en el compresor de primera etapa
(booster) y la pequefia caida de presion real que resulta en el enfriador intermedio
(desupercalentador) , 10s resultados pueden ser considerablemente diferentes.
La relacion de compresion alta tambien aumenta las perdidas, lo que contribuye a la

ineficiencia y la eficiencia isoentropica se disminuira.
Para darse una idea de cuanto es esta disminucion, vea la Figura 6. Si asumimos que
la descarga del gas por el cilindro es proporcional a la relacion de compresion,
entonces concluiremos que 10s sistemas de dos etapas siempre seran mas eficientes
que 10s sistemas de una etapa.
Si consideramos que las tolerancias mecanicas siempre seran considerablemente mas

grandes en un compresor de tornillo que en un compresor reciprocante, podemos
concluir que 10s compresores de piston operando en una etapa deben manejar
relaciones de compresion relativamente bajas y 10s sistemas de dos etapas y en
algunos casos 10s compresores de tornillo en una etapa pueden manejar relaciones
de compresion altas.
Para ilustrar estos conceptos, Don Ballou realizo una comparacion de eficiencia entre
todas las tecnologias de compresion y disposiciones habladas en este boletin y
preparo un reporte que reune todos 10s resultados (Figura 7) de compresores
utilizando amoniaco.
Como podemos observar en 10s compresores de baja velocidad, las relaciones de

compresion son bajas, por lo tanto, las temperaturas de succion son altas, en estas
condiciones 10s compresores reciprocantes de alta velocidad llevan la ventaja, pero

I
I Una etapa contra dos etapas, CCual? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios iial?
I a1 operar con temperaturas debajo de 0°F (-lS°C), 10s compresores de baja
I velocidad comenzaron a perder terreno, con relacion a 10s compresores de tornillo

operando en una etapa.
I Las ventajas del sistema de d o s d p a s , han sido ampliadas en sistemas que operan
a temperaturas mas bajas.
I
Los compresores de alta velocidad que operan en una etapa, son ideales para
I sistemas que operan a altas temperaturas.
I Es muy bueno para nuestra industria hacer la comparacion inteligente para evaluar
el mejor funcionamiento del compresor de acuerdo a las condiciones de operacion
del sistema.
I
La eficiencia en el funcionamiento del sistema, con el tiempo, es de suma
I importancia. Nos hemos encontrado con muchos casos donde 10s puertos abiertos,
10s puertos de proporcion variable, 10s rotores o 10s anillos (en compresores de
I piston), ocasionan considerables ineficiencias, en muchos de 10s casos esta
ineficiencia va desde el 10 % hasta el 36 % en HP/TR (KW/TR).
I Para compresores que funcionan con variaciones de relaciones de compresion

relativamente bajas, que no pueden ser consideradas teoricamente, necesitamos
I conocer mas sobre como eficientar el funcionamiento del compresor, para lograr
mejorar el funcionamiento del sistema.
I
I Comparacion economica
I Habiendo estudiado la eficiencia del compresor, tanto real como teorica, debemos
tener una opinion mas amplia y evaluar 10s gastos de inversion y de operacion, que
I
I Spanish Technical Paper # 3 0 IlAR 2004 443
I
I
iiCW 2004 IlAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
I
en realidad determinan cual de las tecnologias es la ganadora en el mundo del
I
negocio.
I
Ademas de la energia, otros gastos, como el enfriador intermedio, compresores
adicionales y el mantenimiento suplementario son significativos para la toma de la I
decision.
I
Para ilustrar este punto, vea la tabla 1. En este ejemplo consideramos
hipoteticamente que se requieren de 200 TR a una temperatura de succion de -40°F
(-4O"C), iCua1 sistema es el adecuado? Una etapa o dos etapas. De acuerdo a
I
nuestro analisis sospechamos que el sistema de dos etapas sera el ganador en el
area de energia.
I
Nos enfocamos a una estimacion de costos para cada proyecto y ponemos en una I
lista el costo de 10s componentes de 10s dos sistemas, incluyendo 10s gastos
adicionales mencionados anteriormente. I
Est0 es evidente, en este ejemplo, aunque el sistema de dos etapas fuera
considerablemente mas car0 de instalar, la razon principal por la cual se instalaria
I
este sistema seria la diferencia tan grande en el costo de la energia.
I
En 10s terminos financieros simples, podemos descubrir la inversion suplementaria
a1 decidir por el sistema de dos etapas, sabiendo que la relacion del costo de energia I
es de 3:l a1 aiio.
I
Esta es la razon por la cual, muchas empresas calculan el rendimiento de la
inversion de modo mas sofisticado que el solo hecho de la inversion inicial, de 10s
numeros lo que se tiene que repasar son 10s costos de la energia.
I
I
I
I
444 Spanish Technical Paper #3
I
I
iiCW
I Una etapa contra dos etapas, CCual? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios
I Durante la vida de un compresor, se debe considerar su eficiencia promedio,

considerando las condiciones de operacion y est0 dependera exclusivamente del
I usuario final.
I Otros factores que deben ser considerados son, cuanto tiempo se espera que el
sistema opere con baja capacidad, la capacidad de 10s operadores para manejar un
I sistema de dos etapas, el espacio disponible para 10s equipos, las posibilidades
economicas del dueiio para realizar la inversion.
I Entre otros factores, 10s anteriormente mencionados pueden influir en la decision del
tipo de sistema que se instale, pasando 10s costos de la energia y de operacion a un
I punto secundario.
I Un problema en las discusiones teoricas, consiste en que el factor del costo inicial
hace perder facilmente de vista que el costo de operacion es mas grande y que con
I el tiempo est0 resultara contra-producente.
Hemos observado que el numero de compresores de baja presion y de alta presion,

I cuando son controlados para manejar condiciones de cargas diferentes, hace que la
diferencia en el consumo de energia total sea mucho mayor que en 10s compresores
I de una sola etapa.
I En estudios recientes realizados con 5 o mas compresores de acuerdo a1 nivel de

temperatura de succion, se ha encontrado que se puede consumir solo un tercio de
I la energia de 10s sistemas comparables con 2 o 3 unidades individuales, en

particular cuando las unidades que pueden ser cicladas, son unidades que operan a
1800 rpm, el sistema seria ineficiente, en este cas0 es necesario instalar una unidad
1 con gran capacidad para manejar las demandas maximas de carga e instalar
unidades reciprocantes para manejar las cargas variables.
I Sin embargo, el diagrama de Mollier y una buena ingenieria, pueden ayudarle a
I tomar la mejor decision de la inversion.
I
I
iiCX 2004 IlAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
I
Con un simple sistema de dos etapas, como el mostrado en la figura Sa, tenemos
I
que considerar el trabajo realizado por el compresor booster, el gas producido en el
enfriador intermedio y el trabajo del cornpresor de segunda etapa. I
Las Figuras 9a y 9b muestran una hoja en Excel con 10s datos de Mollier. I
Combinando 10s datos de Mollier con la informacion real de presiones, temperaturas
y la eficiencia adiabatica, pueden ser una herramienta muy fuerte para el analisis. 1
Si tenemos 10s pararnetros de operacion del sistema, estos pueden ser cargados en el
programa de ingenieria, la diferencia de la eficiencia relativa entre 10s dos sistemas
I
puede ser calculada muy rapidamente. Es indispensable establecer la hoja de
calculo, entendiendo el diagrama de Mollier ya que las propiedades refrigerantes son
I
influidas durante el ciclo.
I
Conclusion I
Es importante que 10s ingenieros, contratistas y usuarios finales, entiendan 10s
diagramas de Mollier, estos diagramas no solo nos ayudan a entender la base teorica
1
para la eficiencia del sistema, sino que nos proporcionan informacion para
ayudarnos a tomar decisiones financieras importantes, comparando opciones entre
I
dif erent es sistemas.
1
Antes de que cornparemos inteligentemente la eficiencia del sistema de dos etapas
contra el sisterna de una etapa, sobre una base verdadera o teorica, entenderemos la I
importancia del diagrama de Mollier sobre el proyecto.
Tambien tenernos que entender las diferencias entre 10s compresores reciprocantes y
I
10s compresores de tornillo, para que las aplicaciones de cada uno de ellos sea la
mas adecuada.
I
1
I
I
I
iiat?
I Una etapa contra dos etapas, CCuaI? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios
I En la evaluacion de compresores, debemos saber que la eficiencia total de un
I compresor es comprendida por tres tipos de eficiencias que son: la eficiencia de

compresion, la eficiencia mecanica y la eficiencia volumetrica.
I Tambien debemos entender que nuestros diseiios son limitados por la relacion de
compresion, que a su vez son limitados por la temperatura de descarga
i experimentadas por el vapor de amoniaco y el aceite.
I Los sistemas se enfrentan con temperaturas de descarga diferentes y estas

condiciones afectan directamente el costo de operacion del equipo.
I Como tal, cada tecnologia tiene un lugar diferente y sera un ganador en

circunstancias especificas.
I
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I
I
I
I
I
I
iiCX 2004 IlAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
I
Referencias
I
International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration (IIAR). Ammonia Data Book
I
Arlington, VA, 1992.
I
Stoecker, W. Industrial Refrigeration Handbook. Pages 74-76. 1998.
1
I
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I
I
1
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1
I
I
I
I
I
SCALE CHANGE ENTHALPY. BTUllb Ahove SaturatedLiquid a1 -40°F
-_I_----
SCALE CHANGE - ENTHALPY, Blllllh Above Saturated Liquid at -40°F
Figura 1: Diagrama de Mollier

Figura 2: Eficiencia volumetrica de un compresor tipico
I .
70
--- .
--
60-
-
c - Tornillo
Tornillo 94 92 90 88 86
Rec iprocante 87 74 61
Figura 3: Instalacion de un compresor VSA
iiaK 2004 IlAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
Figura 4: Perfiles del rotor y radios de Iobulos del compresor de

tornillo
PAQUETE DE
COMPRESOR PERFIL LOBULOS
FABRICADO ROTOR VERSION MACHO / HEMBRA COMENTARIOS
COMPRESOR
DUNHAM-BUSH1 PROPIETARIO
HARTFORD DAB 4/6
FES 1 GRASSO PROPIETARIO TRES DIFERENTES MODELOS
GRASSO G L GM B G S SUPPORT
516 SAME PROFILE
FES / KOBE
PROPIETARIO
HE KOBE 516
PROPIETARIO
L KOBE 4/6
FES / HOWDEN PROPIETARIO
HOWEDEN 416
FES / HOWDEN
D-3D14 FORMA POR FRlCK
RXF 1 RXB SRM & 0-3-23 5/7 CES 1101 6/24/97
FORMA POR FRICK
RWB 1 RDB SRM A a D-2-34 4/6 CES 1101 6/24/01
MYCOM i MYCOM PROPIETARIO
MYCOM 416
FORMA FRICK
FRICK INDIA N PROFILE M 1 S HOLROYO 416 INDIA FIS/O1/901

I Una etapa contra dos etapas, dCual? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rtos liar
I Figura 5a: Diagrama de un sistema de dos etapas con enfriador
I intermedio
CONDENSADOR 4
A
+95"F (+35"C)
---,
k/'
COMPRESOR DE
SEGUNDA ETAPA
I
I 1
ENFRIAOOR INTERMEDIO
I
COMPRESOR BOOSTER
PRIMERA ETAPA
Figura 5b: Diagrama de Mollier del sistema mostrado en la figura 5a
z
'0
0
w
D [r
a
I
I ENTALAPIA

iiar, 2004 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
Figura 6: Efecto de compresion con relacion a la eficiencia
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R E L A C I ~ NDE COMPRESI~N
0
163 nun Y 2.83 XWL DIAMETRO DE ROTACION

I
iKW
I Una etapa contra dos etapas, C'CuaI? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios
I Figura 7: Energia requerida para sistemas de refrigeracion con
I amoniaco utilizando diferentes tipos de compresores
I
ENERGIA REQUERIDA (KWITR)
I TEMPERATURA DE SUCCION DEL COMPRESOR O F
TIP0 DE COMPRESOR
I RECIPROCANTE VERTICAL
-40 -30 -20 -1 0 0 10 20 30
I DE BAJA VELOCIDAD
RECIPROCANTE DE ALTA VELOCIDAD

NA
NA
205
NA
185
NA
16
172
117
113
117
113
096
095
079
078
I TORNILLO DE UNA ETAPA
UNIDAD DE CONDENSACION pkg

314 246 201 166 118 118 099 08
I 80° ambiente
UNIDAD DE CONDENSACION pkg

329 267 236 22 139 139 124 114
I 90° ambiente
RECIPROCANTE DE DOS ETAPAS

357 276 258 242 157 157 141 131
I
I NOTA: ENERGIA REQUERIDA CONSIDERANDO UNA TEMPERATURA DE CONDENSACION DE 96O F
Figure courtesy of Don Ballou

I
I
I
I
I
I
Fiaura 8: Sistema de refrigeracion con cortes de capacidad
Una etapa contra dos etapas, CCuaI? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios iiat?
Figura 9a: Hoja de calculo utilizando informacion del diagrama

de Mollier para comparar sistemas de una etapa con
sistemas de dos etapas
Two stage compression work is a functlon ot. (FORMULA)

(1st stage enthalpy changeibwster compressor effioency) (Hb-Ha)! EEF booster
(2nd stage enthalpy changernigh stange cornpressor enlclency! (Hd-Hc) t EFF aomp
( % of 2nd stage work used for desuperhealing 1st stage gas) I(Hb-Hcl! (Ha-Hel*(Hb-Ha) X EFF booster] X IHd-Ha) !EFFwmp ]
1% of condenser work used to condense liquid used for desupeihrat~nql I CondHP iCampHP! X (Hb-Hc 8 I Hd-HO! (1+d231 (EFFcomp)]
Stage TEMP (deg F) H" H P51a

High 86 631 45 134 7 169 16
Intermediate 32 621 04 70 7 62 23
Boosler Discharge 34 5 621 68 80 41 65 69
LOW 11 608 06 31 11 23 14
Inleercooler pressu,e Drop' 25
TWO STAGE SINGLE STAGE

2nd stage Booster Compressor
Temp superheat (deg F) 226 i 5 1 1 1 68 232 59
Dtscherge Temp (deg F) 194 75 122 68 243 68
lsuperht IBtultb) 680 76 667 07 725 52
I ENTHALPYVALUES
T N O STAGE SINGLE STAGE
Point Blu lb Btu Ib
A 608 06 608 06
B 667 07
C 621 04
D 680 76 725 52
E 1347 134 7
F 77 7
_ --
ri I
WORK CALCULATIONS
TWO STAGE SINGLE STAGE
2nd stage Boostel Compressor
EFF (comp) = 0 61 0 81 0 738
Compression Ratio - 2 72 2 65 7 31
Single compressor work 155 06
Booster Compressot Work 72 88

Hlgh stage compressor work (refrigeration> 73 73
High stage comp Work from intercooler load 8 85
Condenser work from intercoolei load 0 007
I TWO STAGE TOTAL

SINGLE STAGE TOTAL
155 47
155 06
I
Two Stage Efficiency Advantage 2 26%
I
I
I
iiaK 2004 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
I
Figura 9b: Comparacion de la eficiencia de operacion del sis-
I
tema de una etapa contra el sistema de dos etapas
I
~~~
I
SAT TEMPERATURA TEMPERATURA SEGUNDA ETAPA SAT SEGUNDA ETAPA SAT.
DE SUCCION
i"FI
INTERMEDIA DE DESCARGA
(OF)
TEMPERATURA DE SUCCION
(OF)
TEMPERATURA DE DESCARGA
(OF)
I
-11 34.5 32 86 I
SISTEMA DE DOS ETAPAS
I
1ra ETAPA
EFlClENClA DEL COMPRESOR
2nd ETAPA
Btu / Ib
total
TEMP DE DESCARGA
(OF) I
80 97% 81 00% 155 47 194 75 I
I
EFlClENClA DEL COMPRESOR
SISTEMA DE UNA ETAPA
Btu / Ib TEMP DE DESCARGA

I
total (deg OF)
I
73 85% 159 06 243 59
1
CAIDA DE PRESION
EN EL ENFRIADOR
DIFERENCIA E N
ENERGIA I
INTERMEDIO (PSI)
2.26%
I
I
1
458 C IlAR 2004 Spanish Technical Paper #3
I
I
Una etapa contra dos etapas, LCual? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios iiUl?
Tabla 1: Costo de 10s sistemas de compresion de una etapa y

dos etapas
I DOS I \PAS UNA ETAPA

I
1 CAPITAL OPERACl6N CAPITAL OPERACl6N
(ANUAL)
1 COSTO DE INSTALACION DE CUARTO DE MAQUINAS $240,000 $45.000
($15Oift2) (40' x 4 0 ) ( 1 0 x 30')
COSTO DE INSTALACION COMPRESOR BOOSTER $271,000
MANTENIMIENTO $15,000
ENFRIADOR INTERMEDIO $70 000
COSTO DE ENERGIA
($0 05/kWh)
TOTAL $581.000
$236 639
$251.639
7-
$271.000
$345,494
$352.994
COSTOANNUAL $334,639
*Cost0 annual = 117 costo de capital + costo de operacion, s nteres

iiar, 2004 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference, Kissimmee, Florida
Notes:

Una etapa contra dos etapas, CCuaI? - Juan Manuel Castillon Rios Mal?
Notes:
I
I
I
Spanish Technical Paper #3 0 IlAR 2004 46 1

Comparative Analysis of
Low Temperature
Refrigeration Systems
IRC Research and Technology Forum 2009

Pete Mumanachit
Advisors
Prof. Gregory F. Nellis
Prof. Douglas T. Reindl
13 May 2009
NH3 Compound System
heat rejected
condenser high stage

compressor
High temperature circuit Work

HPR
intercooler
booster
compressor
Work
Low temperature circuit
evaporator
refrigeration load
2
Why Using Ammonia?
Thermal • High heat transfer capacity

Properties • Energy efficient
Environmental • 0 Global Warming Potential

Impact 0 Ozone Depletion Potential
Economics • Low refrigerant cost
• Highly toxic/slightly flammable

Drawbacks • Low vapor density at low temperatures
3
CO2 as an alternative to NH3
• Also a natural refrigerant
• Low CFM/Ton at low evaporating temperatures
• Very high operating pressure at high saturation temperatures
102 104
103
CO2
Pressure [kPa]
Pressure [psia]
103
CFM/Ton
102
NH3
101
NH3
102
101
CO2
100 101 100
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Evaporating temperature [F] Saturation temperature [F]
NH3
CO2
Taylor, 2003 ASHRAE Presentation

4
NH3/CO2 Cascade System
heat rejected
condenser
high temp circuit
compressor
High temperature circuit Work
NH3
Cascade heat exchanger

CO2 low temp circuit
compressor
Low temperature circuit Work
evaporator
refrigeration load
5
Operating Requirements
• Based on freeze-drying plant operated by Nestle UK

• NH3/CO2 cascade system (replaced R-22)
• Constant freezer load of 680 Tons (2,390 kW)
• Evaporating temperature range below -40oF (-40oC)
6
Major System Components
Compound • Screw compressors

System • Evaporative condensers
• Evaporators
Model
Cascade • Screw and reciprocating compressors

• Cascade heat exchanger
System • Evaporative condensers
Model • Evaporators
7
System Component Models
• Utilize performance data from manufacturer

• Compressors
• Compressor manufacturer’s selection programs
• Evaporative condenser and evaporator
• Rated capacity at design conditions
• Determine the conductance rate (UA) from effectiveness-NTU
method
• Relate the change in conductance rate to the change in air-side
properties at off-design conditions
• Cascade heat exchanger (CHE)
• Physics-based model is developed using principles of heat transfer
8
Cascade Heat Exchanger
• NH3 evaporates (nucleate boiling) on the shell side

• CO2 is cooled by flowing through tube bundle
• Two distinctive sections accommodate CO2 cooling process
• De-superheating
• Condensing
CO2
4-pass shell-and-tube HX
NH3
9
Cascade Heat Exchanger Model
• Based on geometry of actual heat exchanger located in US

• Relate UA to thermal resistances in each HX section
• Condensing section – pinch-point temperature difference
• De-superheating section – effectiveness-NTU
• Translate required UA into a physical size
• Utilize the same size and geometry for off-design conditions
• Pinch-point temperature difference influences CHE size
10
System Performance Optimization
• Intermediate condition is varied to maximize COP
• Simplified optimization method
• Specify a range of typical head pressures (135 – 200 psia)
• Min/Max function in EES
• Optimum intermediate condition is curve-fitted as a bi-
quadratic function
• A function of evaporating temperature and head pressure
2.04
Coefficient of performance (COP)
2.02
1.98
1.96
1.94
1.92
250 254 258 262 266 270
Intermediate temperature [K] 11
System Performance Comparison
2.2
Coefficient of performance (COP)

cascade system
compound system
2 (simplified method)
135 psia
1.8
160 psia
1.6
190 psia
1.4
1.2
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
Evaporating temperature [F]
• Break-even temperature
• Point of equal performance efficiency (COP)
• Cascade system is more efficient below this temperature
• Compound system is more efficient above this temperature
• Break-even temperature is dependent on condensing pressure
12
Integrated System Model—baseline of
12-month Simulation
Parameters Description
System Input(s) 8670-hour TMY2 weather data
Locations Miami, FL., Madison, WI., Los Angeles, CA., Houston, TX.
Mode(s) of operation • 8 hr/day (2,920 hr/yr) and
• 10 hr/day (3,650 hr/yr)
Head pressure limit Variable based on weather but with a 120 psig (135 psia) minimum
Cascade pinch-point 10oF at design conditions
Evaporator heat load 680 Tons (constant)
Evaporating temperatures -40oF to -65oF (in steps of 5oF)
• Locations are selected based on climate

• Combinations of temperature and humidity
• Head pressure is allowed to float with ambient weather
• 120 psig (135 psia) represents a typical set-point in industry
• Yearly energy usage results are used to calculate operating cost
13
Annual Energy Usage Comparison
Cascade system Compound system
6000000 6000000
Annual energy usage [kWh]
Annual energy usage [kWh]

5500000 5500000 Miami
Houston
Miami Los Angeles
Houston Madison
Los Angeles
5000000 Madison 5000000
4500000 4500000
4000000 4000000
3500000 3500000
3000000 3000000
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
Evaporating temperature [F] Evaporating temperature [F]
• Energy usage trend follows

• Local climate (wet-bulb temperature)
• System COP
• Energy usage in Los Angeles and Madison is close despite climates
• Attributes to minimum head pressure limit
14
Operating Cost Comparison
Energy usage for Houston, TX. Total operating cost for Houston, TX.
5500000 4000000
cascade system cascade system
compound system 3800000 compound system
Total operating cost [$]

(simplified method) (simplified method)
Energy usage [kWh]
5000000 3600000
3400000
4500000 3200000
3000000
4000000 2800000
2600000
3500000 2400000
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
• Energy usage trend reflects system COP behavior

• Average electricity cost is 0.06$/kWh (EIA, 2008)
15
Operating Cost Comparison (cont.)
• Assuming equal life-cycle cost

• LCCcascade = LCCcompound
• More efficient system will have:
• Operating cost savings at the end of the life cycle
• Allowable first cost advantage (Premium difference)
• Defined with respect to the cascade system (cascade - compound)
• Positive difference = advantage for compound system
• Negative difference = advantage for cascade system
16
Premium Difference by Location
8-hr day mode 10-hr day mode
200000 200000
150000 150000 Miami
Premium difference [$]

Miami Houston
Houston 100000
100000 Los Angeles
Los Angeles
Madison
Madison
50000 50000
0 0
-50000 -50000
-100000 -100000
-150000 -150000
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
• The premium difference is negative below the break-even temperature

• Cascade system has an operating cost advantage
• Premium difference increases with
• System COP
• Energy usage
17
Effect of Cascade Approach Temperature on
Premium Difference
Average head pressure of 160 psia (8-hr day mode)
150000
100000
50000
10°F
-50000
8°F
-100000
5°F
-150000
-200000
-250000
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
• Cascade system becomes more efficient with smaller approach

• Premium difference increases
• Break-even temperature shifts to higher temperature
• Capital cost must be estimated to evaluate economic feasibility
18
Capital Cost Estimation
• Adjusted capital cost (ACC)

• Assume that common component costs are equal
• Condensers, evaporators, and etc.
• Compressor cost
• Based on aggregate CFM in $/CFM (EPD, 1996)
• Cascade heat exchanger cost
• Cost correlation from industrial survey (Lachner, 2004)
• Difference in system components
• Adjusted capital cost difference (ACD)
• Defined with respect to cascade system (cascade - compound)
19
Compressor Cost Comparison
425000
compound system
Total compressor cost [$] cascade system
380000
335000
290000
245000
200000
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
• Compressor cost savings for cascade system

• Lower aggregated CFM to meet load
• Attributes to high vapor density of CO2
20
Cascade Heat Exchanger Cost
500000
400000
Total CHE cost
Tube bundle cost
Shell cost
Cost [$]
300000
200000
100000
0
5 7 9 11 13 15
Pinch-point temperature [F]
• As cascade pinch-point temperature difference decreases

• Cascade heat exchanger cost increases dramatically
• Cost changes more rapidly over low pinch-point difference range
21
Adjusted Capital Cost Comparison
10oF cascade approach temperature
450000 500000
ACCcompound
400000 ACCcompound
Adjusted capital difference

(cascade - compound) [$]

400000
Adjusted capital cost
350000
ACCcascade
300000 300000 ACCcascade
250000
200000
200000 Compressor cost (cascade system)
150000 100000
CHE cost
100000
0
50000 ACD
0 -100000
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
• Cascade system has adjusted capital cost savings advantage

• Cascade heat exchanger cost is lower than compressor cost
• Adjusted capital cost difference (ACD) is negative with this cascade pinch-
point temperature difference
22
Life-Cycle Cost Savings
• Over the life cycle of the systems
Adjusted Total Life-

Premium
Capital Cost Cycle Cost
Difference
Difference Savings
(PD)
(ACD) (LCS)
23
Life-Cycle Cost Savings (cont.)
• Sum of operating cost savings and adjusted capital cost savings
150000
100000
Life-cycle savings
50000
premium difference
-50000 ACD
break-even point
LCS
-100000
-150000
-200000
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
• Break-even point shifts from -54oF to -52oF

• True break-even temperature
• Attributes to adjusted capital cost savings
24
Effects of Approach Temperature on
Adjusted Capital Cost Difference
8oF approach 5oF approach
450000
ACCcascade 700000
400000 ACCcascade


350000 600000
ACCcompound
300000 500000
250000 ACCcompound
400000
200000 ACD
300000
150000
200000
100000
50000 100000
ACD
0 0
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
• Adjusted capital cost saving is positive throughout

• Cascade heat exchanger cost overwhelms compressor cost savings
• Cascade system no longer has capital cost savings advantage
• Economic disadvantage for reducing approach temperature
25
Effects of Cascade Pinch-Point Temperature
Difference on Life-Cycle Cost Savings
8oF pinch point 5oF pinch point
150000 400000
ACD
100000 300000

LCS
Life-cycle savings
Life-cycle savings
50000 200000
ACD premium difference
0 100000
-50000 break-even point 0
-100000 LCS -100000 premium difference
-150000 -200000
-200000 -300000
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
• Break-even temperature shifts to lower temperatures

• Adjusted capital cost increase outweighs operating cost savings
• Pinch-point temperature difference reduction negatively impacts life-cycle cost savings
• No break-even temperature above -65oF for 5oF pinch-point
26
Optimal Cascade Pinch-Point
Temperature Difference
-51
Break-even temperature [F]

-53
-55
-57
-59
-61
-63
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Cascade pinch-point temperature difference [F]
• Optimal cascade pinch-point temperature difference is 10oF

• Operating cost saving balances with adjusted capital cost
• Highest break-even temperature
• Cascade system can operate below -52oF while maintaining economic benefit
27
Conclusion
• NH3/CO2 cascade system is compared an ammonia

compound system
• Detailed component models are used to perform annual
system simulations
• Intermediate condition is optimized for maximum system
efficiency (COP); optimization function is curve-fitted and
integrated into the system model
28
Conclusion (cont.)
• Cascade system is more efficient at low temperatures

(below the break-even point), energy usage is lower and
the premium difference is higher
• Reducing CHE approach temperature increases COP and
premium difference, but greatly increases capital cost
• Optimal cascade pinch-point temperature difference of
10oF provides maximized life-cycle savings; cascade
system is selected to operate below -52oF
29
Future Research
• Account for frost accumulation on evaporator coil surfaces

and different defrosting techniques and penalty associated
with each system configuration
• Examine pressure losses and parasitic loads in system
components
• Integrate different penalizing effects on performance, such
as oil cooling and de-superheating loss, into the each
compressor model.
• Obtain more accurate equipment cost data or estimation as
well as difference in material for each refrigerant.
30
References
• Ayub, Z.H, “Industrial Refrigeration and Ammonia Enhanced Heat Transfer,”

Preceedings of the ASME-ZSIS International Thermal Science Seminar II (CD-ROM),
Slovenia, June, 2004, pp. 13-23.
• Cavallini, A., Censi G., Del Col D., Doretti L., Longo G.A., Rossetto L., “In-tube
Condensation of Halogenated Refrigerants,” ASHRAE Transactions, 2002, paper H-
1718.
• “Coolware,” Frick Inc., http://www.frickcold.com/coolware.asp
• Duffie, J.A. and Beckman, W.A. (2006) Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons, 3rd edition.
• EPD, “Design of Ammonia Refrigeration Systems”, University of Wisconsin-Madison
short course notes, directed by Professor Douglas Reindl, (1996)
• Homsy, P., “Ammonia/CO2 Cascade System in a Large Freeze-Drying Plant: Lessons
Learned During Installation and Commissioning”, Technical Paper #10, IIAR Ammonia
Refrigeration Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 2003, pp. 317-355
31
References (cont.)
• Incropera, F. and DeWitt, D. (2002) Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 5th edition.
• Lachner, B. F., (2004) The Use of Water as a Refrigerant: Impact of Cycle Modifications on
Commercial Feasibility. M.S. Thesis, Mechanical Engineering, Solar Energy
Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
• Lawrence, J. N. (2003) Refrigeration Fundamentals Throughout History: Methods Used to
Obtain Colder Temperatures, and Principles Governing Them. Literature Seminar,
Department of Chemistry, The University of Alabama.
• Manske, K.A., (1999) Performance Optimization of Industrial Refrigeration Systems. M.S.
Thesis, Mechanical Engineering, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of
Wisconsin-Madison.
• Product Features & Engineering Brochure, Evapco Inc., http://www.evapco.com
• Single Screw Compressors Design & Operation, VSM Bulletin No. 0140 (2006),
Vilter Manufacturing LLC, Cudahy, WI.
• Winterton, R.H.S., Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 41, 809, 1998.
32
Thank you
33
Additional Information
34
Industrial Refrigeration Overview
• Remove heat load from low-

What is temperature space for industrial-
industrial sized applications
refrigeration? • Typical temperature range:
40oF to -60oF
• Food industry
• Transportation
Applications • Pharmaceutical production
• Material processing
35
Today in The Food Industry
• Frozen products
Food Processing • Dairy production
Storage and • Warehouses

transportation • Large fishing vessels
System • Multiple stages/compound

configuration
Refrigerant of • Anhydrous ammonia (NH3)
choice
36
Alternative Industrial Refrigerants
• Chlorinated Fluorocarbons
CFC • Banned in 1996 due to ozone depletion
• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (e.g. R-22)

HCFC • Scheduled for phase-out 2010-2020
• Hydrofluorocarbon (e.g. R-134a)

HFC • Contributes to global warming (greenhouse gas)
Natural • NH3 and CO2

• Suitable for industrial applications
Refrigerant • Environmentally friendly
37
NH3/CO2 Cascade System as an Alternative to
Ammonia Compound System
• Utilize the best characteristics of each refrigerant

• NH3 at high temperature
• High operating efficiency
• Moderate operating pressures
• CO2 at low temperature
• High density of vapor (low CFM/Ton)
• Operating pressure (limit)
• Maintain below critical point
• Reasonable design pressures
38
Compressor Model
• Utilize compressor selection program

• “Coolware” by Frick Inc.
• Curve-fit performance data from compressor maps
• Capacity = f(SST,SDT)
• Power = f(SST,SDT) 450
400
350
Capacity [Tons]
300
250
SDT = 105oF
SDT = 95oF
200 SDT = 85oF
SDT = 75oF
150
100
50
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Saturated suction temperature [F]
VSM single-screw compressor,
Vilter Manufacturing LLC.
39
Condensing Section
• Thermal resistance network Tev ap,sat,HTC
1
UAsat ,cas = Tsur,sat
RCO2 , sat + RTube , sat + RNH3 , sat q"cascade,sat RNH3,sat
Rtube,sat
• Correlation for condensing CO2
RCO2,sat
• Cavallini et al. (2002)
Tw all,sat Tcascade
0.8 1
Nus CO2, sat = 0.05 ReCO2, sat PrCO2 , L 3
Di
• Correlation for nucleate boiling ammonia

Do
• Ayub (2004)
hcNH3 , sat = γ qcascade, sat "0.55
γ=
0.291 + 0.0039 TC + 0.000475 TC 2 + 0.0000184 TC 3 + 1.97 x10−7 TC 4
40
De-superheating Section
• Thermal resistance network

1
UAcascade , sh =
RCO2 , sh + Rtube , sh + RNH3 , sh
• Correlation for de-superheating CO2
• Dittus-Boelter Equation (Winterton, 1998)
4
NusCO2 , sh = 0.023 ReCO2 , sh 5
PrCO2 , sh 0.3
41
Influence of Cascade Pinch-Point
Temperature Difference on CHE Size
• Cascade heat exchanger size varies exponentially with pinch-point
• Pinch-point temperature difference dictates the UA of condensing section
• Surface area depends on the UA
• Heat flux is dependent of the surface area
• Convective heat transfer coefficient of ammonia depends on the heat flux
8000
7000
Number of tubes
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
5 7 9 11 13 15
Pinch-point temperature difference [F]
42
Evaporative Condenser
• Evaporative cooling through sensible and latent heat

rejection
• Drawn-in ambient air stream removes evaporated water vapor
• Effectiveness depends on ambient air temperature and humidity
Saturated air at outlet
cooling water spray
superheated
vapor
saturated
liquid
ambient ambient
air inlet air inlet
recirculation
water pump
43
Evaporative Condenser Model
• Modeled after ATC-486B by Evapco Inc.

• Capacity is provided with heat rejection factor (HRF)
• Over a range of condensing and wet-bulb temperatures
• Determine conductance rate at design operating conditions
• Effectiveness is based on enthalpy change
• Enthalpy-based effectiveness analysis
• Effectiveness-NTU solution
• Compare predicted capacity and rated capacity over the given range
of operation
• Curve-fit UA as a function of condensing and wet-bulb
temperatures
• Performance can be predicted over a typical range of normal operation
44
Evaporator Model
• Modeled after a 130-kW unit by King Corporation

• Provides cooling and de-humidification of air inside
refrigerated space
• Absorbs sensible and latent energy
• Enthalpy-based effectiveness analysis
• Utilize effectiveness-NTU solution to determine
conductance rate at the nominal (design) condition
• Relate the change in conductance rate to the change in air-
side properties at off-design conditions
• Thermal conductivity and Reynolds number
45
System Head Pressure Control
• System head pressure is an equilibrium

• Condenser capacity matches with system heat rejection
• Float with ambient condition (wet-bulb temperature)
• Head pressure dictates energy usage of the system
• Condenser fan motor speed control
• Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
• Normally operates at full speed
• De-rates when condenser has excess capacity
• Minimum head pressure limit
• 120 psig (135 psia)
46
Frequency of occurrence study
Wet-bulb temperature bins Madison, WI. Head pressure bins
1800 6000
1600
entire year
8-hr day mode 5000 entire year
Hours of occurrence
1400 10-hr day mode 8-hr day mode
Hours of occurrence
10-hr day mode
1200 4000
1000
3000
800
600 2000
400
1000
200
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Wet-bulb temperature [F] Head pressure [psia]
• High frequency of occurrence in low wet-bulb temperature

• High frequency in lowest head pressure bin
• Frequency-weighted wet-bulb temperature and head pressure are close to their
yearly average value
47
Frequency of occurrence study (cont.)
Wet-bulb temperature [F] Wet-bulb temperature [F]
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 45 50 55 60 65
210 4000000
200 3900000
entire year (arithmetic mean) Miami
8-hr day mode (w eighted average)
Energy usage [kWh]

10-hr day mode (w eighted average) Houston
Head pressure [psia]
190 3800000
180 3700000
Los Angeles
Miami
170 3600000
Madison
Houston
160 3500000
150 3400000 without head pressure limit

Madison
Los Angeles with head pressure limit
140 3300000
130 3200000
265 270 275 280 285 290 295 300 278 280 282 284 286 288 290 292 294
Wet-bulb temperature [K] Wet-bulb temperature [K]
• High frequency of occurrence in low wet-bulb temperature

• Average head pressure does not correlate well with average wet-bulb
temperature
• Minimum head pressure limit (135 psia) bounds head pressure
48
Economic Parameters in P1, P2 Method
Affected multiplier Economic parameter Value

P1 Fuel inflation rate 5.5 %
Down payment fraction 20 %
P2 General interest rate 2.5 %
Mortgage interest rate 7.5 %
Term of loan 20 years
Depreciation lifetime 20 years
Property tax 3.5 %
Salvage value fraction 20 %
Maintenance cost fraction 5%
Discount rate 5.25 %
P1 and P2 Period of analysis 20 years
Effective tax rate 40%
49
Effects of head pressure
8-hr day mode 10-hr day mode
300000 300000
200000 200000

100000 100000
0 0
190 psia 190 psia
180 psia 180 psia
-100000 -100000 170 psia
170 psia
160 psia 160 psia
150 psia 150 psia
-200000 -200000
140 psia 140 psia
135 psia 135 psia
-300000 -300000
-65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40
• Premium difference varies slightly with head pressure change

• Results can be used to represent a location based on average head pressure
50
Effects of economic parameters
Economic parameter Value ± 20% δP1 δP2 δ∆FC

Fuel inflation rate 0.055 ± 0.011 12.34% 0% 14.82%
Down payment fraction 0.2 ± 0.04 0% 0% 0%
General interest rate 0.025 ± 0.005 0% 4.71% 4.15%
Mortgage interest rate 0.075 ± 0.015 0% 2.48% 2.18%
Term of loan 20 ± 4 0% 2.54% 2.24%
Depreciation lifetime 20 ± 4 0% 0.79% 0.7%
Property tax 0.035 ± 0.007 0% 3.97% 3.5%
Salvage value fraction 0.2 ± 0.04 0% 0.05% 0.04%
Maintenance cost fraction 0.05 ± 0.01 0% 8.10% 7.14%
Discount rate 0.0525 ± 0.0105 13.78% 12.48% 0.57%
Period of analysis 20 ± 4 51.88% 35.72% 5.21%
Effective tax rate 0.4 ± 0.08 21.99% 29.15% 0.01%
Fuel (electricity) cost 0.06 ± 0.012 0% 0% 59.44%
51
Compressor Cost Prediction
Reciprocating compressor Screw compressor
200 400
350
180
$/CFM = 5097.7 CFM -0.5816
300
$/CFM = 694.91 CFM -0.302
Cost/CFM [$]
Cost/CFM [$]
160
250
140 200
150
120
100
100
50
80 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
3 3
Installed CFM [ft /min] Installed CFM [ft /min]
• Cost correlation based on aggregate CFM (EPD, 1996)

• Reciprocating compressor is a relatively cheaper technology
• Lower $/CFM
52
CHE Cost Prediction
• Correlation based on industrial survey (Lachner, 2004)

• CHE cost = shell cost + tube bundle cost
 $ 
costshell ,cas = 22.20  3  Ashell Lshell
 ft 
$
costtube,cas = 0.91   N tube,cas Ltube, pass
 ft 
• Tube bundle cost depends on pinch-point temperature

difference
53
The following article was published in ASHRAE Journal, August 2008. ©Copyright 2008 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. It is presented for educational purposes only. This article may not be copied and/or distributed electronically or in
paper form without permission of ASHRAE.
Single- or
Two-Stage
Compression
By Todd B. Jekel, Ph.D, P.E., Member ASHRAE; and Douglas T. Reindl, Ph.D., P.E., Member ASHRAE
H
istorically, the move toward multistage compression systems in industrial Most reciprocating compressors are
limited to compression ratios on the order
refrigeration applications was rooted in demand for lower operating tem- of 8:1. A common design saturated con-
densing temperature for an ammonia sys-
peratures. First generation compression technologies consisted of reciprocating tem is 95°F (35°C), which corresponds
to a saturation pressure of 196 psia (1351
compressors, but later rotary vane machines also were used. These two machines kPa). This fixes the high-pressure side
of the compressor. The design low-side
faced some key constraints in their operation at low temperatures. Reciprocating pressure of the compressor would be es-
tablished to avoid exceeding the compres-
and rotary vane compressors have physical compression ratio (ratio of absolute sion ratio limit of 8:1. With a discharge
discharge to absolute suction pressure) limits that are quickly approached as About the Authors
Todd B. Jekel, Ph.D., P.E., is assistant director and
operating temperatures decrease. Additionally, compressors and the oil used in
Douglas T. Reindl, Ph.D., P.E., is professor and
director at the University of Wisconsin-Madison’s In-
the compressors have limits on discharge gas temperature. dustrial Refrigeration Consortium in Madison, Wis.
46 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g August 2008

pressure of 196 psia (1351 kPa) and a compression ratio limit sors by direct-contact with liquid refrigerant maintained at the
of 8:1, the resulting lower limit on suction pressure would be intercooling (high-stage suction) pressure.
24.5 psia (169 kPa), which corresponds to a saturated suction We consider three system configurations in our efficiency
temperature of approximately – 8.5°F (– 22.5°C). With many comparison. The simplest configuration is a single-stage com-
food processing facilities operating low-temperature freezing pression system with no loads present at the intermediate pres-
systems below – 40°F (– 40°C), it is clear that reciprocating sure. The next level of complexity is a single-stage compression
compressors only could be used in a two-stage or compound system with the presence of loads at the intermediate pressure.
arrangement to overcome the compression ratio limit. Although The presence of intermediate loads allows evaluation of the ef-
modern day screw compressors are capable of serving a – 40°F ficiency benefits associated with two-stages of liquid expansion.
(–40°C) load in a single stage of compression, the overall And finally, a full-blown two-stage compression system with
system operating efficiency may be significantly lower than a two-stages of liquid expansion and intercooling is considered.
two-stage arrangement. The three systems are shown in Figure 1. Another option that is
The second factor limiting single-stage compression sys- not evaluated in this article is economized single-stage compres-
tems is the behavior exhibited by industrial refrigerants such sion system arrangements. In some applications and operating
as ammonia during the compression process. As ammonia is situations, single-stage compression systems equipped with
compressed, its pressure increases and because of its low heat economized screw compressors can achieve efficiencies ap-
capacity, it experiences a dramatic increase in temperature. With proaching two-stage compression arrangements.
reciprocating compression technologies, high compression ratio In the present analysis, we focus on screw compressors
operation requires an external source of cooling for the com- equipped with external oil cooling because they are clearly
pressor (water or refrigerant-cooled heads). A high discharge the most commonly specified technology for industrial refrig-
temperature for a reciprocating compressor would be 250°F eration applications today. All of the compressor performance
(121°C). High discharge temperatures tend to increase the rate information included in the analysis is based on manufacturers’
of compressor lubricating oil breakdown as well as increasing selection programs across the ranges of operating pressures
the likelihood of compressor material fatigue. considered. The performance of the compressor is optimized
The combination of compression ratio limits and refrigerant (i.e., variable volume ratio or a properly chosen fixed volume
discharge superheat conspire to limit our ability to provide ratio machine) for the given application conditions. In each case,
useful refrigeration in a single-stage compression arrangement the compressor’s performance is based on the entire package,
with reciprocating and rotary vane compressors. As a result, which includes pressure losses associated with suction and
early refrigeration pioneers overcame these constraints by discharge trim. The refrigerant state entering the compressor
conceiving, implementing, and refining multistage (compound) is assumed to be saturated vapor and the liquid state leaving
compression systems. the evaporative condensers saturated.
In this article, we explore single versus two-stage compres-
sion arrangements from an efficiency perspective. Operating Efficiency Comparison
efficiency changes with varying suction and discharge pressures The operating efficiency expressed as hp/ton for each of the
are determined. three system arrangements shown in Figure 1 will be necessarily
affected by a number of factors. Some of these can be considered
System Configurations constraints such as the temperature requirements of the refrigera-
Before proceeding with an evaluation of the energy-efficiency tion loads at low suction and intermediate suction (if present).
characteristics of two-stage compression systems, we need to Other variables are uncontrolled such as the ambient conditions
establish some terminology that will be used during our dis- which will influence condensing pressure. We will investigate
cussion. Multiple stages of compression are often combined the comparison of single- versus two-stage compression arrange-
with multiple stages of liquid expansion and intercooling. ments over a range of suction pressures, intermediate pressures,
Stages of compression represent the number of compression and condensing pressures to accommodate this variability.
steps required to raise the refrigerant pressure from suction to
condensing. The term liquid expansion used here refers to the As a Function of Suction Pressure
number of times liquid refrigerant expanded (reduced in pres- The most obvious factor that affects the efficiency is the low-
sure) from the condensing pressure until it reaches the lowest temperature suction pressure. Figure 2 shows the effect of suction
pressure level in the system. At each stage of liquid expansion pressure on the efficiencies of the three systems for a fixed satu-
(or throttling), the resulting flash gas is recompressed to a higher rated intermediate pressure (SIP) of 30 psig (16.5°F saturated)
pressure level within the system. Two stages of liquid expansion (2 bar or – 8.6°C saturated) and a fixed saturated condensing
can be implemented on two-stage compression systems and temperature (SCT) of 85°F (150 psig) (29°C or 10.3 bar). The
single-stage compression systems configured with two or more condensing condition is chosen to approximate a yearly average
suction pressure levels. The term intercooling only applies to condensing pressure for a refrigeration system and the 30 psig
compound systems and represents the process of desuperheat- (2 bar) intermediate pressure as reflective of a typical high-stage
ing the discharge gas from the low stage (or booster) compres- suction pressure setpoint. The figure shows that as the compres-
August 2008 ASHRAE Journal 47

sion ratio increases (suction pressure decreasing), the advantages
of two-stages of compression and liquid expansion increases. A Evaporative
Condenser(s)
Two key points are identified in Figure 2. The point designated
by j indicates the point (– 18.5°F [– 25°C]) where the efficiency
of the two-stage system (Figure 1c) is 10% better (lower hp/ton)
than a single-stage system (Figure 1a) while k indicates the point High Pressure
Receiver
(– 32°F [– 35.6°C]) where the two-stage system is 10% better Low Temperature
than the single-stage system with two-stages of liquid expansion Recirculator
(Figure 1b). It is also noteworthy that the efficiency advantage of

the two-stage compression increases as the suction temperature
decreases. At a saturated suction temperature of – 12°F (– 24°C) Low Temperature
Evaporator(s)
(8 psig [0.6 bar]) the two-stage and single-stage system with two-
stages of liquid expansion have equal operating efficiency.
The advantage of a two-stage compression system is improved
system efficiency, especially for lower temperature process re-
quirements. The efficiency advantage does come with a price: Compressor(s)
more compressors. Figure 3 shows the total compressor size
(i.e., volume flow rate, cfm) per ton of low temperature refrig-
eration load. Across the range of saturated suction temperatures
Evaporative
(– 45°F to – 5°F [– 43°C to – 21°C]), the two-stage system has an B Condenser(s)
incremental compressor size of 1.5 cfm/ton to 2 cfm/ton (0.20
L/[s · kW] to (0.27 L/[s · kW]) compared to a single-stage system
and 2.5 cfm/ton (0.34 L/[s · kW]) compared to a single-stage High
system with two-stages of liquid expansion. More compressors Pressure
Low Receiver Medium
mean more maintenance, more machinery room floor space, Temperature Temperature
Evaporator(s) Recirculator
etc. The two-stage system will result in lower compression ratio
operation on each individual compressor which reduces wear
and tear compared to a single stage system. These trade-offs
Medium
are relatively complex and plant-dependent; however, they will Low Temperature
Temperature Evaporator(s)
affect the total life-cycle cost of the system. Recirculator
As a Function of Intermediate Pressure

In the context of two-stage compression systems, the con- Low Temperature Medium Temperature
cept of an “optimum” interstage pressure arises. An optimum Compressor(s) Compressor(s)
interstage pressure is one that will minimize the total power

consumption for the system. A frequently applied approxima-
tion for this optimum intermediate pressure is given by:1
C Evaporative
Condenser(s)
Popt,int = Psuction , sat ·Pdischarge,sat (1)
where Popt,int represents an estimate of the optimum interme- High Medium

Low Pressure Medium Temperature
diate pressure, Psuction,sat is the absolute saturation pressure Temperature
Receiver Temperature Recirculator/
corresponding to the suction conditions, and Pdischarge,sat is the Evaporator(s) Evaporator(s) Intercooler
absolute saturation pressure corresponding to the discharge or
condensing conditions. This relationship equally divides the
compression ratio between the low-stage and high-stage of a
Low
two-stage compression system. The actual optimum will depend Temperature
on the operating efficiencies of individual compressors attached Recirculator
to each suction pressure level. In addition, there are other factors
that may restrict the ability to vary the intermediate pressure such Booster High Stage
as temperature requirements for loads served by the intermedi- Compressor(s) Compressor(s)
ate pressure level of the system. Free from any constraints on

intermediate pressure, Figures 4 and 5 show the effect of inter- Figure 1: Schematics of refrigeration systems evaluated. 1a (top):
mediate pressure on the efficiencies of the three systems for a Single-stage; 1b (center): Single-stage with two-stage liquid expan-
fixed saturated suction temperature of – 40°F (– 40°C) and – 25°F sion; 1c (bottom): Two-stage.

Advertisement formerly in this space.
3.50 18
Single-Stage Anhydrous Ammonia (R-717)
Compression Anhydrous Ammonia (R-717) Twin Screw Compressor
3.25 and Liquid Twin Screw Compressor
Total Compressor Volume Flow Rate (cfm/ton)

16 External Oil Cooling
Expansion External Oil Cooling
Full-Load Compressor Efficiency (hp/ton)
Intermediate Pressure = 30 psig (16.5°F sat)

Intermediate Pressure = 30 psig (16.5°F sat) Condensing Pressure = 150 psig (85°F sat)
3.00
Condensing Pressure = 150 psig (85°F sat)
14
2.75 Single-Stage Compression and
Two-Stage Liquid Expansion
2.50 12
Two-Stage Compression
and Liquid Expansion
2.25
Two-Stage Compression k 10
and Liquid Expansion Single-Stage
2.00
j 8
Compression and
Two-Stage Liquid
1.75 Expansion
6
1.50 Single-Stage Compression
1.25 4
– 55 – 45 – 35 – 25 – 15 –5 – 55 – 45 – 35 – 25 – 15 –5
Saturated Suction Temperature (°F) Saturated Suction Temperature (°F)
Figure 2: Refrigeration system efficiency as a function of low- Figure 3: Compressor displacement per ton as a function of low-
temperature suction requirements. temperature suction requirements.
3.50
(– 32°C), respectively. The condensing condition is fixed at 85°F
(29°C) saturated which corresponds to 150 psig (10.3 bar). The 3.25
symbol indicates the theoretical optimum intermediate pres-
sure for a two-stage compression system. Notice that in this case, 3.00
Single-Stage Compression and Liquid Expansion
the actual optimum (i.e., lowest hp/ton) occurs at intermediate
2.75
pressures slightly higher than the theoretical optimum. Also note
Single-Stage Compression and Two-Stage Liquid Expansion
that the optimum is fairly broad, that is, the intermediate pres-
2.50
sure does not have a large effect on overall system efficiency. To
illustrate that point, the results shown in Figure 4 reveal that any 2.25
intermediate pressure between 27 psig to 50 psig (1.9 bar to 3.4 Two-Stage Compression and Liquid Expansion
bar) yields system efficiencies within 2% of the optimum. 2.00 Theoretical Optimum
Intermediate Pressure
In reality, most refrigeration systems do not have only low
Anhydrous Ammonia (R-717)
temperature loads. Nearly all plants will have refrigeration 1.75 Twin Screw Compressor
loads that demand higher temperature refrigerant: cooler spaces, External Oil Cooling
1.50 Suction Pressure = 9 in. Hg (– 40°F sat)
bulk product storage tanks, production air-conditioning, post- Condensing Pressure = 150 psig (85°F sat)
pasteurization cooling, etc. The presence of these higher tem-
1.25
perature loads will not significantly degrade the efficiency of 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
meeting the low-stage loads due to the relatively broad optimum Intermediate Pressure (psig)
of the intermediate pressure. This is excellent news because the Figure 4: Refrigeration system efficiency (– 40°F [– 40°C] sat) as a
high-stage load temperature requirements can now dictate the function of intermediate pressure.
intermediate pressure without compromising the efficiency of
meeting the low-stage loads. Conclusions
The use of two stages of compression is common in low-tem-
As a Function of Condensing Pressure perature industrial refrigeration systems. The efficiency benefit of
The last factor considered is the condensing pressure. Fig- a two-stage system increases as the temperature requirements are
ure 6 shows the effect of saturated condensing temperature lowered and is weakly dependent on the intermediate pressure. The
(pressure) on the efficiencies of the three systems for a fixed decision on whether to configure the system for multiple-stages
intermediate pressure of 30 psig (2 bar) (16.5°F saturated of compression is one that should weigh both the advantages and
[– 8.6°C]) and – 25°F (– 32°C) saturated suction (1.2 psig [0.08 disadvantages at the suction pressures required by the loads. As
bar]). As the condensing pressure is reduced, the compression a general rule, two-stage compression systems should always be
ratio decreases and at approximately 64°F (18°C) saturated considered when loads demand low suction temperatures, particu-
(100 psig [6.9 bar]) the efficiency of the two-stage system is larly those lower than – 25°F (– 32°C) (1.2 psig [0.08 bar]).
the same as for a single-stage compression system with two Regardless of the number of stages of compression, configuring
stages of liquid expansion. the liquid side for two-stages of expansion will nearly always in-

3.50
3.25 Anhydrous Ammonia (R-717)

Twin Screw Compressor
3.00 External Oil Cooling

Suction Pressure = 1.2 psig (– 25°F sat)
2.75 Condensing Pressure = 150 psig (85°F sat)
2.50
Advertisement formerly in this space.
2.25
2.00
1.75 Two-Stage Compression

Single-Stage Compression
1.50 Theoretical Optimum and Two-Stage Liquid
Intermediate Pressure Expansion
1.25
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Immediate Pressure (psig)
Figure 5: Refrigeration system efficiency (– 25°F [– 32°C] sat) as a

function of intermediate pressure.
3.50
Anhydrous Ammonia (R-717)

3.25 Twin Screw Compressor
External Oil Cooling

3.00 Suction Pressure = 1.2 psig (– 25°F sat)
Intermediate Pressure = 30 psig (16.5°F sat)
2.75
2.50
2.25
Single-Stage Compression
2.00 and Two-Stage Liquid
Expansion
1.75
Two-Stage Compression and Liquid Expansion
1.50
1.25
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Advertisement formerly in this space.
Saturated Condensing Temperature (°F)
Figure 6: Refrigeration system efficiency (– 25°F [– 32°C] sat) as a

function of condensing pressure.
crease the efficiency of the refrigeration system. The only possible

exception would be a single-stage system with two temperature
levels during low condensing pressure operation with very small
coincident intermediate pressure loads (e.g., winter operation in
cold climates). The condition results in a small amount of flash
gas from liquid makeup to the low-temperature loads and often
results in low part-load efficiency of the intermediate pressure
compressor(s). In this case, it would be an advantage to be able to
shut off the intermediate pressure compressors and provide liquid
makeup to the low-temperature recirculator package directly from
the high pressure receiver during winter.
References
1. Stoecker, W.F. 1998. Industrial Refrigeration Handbook. NY:
McGraw-Hill Publishers.
August 2008 ASHRAE Journal 51

Compressor Control Panels
Actuators & Sensors
Unit with Keypad Microprocessor
1989 - 2000
Unit with Vission Micro-Controller
2000 - Present
Unit with Vantage Micro-Controller
2001 - 2006
Keypad
yp Microprocessor
p
Keypad Microprocessor
• LCD display
p y
– 4x40 on screw compressors
– 4x20 on reciprocating compressors
• EPROM chip, contains program
• Integral power supply
• Output module fuses, 3 amp
• Main board fuse; 0
0.25
25 amp
• RS232 & RS 485 communication ports

Keypad Microprocessor Board
and Components
RS232
PORT RS485
PORT
CPU
EPROM
I/O MODULES
OUTPUT RAM CHIP
MODULE FUSES AND
BATTERY
MAINBOARD FUSE POWER SUPPLY

Microprocessor
p Display
p y
Brightness
Brightness
Potentiometer

Main Board Fuse
0.25 AMP Fuse

Keypad Microprocessor Board
and Components
SBX BOARD
CONNECTION

SBX Board for additional RTD’s
RTD s
SBX Board
New Keypad Microprocessor
R l
Replacement B
Board
d
SBX RTD Ch
Channels
l
now on Board
ViSSion Micro-Controller
Vission Micro-Controller
English, Spanish &

French
Micro Controller
Features
• Single Board Computer w/PC104 Connector
• Windows CE Operating System
• Think ‘n’ Do Software
• Color
C l T TouchhSScreen Di Display
l
• Configurable Analog Inputs
• C fi
Configurable
bl Di
Digital
it l IInputs
t and
dOOutputs
t t
Vission
Micro Controller
Micro-Controller
Single Board Computer
Pentium CPU
Flash Memory
PC104 Expansion Connector
RS485 Port Utilizing Modbus
Protocol
RS232 Port
Touch Screen Interface
Color Active Matrix LCD
640 x 480 Resolution
Vission
Micro Controller
Micro-Controller
Intelligent Analog Board
8032 Type CPU
RS485 Port Utilizing Modbus
Protocol
RS232 Port
Flash (128K) RAM (64K)
Eight, RTD Channels
Configurable to 4-
4-20mA
Seven, 0-
0-10 VDC Channels
Configurable to 4-
4-20mA
O
One, 0-5 A
0- Amp A A.C.
C RMS
Channel
A/D Resolution - 24 Bit
Vission
Micro-Controller
Relay Board
Twenty Four, Input and Output
Points
I/O Points Individually
Configurable
Conformal Coating
Six,, On Board Relays
y
Four, On Board Fuses
On Board Devices Eliminates
Panel Wiring
UL, CUL Approved
Vission Communications
• RS485 or RS422 using
sing Modb
Modbus
s
• RS232 Serial Port
• Ethernet
Eth t Port
P t
– Program installation
– Used for 5 compressor sequencing
– OPC Server for Computer linkup
VilterWare
• For Remote Controlling of Single Screw
Compressors
• Software Capable of Communicating
Between a PC and a Vission
• Can be Connected
– On Site Through Ethernet Connection
– Off Si
Site Th
Through
h a PC
VilterWare
Communication On Site Through Ethernet Connection

VilterWare
• Replicates Vission or Vantage Screens
• Allows Full Unit Control Including Start,
Stop Unloading
Stop, Unloading, and Trip Reset
• Allows the Changing of Alarm and Trip
Setpoints and Timer Screen Values
• Does Not Access Calibration and Forced
O
Output Screens
S
Vission Micro
Micro-Controller
Controller
Features
• Single Board Computer
• Windows CE Operating System
• Color Touch Screen Display
• Configurable Analog Inputs
• Configurable Digital Inputs and Outputs
• UL & CUL Approved
Micro Controller
Power Supply
SBC - Single Board Computer
Assembly
800MHz
Pentium Processor
Fl h M
Flash Memory C Cardd
RS485 Port Utilizing
Modbus RTU Protocol
Touch Screen Interface
Color Active Matrix LCD
640 x 480 Resolution
Flash Card Replacement
• Before Powering Down, you must copy down
allll setpoints
t i t as these
th needd to
t be
b re-entered
t d
after flash card is installed.
• Turn off Vission Panel by the Emergency

Button
• Verify
V if Lock-out
L k t TagT P
Procedures
d prior
i tot doing
d i
any operations on the panel.
Remove the four screws on the board.
Turn board Press the release button
Slide Flashcard out, and replace with new
Put board into the regular position and replace screws
Verify all ribbons and connections are secure
Re-enter all setpoints and Recalibrate Slide Valves

Vission Analog Board
8032 Type CPU
RS485 Port Modbus Protocol
RS232 Port
Flash (512K) RAM (128K)
Ei ht RTD Ch
Eight, Channels
l
Configurable to 4-
4-20mA
Seven, 0-
0-10 VDC Channels
Configurable to 4-
4-20mA
One, 0-
0-5 Amp A.C. RMS
Channel
A/D Resolution
R l ti - 24 Bit
Vission
Digital Relay Board
24 Input and Output Points
I/O Points Individually
Configurable
Conformal Coating
6 On Board Relays
4 On Board Fuses
O Board
On B dD Devices
i Eli
Eliminates
i t
120 V. Panel Wiring
UL and CUL Label
Vission Communications
• RS485 or RS422 serial Port using
sing
Modbus RTU
• Ethernet Port
– Program installation
– Used for 5 compressor sequencing
– OPC Server for Computer linkup
Retrofitting
g a Keypad
yp Microprocessor
p
with a Vission
Retrofit Kit Includes
• Vission Panel
• Frame Bracket Kit
• Vibration Isolators
• Cord Grips - Loose set (assortment)
• Ferrite Kit- KT752
• Snubbers - for AC wiring
• Vission/Vantage Manual-35391SA
• Pressure Transducers
Optional Items May Include
• Block and Bleed Assembly
• Optical Actuator
• RTD’
RTD’s
• Pressure Transducers
Retrofit
Keypad Microprocessor Vission

1
1. RECORD ALL SETPOINTS BEFORE
POWERING DOWN THE UNIT. (These
will need to be entered into the new
panel )
panel.)
2. Power down unit. Please follow Safety

and Warning labels on panel.
panel (Example:
(E ample
Do not run DC voltage on the same side
as AC voltage.)
3. Verify all existing wires are labeled

correctly and adequately marked.
This is to ensure correct connections
after the new panel is mounted.
4. Disconnect all wires to the Optical
Actuators or Gear Motors. Note: If
re-using gear motor, save
capacitors.
5. Disconnect all wires inside of

panel. Slide wires through panel
h l
holes.
6. If a Safepak is used, remove. Note:

If Safepaks are used for any
auxiliary float or switch save for re-
use. Note: If mounting new Optical
Actuator the Safepak and barriers
will not be used.
7
7. Remove bottom vibration isolators
(located on bottom of panel). Note: The
new isolators will need to be relocated.
Once all connections are disconnected

and items removed from the original
panel, remove the original panel.
8. Panel Frame Bracket -- A new frame

bracket will be needed if it is UL listed
or the original one is wider than 16
16".
Replace original frame with new

components, if a new frame is required.
9 Drill new holes for new vibration isolators in
9.
the frame. They need to be moved back
since the new panel is shorter than the
original one. Mount new vibration isolators.
10. Install new Vission Panel to frame and

secure.
11 Drill holes for wiring into panel.

11. panel Review and
follow all warning labels on panel. Failure to
do so will result in serious injuries or void
any or all warranties.
12. Vacuum all debris inside of panel.

13. Re-wire new panel per wiring
diagram.
14
14. Re-wire
R i t
transducers,
d RTD’
RTD’s, DC
wires and install Optical Actuators
(if applicable) per instructions
located in the Vission/Vantage
manual.15
l 15
15. For AC wiring, install snubbers

per wiring diagram.
16. If new pressure transducers or

RTD’s are required, then new
cables must
m st be installed.
installed
17
17. Attach all the Ferrite Beads.
Beads Instructions
are located in the Vission/Vantage manual
18. Verify all yellow cables are disconnected

from Actuators before powering up the
unit.
19. POWER UP THE UNIT.
20. Re-enter all the setpoints, that were

previously recorded.
21. Calibrate Optical Actuators - Refer to the

Vission/Vantage manual.
22. For any

y troubleshooting
g tips-Refer
p to the
Vission/Vantage manual and recheck all
connections.
Gear Type Capacity Reduction Motor
1991 - 1999
Optical Type Capacity Reduction Motor
1999 - 2006
Newest Optical Actuator 2007
Assembled with Command Shaft
Optical Actuator Motor
Motor removed from command shaft New Motor from Box
Installation of Motor on Command Shaft
Bolts
o s with Norlock
o oc Washers
as e s
Extension Shaft for New Style Actuator
Optical Actuator Cover Removed
f Calibration
for C lib i
Transducers with Block & Bleed Valves
Tightening the Transducers Cables
Proper Tightening
RTD with Cable
Vilter’s New
Ne
VISSION 20/20
Mi
MicroController
C t ll
VISSION 20/20
• Increased Functionality
• Greater Flexibility
• S
Superior
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Copyright 2009 Vilter Manufacturing LLC

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VARIADORES DE FRECUENCIA
(VSD o Variable Speed Driver – VFD

Variable Frequency Driver
NO TODOS LOS COMPRESORES FUERON
CREADOS DE LA MISMA MANERA
Compresores mas comunes en

Refrigeracion Industrial
• Reciprocante
• Doble Tornillo
• Mono Tornillo
1
Por Que usar VFD’s y cuando?
• Debido a que no todo el tiempo, los sistemas
se encontraran o trabajaran al 100% de su
carga o produccion, todo Sistema de
Refrigeracion tiene Cargas Parciales.
• Esto puede ser por razones de Carga o
Produccion
• O por razones que una vez lograda y
mantenida
t id la l temperatura
t t deseada
d d como lol
son los casos de los Chillers o Enfriadores
de Liquido, el compresor entra a descansar o
trabajar a carga parcial
Por Que usar VFD’s y cuando?

• Muchas veces puede verse el caso de
una Bodega de Almacenamiento que
entre semana se encuentra en su
produccion maxima y en el fin de
semana, con puertas cerradas y no
produccion, el compresor para el
sistema, podria quedar
sobredimensionado para los fines de
semana, teniendo mayor gasto
energetico
2
Como controlan la capacidad los
compresores??:
• Como controlan la capacidad los

compresores??:
• Los reciprocantes tienen los sistemas
de los Descargadores de acuerdo al
numero de bancos de cilindros
• 6 Cili
Cilindros
d = 33% / 66% / 100%
• 8 Cilindros = 25% / 50% / 75% / 100%
Como controlan la capacidad

los compresores??:
Reciprocate
458XL Recip at 20F & 95F
100.0
90.0
80.0
% Of Full Load Power
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0 Cylinder Unloading
10.0
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0
Percent Capacity
3
compresores Tornillos??:
• Los tornillos, usan mecanismo interno de
una corredera o guia que cubre la zona
deseada del tornillo que representa la
capacidad, analogicamente, como si fuera la
Longitud del Tornillo
• Otros Tornillos usan tapones debajo de los

rotores que simulan zonas de porcentaje
como los reciprocantes.

compresores Tornillos??:
4
compresores OTRAS OPCIONES??:
• Otro metodo posible es controlar la
VELOCIDAD DE GIRO del compresor
p
• Debemos recordar que los compresores son

Bombas de Desplazamiento Volumetrico
• Luego un compresor da una Capacidad a un

regimen de 3600 rpm
• y similarmente la mitad de capacidad a un
regimen de 1800 rpm o 50% de velocidad de
giro
Por que en Reciprocante ??

• Aunque sabemos que los reciprocantes tiene el
mejor desempeño Energetico y no requieren el
uso de VFD, existen algunas razones para ello:
1. Lograr mas pasos de Capacidad adicionales a los

estandar
2. Minizar o eliminar el Cargue y Descargue ciclico
del compresor
3. Minimizar la Corriente en el Arranque del Motor
4. Reducir Ruido
5. Reducir Desgaste
6. Y ciertas velocidad requeriran el uso de una
Bomba Externa de Aceite
5
Por Que en los Tornillos ?
• Para operar de forma mas eficiente (kW
consumido p por T.R)) en Cargas
g Parciales (
este item solo aplica a los Doble Tornillos
).
•Para usar un compresor de un tamaño

grande para Cargas Pequeñas que
requeririan de un compresor adicional
• Para minimizar la corriente en el

arranque del Motor
Por Que en los Tornillos ?
100 % Carga
Carga Parcial
6
EFICIENCIA A CARGA PARCIAL
• Los compresore de Tornillo tipicamente se van a carga
parcial descargando la Guia de Capacidad.
• En motores de velocidad fija y constante, la eficiencia es
degrada a cargas parciales por el Decremento o
Descargue de la guia de Capacidad.
• Relacion de Compresion – Con velocidad constante la

Eficiencia es RELATIVAMENTE no tan degradada en
p
Relaciones de Compresion Bajas
j
• Pero, inversamente, la eficiencia es baja o degrada a
cargas parciales en relaciones de compresion Altas.
SOLUCION A LA INEFICIENCIA A
CARGA PARCIAL
1. De acuerdo a la aplicacion y Relacion de
C
Compresion,
i uso d
de V
Variado
i d dde
Frecuencia
2. Mantener La Guia de Capacidad Todo el
Tiempo Cargada al 100%
3 Controlar Capacidad usando como
3.
Variable no la Guia sino la VELOCIDAD.
7
QUE ES UN VFD ??
• VFD
– Tipicamente
p 460VAC es alimentado a una Entrada de un
Diodo Rectificador
– Voltaje AC es convertido a Voltaje DC Bus
– El controlador crea un Pulso de un Algoritmo de Ancho de
Modulacion (PWM) para abrir la compuerta de potencia
– Los Transistores Aislados Bipolare de la Compuerta, son
abiertos y cerrados de manera rapidad para recrear una
Onda Sinosuidal parecida a la del motor.
– El controlador varia de Pulso y su ancho para variar asi la
velocidad delmotor.
– La relacion de Voltaje y Frecuencia(Hz) debe mantenerse
durante los cambios de velocidad (460v/60hz = 7.6;
230v/30hz=7.6)
VFD Diagrama Bloque
8
FACTORES QUE DETERMINAN LA
VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• Diseño del Compresor y rodamientos que
usa
• Diseño del Motor y Rechazo del Calor
• Aceite (viscosidad)
• Presion de Aceite
• R fi
Refrigerante ((no-soluble
l bl o soluble
l bl all
aceite)

VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• Muchos Compresores usan rodamientos
d tipo
de ti Buje
B j que lilimita
it ell uso d
de
velocidades o relaciones de 2:1 (1800rpm)
• Segundo Factor la Lubricacion

ElastoHidrodinamica de los
Rodamientos
9
LUBRICACION ElastoHidrodinamica
• Primero un lubricante es una substancia interpuesta entre dos
superficies que se encuentran en movimiento relativo y esta
substancia tiene el proposito de reducir desgaste y friccion
entre ellas. Un buen lubricante lubricara, protegera, enfriara,
limpiara y sellara las superficies.
• Segundo: el tipo de lubricacion elastohidrodinamica se

encontrara en todo tipo de rodamientos antifriccion. El
elemento rodante forma una pelicula entre el elemento y las
pistas.
• La formacion de la pelicula esta sujeta a la velocidad de

operacion del rodamiento y en un grado menor a la carga sobre
el rodamiento. Si los rodamientos son operados con la
VISCOSIDAD CORRECTA para la velocidad y carga, una
pelicula elastohidrodinamica se desarrollara lo suficientemente
gruesa para separar las partes rotantes.

VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• Viscosidades Mas Altas se requieren a bajas
velocidades
18
CentiStokes
16 3600
14 3000
12 2400
1800
10
1600
8
1400
6 1200
4 1000
2 800
720
0
3600 3000 2400 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 720 r.p.m.
10
VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• La presion de aceite es desarrollada por la presion Diferencial
entre Succion y Descarga, pero viscosidad aumenta en la
medida que la velocidad baja, disminuyendo la facilidad de
fluidez, necesitando una mayor presion.
• Si el diferencial no es adecuado, la velocidad se limita hasta minimo

el 40%.
• Dependiendo del Refrigerante, el aceite debe ser soluble con el

refrigerante
• Con Amoniaco se puede lograr regimenes bajos hasta 800

r.pm. (20% para regimen de 3600 rpm).
• Con Freon R-22 hasta 1200 r.p.m. (33%).

VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• La velocidad de giro en los tornillos se
define como ROTOR TIP SPEED o velocidad
de Punta de Rotor
• Y esta definida como la velocidad que el
rotor debe girar para impartir movimiento a
su pareja y a la MOLECULA DE GAS para
hacer el efecto de compresion.
• A una baja velocidad de giro, el gas no fluira
d t del
dentro d l compresor, perdiendo
di d ell efecto
f t ded
compresion.
• Varia del Tamaño de Diametro del Rotor y
Perfil de Lobulos.
11
VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• Motores – Cuando los motores son reducidos en
velocidad su abilidad para circular aire y
velocidad,
rechazar el calor disminuye en forma cubica
• Un motor disminuido al 50% perdera un 87% de

flujo de aire a traves del estartor (50% x 50% x
50% = 12.5%)
12 5%)
• 12.5% + 87.5% = 100%

VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• Solucion a los Motores es incrementar el
tamaño y area de las aletas de ventilacion
• Esto es un motor mas costoso
• Installacion de Ventiladores UNO o DOBLE de
Forma y Operacion Permanente a Motores
Estandares Under 200HP not necessary.
• 200HP 500HP
500HP, 1 ventilador
til d
• 500HP y por encima 2 ventiladores
12
VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• El Flujo de Masas de Gas a traves de un
compresor depende de la posicion de la Guia de
Capacidad y velocidad del compresor.
• Flujo Inadecuado, puede causar que la Inyeccion

de Aceite principal, inunde el compresor
• Esta inundacion del compresor puede destruir el
compresor por fallo o Golpe Hidraulico o Digestion
de Liquido

VELOCIDAD MINIMA
Para Evitar el Golpe Hidraulico por el aceite
se :
• Limita que la Guia de Capacidad no descargue

de cierto punto o posicion.
• Si la velocidad minima es 20%, la posicion
minima para la guia es 40%
40%. Si la velocidad
minima es 50% la posicion es reducidad a 25%.
(Max. Vel – Min. Vel ) / 2
13
VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• Todo equipo rotatorio tiene velocidades criticas donde
entra en su frecuencia natural de resonancia y ppodria
vibrar hasta destruccion
• Perifericos o accesorios de todo el paquete tambien

tiene elementos que podrian excitarse con esta vibracion
• Luego, debe evitarse que el VFD opere el compresor en

estos rangos de Capacidad o Velocidad y deben ser
ajustados en sitio o campo. No son facil de predecir o
ubicar.

VELOCIDAD MINIMA
• Alto consumo de Corriente:
• Para mantener el mismo Torque y Onda

Sinosuidal del motor, La relacion de Voltaje
y Frecuencia(Hz) debe mantenerse durante
los cambios de velocidad (460v/60hz = 7.6;
230v/30hz=7.6)
• A 50% de Velocidad, estara a 230 V y a 100%

3600 rpm estara nuevamente a 460V.
14
HARMONICOS
• Harmonicos seran
resultado
lt d del
d l
cambio de la Onda
sinusoidal y puede
afectar otros
equipos alrededor o
dentro de la planta.
HARMONICOS
V S D IN P U T C U R R E N T W IT H O U T F IL T E R
4 5
6
3
1 2
15
Impedancia Electrica
• Todos los cables electricos tiene Impedancia o
Resistencia. Entre mas largo el cable o distancia, mayor
l iimpedancia.
la d i
• El PICO o PICOS de pulso de voltaje generado en el

VFD se recrea en el terminal del motor y llega al
enbobinado del motor debido a la desigualdad de
impedancia entre el cable del Motor (embobinado) y el
cable de conexion
• Este reflejo recrea PICOS de Voltahe que pueden ser de

3 a 4 veces la cantidad de Voltaje suministrado y con el
tiempo acortar la vida util del motor
CONSUMO MONO vs DOBLE
16
Mono y Relaciones de
Compresion
Vilter Single Screw
100
90
80
70
% Full Load Power
60
50 High CR - Slides
40 Inter. CR - Slides
30 Low CR - Slides
Ideal
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Capacity
Mono sin VFD & Mono con

VFD
Vilter Single Screw
100
90
80
70
Full Load Power
60
50
40
%F
30
Low CR - Slides
20
Low CR - VFD
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Capacity
17
CONCLUSIONES
• Un tornillo con VFD nunca sera rival para
un reciprocante compressor con la
combinacion de cargas parciales en
momentos o segundos, mientras que un
SIMPLE ON/OFF de los Descargadores
es mas rapido que un cambio de
velocidad
• Los VFD en Doble Tornillo estan mas

para mejorar una DEFICIENCIA
CONCLUSIONES
• Aunque la Tecnologia de VFD cada dia
es mejor
j y mejora,
j aplicada
li d en
Compresores Tornillos, todavia tiene
variantes como Aceite, Presion de
Aceite, Viscosidad, Calor del Motor,
Calor de VFD, etc… que limita usar el
VFD para cargas por debajo del 50% al
10% y solo es posible para Cargas por
encima del 50% al 100%
18
CONCLUSIONES
• Si el VFD solo es eficiente para Cargas
Parciales por encima del 50% al 100%, lo que
debe preguntarse cada Cliente, es cuantas
veces al dia y que tan frecuente y largas son
estas cargas para justificar el uso de VFD.
• Y EN EL MOMENTO DE INVERSION DE
COMPRESORES BUSCAR UN
COMPRESORES,
ALTERNATIVA COMO EL MONO TORNILLO
QUE NO REQUIERE EL VFD Y TIENE
PREMIUMS POR ENCIMA DEL DOBLE
GRACIAS
19
Jean-Louis Picouet
Kevin Polzean
Wayne Wehber
Vilter Manufacturing LLC
Cudahy, Wisconsin
Introduction
The operating efficiency of refrigeration systems is becoming increasingly important as

energy prices continue to increase. The optimum choice or selection of a compressor for
an application should be based on the design of the compressor system and the design
attributes of the compressors being evaluated. There also is a significant increase in the
use of VFD’s (Variable Frequency Drives) on system components including compressors
to consider. The advantage of utilizing a VFD is dependent on the specific design of that
equipment. This paper explains and evaluates part load performance of single screw
compressors including when to use VFD’s on single screw compressors.
Any system that is designed will have to adjust to transient conditions, the load profile at
the customer’s site and the ambient conditions. As a result, all equipment must be
adaptable to multiple conditions. Additionally, as the cost of energy continues to
increase, system operating parameters are adjusted to optimize performance and
minimize energy costs. A significant factor which leads to this success is the ability to
operate refrigeration compressors efficiently at part load conditions.

Screw Compressors and Part Load Performance
Different screw compressor designs have different part load characteristics. The single
screw compressor is unique in that it has two sets of parallel slides independently
operating at all times. One slide is only for the capacity control. The other slide,
completely independent, is only for the control of the discharge port location, or VI
(volume ratio), which ensures that the compressor does not under-compress or over-
compress the gas at any operating conditions. Such inefficiencies result in wasted energy.
While the traditional screw compressors in the industry have a variable VI that is limited
between the volume ratios of 2.0 to 5.0, it is further limited in part load conditions. The
Vilter single screw compressor allows the compression ratio to vary between 1.2 and 7.0
under full load conditions and part load conditions. A microprocessor or PLC panel
supplied with every compressor unit, not only adjusts the capacity slide to match the
mass flow required at the operating conditions, but also automatically adjusts the volume
slide to optimize the compression efficiency and reduce energy costs.
The use of a VFD is an alternate method which allows the control of the capacity by
varying the operating speed (RPM) of the compressor. The standard approach taken with
a screw compressor is to keep the capacity slide in the full capacity position and adjust
the volume ratio slide, or discharge port location to optimize the compression efficiency.
The VFD, controlled by set points in the microprocessor or PLC panel, varies the speed
of the compressor to match the mass flow requirements to meet the cooling load demands
of the system. This approach does provide benefits or opportunities for improved
performance at operating conditions where the compressor slides may not work as
efficiently. The question to evaluate is when this would be the optimum solution.
The answer to this question is dependent on the type of compressor. All compressors are
not designed the same nor do they operate the same. In the Vilter single screw
compressor, the Parallex slides allow totally independent adjustment of the capacity slide
and volume slide to optimize the part load efficiency. In a twin screw compressor, there
is only one slide assembly which is designed with two parts which must interact or

engage with each other. The slides of the twin screw compressor become less effective as
the compressor unloads. Thus the part load characteristics of a single screw compressor
are not the same as a twin screw compressor and the application benefits of utilizing a
VFD are at different operating conditions. This paper is focused on the Vilter single
screw compressor design. Specifically, it is focused on when to utilize just the Parallex
slides for optimum part load operation, and when to utilize a VFD for part load operation.
Operating a screw compressor utilizing a VFD results in performance efficiencies which

are based on the internal leakage within the compressor commonly referred to as
cascading. For VFD capacity control operation, the capacity slide valve is located in the
100% fully loaded condition and the compressor is initially operated at full speed,
typically 3600 rpm in 60 Hz applications and 3000 rpm in 50 Hz applications. As the
machine unloads, the speed of the compressor is reduced which then reduces the mass
flow rate. As the compressor speed is reduced, the slower rotation allows more time for
the compressed gas to cascade (or leak) from the higher pressure groove to the lower
pressure groove next to it. As the speed continues to be reduced, the losses increase. As a
result, the volumetric efficiency and adiabatic efficiency of the compressor both drop
together in a fundamentally linear relationship.
Additionally, when considering a VFD for energy saving, one must also recognize that
there are electrical penalties within the VFD drive system. The VFD creates a square
electrical wave by design. This non-sinusoidal wave is supplied to the electrical motor
which drives the compressor. The typical power losses for the motor and VFD combined,
dependent on the manufacturers, is typically in the range of 3-5 %. This means that the
actual electrical current (equivalent horsepower) consumed will be at least 3% greater
than the brake horsepower transmitted through the shaft of the compressor at full speed.
This also means that when a decision is made to utilize the VFD, the savings must also
offset the electrical inefficiencies of the VFD system.

Single Screw Compressor Design for Variable Frequency Drives
The single screw compressor does not have a minimum operating speed from a design
standpoint. This results from two significant advantages of the single screw compressor
design. One is that it is both axially and radially balanced resulting in extremely low
bearing loads. The second is that the tribology of the gaterotor and screw is the perfect
couple for boundary lubrication applications where lubrication properties are
questionable. This has allowed the use of unusual lubricants and unconventional
applications.
The bearings are lightly loaded allowing the compressor to operate with lubrication
viscosities less than those required for the heavily loaded bearings in twin screw
compressor designs. While traditional applications do require close attention to a
reduction in oil viscosity due to temperature and oil dilution from the refrigerants, Vilter
has multiple applications operating with oil injection temperatures over 200°F(93°C) and
viscosities down to 5 cSt (Centistokes).
VFD Application Concerns
One concern that must be recognized when using a VFD is that at lower speeds the fan in
the motor is also operating at the same lower speed thus providing less air and cooling
over the motor windings. A motor that is applied with a VFD must be designed for
inverter duty service and may require a separate blower motor to provide consistent
cooling at all operating speeds.
Due to harmonics that are generated, and depending on physical placement of the VFD
and motor, line reactors and filters may also be required to ensure minimum interference
with facility communications or other control wiring. When there are multiple VFD’s on
the same power line, harmonic disturbances within the electrical power grid can result

and must be analyzed in advance to implement appropriate protection equipment into the
electrical system.
Similarly, all mechanical equipment has natural frequencies of subsystems and/or

components that are part of an assembly within the screw compressor unit. The center
frequencies and band widths will vary depending upon the size of the compressor, the
horsepower of the motor, the refrigerant, the operating conditions, the unit foundation
and mounting, as well as variations within the manufacturing process. Any compressor
unit that is operated utilizing a VFD must have a field test conducted to identify these
natural frequencies. The drive can then be programmed to avoid operating at these
frequencies.
Part Load Efficiency
The part load efficiency is highly dependent on the operating conditions to which the
compressor has been applied. If the system has been designed for energy savings, one
would expect that the system was designed with a low discharge pressure or condensing
pressure.
The characteristics of the unloading of the compressor can be analyzed by evaluating the
percent of full load horsepower versus the percent of full load capacity for different
compression ratios. The data that is presented was measured in a test laboratory using
ammonia as the refrigerant. The tested model, a VSM-601 compressor, is a mid sized
single screw compressor. The main screw is a 240mm diameter rotor utilizing a standard
design with 6 grooves and two mating gaterotors, each with 11 teeth. The standard
Parallex slides in the compressor have an infinitely variable VI range between 1.2 to 7,
which is equivalent to compression ratios of 1.26 to 12.0 for ammonia. While the
compressor has a maximum speed of 4800 RPM (which is actually limited by the bearing
cage material), the testing was completed at 3600 RPM utilizing external oil cooling.

When the compressor was tested, each data point was first recorded utilizing the Parallex
slides for unloading. The capacity slide position setting was systematically lowered, to
reduce the mass flow. The volume slide was automatically located in the appropriate
position to maximize efficiency. The horsepower was recorded for each data point. The
compressor was then operated with a VFD at reduced speeds to match capacity of the
tested part load conditions. While operating at reduced speeds with the VFD, the capacity
slide was fixed at the 100% loaded position. In all cases, the horsepower measured and
presented in this paper represents the compressor brake shaft horsepower measured with
a torque meter located between the electric motor drive and the compressor. Thus, these
horsepower measurements do not include any electrical losses which occur when
utilizing a VFD. All of the data was taken at a constant condensing pressure on ammonia
of 181.1 psig (12.3 barg), or a saturated condensing temperature of 95°F (35°C).
As can be noted on the graph, (Figure 1), the VFD does provide a fundamentally linear
line for a reduction in capacity and horsepower for a single screw compressor. The trend
to note, however, is where the Parallex slides are able to match the performance of the
VFD. When the compressor is operating at a compression ratio of four or less, (Please
note that CR=4 for common operating conditions of 20°F(-7°C)/95°F(35°C) for
ammonia), the single screw compressor is able to match the brake horsepower of a VFD
utilizing the Parallex slides down to approximately 50% of full capacity. At that point,
the VFD becomes slightly more efficient than the Parallex slide design, although the
graph does not account for the additional electrical losses in the VFD as previously noted.
This means that while operating a single screw compressor with Parallex slides for
unloading between 100% and 50% capacity, the slide unloading system is equivalent to a
machine utilizing a VFD for unloading.
Similarly, at a compression ratio of six (CR=6), the single screw compressor is able to
match the VFD performance down to approximately 75% of full capacity as tested
utilizing a straight mechanical brake horsepower comparison. Considering the VFD
electrical losses, at some point lower than 75%, the VFD can provide a reduction in the
horsepower or energy consumed. For the next highest compression ratio tested of ten

(CR=10), the compressor horsepower utilizing the slides matches the VFD until the
compressor is unloaded to approximately 85% of full load.
Comparison with other Screw Compressor Designs
This data was then compared with similar data published by twin screw compressor
manufacturers. The chart (Figure 2) that is shown presents two twin screw compressor
designs compared to the single screw compressor. The advantages of using a VFD are not
feasible when operating a single screw compressor at a compression ratio of four or less
(CR=4) as with the twin screw compressors. While a VFD can provide performance
improvements at higher ratios, it must be evaluated on the basis of the compressor design
and the operating/design conditions in the application.
Future Developments
The increased interest in part load efficiency due to the increase in energy costs has
opened the door for additional developments and patents utilizing the Parallex slides.
While all of the testing presented in this paper was conducted utilizing the standard single
screw compressor designs, new high mass flow slide designs for low compression ratios
have been recently applied in the field providing additional energy savings. With this
new, patent pending design, there is additional discharge port area through the capacity
slide which significantly increases the discharge flow area supporting much higher mass
flows under low compression ratio conditions. This exciting development, along with the
much higher suction pressure limitations due to the wide volume ratio range (1.2 to 7.0),
provide many more opportunities for the application of single screw compressor
technology. Additional testing and modifications are currently in process to further
improve the part load energy efficiency, which will be shared in a future paper.

Conclusion
Single screw compressors have different part load characteristics than other types of
screw compressor designs. While a VFD is required to provide a significant improvement
in part load performance of a twin screw compressor, the Parallex slides allow the Vilter
compressor to match the energy usage of a VFD at compression ratios of four (CR=4) or
less. When operating a single screw compressor unloaded at higher compression ratios
for considerable time, the benefits of utilizing a VFD may become more evident. The
electrical VFD losses, however, will increase the energy usage at full load (100%)
capacity and also be a factor at the part load conditions. When specifying the use of a
VFD, three factors must be considered: the compressor type or design, the actual
operating conditions or compression ratio, and the load profile of the application.

Figure 1
Vilter Single Screw
Ammonia Part-Load Slide Valve vs VFD (240mm)
110
100
90
80
© Vilter 2009
70 4:1 CR
60 6:1 CR
10:1CR
50
13:1 CR
40 VFD
CR=4
30 Note: Does Not
Include VFD
20 Losses of
Approximately
10 3%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
9
Figure 2
Screw Compressor Part-Load Performance
20F/95F Ammonia (CR = 4)
110
100
90
80
Twin Screw #1 Vilter W/ Parallex

70 Slides
© Vilter 2009
VFD Twin Screw #1

60
Twin Screw #2
Twin Screw #2
50
VFD
40
30 Note: Does Not
Vilter Single Screw
Include VFD
20 Losses of
10 Approximately 3%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
10
The Electronic Newsletter of The Industrial Refrigeration Consortium
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
BACK TO BASICS - F ROST

In this article, we focus on the operation of air‐cooling evaporators in industrial refrigeration
applications at temperature below freezing. These heat exchangers are generally applied to control
the environmental conditions in holding freezers, dynamic blast freezers, stationary blast cells,
refrigerated docks, and other lower temperature conditioned spaces found in food manufacturing
and distribution facilities. We review the factors that influence the formation of frost on the
evaporator surfaces and discuss how frost accumulation impacts coil performance.
Introduction
Air cooling evaporators are refrigerant‐to‐air heat exchangers widely used in industrial refrigeration,
commercial refrigeration, and heat pump systems. Known as “plate‐finned” heat exchangers, these
units consist of multiple rows made up by a series of parallel circuits (i.e. individual tubes).
IRC Staff In This Issue

Director • Back to Basics - Frost 1-8
Doug Reindl 608/265-3010
or 608/262-6381 • Upcoming Ammonia Classes 2
dreindl@wisc.edu
• Noteworthy 2
Assistant Director
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008 • Mechanical Integrity for 12
tbjekel@wisc.edu Industrial Refrigeration
Systems
Research Staff
Dan Dettmers 608/262-8221 • Engineering Safety Relief 13
djdettme@wisc.edu Systems Webcourse
IRC Contact Information Mailing Address

Toll-free 1-866-635-4721 1415 Engineering Drive
Phone 608/262-8220 Room 2342
FAX 608/262-6209 Madison, WI 53706-1607
e-mail info@irc.wisc.edu Web Address www.irc.wisc.edu
1
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
Refrigerant evaporates inside the tubes as it

absorbs heat from air flowing over the outside U
Uppc
coom
miin
nggAAmmmmo
onniia
a
surface of the tubes. Most air cooling
C
Coouur
rssees
s
evaporators are equipped with external fins to
increase the surface area available for
transferring heat. Principles & Practices of Mechanical
Integrity for Industrial Refrigeration
When air cooling evaporators operate both with
Systems
coil surface temperatures both below 32°F (0°C), November 5-7, 2008 Madison, WI
and entering air dew point temperatures above
the coil surface temperature, moisture from the Intermediate Ammonia Refrigeration
air being cooled will precipitate onto the fins and December 3-5, 2008 Madison, WI
tubes of the coil forming frost. The formation
Engineering Safety Relief Systems
and growth of frost on the evaporator causes a December 15-19, 2008 (9-11 am CDT)
decrease its cooling capability. Anywhere via the web
What is the root cause of capacity decrease from Process Safety Management Audits
frosted coil? January 14-16, 2009 Madison, WI
a. Increased air‐side pressure drop; thereby, Ammonia Refrigeration: Uncovering
decreasing air flow through the coil Opportunities for Energy Efficiency
b. Increased resistance to heat transfer Improvements
between the air and the refrigerant due to February 11-13, 2009 Madison, WI
the insulating effects of the frost
c. All of the above Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
March 4-6, 2009 Madison, WI
d. None of the above
If you answered “c.”, you are correct. There have Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
been a number of published papers in the past
highlighting this phenomena including: Stoecker Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for
1957, Cleland 2005, Mago and Sherif 2005, and Peak Performance and Efficiency
others. Aljuwahel, et al. 2008 confirmed that the September 21-25, 2009 Madison, WI
single greatest factor reducing evaporator
capacity due to frost accumulation is the Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
October 7-9, 2009 Madison, WI
decrease in air flow rate due to its effect on air‐
side pressure drop as originally suggested by See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
Stoecker (1957). information.
Noteworthy
• Mark your calendars now for the 2009 IRC Advisory Meeting (May 5) and R&T
Forum (May 6-7) in Madison.
2
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
Factors Influencing Coil Capacity During Frosting Conditions

What are the factors that control how fast my evaporator’s capacity will decrease due to frosting?
There are a number of factors that influence the rate of frost accumulation on a coil resulting in
increased air‐side pressure drop and reduced air flow rate through the coil.
• Fin spacing: Sometimes referred to as “fin pitch”, the

density of fins applied to an evaporator will have a
dramatic effect on the susceptibility of coil frosting and
the resulting capacity loss due to blocking air flow.
Although increased fin density (decreased fin spacing)
may be desirable because it offers the potential to
enhance the surface area available for heat transfer, the
reduced spacing between fins allows frost to grow and
decrease the open area available for air to flow; thereby,
causing the coil to “plug” more rapidly under frosting
conditions. Therefore, a balance between a fin spacing
that provides adequate coil surface area but does not
cause a rapid buildup of frost which restricts air flow is
required.
In low temperature freezing systems, there are some coil

designs that have variable fin spacing, that is, one or more
rows of tubes that are without fins to avoid frost plugging.
Figure 1 shows an evaporator for a low temperature blast
Figure 1: An evaporator coil with the
freezer where the first two rows of the coil are tubes
first two tube rows fin free.
without any fins. Because moisture is being extracted from
the air stream as it moves from the entering to the leaving side of the evaporator, successive
rows in this coil have increased fin density to provide surface area while mitigating the plugging
effects of the frost accumulation. The table below provides some basic guidance for typical fin
spacing on coils over a range of operating conditions.
Table 1: Review of typical evaporator fin spacing over a range of space operating conditions.
Operating Temperature Moisture/Frost Typical Fin Pitch

Comments
Range Load [fins per inch (cm)]
‐25°F (‐32°C) and colder Heavy‐Moderate 0‐3 Consider variable fin pitch coil
Heavy 0‐3 Consider variable fin pitch coil

25°F (‐32°C) to +10°F (‐12°C)
Moderate‐Light 2‐3
Heavy‐Moderate 3
+10°F (‐12°C) to +35°F (2°C)
Light 4
Avoid high fin density coils in

areas with airborne
+35°F (2°C) to +50°F (10°C) Heavy‐Light 4‐6
particulates (e.g. packaging
areas).
3
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
It is important to work with your evaporator manufacturer to select an appropriate coil once you
understand the operating environment for that coil.
• Coil Location: Coils located in regions with

supersaturated moisture will experience a
much higher rate of frost accumulation and
plugging. Figure 2 shows an example of warm,
moist air from a dock infiltrating into a freezer.
Because the infiltrating air is more buoyant, it
rises to the ceiling. The rapid cooling of the
supersaturated moist infiltrating air causes
crystals of ice to form in the air rather than
on the coil surface. If an evaporator is
located immediately above the door opening,
it will see a significant load of supersaturated
moisture and will quickly plug the face of the coil
with frost. The accelerated rate of frost
Figure 2: Air flow patterns from a dock to a freezer
accumulation on the entering side of the coil
[ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook, 2002].
surface is due to impaction and interception of
the ice crystals onto the coil surface. If the moist dock air had an opportunity to blend with the
colder drier freezer air, the rate of frost‐induced plugging on the coil would be reduced.
• Moisture Load: In applications with significant moisture loading, the rate of frost accumulation
can rise dramatically ‐ accelerating the capacity loss. One way to characterize the severity of the
moisture load in terms of the “sensible heat ratio” (SHR). The sensible heat ratio represents the
ratio of the space sensible load to the space total load as given by:
Qsensible Qsensible
SHR = =
Qtotal Qsensible + Qlatent
The term Qsensible represents that portion of a heat load that causes the air temperature to rise
while Qlatent is the portion of the heat load causing a moisture increase. As the moisture or latent
load in a temperature‐controlled space increases, the sensible heat ratio decreases and
operating evaporators will experience increased difficulty in removing the moisture needed to
maintain space humidity levels. This is especially relevant for those evaporators operating in low
temperature environments (below 32°F/0°C).
A number of past investigators have characterized envelopes of operating conditions that lead to
moisture and frost problems in conditioned spaces. Figure 3 shows a series of three (3) process
lines on a section of a low temperature psychrometric chart. The situation is typical of what
happens when air from a less conditioned dock space infiltrates to a lower temperature storage
freezer in an air flow pattern similar to that shown in Figure 2.
In the three cases that are shown, the infiltrating air from the dock is at a constant dry bulb
temperature of 50°F (10°C) while the relative humidity varies from 60% (case 1) to 20% (case 3).
The lowest surface temperature in the freezer space is the evaporator coil which operates at ‐
10°F (‐23°C) – a point commonly referred to as the “apparatus dew point temperature” or ADP.
4
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
When the air from the dock enters into the Figure 3, the process line originating from
freezer, a mixing process occurs. As the a dock dry bulb temperature of 50°F (10°C)
warmer dock air blends with the colder air with a corresponding relative humidity of
within the freezer, the mixed air condition 30% runs tangent to but does not cross
progressively moves down the tie line that the saturation curve as it approaches the
connects the dock condition to the ADP. ADP; thereby, avoiding unfavorable
Case 1 is labeled as “unfavorable process evaporator frosting. An increasingly
line” due to portions of the process line favorable frost condition is achieved with
being above the saturation curve which further reductions in infiltrating air relative
leads to a supersaturated moisture condition humidity.
where ice crystals will actually form in the How can I minimize or avoid conditions
air. Smith (1989, 1992) identified the that lead to unfavorable frosting?
“unfavorable” frost condition and noted
how the presence of this condition adversely To the extent possible, the source of the
impacted evaporator performance as well as moisture should be identified and
causing significant icing effects on other cold minimized. In cases where moisture
surfaces within the freezer. originates from infiltrating air, means to
reduce that infiltration rate should be
If the relative humidity of the infiltrating air pursued. This may require repairing seals,
can be reduced, the infiltration latent load maintaining door control, reducing
on the freezer evaporator coil(s) is reduced openings (e.g. for conveyors), and assuring
(SHR increase) and the tendency for adverse an appropriate pressure balance between
coil frosting is diminished. Referring to spaces at differing conditions. Further
Figure 3: Psychrometric chart showing process lines that range from unfavorable to favorable conditions for
frosting (adapted from Cleland 2005).
5
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
information on these strategies can be found in past issues of the Cold Front including: Volume
5, Number 3 (2005) and Volume 5, Number 4 (2005) as well as Cleland (2005).
If the source of moisture is from products that are being processed, consider alternative means
that can reduce its moisture loss. Strategies for reducing product moisture loss can include:
packaging prior to cooling/freezing, pre‐cooling product, crust‐freeze product using a cryogenic
fluid prior to finish‐freezing with a mechanical freezing system (flash freezing will create a crust
on the product surface to minimize desiccation). Techniques to reduce moisture loss have the
added benefit of increasing product yield! Yield savings will almost certainly far outweigh energy
cost benefits from reduced moisture loads on evaporators. It is important to realize that, for
many low temperature freezing systems, the extent of unfavorable frost conditions can be
minimized but not eliminated.
For spaces such as holding freezers, one common approach for avoiding unfavorable frost
conditions is to lower the set point temperature of the dock in order to increase the level of
moisture removal at a higher evaporator temperature (when compared to the freezer).
Reducing the dock set point temperature to something in the range of 35°F (2°C) will permit air
defrosting while providing significantly more moisture removal when compared to a 50°F (10°C)
space set point. In some cases, hot‐gas reheat is added at the dock evaporator to further
increase the space sensible heat ratio.
Figure 4 shows a dock maintained at a 35°F (2°C) dry bulb temperature with a relative humidity
of 55%. A process line to the ADP shows it to be slightly unfavorable since the saturation curve is
narrowly crossed. By adding a small amount of reheat at the dock door to increase the dry bulb
temperature of infiltrating air to 50°F (10°C) we are able to drive the state of infiltrating air from
unfavorable to favorable.
0.012
Saturauration Line
0.010
0.8
Humidity Ratio
0.008
0.6
Unfavorable process line 40°F 0.006
Original Dock Condition
Process line w ith reheat 0.4
30°F 0.004
20°F
Revised Dock Temp Reheat Outlet Temp
0.2
0.002
ADP 10°F
0°F
-10°F
0.000
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Dry Bulb Temperature [°F]

Figure 4: Psychrometric chart showing process lines to improve frosting.
6
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
Cleland (2005) offers other strategies for avoiding unfavorable frosting conditions but rightly
places a particular emphasis on preventing the infiltration using door protection devices.
• Frost Type: Somewhat related to the previous bullet point, the type of frost will have an
influence on the rate of coil capacity decrease due to air flow blockage. Unfavorable frosting
conditions leads to the formation of ice crystals directly in the air stream. There is a tendency
for these ice crystals to precipitate onto cold surfaces within the space; however, they will ride
along on air currents created by operating evaporator fans. The frost crystals will readily
adhere to the coil surface by physical impaction or interception; thereby, blocking air flow.
Figure 5 shows the structure of unfavorable frost adhering to the surfaces of a variably finned,
low temperature evaporator freezing unpacked product and operating with a moderately high
TD (difference in temperature between the entering air and the evaporating refrigerant). In
this case, the structure of the frost is extremely light and fluffy with minimal bonding to the
coil surface. We postulate that, in this case, the coil plugged where the fins began and that
the very light, “fluffy” frost grew after the coil blockage. As mentioned previously, this type of
frost degrades coil performance more rapidly than a higher density frost as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 5: Low density frost forming on an evaporator due to high coil TD and presence of supersaturated air.
Figure 6: Higher density frost forming on an evaporator.
7
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
The higher density frost forming on the coil shown in Figure 6 occurs in spaces with favorable frosting
conditions. Due to the lack of supersaturated air as well as an operating coil TD of 10°F (6°C), moisture
from the air forms on the coil by a diffusion process creating a much more dense frost structure. The
higher frost density allows the coil to accumulate significantly more mass of moisture (frost) before
adversely impacting coil capacity due to air flow blockage.
Measuring Coil Capacity Decrease Due to Frosting

How significant is the rate of capacity loss due to frosting?
As mentioned previously, the loss of coil capacity under frosting operation is due to reduced air flow as
well as increased resistance to heat transfer. The more significant of these two factors is the capacity
loss due to blockage of air flow (Stoecker 1957, Barrow 1985, Seker, et al. 2004, and Yao, et al. 2004,
and Aljuwahel et al. 2008). The effects of frost presenting an increased resistance to heat transfer are
significantly less important (Stoecker 1957 and Machielsen, C. H. and Kerschbaumer 1989).
Aljuwahel (2006) monitored the performance of a single 37 ton (130 kW) evaporator located in a
penthouse in a low temperature storage freezer. Additional details on the coil are given in Table 2.
Table 2: Geometry and operating conditions of the experimentally monitored air‐cooling evaporator.
Parameter Value
Fin pitch 3 fins/inch(0.85 cm)
Face area 88.6 ft2 (8.23 m2)
Tube diameter 3/4 inch (19.05 mm)
Tube length 18 ft (5.5 m)
Number of fans 5
Fan power @ ‐30°F (‐34°C) air temperature 3.125 HP (2.33 kW)
Rated CFM 60,000 CFM (1,699 m3/min)
Number of tube rows 10
Saturated evaporator temperature ‐30oF (‐34.4oC)
Coil temperature difference 10oF (5.6oC)
Rated coil capacity 37 tons (130 kW)
Fin and tube material Aluminum
Evaporator coil type CPR‐fed liquid overfeed
The in situ performance of the unit was determined using an extensive configuration of air‐side
instrumentation arranged to measure entering and leaving conditions (air temperature and moisture
8
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
content) as well as the average velocity of air flowing through the actual coil. In addition, data was
collected to determine the volume flow rate of air being conveyed by the unit’s five (5) fans.
Figure 7 shows the average face velocity of air across the coil during frosting operation over a 41 hr
period. The average velocity of air across the frost‐free coil is approximately 560 ft/min (2.85 m/s)
but that average velocity decreases by nearly 50% to 315 ft/min (1.6 m/s) at the end of its operating
cycle. Figure 8 shows the average dry bulb temperature of air entering and leaving the evaporator
during frosting operation. The average entering air temperature (i.e. space temperature) is
relatively constant at ‐17.5°F (‐28°C) while the leaving temperature decreased from ‐24°F (‐31°C) to
‐26°F (‐33°C) as the coil accumulated frost. The drop in leaving air temperature is a byproduct of
the decreased air flow rate through the coil which allows longer dwell time to give up its heat to the
refrigerant. Unfortunately, that decreased coil leaving air temperature is not sufficient enough to
overcome the drop in air flow rate; consequently, the coil’s refrigeration capacity decreases over
time as frost accumulates on the coil. The actual measured gross capacity of the coil is shown in
Figure 9.
Figure 7: Average face velocity of air across the coil during frosting operation.
The average clean coil capacity over four separate runs is 33 tons (116 kW) and the capacity of the
unit decreases to 27 tons (95 kW) after 41 hrs of operation representing a capacity loss of nearly
20%. Two other observations are in order regarding the measured coil capacity. First, the field‐
measured capacity is 8% less than the unit’s rated capacity. Second, the measured evaporator
capacity is gross because it does not include fan heat gains. The net effect is that an evaporator’s
capacity, while operating under frosting conditions, will decrease and the system’s operating
efficiency suffers as a result. To counter these effects, the accumulated frost must be removed
from the evaporator surface on either a continuous or intermittent basis. In the next issue of the
Cold Front, we will look at details of the defrost process.
9
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
-24 -11
-25 Average inlet air temperature
Average air temperature [ C] Run No. 2 Run No. 4 -13
Average air temperature [ F]

Run No. 3 Run No. 5
o
-26
o
Model Prediction -15

-27
-17
-28
-19
-29
Average outlet air temperature -21
-30
-23
-31
-32 -25
Run No. 2 Run No. 4
-33 Run No. 3 Run No. 5 -27
Model Prediction
-34 -29
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Time [min]
Figure 8: Average coil inlet and outlet temperatures during frosting operation.
40
Run No. 1 Run No.3
Run No. 2 Run No. 4
126
Model Prediction 35
Cooling load [ton]

Cooling load [Kw]
108 30
90 25
72 20
54 15
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Time [min]
Figure 9: Coil capacity (load) as the unit operates from clean to frosted condition.
Alternative Approaches
You might wonder: Are there other approaches that can further reduce or eliminate the need for
defrosting evaporators?
The short answer to this question is “not really.” Some alternative approaches use a liquid desiccant
10
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
media such as glycol which is sprayed directly onto the evaporator surface to preferentially absorb
the moisture into the freezing point depressed working fluid. As moisture from the air goes into the
liquid solution, the concentration of glycol will be reduced and reconcentration becomes necessary
to avoid freeze‐ups. In this case, the equivalent to a hot gas defrost for a typical evaporator occurs
remotely from the unit as heat is added to drive off the accumulated water; thereby, re‐
concentrating the glycol for reuse.
Another alternative that has been promoted to reduce latent loads is the use of solid desiccants.
The solid desiccant system approach can reduce latent loads in temperature controlled spaces but
the added cost of the desiccant system operation needs to be carefully evaluated to understand
whether or not the total cost of operation will be lowered.
Conclusions
With the exception of sprayed desiccant units, evaporators operating at lower temperature
conditions will result in frost formation on the coil surface. A number of factors influence both the
rate and nature of frost formation including: evaporator unit fin spacing, coil location, latent
(moisture) load, and frost type or structure. The accumulation of frost on a coil causes its capacity
to decrease due to blockage of air flow as well as the insulating effects of the frost layer itself. As a
result, a period removal of the accumulated frost layer is required to maintain system capacity and
efficiency. Look for a review of defrost in the next issue of the Cold Front. Questions – contact
Doug Reindl at the IRC – 866‐635‐4721 or dreindl@wisc.edu.
References
Aljuwayhel, N.F., Reindl, D.T. Klein, S.A., Nellis, G.F., “Experimental investigation of the performance of industrial
evaporator coils operating under frosting conditions”, International Journal of Refrigeration, Volume 31, No. 1, pp.
98‐106, (2008).
Barrow, H., “A Note on Frosting of Heat Pump Evaporator Surfaces”, Heat Recovery Systems, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 195‐201,
(1985).
Cleland, D. J., “Implications of Coil Frosting on System Designs for Low‐Temperature Applications” ASHRAE Transactions,
Vol. 111, No. 1, (2005).
Machielsen, C. H. and Kerschbaumer, H. G., “Influence of Frost Formation and Defrosting on the Performance of Air
Coolers: Standards and Dimensionless Coefficients for the System Designer”, International Journal of Refrigeration,
Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 283‐290, (1989).
Mago, P. J. and Sherif, S. A., “Coil Frosting and Defrosting Issues at low Freezer Temperatures Near Saturation
Conditions”, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 111, No. 1, (2005).
Seker, D., Karatas, H., and Egrican, N., “Frost Formation on Fin‐and‐Tube Heat Exchangers. Part I‐Modeling of Frost
Formation on Fin‐and‐Tube Heat Exchangers”, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 27, pp. 367‐374, (2004).
Smith, G. R., “Latent Heat, Equipment‐related Load, and Applied Psyhcrometrics at Freezer Temperatures”, ASHRAE
Transactions, Vol. 98, No. 2 pp. 649‐657, (1992).
Smith, G. R., “Theoretical Cooling Coil Calculations at Freezer Temperatures to Avoid Unfavorable Coil Frost”, ASHRAE
Transactions, Vol. 95, No. 2 pp. 1138‐1148, (1989).
Stoecker, W. F., “How Frost Formation on Coils Affects Refrigeration Systems”, Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 65, No. 2,
pp. 44‐45, (1957).
Yao, Y., Jiang, Y, Deng, S., and Ma, Z., “A Study on the Performance of the Airside Heat Exchanger Under Frosting in an
Air Source Heat Pump Water Heater/Chiller Unit”, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, (2004).
11
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
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November 5-7, 2008 Madison, WI
New Course
The Industrial Refrigeration Consortium (IRC), through its association with
the Engineering Professional Development department at the University of
Wisconsin‐Madison, is presenting a practical new course on mechanical
integrity for industrial refrigeration systems with a focus on ammonia based
systems.
What You Will Learn

This course is your opportunity to develop and refine your knowledge, skills,
and capabilities in mechanical integrity principles and practices for industrial
refrigeration systems. By participating in this course, you will:
• Review the minimum requirements for a mechanical integrity program

• Develop an understanding of those mechanisms responsible for the
mechanical integrity failure of piping and vessels
• Obtain information on recommended practices for managing the mechanical integrity of piping,
vessels, and other equipment
• Be able to enhance the safety and cost‐effectiveness of your industrial refrigeration systems by
reducing risks related to mechanical integrity failures
The information presented in this course is structured to allow you to immediately apply what you have
learned during this course. Attend this course and your plant will benefit!
Who Should Attend

This course has been designed for
• Plant engineering staff
• Utility supervisors
• Refrigeration system operators
• PSM coordinators
• Contractors doing mechanical integrity work
• Others interested in understanding the basic principles and practices of mechanical integrity for
industrial refrigeration systems
Questions?
Contact Doug Reindl, (608) 262‐6381, dreindl@wisc.edu. Further information on this and other
upcoming ammonia courses can be found at http://edu.engr.wisc.edu/catalogs/refrigeration.lasso.
12
Vol. 8 No. 3, 2008
Relief System Design

Webcourse!
This third annual event will be held via the web December 15-19, 2008 at 9-
11 am Central. This workshop is an ideal opportunity to develop or improve
your understanding of engineered safety relief systems. Our primary focus is
industrial refrigeration systems but many of the principles we will discuss apply
equally to other applications as well.
Whether you are an end-user, equipment manufacturer, design engineer, or
contractor, this course will help you build your capabilities in the area of the
principles and practices of engineering safety relief systems. Participate and
develop your understanding of:
√ Codes and Standards related to safety relief systems

√ Key aspects of engineering code-compliant relief systems
√ Capacity determination for non-standard equipment like heat
exchangers
√ Methods for proper sizing of relief vent piping, including headered vent
systems
In addition to the course, the IRC has developed a web-based safety relief
systems analysis tool. This powerful tool has a high degree of flexibility to
analyze, engineer, and document safety relief systems for industrial
refrigeration applications. The tool features:
√ Graphical user interface to configure relief system to be analyzed
√ Ability to handle headered systems & multiple relief scenarios
√ Quick and accurate algorithm to solve compressible flow equations
√ Relief valve selection wizard
√ Equivalent lengths for elbows & fittings included
√ Detailed compliance checks for each system component
√ One-click reports for easy printing
Access to the tool is provided free of charge to those completing this course. A
brochure for the course is available on our website www.irc.wisc.edu, or by
clicking http://www.irc.wisc.edu/?/file&id=248.
13
International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 24, No. 7, pp. 676-691, (2001).
Evaporative Condenser Control in Industrial Refrigeration Systems

K. A. Manske, D.T. Reindl, and S.A. Klein
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Wisconsin - Madison
Abstract
This paper is a result of a research project, which focused on optimization of an existing industrial
refrigeration system for a large two-temperature level cold storage distribution facility located near
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. This system utilized a combination of single-screw and reciprocating
compressors (each operating under single-stage compression), an evaporative condenser, and a
combination of liquid overfeed and direct expansion evaporators. A mathematical model of the
existing system was developed. The model was validated using experimental data recorded from
the system. Subsequently, the model served as a tool to evaluate alternative system design and
operating strategies that lead to optimum system performance. The methods, analysis, and results
presented in this paper focus on evaporative condenser sizing and head pressure control. Operating
system head pressures that minimize the energy costs of the system were found to be a linear
function of the outdoor wet-bulb temperature. A methodology for implementing the optimum
control strategy is presented. Simulation results for the annual performance of the refrigeration
system investigated in this project show a reduction in annual energy consumption by 11% as a
result of the recommended design and control changes.
Key Words: evaporative condenser, head pressure control, ammonia refrigeration, refrigeration
system modeling, energy conservation, system optimization
Introduction
Industrial refrigeration systems are widely used for food processing, food preservation, chemical
production, and numerous other special applications in the construction and manufacturing
industries. Because each industrial refrigeration system is unique, system design and operation
tends to be more of an art form than a science. Even though a specific refrigeration system may
produce the desired result, many systems in the field are not operating at maximum efficiency.
Recent concerns about electrical usage and costs have prompted many in the refrigeration industry
to re-evaluate the cost-effectiveness of their system design and operating strategies.
In this paper, we investigate the influence of evaporative condenser operating strategies on the
refrigeration system’s overall performance. Traditional strategies for sizing evaporative condensers
are questioned and techniques for controlling evaporative condensers to yield optimum system
performance are discussed. Finally, we present a step-by-step procedure for establishing head
pressure control set-points that minimize system energy consumption.
System Description
The cold storage distribution facility studied contains four types of refrigerated spaces as described
in Table 1. Building construction type is considered lightweight for all spaces as there is mostly
insulation and very little thermal mass in the walls and roofs. The freezer and cooler with its
2
loading dock are separate buildings located adjacent to each other with a freeze protected walkway
between them. The banana and tomato ripening rooms are located in a heated space adjacent to the
cooler. The refrigerant used throughout this system is anhydrous ammonia (R-717). Evaporators in
the freezer, cooler, and cooler dock are all bottom fed with pumped liquid overfeed. The
evaporators in the banana and tomato ripening rooms are direct expansion units controlled by
thermal expansion valves and back-pressure regulators.
U-Value W all U-Value W all U-Value Perim eter

Space Area Tem p. RH [Btu/hr-ft²-F] [Btu/hr-ft²-F] [Btu/hr-ft²-F]
(W /m 2-K) (W /m 2-K) (W /m 2-K)
54,000 ft² 0°F 0.0302 0.0304
Freezer 80% n/a
(5,017 m ²) (-17.8°C) (0.172) (0.173)
32,200 ft² 34°F 0.0399 0.0402 1
Cooler
(2,991 m ²) (1.1°C) 87% (0.226) (0.228) (5.67)
5,700 ft² 45°F 0.0399 0.0402 1
Cooler Dock 65%
(530 m ²) (7.2°C) (0.226) (0.228) (5.67)
4,000 ft² 56-64°F
Banana Room s 80% unavailable unavailable unavailable
(373 m ²) (13.3-17.8°C)
4,000 ft² 45-55°F
Tom ato Room s 80% unavailable unavailable unavailable
(373 m ²) (7.2-12.8°C)
Table 1: Conditioned space summary
A diagram of the primary refrigeration components in this system is shown in Figure 1. Under
normal operation, a single-screw and a reciprocating compressor both discharge to a common
header connected to a single evaporative condenser. The suction line for the single screw
compressor is connected to the low pressure receiver while the suction line for the reciprocating
compressor is connected to the intermediate pressure receiver. Additional compressors, in parallel
piping arrangements to the primary compressors, can be brought on-line if the load exceeds the
capacity of the primary compressors.

3
Condenser High Pressure

Receiver
Throttling Valve
Mass Flow Meter
Under Floor Heating

Banana/Tomato Room Evaporators
Heat Exchanger
dx oil cooler
Int. Pressure
Receiver
subcooler
Recip.
Compressor
Cooler
Evaporator
oil cooler
Low Pressure Dock

Receiver Evaporator
Hot Gas Defrost

Screw
Compressor subcooler
Freezer
Evaporator
Figure 1: Diagram of the industrial refrigeration system.
Modeling
The objectives of this research project necessitated development of mathematical models for each of
system component in Figure 1. Integration of these component models along with models of the
pressure losses in the piping resulted in a system model. A brief description of the key component
models is presented in this paper. Further details on the component or system-level models are
provided by Manske [2000].
Compressor Modeling
Correlations and Compressor Maps

The three quantities that are of most interest to a refrigeration system designer or operator are the
power required by the compressor, the amount of useful cooling (capacity) it provides, and the
required amount of oil cooling. Compressor manufacturers provide tables for each of their
compressor models that list these three quantities over a range of saturated suction and saturated
discharge temperatures/pressures. Correlations of compressor power, capacity and oil cooling load
4
were developed as second-order polynomial functions of saturated suction temperature (SST) and
saturated discharge temperature (SDT) as given by equations 1-3. Coefficients for these equations
are equipment specific. The coefficients for the equipment at the experimental site are provided by
Manske [2000].
POW = P1 + P2 ⋅ SST + P3 ⋅ SST 2 + P4 ⋅ SDT + P5 ⋅ SDT 2 + P6 ⋅ SST ⋅ SDT (1)
CAP = C1 + C2 ⋅ SST + C3 ⋅ SST 2 + C4 ⋅ SDT + C5 ⋅ SDT 2 + C6 ⋅ SST ⋅ SDT (2)
OIL = O1 + O2 ⋅ SST + O3 ⋅ SST 2 + O4 ⋅ SDT + O5 ⋅ SDT 2 + O6 ⋅ SST ⋅ SDT (3)
When manufacturers rate their industrial refrigeration compressors, the suction and discharge
pressures are measured at the inlet and outlet flanges of the compressor, respectively. The
saturation temperature corresponding to those measured pressures is the temperature presented in
the catalog data. Compressor ratings do not normally include pressure losses and the associated
saturation temperature change due to valve trains or oil separators even though such ancillary
components are required and both are commonly included with the compressor package. Some
manufacturers list saturated discharge temperature (SDT) as “saturated condensing temperature
(SCT)” even though their measurements are at the discharge flange of the compressor and not
literally at the condenser.
Rated Verses Actual Capacity

Manufacturers typically provide capacity information over a range of operating conditions for
specified superheat (which governs the mass flow and specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at the
evaporator outlet) and subcooling (which governs the specific enthalpy of the refrigerant to the
evaporator inlet). However, care must be exercised when applying the manufacturer’s capacity
information since a correction will be needed if any of the independent variables that determine
refrigeration capacity for a system (mass flow, or specific enthalpies of the refrigerant) change
independently of the SST or SDT of the compressor. Equation (4) is a compact expression based on
the physics of compressor operation that can be used for the adjustment of the catalog-listed
compressor capacity [Brownell , 1998].
vmfr ∆hactual
CAPactual = CAPmfr ⋅ ⋅ (4)
vactual ∆hmfr
where:
vmfr = specific volume of inlet gas based on manufacturer’s specified conditions
vactual = actual specific volume of inlet gas in application
∆hmfr = difference in specific enthalpies of refrigerant between the rated compressor suction and
rated evaporator inlet
∆hactual = actual difference in specific enthalpies of refrigerant between compressor suction and
evaporator inlet
For a given compressor, the power and oil cooling loads are only dependent on the saturated suction
and saturated discharge temperatures and do not need to be adjusted for different evaporator mass
flow rates, superheat, and subcooling.
5
Compressor Unloading
Large screw and reciprocating compressors typically have the capability for reducing their capacity
to match the required refrigeration demand by the system. Screw compressors accomplish this task
by the use of a slide valve that changes the point where the compression process begins along the
axis of the screw. Most screw compressors have the ability to continuously modulate capacity
between 10 to 100% of its available full load capacity. Reciprocating compressors can be equipped
with unloaders. Unloaders consist of hydraulically or electrically-actuated push rods that hold open
suction valves on individual or groups of cylinders. By holding open the suction valves, the number
of cylinders that are providing active gas compression is reduced; thereby, reducing the refrigerant
flow rate and refrigeration capacity.
As screw compressors are unloaded, their power and oil cooling requirements decrease, but not
necessarily in direct proportional to capacity. Reciprocating compressors tend to unload more
linearly. Unloading curves for both the screw and reciprocating compressors are shown in Figure 2.
These curves indicate the percentage of full load power (%FLP) the compressor will use when
operated at a specific percent of its full load capacity (%FLC) or part-load ratio.
Figure 2: Part-load performance of the screw and reciprocating compressor.
Equation (5) representing the information in Figure 2 for the screw compressor was obtained from
the manufacturer [Fisher, 1998]. Screw compressors from other manufacturers may have different
unloading characteristics.
% FLP = 21.5733 + 0.465983 ⋅ % FLC + 0.00544201 ⋅ % FLC 2

−5.55343 ⋅10−6 ⋅ % FLC 3 + 7.40075 ⋅10−8 ⋅ % FLC 4 − 2.43589 ⋅10−9 ⋅ % FLC 5 (5)
The unloading curve for the reciprocating compressor used in this model is linear but it does not
exactly pass through the origin of Figure 3 because of the approximately three percent compressor
power requirement resulting from dissipative effects in the internal crank shaft bearings [Fisher,
1998]. The optimum method to sequence operation of one or more screw and reciprocating
compressors subject to the part-load behavior represented in Figure 3 is investigated by Manske et
al. [2000].
6
Evaporative Condenser Modeling

Evaporative condensers reject energy from the hot, high pressure compressor discharge refrigerant
to the ambient air thereby causing a change in state from vapor to liquid. A schematic diagram
illustrating the fluid flows into and out of an evaporative condenser is shown in Figure 3.
Air Out
Cooling
Water In
Refrigerant
In
Refrigerant
Out
Air In
Water Basin Cooling

Water Out
Figure 3: Schematic representation of the evaporative condenser.

Superheated refrigerant vapor enters the serpentine coils of the evaporative condenser at the top of
the unit. Water from a basin is pumped to the top of the unit and sprayed down over the outside of
the coils as ambient outside air is drawn or blown through the unit by fans (either propeller-type or
centrifugal). As the water pours over the coils and evaporates into the air stream, the exterior heat
exchanger surface tends to approach the outside air wet bulb temperature. Also as the water pours
over the coils, energy is transferred from the high temperature refrigerant to the relatively cooler
water. Nearly saturated air leaves the top of the condenser at a temperature lower than the saturated
condensing temperature (SCT), i.e., the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure inside
the condenser. The refrigerant then drains from the condenser to the system’s high-pressure
receiver. Since the principle component of heat rejection from the refrigerant is a result of the
evaporation of water on the outside surface of the heat exchanger, the evaporative condenser is
mainly a wet bulb sensitive device.
Enthalpy Effectiveness Model

Evaporative condenser manufacturers typically provide the nominal volumetric air flow rate, the
nominal heat rejection capacity, and a variable load multiplier referred to as the heat rejection factor
(HRF). The HRF is a function of the outside air wet bulb and the refrigerant SCT. The actual heat
rejected by the evaporator is calculated by dividing the nominal heat rejection capacity by the HRF
as in equation (6).

7
Nominal Capacity
Capacity = (6)
HRF (Twb , SCT )
An effectiveness approach was used to represent the performance data provided by the
manufacturer [Brownell, 1998]. Effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the condenser capacity to its
maximum possible capacity at the same operating conditions. Since evaporative condensers reject
energy through both mass (latent) and sensible heat transfer mechanisms, the effectiveness factor
must be based on enthalpy, rather than temperature-alone. Effectiveness for the evaporative
condenser is defined in equation (7).
Condenser Capacity m& air ⋅ ( hair ,out − hair ,in )

Effectiveness = =
( )
(7)
Maximum Capacity m& ⋅ h − hair ,in
air air , out T , Sat
refrigerant
where
hair ,in = is the enthalpy of ambient air drawn into the evaporative condenser
hair ,out = is the enthalpy of air at the exit of the evaporative condenser
hair ,out T = is the enthalpy of saturated air at the refrigerant temperature
refrigerant , Sat
The results of the effectiveness calculations using a particular manufacturer’s data are shown in
Figure 4. Figure 4 shows that inlet air wet bulb temperature has only a small effect on the
effectiveness because the effect of wet-bulb temperature is considered directly in the definition of
the effectiveness, equation (7).
Figure 4: Evaporative condenser effectiveness as a function of condensing temperature (the

effectiveness can be fit to a linear function of condensing temperature with R2 = 95.9%).
Additional information on the operation of evaporative condensers at part-load conditions is given

in the section on “Evaporative Condenser Design and Operation”.

8
A system-level model was configured that included component models for compressors,
condensers, evaporators (both overfeed and direct-expansion), heat exchangers (subcoolers and oil
coolers), vessels, and refrigerant piping. A full accounting of all parasitic energy requirements for
components such as liquid refrigerant pumps was included in the analysis. Pressure losses in the
system piping were modeled using the Darcy [Crane, 1988] and Colebrook equations [Avallone,
1996] for each piping element. Particular attention was paid to accurately determining pressure
drops in dry suction lines because of its effect compressor capacity and COP. All component
models were then integrated into a computational environment using the Engineering Equation
Solver (EES) software [Klein and Alvarado,1999]. EES is a general purpose non-linear equation
solver that has built in procedures for calculating the thermodynamic properties of many fluids such
as dry and moist air, water, and most refrigerants.
Model Verification
An essential step prior to drawing conclusions from a model is to verify/validate the model. For the
present system, experimental data in five-minute intervals for four different days collected at the
site served this purpose. Experimental data included compressor suction and discharge conditions,
refrigerant mass flow rates, part-load ratios for both the screw and reciprocating compressors, and
saturation temperatures at the receivers. Monthly average refrigeration loads, and engine room
power consumption for the months of March to September were also available.
Hourly weather data were needed as input the model. A typical and an extreme day for each month
were synthesized using a weather generating program [Schmidt et al., 1999] that provides hourly
dry bulb, wet bulb, and solar radiation data for a realistic sequence of average, extreme hot or
extreme cold days for each month of the year in specified North American locations. The extreme
hot hourly data were used to capture the peak load of each month. The system operation during the
monthly extreme day served as a basis to estimate the peak electrical demand (and cost) for the
system. Simulation for the monthly average day served as a basis for estimating the monthly energy
consumption of the system. The entire year was represented with 24 separate weather profiles; one
average (for energy estimating) and one extreme hot profile (for demand estimating) per month.
Model verification was performed in two phases. First, the refrigerant or “wet” side of the system
was verified. Second, the air or “dry” side of the system was verified. Table 2 lists the main
parameters that were used and calibrated for each model verification phase.

9
Calibration
Component Calibration Model Input Parameters Known Assumed
Parameter
Compressor(s) Suction Pressure X
Compressor(s) Discharge Pressure X
Compressor(s) Part Load Ratio X
Intermediate Pressure Receiver Temperature X
Low Pressure Receiver Temperature X
Outside Dry Bulb Temperature X
Outside Wet Bulb Temperatue X
DX Evaporator Pressure X
Mechanical Room Power Consumption X
Refrigerant Mass Flow (meters 1 and 2) X
Defrost Load X
Blow-by Fraction (from hot gas defrosting) X
Other Equipment Power in Mechanical Room X
Calibration
Load Calibration Model Input Paramenters Known Assumed
Parameter
Outside Dry Bulb Temperature X
Outside Wet Bulb Temperature X
Warehouse Transmission Heat Gain X
Monthly Refrigeration Totals X
Blow-By and Other Equipment in Mechanical
X
Room Calibration Parameters
Building Activity Schedule X
Defrost Heat Gains X
Sub-floor Heating Hot Gas Demand X
Warehouse Door Open Time Fractions X
Interior Heat Gains X
Banana/Tomato Room Loads X
Table 2: Model validation parameters.
A simplified explanation of the model verification process is listed below:
1. The suction and discharge header line pressure losses along with the percent of full load
capacity of each compressor were used to calculate the power draw and mass flow through the
compressors.
2. The model-predicted cumulative mass flow through the low temperature compressor was
compared to the cumulative mass flow through the field-installed low temperature flow meter
over daily periods.
3. The total mass flow through both high and low temperature compressors, minus the amount of
refrigerant used to defrost, was compared to the amount of refrigerant that flows through the
high temperature flow meter.
4. The steady-state power required by the compressors at each operating condition was calculated
based on the suction and discharge header line pressure along with the percent of full load
capacity. This power plus a constant value from the electric machinery in the engine room was
compared to the power recorded by electrical demand equipment on the system. The outdoor
air dry and wet bulb temperatures during the January and February days chosen for validation

10
were low and the oversized evaporative condenser required little of the power during this
validation period.
Experimental data for two variables were not available and their values were assumed. The first
variable is the amount of hot gas used in defrosting the evaporators and in the heat exchanger used
to heat glycol for subfloor heating in the freezer. Estimates of the evaporator defrost and heat
exchanger loads were made and the hot gas blow-by variable in the system model was treated as a
calibration parameter – it was adjusted until the predicted amount of mass flow through the high
temperature mass flow meter matched the recorded amount. The second variable is the amount of
power distributed by the mechanical room submeter excluding the compressor power. The
mechanical room constant power calibration variable value was assumed to be constant throughout
the 24-hour period. Table 4 below shows the results of the simulations from the four days when the
blow-by and power calibration variables are held constant at 10.8% and 43 [kW] respectively.
Mechanical Room Submeter High Temp Flow Meter Low Temp. Flow Meter
kW -hr lbm lbm
% diff. % diff. % diff.
Observed Calc Observed Calc Observed Calc
Jan.12 3200 3265 2.0 48193 55059 14.2 29433 32036 8.8
Jan.13 3242 3271 0.9 48660 55122 13.3 29400 31315 6.5
Feb.8 3727 3459 -7.2 55260 56808 2.8 32653 32959 0.9
Feb.12 3308 3479 5.2 59037 55837 -5.4 30561 31303 2.4
Table 4: Model to measured data comparison.
Figure 5 and 6 show the ±5% error bands of the instantaneous and integrated predicted mass flow to
the recorded measured mass flow (related to system capacity) and power, respectively. Both plots
are for a 24 hour period of time from midnight February 7th to midnight on February 8th, 1999.
Since the current modeling methodology assumes quasi-steady component and system behavior, a
one-to-one comparison between model-predicted variables and measured variables is not expected.
A better measure of model performance would be the comparison of variables integrated over a
longer time, i.e. 24 hrs. The model predicts both mass flow and system energy consumption
(integrated power) within 5% over a 24 hr period. Peak system demand (within a 15 minute
interval) is predicted to within 10%.

11
Figure 5: Comparison of calculated and measured refrigerant mass flows in the high temperature
circuit.
Figure 6: Comparison of calculated and measured mechanical room power
A comparison between the measured monthly total and simulated engine room energy consumption
is shown in Figure 7. The deviation in the month of August is attributed to an unrecorded load on

12
high temperature side of the system, possibly a result of a cooler door being unintentionally left
open.
Figure 7: Comparison of measured and simulated engine room monthly energy use
Evaporative Condenser Design and Operation

The primary purpose for the development and validation of a refrigeration system mathematical
model is to provide a tool for investigating methods to optimize the overall performance of the
system. The physics upon which the model is based along with the experimental verification effort
provides confidence in the predictions of the model. Appropriate design and sizing, along with a
combination of head1 (condenser saturation) pressure control and condenser fan control are essential
to meet system heat rejection requirements. The sizing and control alternatives are interdependent
and must be considered simultaneously. The focus of this paper is to investigate and compare
alternative methods to design/select and operate evaporative condensers.
Evaporative Condenser Sizing

A convenient parameter to normalize the thermal size of an evaporative condenser for a particular
refrigeration system is the design refrigerant saturated condensing temperature/pressure, i.e., the
temperature/pressure of the condensing refrigerant needed to reject the heat load on the design day
with the condenser operating at full capacity. The design temperature/pressure of an evaporative
condenser is related to the inverse of the heat transfer surface area. A larger condenser results in a
smaller design temperature/pressure at the design refrigeration capacity.
For industrial refrigeration systems using ammonia, evaporative condensers are generally sized to
provide a system saturated condensing temperature/pressure of 95°F/180 psig (35°C/1240 kPa) at
design outside air wet bulb conditions. It is possible to oversize the condenser as was the case for
1
In this paper, head pressure and condensing pressures are used synonymously.
13
the present system. We define an oversized evaporative condenser as one capable of maintaining a
system saturated condensing temperature at 85°F/152 psig (29.4°C/1050 kPa) under design outside
air wet bulb conditions.
There are competing effects associated with condenser sizing. The capital cost of a condenser
increases with its size, but not necessarily in a linear manner. Both fan and circulating water pump
motor sizes and the full-load energy consumption also increase with increasing condenser size.
However, depending upon condensing pressure control schemes, condenser fans may not need to
move as much air when the larger condenser is operated at part load (which is usually 95% or more
of the operating period) offering the possibility of condenser fan energy savings at part load
conditions with appropriate fan selection and controls. In addition, the cost to operate the
compressors at design conditions with an oversized evaporative condenser will be reduced. A full
economic analysis of evaporative condenser sizing alternatives is beyond the scope of the present
paper. Our efforts here are dedicated to understanding the operational differences and energy
saving potential associated with conventionally sized and oversized evaporative condensers.
Evaporative Condenser Part-Load Operation

The time-averaged capacity of the evaporative condenser must be adjusted to match the required
system heat rejection rate. The preferred method for modulating the capacity of an evaporative
condenser is by varying the flow rate of air through the unit. The most energy-efficient approach
for varying the air flow rate through the evaporative condenser is by controlling fan speed with a
variable frequency drive. Alternative control methods are use of two-speed motors and cycling fans
on and off. In the case of on/off fan cycling, the evaporative condenser capacity matches the
necessary system heat rejection rate on a time-average basis over the period of fan cycle time.
At part-load conditions, the evaporative condenser fan(s) will require less electrical power;
however, lower condenser capacity translates into increased condensing pressure and compressor
energy. This trade-off in energy requirements between condenser and compressors leads to the
optimization problem that is the focus of this paper. Equation (3) is used to relate the capacity of
the evaporative condenser to the power needed to operate the fans.
N
⎛ FanSpeed actual ⎞
Capactual = Caprated ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ (3)
⎝ FanSpeed rated ⎠
Heat transfer theory suggests that the coefficient, N, should be between 0.5 (for laminar flow) and
0.8 (for turbulent flow) [Mitchell and Braun, 1998]. The manufacturer’s representative suggested a
value of 0.76 for their evaporative condenser units [Kollasch, 1999].
With the on/off motor control strategy, the condenser fans are run at full speed until the condenser
pressure falls below an acceptable limit and then the fan motors are shut off. With the condenser
fans off, the condensing pressure begins to rise. When the condensing pressure reaches an upper
limit, the fans are cycled back on. Two speed and variable speed fans are two alternative fan
control options to single speed fan control. In the two-speed control option, the fans are first cycled
on to half-speed and then to full speed in an effort to maintain the condensing pressure within a
specified deadband. The variable speed fan option uses variable frequency drives (VFD) for the fan
motors to adjust the fan speed to maintain a defined setpoint condensing pressure. The advantage of
using the two-speed and VFD control options can be best explained by the fact that the power to
14
drive the condenser fans is proportional to the cube of fan speed. If the fan speed can be cut in half,
half the air mass flow is achieved at only one-eighth of the design fan power.
Depending on the size and arrangement of the condenser, there may be more than one motor driving
any number of fans. Each individual motor can be sized differently. The evaporative condenser
installed in the present refrigeration system has one 15 horsepower (11.2 kW) motor driving one fan
and one 30 horsepower (22.4 kW) motor driving two fans. The condenser has a baffle to prevent
internal recirculation of the air when only one of the motors is on. The internal baffle combined
with two separate fan motors splits the large condenser into two smaller ones; one with 33.3% of
the total capacity and the other with 66.7%. When one section is active, the other will still reject
approximately 10% of its nominal capacity due to natural convection effects. When this
arrangement exists, there are several different control strategies to choose from. Each control
strategy dictates a different sequence by which “parts” of the condenser are activated or deactivated
to modulate its full capacity. When motors are purchased with a half-speed option, the number of
possible control strategies increases. Several control schemes were selected and compared. Figure
8 shows the part-load evaporative condenser performance operating with the alternative fan control
schemes. The fan power drops to zero at ten percent capacity due to heat being rejected by natural
convection.
Figure 8: Part-load evaporative condenser operation.
The sequences (modes 1-5) corresponding to the control strategies labeled 1-5 shown in Figure 8
are identified below in Table 5. Each sequence (mode) of operation sets the fan motors either on,
off, half-speed, or at variable speed with higher modes having increased (but not necessarily equal
capacity to the same mode in other strategies) capacity. For intermediate energy rejection
requirements, fan settings are simply cycled between the nearest two modes. Interestingly,
strategies 1 and 2 yield the same evaporative condenser operating efficiency but with different
sequences of operation.

15
Strategy Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5
Small Motor off on off on
1
Large Motor off off on on
Small Motor off off on
2
Large Motor off on on
Small Motor off on on on
3
Large Motor off off half-speed on
Small Motor off half-speed half-speed on on
4
Large Motor off off half-speed half-speed on
Small Motor off variable speed
5
Large Motor off variable speed
Table 5: Condenser fan control strategies.
The sequence of operation for fan control for strategy 1 would be as follows. The nominal capacity
of the condenser at a given saturated condensing temperature and outdoor wet bulb temperature can
be determined from the effectiveness relation (Equation 7). If the actual heat rejection requirements
are below 40% of the nominal capacity, then only the small fan would have to be cycled on and off.
The 40% factor is the sum of 33% from operating the small fan side and 10% of the remaining 67%
from the natural convection of the large fan side. At 25% nominal capacity, for example, the small
fan would have to cycle on and off so that it operated, on the average, 62.5% (25/40*100%) of the
time. If the heat rejection rate were between 40% and 70% of capacity, the small fan would remain
off and the large fan would be cycled on and off as necessary to meet the system heat rejection
requirements. At 50% capacity, for example, the large fan would be operated on the 71.4%
(50/70*100%) of the time. Above 70% capacity, the small fan would be cycled on and off as
needed with the large fan running continuously.
The actual control of the evaporative condenser is more complicated because the saturated
condensing temperature does not remain fixed but rather floats as the heat rejection load on the
condenser changes. The control strategies presented and discussed here provide an estimate of the
total amount of energy used, on average, by the fan motors [Nicoulin et al, 1997]. A scheme to
optimally (minimizing the energy consumption of the entire system) control the operation of the
condenser fans is presented in this paper.
Head Pressure Control

In most systems, a fixed head pressure control scheme is implemented. In this operating scenario, a
single setpoint head pressure is maintained regardless of the system load by controlling the
condenser fan operation. An alternative to fixed head pressure control that generally provides
reduced operating costs is “floating” head pressure control. A floating head pressure control
strategy allows the system head pressure to equilibrate or float based on the heat rejection load and
prevailing outdoor air conditions with the fan(s) operating at maximum flow. The floating head
pressure control ordinarily requires establishing a minimum allowable system head pressure to
ensure stable flow through expansion devices, sufficient pressure for hot-gas defrost, operation of
screw oil coolers, or other system-specific constraints. If the head pressure drops to the minimum
allowable, condenser fans are then modulated to maintain the minimum head pressure as in fixed
head pressure control.
A more sophisticated control strategy is to determine and continuously reset the head pressure to
minimize the system energy consumption. Of course, the head pressure will always be subject to
16
operational constraints, such as the minimum allowable head pressure. These alternative strategies
are compared below.
The total condenser and compressor power demand is a function of two opposing effects. If the
head pressure setpoint is increased, the condenser fans have to run less (or at lower speeds) and a
savings in condenser fan energy results. On the other hand, increasing the head pressure set point
increases the compressor discharge pressure necessitating more compressor power to provide a
given refrigeration capacity. Figure 9 illustrates these trade-offs. The results shown in Figure 9 are
based on the system operating on the peak hour during an average day in May.
Figure 9: Evaporative condenser fan motor control strategies for an average day in May.
For the specific system investigated during the average day in May, the curves begin at an ammonia
saturation pressure/temperature of 118 psia / 65°F (814 kPa / 18.3°C) corresponding to a head
pressure achievable by operating the condenser at 100% capacity, i.e., all fans operating at their
maximum speed. Interestingly, a different optimum condensing pressure exists for each type of
condenser fan control. VFD motor control requires significantly less condenser fan power than the
time-averaged power for simple on/off control when the condenser is operated between 30% and
90% of its full load capacity. For the conditions considered in Figure 9, VFD fan control could save
the system nearly 8% in combined compressor and condenser energy requirements compared to the
existing on/off control for the two motors if the condensing conditions were set at 125 psia/68°F
(862 kPa/20°C). VFD fan control looses its advantage at low condensing setpoint pressures because
the drive almost never modulates as the fans must run at near full speed most of the time at these
conditions. At high condensing setpoint pressures, the fans in on/off control operate for shorter
periods because of the high rate of heat transfer that occurs at the elevated refrigerant temperatures
and again, the advantage of VFD fan control is diminished. However, the frequent fan cycling
needed with on/off control in this situation can cause excessive wear on motors and fan belts,
increasing maintenance costs.
If the evaporative condenser does not have sufficient capacity, there may not be a minimum in the
operating curve as shown in Figure 9. In this case, the optimum control is to operate all fans at
maximum capacity and drive the head pressure to its lowest value. Based on our findings, an

17
evaporative condenser sized for 95°F/196 psia (35°C/1350 kPa) saturated ammonia condensing
temperature on the design day does not experience a system energy demand minimum above the
minimum allowable system head pressure; consequently, the optimum strategy is to run the
evaporative condenser fans at their maximum speed to lower the condensing pressure (but not
below the lower limit of the condensing pressure).
The optimum pressure is dependent upon both the system load and size of condenser. Figure 10
shows the optimized head pressure using VFD fan control for the peak hour of the average day
between the months of March and July. Each month represents an increasing load on the
condenser. Outdoor temperatures dictated that the evaporative condenser surfaces to be wetted.
Each line in Figure 10 was made by calculating the sum of the compressor’s and condenser’s power
draw as the head pressure was varied. The dark set of lines is for the condenser that is currently
installed in the system. The current condenser requires a refrigerant temperature of 85°F on the
design day to reject the required amount of energy. The point furthest to the left on each line
represents the pressure at which the evaporative condenser has reached 100 percent capacity. Given
that the load is constant, it would be physically impossible to achieve a lower head pressure without
adding additional condensing capacity.
Figure 10: Optimum condensing pressure for varying loads and outside air conditions.
In the actual operation of the actual system that served as the basis for this paper, the head pressure
is not allowed to go below 130 psia. Therefore, the system cannot possibly be operated at its ideal
head pressure except for the months of June through September.
An optimization algorithm designed to find the minimum total condenser and compressor power
was used in conjunction with the refrigeration system model to identify optimum control points as a
function of outdoor conditions. In this process, a strong correlation between outdoor wet bulb
temperature and optimum condensing pressure was discovered. Figure 11 shows the results of these
calculations for both a system with variable evaporator load (changing with outdoor conditions) and
variable outdoor wet bulb temperature and for a system with constant evaporator load and variable
18
outdoor wet bulb temperature. In the present system, the condensing condition was limited to
values above of 70.5°F/130 psia (21.4°C/896 kPa) due to system thermostatic expansion valve
pressure differential requirements. If this constraint did not exist, the linear trend would continue
below this value.
A major finding here is that the optimum head pressure has very little dependence on the evaporator
load. Rather, it is determined almost entirely by the evaporative condenser and compressor
characteristics and it is a linear function of the outdoor air wet bulb temperature. In other words,
there is not a single value of condensing pressure that will minimize the energy consumption of the
refrigeration system. Rather, the condensing pressure that will minimize the energy consumption of
the system is a linear function of the outdoor air wet bulb temperature and must be reset as the
outside air conditions change if optimum system performance is to be realized.
Figure 11: Optimum head pressure setpoints as a function of wet-bulb temperature.
To demonstrate the effects of system control strategy and condenser size on the entire system as
well as on each other, several yearly simulations were run, each with a different control strategy or
condenser size. A description of each simulation is provided in Table 6 and the normalized results
are graphically compared in Figure 12. Optimum head pressure control resulted in minimum total
cost, but the cost difference was small compared to minimum head pressure control for this specific
system.
Condenser Head
Annual Condenser Total Electric
Design Pressure
Simulation Fan Control Energy [kWh]
Temperature Control
1 95°F (35°C) Bi-Level,Fixed On/Off 2366147
2 95°F (35°C) Minimum On/Off 2142285
3 85°F (29.4°C) Bi-Level,Fixed On/Off 2285070
4 85°F (29.4°C) Minimum On/Off 2197389
5 85°F (29.4°C) Minimum VFD 2135705
6 85°F (29.4°C) Optimum VFD 2100344
Table 6: Annual simulation results of condenser sizing and control alternatives.

19
1.00
Normalized Annual Energy

Consumption [kWh]
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 12: Normalized annual simulation comparison.
Procedure for Determining Optimum Relation Between Condensing Pressure and Outdoor Wetbulb
The trajectory of optimum condensing pressures for corresponding outside air wet bulb
temperatures shown in Figure 11 is specific to the existing ammonia system. Each system will have
its own unique trajectory. However, the following procedure can be used to empirically develop the
trajectory of optimum condensing pressures. Note, this procedure needs to be executed during off-
design periods of the year (during relatively low outside air wet bulb conditions). The procedure
also requires the ability to continuously monitor the outdoor air wet bulb temperature, condensing
pressure, and the engine room total electrical demand. We also recommend that other system state
variables (such as suction pressures, superheat – if applicable, etc.) be monitored to ensure reliable
system operation during the procedure.
1. Measure the outdoor air wet bulb temperature.

2. Note the current condensing pressure and system electrical demand.
3. Reset the condensing pressure down 5 psig (35 kPa) and allow the system to equilibrate.
4. Note the new system electrical demand.
5. Continue steps 3 and 4 until the lower limit in condensing pressure setpoint is reached.
6. Plot the system electrical demand vs. the condensing pressure and note the condensing.
pressure that corresponds to the point of minimum system electrical demand (like Figure 6).
7. Plot that single “optimum” condensing pressure point on a optimum condensing pressure vs.
outdoor air wet bulb temperature curve.
8. Repeat steps 1-7 on one or more days with different wet-bulb conditions to more fully
develop a curve analogous to Figure 11.
Once the optimum condensing pressure trajectory curve is developed, it can be programmed into a
system PLC or supervisory controller to yield optimum system performance throughout the year.
Bear in mind that the procedures 1-6 above need to be executed in a relatively short period of time
(1-2 hrs) as the outside air wet bulb will change throughout the day. In general, the outside air wet
bulb temperature has a daily range of between 7-10°F (4 – 5.5°C). Step 3 above is important. The
period to achieve equilibrium operation will be longer for larger systems (on the order of tens of
minutes). Finally, constrain the condensing pressure from dropping below a lower limit that will
degrade the operation of a system (due to expansion valves, hot gas defrost, etc.).

20
Conclusions
Head pressure control, condenser fan control, and condenser sizing all have significant and
interrelated effects on the total power consumption of a refrigeration system that utilizes
evaporative condensing for heat rejection. Systems having an under-sized (design condensing
temperatures of 95°F (35°C) or higher) evaporative condenser utilizing a fixed head pressure
control strategy operate least efficiently. The system arrangement that uses the least amount of
energy would have an over-sized (design condensing temperature of 85°F (29.4°C)) condenser with
a variable head pressure maintained with variable frequency drives controlling the speeds of the
condenser fans.
Optimum head pressure operating strategies for a particular system utilizing an evaporative
condenser was determined to be a strong, nearly-linear function of outdoor wet bulb temperature.
The characteristics of the systems evaporative condenser and compressors determine the optimum
head pressure function whereas system load has very little effect. These conclusions should be
helpful in identifying optimum sizes and control strategies for the evaporative condenser in large
refrigeration systems. A methodical procedure for empirically developing the trajectories of
optimum head pressure vs. outside air wet bulb temperature is proposed.
References
Avallone, Eugene A (editor), Baumeister III, Theodore (editor), Marks’ Standard Handbook For
Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1987.
Brownell, K.A., “Investigation of the Field Performance for Industrial Refrigeration Systems,” M.S.
Thesis, Mechanical Engineering, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin- Madison,
1998.
Crane Co., “Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe.” Technical Paper No. 410, Joliet,
IL, 1988.
Fisher, M., Engineer, Vilter Manufacturing Company, Milwaukee, WI, private communication,
1998.
Klein, S.A., Alvarado, F.L. “EES-Engineering Equation Solver,” F-Chart Software, Middleton, WI,
1999.
Kollasch, J., Engineer, EVAPCO Inc., Westminster, MD, private communication, 1999.
Manske, K. A., Performance Optimization of Industrial Refrigeration Systems, M.S. Thesis,
Mechanical Engineering,” Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin- Madison, 2000.
Manske, K.A., Reindl, D.T., and Klein, S.A., “Load Sharing Strategies In Multiple Compressor
Refrigeration Systems,” proceedings of the Purdue Refrigeration Conference, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, IN, 2000.
Mitchell, John W. and Braun, James E., Design, Analysis, and Control of Space Conditioning
Equipment and Systems, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1998.
Nicoulin et al. , Computer Modeling Of Commercial Refrigerated Warehouses Proceedings
ACEEE, Washington D.C., pp. 15-27, 1997.
Schmidt, D., Klein, S., Reindl, D., American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Research Project RP-962.
Struder, G., Engineer, EVAPCO Inc., Westminster, MD, private communication, 1999.

21
NOMENCLATURE
CAP – refrigeration capacity

CAPmfr – capacity value provided by the manufacturer at specified operating conditions
CAPactual – actual capacity of a refrigeration compressor or evaporative condenser
CAPrated – capacity of an evaporative condenser if operating at full fan power
%FLC – percent of full load capacity
%FLP – percent of full load power
hair ,in – is the enthalpy of ambient air drawn into the evaporative condenser
hair ,out – is the enthalpy of air at the exit of the evaporative condenser
hair ,out T , Sat
–is the enthalpy of saturated air at the refrigerant temperature
refrigerant
Head pressure – saturated condensing pressure

HRF – heat rejection factor for an evaporative condenser
m& air air mass flow rate
OIL – compressor oil cooling load
POW – compressor power requirement
SCT saturated condensing temperature
SDT – saturated discharge temperature
SST saturated suction temperature
Twb – web bulb temperature
vmfr – specific volume of inlet gas based on manufacturer’s specified conditions
vactual – actual specific volume of inlet gas in application
VFD – variable frequency drive
∆hmfr – difference in specific enthalpies of refrigerant between the rated compressor suction and
∆hactual – actual difference in specific enthalpies of refrigerant between compressor suction and

Appendix A
Thermodynamic Property Tables
General
Because of ammonia’s widespread use as a refrigerant, comprehensive tables of
thermodynamic properties are frequently needed by refrigeration engineers. Fortunately
ammonia has been very thoroughly studied by thermodynamicists over the years and
these properties have been established with a high level of confidence in their accuracy.
The various thermodynamic property tables correlate the following important properties
of liquid and vapor:
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Specific Volume (Density)
• Enthalpy
• Entropy
The latest update of ammonia properties was conducted by R. Tillner-Roth, R.
Harms-Watzenburg, and H. D. Baehr (1993) whose methods have subsequently been
incorporated into the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) software
package REFPROP (Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties
Database). REFPROP Version 7.0 (2002) was used to generate the thermodynamic
property tables here in the IIAR Ammonia Data Book. This data is generally now
accepted as the highest authority when it comes to the thermodynamic properties of
ammonia.
There has been, nonetheless, some confusion that has arisen about the various versions
of published property data which has been generated from REFPROP and other sources
such as Haar and Gallagher (1978). The main issue arises from the fact that enthalpy
and entropy properties have no absolute values, only differences from some datum state
assigned some arbitrary value.
The older property data published by ASHRAE used datum states such that the enthalpy
and entropy of a saturated liquid were both 0.0 at –40°F. Not by coincidence –40°F
coincides exactly with –40°C on the temperature scale. The nice feature that resulted was
that –40° saturated liquid had zero entropy and enthalpy regardless of which temperature
scale was being used. Many engineers used properties based on a –40° datum for so long
that they began to have a good feel for what the values of enthalpy and entropy were at
commonly encountered conditions.
Ammonia Data Book A-1

May 2008
Appendix A — Thermodynamic Property Tables
When the Haar and Gallagher data (1978) was released, ASHRAE chose not to simply
update the old tables. Instead, they changed the datum conditions at which enthalpy and
entropy were zero. As a result, many engineers chose to continue to use the old data
with the familiar –40° datum conditions. In these cases, the benefit of the more accurate
property data was bypassed in favor of staying with the more familiar numbers.
Adding further complication to the matter, the International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR
— not to be confused with IIAR) has published tables for ammonia that use –50°F as the
datum condition. Most of the European property tables are based on the work of Dvorak
and Petrak (1975).
IIAR has opted to publish its own property tables which reflect the latest REFPROP
(Version 7.0) data but which are adjusted for the more familiar datum conditions. The
Inch-Pound (IP) tables are based on the familiar –40°F zero datum state for enthalpy and
entropy of the saturated liquid. This makes them similar to the older ASHRAE property
tables but with the increased level of accuracy resulting from REFPROP.
The SI tables are based on datum conditions of saturated liquid with 200 kJ/kg (enthalpy)
and 1.0 kJ/kg-K (entropy) at 0°C. This makes the SI tables for ammonia consistent with
the halocarbon standard for SI tables.
The following property tables are included:
Table A-1 — Saturation Properties of Ammonia — IP Units using REFPROP (Version
7.0) with –40°F zero datums for saturated liquid entropy and enthalpy. Inch-pound units.
Table A-2 — Superheated Vapor Properties of Ammonia — IP Units using REFPROP
(Version 7.0) with –40°F zero datums for saturated liquid entropy and enthalpy. Inch-
pound units.
Table A-3 — Ammonia Liquid and Vapor Properties — IP Units at various isobars
using equations and constants of REFPROP (Version 7.0) with –40°F zero datums for
saturated liquid entropy and enthalpy. Includes supercritical data. Inch-pound units.
Table A-4 — Saturation Properties of Ammonia — SI Units using REFPROP (Version
7.0) with 0°C datums of 200 kJ/kg enthalpy and 1.000 kJ/kg-K entropy. SI units.
Table A-5 — Superheated Vapor Properties of Ammonia — SI Units using REFPROP
(Version 7.0) with 0°C datums of 200 kJ/kg enthalpy and 1.000 kJ/kg-K entropy. SI units.
The following diagrams are also included:
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram — IP Units
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram — SI Units
A-2 Ammonia Data Book

May 2008
Saturation Properties of Ammonia — IP Units

Saturation properties of ammonia using software REFPROP (NIST) where the equations and constants for ammonia originate
from s-Watzenberg and Baehr (1993), Eine neue Fundamentalgleichung fure Ammoniak, DVK-Tagungsbericht, Vol. 20,
pp167–181 (1993). The information is also accessible from Baehr and Tillner-Roth (1994), Thermodynamic Properties
of Environmentally Acceptable Refrigerants; Equations of State and Tables for Ammonia, R22, R134a, R152a, and R123,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Used in the REFPROP software version 7.0 (NIST 2002). The uncertainties of the equation of state
are 0.2% in density, except in the critical region. The uncertainty in vapor pressure is 0.2%.
Table A-1 Saturation Properties of Ammonia — IP Units
Temperature Pressure Enthalpy (Btu/lb) Entropy (Btu/lb-R) Liq. Density Vapor Sp. Vol.
(°F) (psia) Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor (lbm/ft3) (ft3/lbm)
-105 1.00 -67.036 570.018 -0.1733 1.6229 45.65 222.8251

-100 1.24 -61.994 572.260 -0.1592 .6042 45.47 182.1906
-95 1.52 -56.934 574.484 -0.1453 1.5862 45.28 149.9186
-90 1.86 -51.854 576.688 -0.1314 1.5689 45.09 124.1165
-85 2.27 -46.755 578.872 -0.1177 1.5521 44.90 103.3547
-80 2.74 -41.637 581.034 -0.1042 1.5359 44.71 86.5459
-78 2.95 -39.584 581.893 -0.0988 1.5295 44.63 80.7357
-76 3.18 -37.528 582.748 -0.0934 1.5233 44.55 75.3785
-74 3.41 -35.469 583.598 -0.0880 1.5171 44.47 70.4346
-72 3.67 -33.407 584.445 -0.0827 1.5110 44.39 65.8681
-70 3.94 -31.341 585.288 -0.0774 1.5050 44.31 61.6465
-68 4.22 -29.273 586.127 -0.0721 1.4991 44.23 57.7404
-66 4.53 -27.201 586.961 -0.0668 1.4933 44.15 54.1231
-64 4.85 -25.127 587.792 -0.0616 1.4875 44.07 50.7707
-62 5.19 -23.049 588.617 -0.0564 1.4818 43.99 47.6610
-60 5.54 -20.969 589.439 -0.0511 1.4761 43.91 44.7744
-59 5.73 -19.927 589.848 -0.0485 1.4733 43.87 43.4089
-58 5.92 -18.885 590.256 -0.0459 1.4706 43.83 42.0925
-57 6.12 -17.842 590.662 -0.0434 1.4678 43.79 40.8232
-56 6.32 -16.799 591.068 -0.0408 1.4651 43.75 39.5991
-55 6.53 -15.754 591.472 -0.0382 1.4624 43.71 38.4182
-54 6.75 -14.709 591.875 -0.0356 1.4597 43.67 37.2790
-53 6.96 -13.663 592.277 -0.0330 1.4570 43.63 36.1796
-52 7.19 -12.616 592.678 -0.0305 1.4543 43.58 35.1186
-51 7.42 -11.569 593.077 -0.0279 1.4516 43.54 34.0943
-50 7.66 -10.521 593.476 -0.0253 1.4490 43.50 33.1054
-49 7.90 -9.472 593.873 -0.0228 1.4464 43.46 32.1504
-48 8.15 -8.423 594.268 -0.0202 1.4438 43.42 31.2280
-47 8.41 -7.372 594.663 -0.0177 1.4412 43.38 30.3370
-46 8.67 -6.321 595.056 -0.0152 1.4386 43.34 29.4761
-45 8.94 -5.270 595.448 -0.0126 1.4360 43.29 28.6441
-44 9.22 -4.217 595.838 -0.0101 1.4335 43.25 27.8400
-43 9.50 -3.164 596.227 -0.0076 1.4310 43.21 27.0626
-42 9.79 -2.110 596.615 -0.0050 1.4285 43.17 26.3110
-41 10.09 -1.055 597.002 -0.0025 1.4260 43.13 25.5842
(Continued on next page)

May 2008
Table A-1 Saturation Properties of Ammonia — IP Units (continued)
-40 10.40 0.000 597.387 0.0000 1.4235 43.09 24.8812

-39 10.71 1.056 597.771 0.0025 1.4210 43.04 24.2012
-38 11.03 2.113 598.153 0.0050 1.4185 43.00 23.5432
-37 11.36 3.170 598.534 0.0075 1.4161 42.96 22.9065
-36 11.70 4.228 598.914 0.0100 1.4137 42.92 22.2903
-35 12.04 5.287 599.292 0.0125 1.4113 42.87 21.6938
-34 12.39 6.347 599.669 0.0150 1.4089 42.83 21.1163
-33 12.76 7.407 600.045 0.0175 1.4065 42.79 20.5571
-32 13.12 8.468 600.419 0.0200 1.4041 42.75 20.0155
-31 13.50 9.530 600.791 0.0224 1.4017 42.70 19.4910
-30 13.89 10.592 601.162 0.0249 1.3994 42.66 18.9828
-29 14.29 11.655 601.532 0.0274 1.3970 42.62 18.4904
-28 14.69 12.719 601.900 0.0298 1.3947 42.58 18.0132
-27 15.11 13.783 602.266 0.0323 1.3924 42.53 17.5508
-26 15.53 14.848 602.631 0.0348 1.3901 42.49 17.1025
-25 15.96 15.914 602.995 0.0372 1.3878 42.45 16.6678
-24 16.41 16.980 603.357 0.0396 1.3856 42.40 16.2464
-23 16.86 18.048 603.717 0.0421 1.3833 42.36 15.8376
-22 17.32 19.115 604.076 0.0445 1.3811 42.32 15.4412
-21 17.80 20.184 604.433 0.0470 1.3788 42.27 15.0566
-20 18.28 21.253 604.789 0.0494 1.3766 42.23 14.6835
-19 18.77 22.323 605.143 0.0518 1.3744 42.19 14.3214
-18 19.28 23.394 605.496 0.0542 1.3722 42.14 13.9700
-17 19.79 24.465 605.847 0.0567 1.3700 42.10 13.6290
-16 20.32 25.537 606.196 0.0591 1.3678 42.05 13.2978
-15 20.86 26.609 606.544 0.0615 1.3657 42.01 12.9764
-14 21.41 27.683 606.890 0.0639 1.3635 41.97 12.6642
-13 21.97 28.757 607.234 0.0663 1.3614 41.92 12.3610
-12 22.54 29.831 607.577 0.0687 1.3592 41.88 12.0665
-11 23.13 30.906 607.918 0.0711 1.3571 41.83 11.7804
-10 23.72 31.982 608.257 0.0735 1.3550 41.79 11.5025
-9 24.33 33.059 608.595 0.0759 1.3529 41.75 11.2324
-8 24.95 34.136 608.930 0.0782 1.3508 41.70 10.9699
-7 25.59 35.214 609.264 0.0806 1.3488 41.66 10.7148
-6 26.24 36.293 609.597 0.0830 1.3467 41.61 10.4668
-5 26.90 37.372 609.928 0.0854 1.3446 41.57 10.2256
-4 27.57 38.452 610.256 0.0877 1.3426 41.52 9.9912
-3 28.26 39.533 610.583 0.0901 1.3405 41.48 9.7632
-2 28.96 40.614 610.909 0.0924 1.3385 41.43 9.5414
-1 29.67 41.697 611.232 0.0948 1.3365 41.39 9.3257
0 30.40 42.779 611.554 0.0971 1.3345 41.34 9.1159
1 31.14 43.863 611.874 0.0995 1.3325 41.30 8.9117
2 31.90 44.947 612.192 0.1018 1.3305 41.25 8.7130
3 32.67 46.032 612.508 0.1042 1.3285 41.21 8.5197
4 33.45 47.117 612.822 0.1065 1.3266 41.16 8.3315

May 2008
5 34.25 48.203 613.135 0.1089 1.3246 41.12 8.1483

6 35.07 49.290 613.445 0.1112 1.3227 41.07 7.9699
7 35.90 50.378 613.754 0.1135 1.3207 41.03 7.7962
8 36.75 51.466 614.061 0.1158 1.3188 40.98 7.6271
9 37.61 52.555 614.366 0.1181 1.3169 40.94 7.4624
10 38.49 53.644 614.669 0.1205 1.3150 40.89 7.3020
11 39.38 54.734 614.970 0.1228 1.3131 40.84 7.1457
12 40.29 55.825 615.269 0.1251 1.3112 40.80 6.9935
13 41.22 56.917 615.566 0.1274 1.3093 40.75 6.8451
14 42.16 58.009 615.861 0.1297 1.3074 40.71 6.7006
15 43.13 59.103 616.154 0.1320 1.3055 40.66 6.5597
16 44.10 60.196 616.445 0.1343 1.3037 40.61 6.4224
17 45.10 61.291 616.734 0.1366 1.3018 40.57 6.2885
18 46.11 62.386 617.022 0.1388 1.3000 40.52 6.1580
19 47.15 63.482 617.307 0.1411 1.2981 40.48 6.0308
20 48.19 64.579 617.590 0.1434 1.2963 40.43 5.9067
21 49.26 65.676 617.871 0.1457 1.2945 40.38 5.7857
22 50.35 66.774 618.150 0.1479 1.2927 40.34 5.6677
23 51.45 67.873 618.427 0.1502 1.2909 40.29 5.5526
24 52.58 68.972 618.701 0.1525 1.2891 40.24 5.4403
25 53.72 70.072 618.974 0.1547 1.2873 40.20 5.3307
26 54.88 71.173 619.244 0.1570 1.2855 40.15 5.2238
27 56.06 72.275 619.513 0.1593 1.2837 40.10 5.1195
28 57.27 73.378 619.779 0.1615 1.2819 40.05 5.0176
29 58.49 74.481 620.043 0.1638 1.2802 40.01 4.9183
30 59.73 75.585 620.305 0.1660 1.2784 39.96 4.8213
31 60.99 76.689 620.565 0.1682 1.2767 39.91 4.7266
32 62.28 77.795 620.823 0.1705 1.2749 39.87 4.6341
33 63.58 78.901 621.078 0.1727 1.2732 39.82 4.5438
34 64.91 80.008 621.331 0.1749 1.2715 39.77 4.4556
35 66.26 81.116 621.582 0.1772 1.2698 39.72 4.3695
36 67.62 82.224 621.831 0.1794 1.2680 39.67 4.2854
37 69.02 83.334 622.078 0.1816 1.2663 39.63 4.2033
38 70.43 84.444 622.322 0.1838 1.2646 39.58 4.1230
39 71.86 85.555 622.564 0.1861 1.2629 39.53 4.0446
40 73.32 86.666 622.803 0.1883 1.2613 39.48 3.9680
41 74.80 87.779 623.041 0.1905 1.2596 39.43 3.8931
42 76.31 88.892 623.276 0.1927 1.2579 39.39 3.8199
43 77.84 90.006 623.509 0.1949 1.2562 39.34 3.7484
44 79.39 91.121 623.739 0.1971 1.2546 39.29 3.6785
45 80.96 92.237 623.967 0.1993 1.2529 39.24 3.6102
46 82.56 93.353 624.193 0.2015 1.2513 39.19 3.5434
47 84.19 94.471 624.416 0.2037 1.2496 39.14 3.4780
48 85.83 95.589 624.637 0.2059 1.2480 39.09 3.4142
49 87.51 96.708 624.855 0.2081 1.2463 39.04 3.3517

May 2008
50 89.21 97.828 625.071 0.2102 1.2447 39.00 3.2906

51 90.93 98.949 625.285 0.2124 1.2431 38.95 3.2309
52 92.68 100.070 625.496 0.2146 1.2415 38.90 3.1724
53 94.45 101.190 625.705 0.2168 1.2399 38.85 3.1152
54 96.26 102.320 625.911 0.2189 1.2383 38.80 3.0593
55 98.08 103.440 626.115 0.2211 1.2367 38.75 3.0045
56 99.94 104.570 626.317 0.2233 1.2351 38.70 2.9510
57 101.82 105.690 626.515 0.2255 1.2335 38.65 2.8986
58 103.73 106.820 626.712 0.2276 1.2319 38.60 2.8473
59 105.66 107.950 626.905 0.2298 1.2303 38.55 2.7971
60 107.63 109.080 627.096 0.2319 1.2287 38.50 2.7479
61 109.62 110.210 627.285 0.2341 1.2272 38.45 2.6998
62 111.64 111.340 627.471 0.2362 1.2256 38.40 2.6527
63 113.69 112.470 627.654 0.2384 1.2241 38.35 2.6066
64 115.76 113.600 627.835 0.2405 1.2225 38.30 2.5614
65 117.87 114.730 628.013 0.2427 1.2210 38.25 2.5172
66 120.01 115.870 628.189 0.2448 1.2194 38.20 2.4739
67 122.17 117.000 628.362 0.2469 1.2179 38.14 2.4315
68 124.37 118.140 628.532 0.2491 1.2163 38.09 2.3899
69 126.59 119.280 628.699 0.2512 1.2148 38.04 2.3492
70 128.85 120.420 628.864 0.2533 1.2133 37.99 2.3094
71 131.13 121.560 629.026 0.2555 1.2118 37.94 2.2703
72 133.45 122.700 629.185 0.2576 1.2102 37.89 2.2320
73 135.80 123.840 629.342 0.2597 1.2087 37.84 2.1945
74 138.18 124.980 629.496 0.2618 1.2072 37.79 2.1578
75 140.59 126.130 629.647 0.2640 1.2057 37.73 2.1217
76 143.03 127.270 629.795 0.2661 1.2042 37.68 2.0864
77 145.51 128.420 629.940 0.2682 1.2027 37.63 2.0518
78 148.02 129.560 630.083 0.2703 1.2012 37.58 2.0179
79 150.56 130.710 630.222 0.2724 1.1997 37.53 1.9847
80 153.13 131.860 630.359 0.2745 1.1982 37.47 1.9521
81 155.74 133.010 630.493 0.2766 1.1967 37.42 1.9201
82 158.38 134.160 630.624 0.2787 1.1953 37.37 1.8888
83 161.06 135.320 630.752 0.2808 1.1938 37.31 1.8580
84 163.76 136.470 630.877 0.2829 1.1923 37.26 1.8279
85 166.51 137.620 630.999 0.2850 1.1909 37.21 1.7983
86 169.29 138.780 631.118 0.2871 1.1894 37.16 1.7693
87 172.10 139.940 631.234 0.2892 1.1879 37.10 1.7409
88 174.95 141.100 631.347 0.2913 1.1865 37.05 1.7130
89 177.84 142.260 631.457 0.2934 1.1850 37.00 1.6856
90 180.76 143.420 631.564 0.2955 1.1836 36.94 1.6588
91 183.71 144.580 631.668 0.2976 1.1821 36.89 1.6324
92 186.71 145.740 631.769 0.2997 1.1807 36.83 1.6066
93 189.74 146.910 631.866 0.3017 1.1792 36.78 1.5812
94 192.81 148.070 631.961 0.3038 1.1778 36.73 1.5563

May 2008
95 195.91 149.240 632.052 0.3059 1.1763 36.67 1.5319

96 199.06 150.410 632.140 0.3080 1.1749 36.62 1.5079
97 202.24 151.580 632.225 0.3101 1.1735 36.56 1.4844
98 205.46 152.750 632.307 0.3121 1.1720 36.51 1.4612
99 208.71 153.920 632.385 0.3142 1.1706 36.45 1.4386
100 212.01 155.100 632.460 0.3163 1.1692 36.40 1.4163
101 215.35 156.270 632.532 0.3183 1.1678 36.34 1.3944
102 218.72 157.450 632.600 0.3204 1.1664 36.29 1.3729
103 222.14 158.630 632.665 0.3225 1.1649 36.23 1.3519
104 225.59 159.810 632.727 0.3245 1.1635 36.17 1.3311
105 229.09 160.990 632.785 0.3266 1.1621 36.12 1.3108
106 232.63 162.170 632.840 0.3287 1.1607 36.06 1.2908
107 236.21 163.360 632.891 0.3307 1.1593 36.01 1.2712
108 239.83 164.540 632.939 0.3328 1.1579 35.95 1.2519
109 243.49 165.730 632.984 0.3348 1.1565 35.89 1.2330
110 247.19 166.920 633.024 0.3369 1.1551 35.84 1.2144
111 250.93 168.110 633.062 0.3389 1.1537 35.78 1.1961
112 254.72 169.300 633.095 0.3410 1.1523 35.72 1.1782
113 258.55 170.490 633.125 0.3430 1.1509 35.66 1.1605
114 262.43 171.690 633.152 0.3451 1.1495 35.61 1.1432
115 266.34 172.890 633.175 0.3471 1.1481 35.55 1.1262
116 270.31 174.090 633.194 0.3492 1.1467 35.49 1.1094
117 274.31 175.290 633.209 0.3512 1.1453 35.43 1.0930
118 278.36 176.490 633.220 0.3533 1.1439 35.37 1.0768
119 282.46 177.690 633.228 0.3553 1.1425 35.32 1.0609
120 286.60 178.900 633.232 0.3574 1.1411 35.26 1.0452
121 290.78 180.100 633.232 0.3594 1.1398 35.20 1.0299
122 295.01 181.310 633.228 0.3615 1.1384 35.14 1.0148
123 299.29 182.520 633.220 0.3635 1.1370 35.08 0.9999
124 303.61 183.730 633.209 0.3655 1.1356 35.02 0.9853
125 307.98 184.950 633.193 0.3676 1.1342 34.96 0.9710
126 312.40 186.170 633.173 0.3696 1.1328 34.90 0.9568
127 316.86 187.380 633.149 0.3716 1.1315 34.84 0.9429
128 321.38 188.600 633.121 0.3737 1.1301 34.78 0.9293
129 325.94 189.830 633.089 0.3757 1.1287 34.72 0.9158
130 330.54 191.050 633.053 0.3778 1.1273 34.66 0.9026
131 335.20 192.280 633.012 0.3798 1.1260 34.60 0.8896
132 339.91 193.500 632.967 0.3818 1.1246 34.54 0.8768
133 344.66 194.730 632.918 0.3839 1.1232 34.48 0.8643
134 349.47 195.970 632.865 0.3859 1.1218 34.41 0.8519
135 354.32 197.200 632.807 0.3879 1.1204 34.35 0.8397
136 359.23 198.440 632.745 0.3900 1.1191 34.29 0.8277
137 364.18 199.670 632.678 0.3920 1.1177 34.23 0.8159
138 369.19 200.910 632.607 0.3940 1.1163 34.16 0.8043
139 374.25 202.160 632.531 0.3961 1.1149 34.10 0.7929

May 2008
140 379.36 203.400 632.451 0.3981 1.1136 34.04 0.7817

141 384.52 204.650 632.366 0.4001 1.1122 33.98 0.7706
142 389.74 205.900 632.276 0.4021 1.1108 33.91 0.7597
143 395.00 207.150 632.182 0.4042 1.1094 33.85 0.7490
144 400.32 208.410 632.082 0.4062 1.1080 33.78 0.7384
145 405.70 209.660 631.978 0.4082 1.1067 33.72 0.7281
146 411.13 210.920 631.869 0.4103 1.1053 33.66 0.7178
147 416.61 212.180 631.755 0.4123 1.1039 33.59 0.7078
148 422.14 213.450 631.636 0.4143 1.1025 33.52 0.6978
149 427.73 214.710 631.512 0.4164 1.1011 33.46 0.6881
150 433.38 215.980 631.383 0.4184 1.0997 33.39 0.6785
151 439.08 217.260 631.249 0.4204 1.0984 33.33 0.6690
152 444.84 218.530 631.109 0.4225 1.0970 33.26 0.6597
153 450.65 219.810 630.965 0.4245 1.0956 33.19 0.6505
154 456.52 221.090 630.814 0.4265 1.0942 33.13 0.6414
155 462.45 222.370 630.659 0.4286 1.0928 33.06 0.6325
156 468.44 223.660 630.498 0.4306 1.0914 32.99 0.6238
157 474.48 224.940 630.331 0.4326 1.0900 32.93 0.6151
158 480.58 226.240 630.159 0.4347 1.0886 32.86 0.6066
159 486.74 227.530 629.981 0.4367 1.0872 32.79 0.5982
160 492.95 228.830 629.798 0.4388 1.0858 32.72 0.5899
162 505.57 231.430 629.413 0.4428 1.0830 32.58 0.5738
164 518.42 234.050 629.004 0.4469 1.0802 32.44 0.5580
166 531.52 236.680 628.571 0.4510 1.0774 32.30 0.5428
168 544.86 239.320 628.113 0.4551 1.0745 32.16 0.5280
170 558.45 241.970 627.629 0.4592 1.0717 32.01 0.5136
172 572.29 244.640 627.119 0.4633 1.0688 31.87 0.4996
174 586.39 247.330 626.581 0.4674 1.0659 31.72 0.4859
176 600.74 250.030 626.016 0.4715 1.0630 31.57 0.4727
178 615.36 252.740 625.421 0.4757 1.0601 31.42 0.4598
180 630.24 255.470 624.797 0.4798 1.0572 31.26 0.4473
182 645.39 258.220 624.142 0.4840 1.0542 31.11 0.4351
184 660.81 260.990 623.455 0.4881 1.0512 30.95 0.4232
186 676.51 263.770 622.736 0.4923 1.0482 30.79 0.4117
188 692.49 266.570 621.983 0.4965 1.0452 30.63 0.4004
190 708.74 269.390 621.195 0.5007 1.0422 30.47 0.3895
192 725.29 272.230 620.371 0.5049 1.0391 30.31 0.3788
194 742.12 275.090 619.510 0.5091 1.0360 30.14 0.3684
196 759.24 277.970 618.609 0.5133 1.0329 29.97 0.3582
198 776.66 280.880 617.669 0.5176 1.0297 29.80 0.3483

May 2008
200 794.38 283.810 616.686 0.5219 1.0265 29.62 0.3387

205 840.03 291.240 614.035 0.5327 1.0183 29.17 0.3156
210 887.64 298.840 611.081 0.5436 1.0099 28.70 0.2938
215 937.28 306.640 607.788 0.5547 1.0011 28.21 0.2733
220 989.03 314.650 604.111 0.5661 0.9919 27.69 0.2538
225 1043.00 322.920 599.996 0.5776 0.9823 27.15 0.2354
230 1099.10 331.480 595.371 0.5895 0.9722 26.57 0.2178
235 1157.70 340.400 590.142 0.6018 0.9613 25.95 0.2010
240 1218.70 349.770 584.183 0.6146 0.9497 25.28 0.1849
245 1282.20 359.690 577.309 0.6281 0.9369 24.55 0.1693
250 1348.50 370.390 569.240 0.6425 0.9227 23.72 0.1540
255 1417.60 382.220 559.499 0.6583 0.9064 22.77 0.1388
260 1489.70 395.940 547.139 0.6766 0.8867 21.60 0.1233
265 1565.10 413.830 529.649 0.7005 0.8603 19.95 0.1061
270 1643.80 458.670 487.438 0.7610 0.8004 15.44 0.07807

May 2008
Superheated Vapor Properties of Ammonia — IP Units

Based on software REFPROP Version 7.0 (NIST 2002) where the equations and constants for ammonia originate from
Tillner-Roth, R., Harms-Watzenburg, F., and Baehr, H.D., (1993), Eine neue Fundamentalgleichung fure Ammoniak,
DVK-Tagungsbericht, Vol. 20, pp167-181 (1993). Enthalpy reference: 0 Btu/lb of saturated liquid at –40°F. Entropy
reference: 0 Btu/(lb-R) of saturated liquid at –40°F
Table A-2 Superheated Vapor Properties of Ammonia — IP Units

Saturation t = –60 F, p = 5.544 psia Saturation t = –50 F, p = 7.659 psia
Temp. Enthalpy Entropy Sp. Vol. Temp. Enthalpy Entropy Sp. Vol.
°F Btu/lb Btu/lb-R 3
ft /lb °F Btu/lb Btu/lb-R ft3/lb
-60 589.439 1.4761 44.7745 -50 593.476 1.4490 33.1055

-50 594.604 1.4889 45.9705 -40 598.718 1.4617 33.9807
-40 599.727 1.5013 47.1586 -30 603.911 1.4739 34.8491
-30 604.818 1.5133 48.3402 -20 609.065 1.4857 35.7118
-20 609.885 1.5249 49.5162 -10 614.190 1.4973 36.5697
-10 614.935 1.5363 50.6875 0 619.294 1.5085 37.4235
0 619.973 1.5473 51.8549 10 624.381 1.5194 38.2739
10 625.003 1.5582 53.0189 20 629.458 1.5301 39.1214
20 630.030 1.5688 54.1801 30 634.530 1.5406 39.9663
30 635.057 1.5791 55.3387 40 639.599 1.5508 40.8090
40 640.086 1.5893 56.4952 50 644.668 1.5609 41.6498
50 645.121 1.5993 57.6498 60 649.742 1.5708 42.4890

°F Btu/lb Btu/lb-R ft3/lb °F Btu/lb Btu/lb-R ft3/lb
-40 597.387 1.4235 24.8813 -30 601.162 1.3994 18.9838

-30 602.717 1.4360 25.5340 -20 606.590 1.4119 19.4794
-20 607.988 1.4482 26.1808 -10 611.950 1.4239 19.9697
-10 613.214 1.4599 26.8226 0 617.256 1.4356 20.4556
0 618.405 1.4713 27.4602 10 622.520 1.4469 20.9378
10 623.569 1.4824 28.0942 20 627.751 1.4580 21.4170
20 628.712 1.4933 28.7253 30 632.957 1.4687 21.8934
30 633.842 1.5039 29.3537 40 638.145 1.4792 22.3675
40 638.963 1.5142 29.9799 50 643.320 1.4894 22.8397
50 644.078 1.5243 30.6042 60 648.488 1.4995 23.3101
60 649.193 1.5343 31.2268 70 653.652 1.5093 23.7790
70 654.309 1.5440 31.8479 80 658.815 1.5190 24.2465

May 2008
Table A-2 Superheated Vapor Properties of Ammonia — IP Units (continued)

-20 604.789 1.3766 14.6840 -10 608.257 1.3550 11.5027

-10 610.326 1.3891 15.0664 0 613.915 1.3675 11.8025
0 615.784 1.4011 15.4443 10 619.482 1.3794 12.0982
10 621.179 1.4127 15.8182 20 624.975 1.3910 12.3904
20 626.524 1.4239 16.1889 30 630.409 1.4022 12.6797
30 631.830 1.4349 16.5568 40 635.797 1.4131 12.9665
40 637.105 1.4456 16.9223 50 641.149 1.4237 13.2511
50 642.358 1.4560 17.2858 60 646.473 1.4341 13.5339
60 647.594 1.4661 17.6474 70 651.775 1.4442 13.8151
70 652.819 1.4761 18.0076 80 657.063 1.4541 14.0949
80 658.037 1.4859 18.3663 90 662.340 1.4638 14.3735
90 663.252 1.4954 18.7239 100 667.611 1.4733 14.6510
Saturation t = 0 F, p = 30.397 psia Saturation t = 10 F, p = 38.487 psia

0 611.554 1.3345 9.1160 10 614.669 1.3150 7.3021

10 617.346 1.3470 9.3545 20 620.607 1.3275 7.4944
20 623.032 1.3590 9.5893 30 626.424 1.3395 7.6834
30 628.633 1.3705 9.8209 40 632.143 1.3510 7.8695
40 634.166 1.3817 10.0499 50 637.783 1.3622 8.0532
50 639.644 1.3926 10.2766 60 643.360 1.3731 8.2349
60 645.079 1.4031 10.5015 70 648.886 1.3836 8.4148
70 650.480 1.4134 10.7246 80 654.372 1.3938 8.5932
80 655.855 1.4235 10.9463 90 659.826 1.4039 8.7703
90 661.211 1.4333 11.1668 100 665.256 1.4137 8.9462
100 666.553 1.4429 11.3861 110 670.668 1.4232 9.1211
110 671.886 1.4524 11.6044 120 676.067 1.4326 9.2952

20 617.590 1.2963 5.9067 30 620.305 1.2784 4.8213

30 623.689 1.3089 6.0638 40 626.580 1.2911 4.9512
40 629.649 1.3209 6.2179 50 632.695 1.3032 5.0783
50 635.496 1.3325 6.3693 60 638.682 1.3149 5.2030
60 641.253 1.3437 6.5185 70 644.566 1.3261 5.3257
70 646.937 1.3545 6.6659 80 650.366 1.3369 5.4466
80 652.562 1.3651 6.8117 90 656.098 1.3474 5.5661
90 658.139 1.3753 6.9561 100 661.774 1.3577 5.6843
100 663.679 1.3853 7.0993 110 667.406 1.3677 5.8015
110 669.190 1.3950 7.2414 120 673.003 1.3774 5.9176
120 674.677 1.4046 7.3826 130 678.573 1.3869 6.0329
130 680.148 1.4140 7.5230 140 684.121 1.3963 6.1474

May 2008

40 622.804 1.2613 3.9680 50 625.072 1.2447 3.2907

50 629.268 1.2741 4.0767 60 631.744 1.2577 3.3826
60 635.553 1.2863 4.1827 70 638.211 1.2700 3.4720
70 641.692 1.2980 4.2866 80 644.514 1.2818 3.5593
80 647.713 1.3092 4.3885 90 650.683 1.2931 3.6450
90 653.638 1.3201 4.4889 100 656.743 1.3041 3.7292
100 659.484 1.3307 4.5879 110 662.714 1.3146 3.8121
110 665.268 1.3409 4.6858 120 668.612 1.3249 3.8939
120 670.999 1.3509 4.7826 130 674.450 1.3349 3.9748
130 676.689 1.3606 4.8786 140 680.240 1.3446 4.0548
140 682.347 1.3701 4.9737 150 685.991 1.3541 4.1341
150 687.978 1.3794 5.0681 160 691.711 1.3634 4.2128

60 627.096 1.2288 2.7479 70 628.864 1.2133 2.3094

70 633.994 1.2419 2.8264 80 636.007 1.2266 2.3771
80 640.660 1.2544 2.9026 90 642.888 1.2393 2.4427
90 647.140 1.2663 2.9769 100 649.558 1.2513 2.5064
100 653.468 1.2777 3.0495 110 656.058 1.2628 2.5686
110 659.673 1.2887 3.1208 120 662.419 1.2739 2.6295
120 665.777 1.2993 3.1909 130 668.666 1.2846 2.6893
130 671.798 1.3096 3.2600 140 674.818 1.2949 2.7482
140 677.751 1.3196 3.3282 150 680.893 1.3050 2.8062
150 683.648 1.3293 3.3956 160 686.905 1.3147 2.8635
160 689.499 1.3389 3.4624 170 692.864 1.3243 2.9202
170 695.315 1.3482 3.5285 180 698.780 1.3336 2.9763

80 630.359 1.1982 1.9521 90 631.564 1.1836 1.6588

90 637.769 1.2118 2.0111 100 639.265 1.1975 1.7107
100 644.882 1.2247 2.0680 110 646.630 1.2105 1.7605
110 651.758 1.2368 2.1232 120 653.729 1.2228 1.8087
120 658.443 1.2485 2.1769 130 660.612 1.2346 1.8555
130 664.971 1.2596 2.2295 140 667.320 1.2459 1.9012
140 671.371 1.2704 2.2809 150 673.884 1.2568 1.9459
150 677.664 1.2808 2.3315 160 680.328 1.2672 1.9897
160 683.870 1.2909 2.3813 170 686.673 1.2774 2.0328
170 690.003 1.3007 2.4304 180 692.936 1.2873 2.0753
180 696.077 1.3103 2.4790 190 699.131 1.2969 2.1171
190 702.101 1.3196 2.5270 200 705.270 1.3063 2.1585

May 2008

100 632.460 1.1692 1.4163 110 633.024 1.1551 1.2144

110 640.479 1.1834 1.4623 120 641.394 1.1697 1.2556
120 648.119 1.1967 1.5063 130 649.333 1.1832 1.2948
130 655.458 1.2093 1.5488 140 656.932 1.1960 1.3325
140 662.556 1.2212 1.5899 150 664.260 1.2081 1.3689
150 669.456 1.2326 1.6299 160 671.368 1.2197 1.4042
160 676.195 1.2436 1.6690 170 678.295 1.2308 1.4387
170 682.800 1.2541 1.7073 180 685.072 1.2415 1.4723
180 689.294 1.2644 1.7449 190 691.724 1.2518 1.5053
190 695.696 1.2743 1.7818 200 698.273 1.2618 1.5377
200 702.020 1.2840 1.8182 210 704.735 1.2715 1.5696
210 708.280 1.2934 1.8542 220 711.125 1.2810 1.6011

120 633.232 1.1412 1.0453 130 633.053 1.1273 0.9026

130 641.988 1.1561 1.0824 140 642.239 1.1428 0.9364
140 650.254 1.1700 1.1176 150 650.865 1.1570 0.9683
150 658.137 1.1831 1.1513 160 659.056 1.1704 0.9986
160 665.715 1.1954 1.1838 170 666.904 1.1829 1.0278
170 673.045 1.2071 1.2152 180 674.475 1.1949 1.0560
180 680.173 1.2184 1.2458 190 681.819 1.2063 1.0833
190 687.134 1.2292 1.2756 200 688.977 1.2172 1.1099
200 693.956 1.2396 1.3048 210 695.979 1.2277 1.1358
210 700.662 1.2497 1.3334 220 702.852 1.2379 1.1613
220 707.270 1.2595 1.3615 230 709.616 1.2478 1.1863
230 713.797 1.2690 1.3892 240 716.288 1.2574 1.2108

140 632.451 1.1136 0.7817 150 631.383 1.0998 0.6785

150 642.119 1.1296 0.8126 160 641.598 1.1164 0.7071
160 651.143 1.1442 0.8417 170 651.065 1.1315 0.7338
170 659.673 1.1579 0.8693 180 659.966 1.1456 0.7591
180 667.814 1.1707 0.8957 190 668.428 1.1587 0.7831
190 675.644 1.1829 0.9210 200 676.539 1.1711 0.8061
200 683.221 1.1944 0.9456 210 684.367 1.1829 0.8284
210 690.590 1.2055 0.9695 220 691.962 1.1941 0.8499
220 697.785 1.2162 0.9928 230 699.364 1.2049 0.8709
230 704.836 1.2265 1.0155 240 706.605 1.2153 0.8913
240 711.765 1.2365 1.0378 250 713.710 1.2254 0.9114
250 718.592 1.2462 1.0597 260 720.700 1.2352 0.9310

May 2008

160 629.799 1.0858 0.5899 170 627.629 1.0717 0.5136

170 640.638 1.1032 0.6167 180 639.194 1.0899 0.5388
180 650.602 1.1189 0.6414 190 649.721 1.1062 0.5619
190 659.916 1.1333 0.6647 200 659.494 1.1212 0.5834
200 668.728 1.1468 0.6867 210 668.693 1.1350 0.6037
210 677.145 1.1595 0.7077 220 677.443 1.1480 0.6231
220 685.244 1.1715 0.7280 230 685.835 1.1602 0.6416
230 693.082 1.1829 0.7476 240 693.936 1.1719 0.6595
240 700.705 1.1939 0.7666 250 701.796 1.1830 0.6768
250 708.149 1.2045 0.7851 260 709.457 1.1938 0.6937
260 715.441 1.2147 0.8032 270 716.949 1.2041 0.7101
270 722.606 1.2245 0.8209 280 724.299 1.2141 0.7261

180 624.797 1.0572 0.4473 190 621.195 1.0422 0.3895

190 637.216 1.0764 0.4713 200 634.640 1.0627 0.4126
200 648.388 1.0935 0.4930 210 646.557 1.0807 0.4332
210 658.675 1.1090 0.5131 220 657.426 1.0968 0.4521
220 668.301 1.1233 0.5320 230 667.528 1.1115 0.4697
230 677.417 1.1366 0.5499 240 677.046 1.1252 0.4864
240 686.128 1.1491 0.5670 250 686.105 1.1381 0.5022
250 694.512 1.1610 0.5834 260 694.796 1.1502 0.5173
260 702.628 1.1724 0.5993 270 703.185 1.1618 0.5320
270 710.520 1.1833 0.6147 280 711.326 1.1729 0.5461
280 718.225 1.1937 0.6296 290 719.259 1.1836 0.5598
290 725.772 1.2039 0.6443 300 727.016 1.1938 0.5732

200 616.686 1.0265 0.3387 210 611.081 1.0099 0.2938

210 631.388 1.0486 0.3612 220 627.368 1.0340 0.3161
220 644.180 1.0676 0.3810 230 641.199 1.0542 0.3352
230 655.712 1.0844 0.3989 240 653.493 1.0719 0.3523
240 666.346 1.0997 0.4154 250 664.726 1.0879 0.3679
250 676.308 1.1139 0.4310 260 675.179 1.1025 0.3825
260 685.747 1.1271 0.4457 270 685.035 1.1161 0.3963
270 694.770 1.1395 0.4598 280 694.420 1.1289 0.4094
280 703.456 1.1514 0.4733 290 703.426 1.1410 0.4220
290 711.864 1.1627 0.4864 300 712.121 1.1525 0.4341
300 720.040 1.1735 0.4990 310 720.557 1.1635 0.4458
310 728.021 1.1839 0.5113 320 728.776 1.1741 0.4571

May 2008
Ammonia Liquid and Vapor Properties — IP Units

Based on software REFPROP Version 7.0 (NIST 2002) where the equations and constants for ammonia originate from Tillner-Roth, R., Harms-Watzenburg,
F., and Baehr, H.D., (1993), Eine neue Fundamentalgleichung fure Ammoniak, DVK-Tagungsbericht, Vol. 20, pp167–181 (1993). Enthalpy reference: 0 Btu/
lb of saturated liquid at –40°F. Entropy reference: 0 Btu/(lb-R) of saturated liquid at –40°F. (Note: temperatures greater than 800°F are extrapolated.)
Table A-3 Ammonia Liquid and Vapor Properties — IP Units
Pressure 28 in. Hg vac. (0.943 psia) Pressure 27 in. Hg vac. (1.434 psia) Pressure 26 in. Hg vac. (1.925 psia)
Temp. Volume Enthalpy Entropy Temp. Volume Enthalpy Entropy Temp. Volume Enthalpy Entropy
°F ft3/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb-R °F ft3/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb-R °F ft3/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb-R
-106.30 0.021882 -68.35 -0.1770 -100 0.0219938 -61.99 -0.1592 -100 0.0219938 -61.9923 -0.159224
-96.4701 0.0220578 -58.42 -0.1493 -90 0.0221773 -51.8541 -0.131422
-106.30 235.08 569.43 1.6278 -89.18 0.0221927 -51.0218 -0.129173
-100 239.37 572.537 1.6365 -96.4701 158.66 573.83 1.5915
-90 246.16 577.4490 1.6500 -90 161.57 577.04 1.6002 -89.18 120.41 577.05 1.5661
-80 252.93 582.3460 1.6631 -80 166.05 581.99 1.6134 -80 123.50 581.63 1.5783
-70 259.69 587.2330 1.6758 -70 170.53 586.92 1.6262 -70 126.85 586.60 1.5912
-60 266.43 592.1130 1.6882 -60 174.99 591.83 1.6387 -60 130.19 591.55 1.6038
-50 273.17 596.9910 1.7002 -50 179.44 596.74 1.6508 -50 133.52 596.49 1.6160
-40 279.90 601.8700 1.7120 -40 183.88 601.64 1.6626 -40 136.84 601.42 1.6279
-30 286.63 606.7500 1.7235 -30 188.32 606.55 1.6742 -30 140.16 606.34 1.6395
-20 293.35 611.6360 1.7347 -20 192.75 611.45 1.6855 -20 143.47 611.27 1.6508
-10 300.07 616.5280 1.7457 -10 197.18 616.36 1.6965 -10 146.78 616.19 1.6619
0 306.78 621.4280 1.7565 0 201.60 621.27 1.7073 0 150.08 621.12 1.6727
10 313.49 626.3380 1.7671 10 206.03 626.20 1.7179 10 153.38 626.06 1.6833
20 320.19 631.259 1.7774 20 210.44 631.13 1.7283 20 156.68 631.00 1.6937
30 326.90 636.192 1.7876 30 214.86 636.07 1.7385 30 159.98 635.95 1.7040
40 333.60 641.138 1.7976 40 219.27 641.03 1.7485 40 163.27 640.92 1.7140
50 340.30 646.099 1.8074 50 223.69 646.00 1.7584 50 166.56 645.89 1.7238
60 347.00 651.0750 1.8171 60 228.10 650.98 1.7680 60 169.85 650.88 1.7335
70 353.70 656.0670 1.8266 70 232.51 655.98 1.7776 70 173.14 655.89 1.7431
80 360.39 661.0760 1.8360 80 236.91 660.99 1.7870 80 176.42 660.91 1.7525
90 367.09 666.1030 1.8452 90 241.32 666.02 1.7962 90 179.71 665.94 1.7617
100 373.78 671.1480 1.8543 100 245.73 671.07 1.8053 100 183.00 671.00 1.7708
110 380.47 676.2120 1.8633 110 250.13 676.14 1.8143 110 186.28 676.07 1.7798
120 387.17 681.2950 1.8721 120 254.53 681.23 1.8231 120 189.56 681.16 1.7887
130 393.86 686.3990 1.8808 130 258.94 686.34 1.8319 130 192.85 686.27 1.7974
140 400.55 691.5230 1.8895 140 263.34 691.46 1.8405 140 196.13 691.40 1.8060
150 407.24 696.6690 1.8980 150 267.74 696.61 1.8490 150 199.41 696.55 1.8146
160 413.93 701.8360 1.9064 160 272.14 701.78 1.8574 160 202.69 701.73 1.8230
170 420.62 707.0250 1.9147 170 276.55 706.97 1.8657 170 205.97 706.92 1.8313
180 427.31 712.237 1.9229 180 280.95 712.19 1.8739 180 209.25 712.14 1.8395
190 433.99 717.472 1.9310 190 285.35 717.43 1.8821 190 212.53 717.38 1.8476
200 440.68 722.73 1.9391 200 289.75 722.69 1.8901 200 215.81 722.64 1.8557
220 454.06 733.319 1.9549 220 298.55 733.28 1.9059 220 222.37 733.24 1.8715
240 467.43 744.005 1.9704 240 307.34 743.97 1.9214 240 228.92 743.93 1.8870
260 485.44 754.793 1.9867 260 316.14 754.76 1.9366 260 235.48 754.72 1.9022
280 494.18 765.682 2.0005 280 324.94 765.65 1.9515 280 242.03 765.62 1.9172
300 512.44 776.677 2.0163 300 333.73 776.65 1.9662 300 248.59 776.62 1.9318
320 520.92 787.779 2.0296 320 342.53 787.75 1.9806 320 255.14 787.72 1.9463
340 539.44 798.99 2.0449 340 351.32 798.96 1.9948 340 261.69 798.94 1.9605
360 547.66 810.311 2.0578 360 360.12 810.29 2.0088 360 268.24 810.26 1.9744
380 566.44 821.744 2.0727 380 368.91 821.72 2.0226 380 274.80 821.70 1.9882
400 574.40 833.29 2.0851 400 377.70 833.27 2.0362 400 281.35 833.25 2.0018
450 613.68 862.661 2.1195 450 399.68 862.64 2.0694 450 297.72 862.62 2.0350
500 641.24 892.764 2.1505 500 421.66 892.75 2.1016 500 314.10 892.73 2.0672
550 674.66 923.614 2.1819 550 443.64 923.60 2.1330 550 330.47 923.58 2.0986
600 708.07 955.22 2.2124 600 465.62 955.21 2.1635 600 346.85 955.19 2.1291
650 741.49 987.59 2.2423 650 487.59 987.58 2.1934 650 363.22 987.57 2.1590
700 774.91 1020.73 2.2715 700 509.57 1020.72 2.2226 700 379.59 1020.71 2.1882
750 808.32 1054.64 2.3001 750 531.55 1054.63 2.2512 750 395.96 1054.62 2.2168
800 841.74 1089.32 2.3282 800 553.52 1089.31 2.2793 800 412.33 1089.30 2.2449
850 875.15 1124.77 2.3558 850 575.50 1124.76 2.3069 850 428.70 1124.76 2.2725
900 908.57 1160.99 2.3829 900 597.47 1160.99 2.3340 900 445.07 1160.98 2.2997

May 2008
Table A-3 Ammonia Liquid and Vapor Properties — IP Units continued
-100 0.021994 -61.9895 -0.1592 -100 0.021994 -61.99 -0.1592 -100 0.021994 -61.9838 -0.159234
-90 0.02218 -51.8513 -0.1314 -90 0.022177 -51.85 -0.1314 -90 0.022177 -51.8458 -0.131432
-80 0.02237 -41.6363 -0.1042 -80 0.022368 -41.63 -0.1042 -80 0.022368 -41.6309 -0.104167
-78.39 0.02240 -39.9882 -0.0998 -70.34 0.022560 -31.70 -0.0783 -70 0.022567 -31.34 -0.0774
-63.84 0.022693 -24.9647 -0.0612
-78.39 81.842 581.72 1.5308 -70.34 62.348 585.14 1.5061
-70 83.726 585.96 1.5418 -70 62.406 585.32 1.5065 -63.84 50.519 587.86 1.4870
-60 85.960 590.99 1.5545 -60 64.094 590.41 1.5194 -60 51.042 589.84 1.4920
-50 88.184 595.98 1.5669 -50 65.772 595.47 1.5319 -50 52.394 594.96 1.5047
-40 90.402 600.96 1.5789 -40 67.443 600.51 1.5441 -40 53.738 600.04 1.5169
-30 92.613 605.93 1.5906 -30 69.107 605.52 1.5559 -30 55.077 605.10 1.5288
-20 94.818 610.89 1.6020 -20 70.766 610.52 1.5674 -20 56.409 610.14 1.5404
-10 97.019 615.85 1.6131 -10 72.420 615.51 1.5786 -10 57.737 615.17 1.5517
0 99.216 620.81 1.6240 0 74.070 620.50 1.5896 0 59.061 620.19 1.5628
10 101.41 625.77 1.6347 10 75.718 625.49 1.6003 10 60.382 625.20 1.5736
20 103.60 630.74 1.6452 20 77.362 630.47 1.6108 20 61.700 630.21 1.5841
30 105.79 635.71 1.6554 30 79.004 635.47 1.6211 30 63.015 635.22 1.5945
40 107.98 640.69 1.6655 40 80.643 640.47 1.6312 40 64.328 640.24 1.6046
50 110.16 645.68 1.6754 50 82.281 645.47 1.6411 50 65.639 645.27 1.6146
60 112.35 650.69 1.6851 60 83.917 650.49 1.6509 60 66.949 650.30 1.6243
70 114.53 655.70 1.6947 70 85.552 655.52 1.6605 70 68.257 655.34 1.6340
80 116.71 660.74 1.7041 80 87.185 660.57 1.6699 80 69.564 660.40 1.6434
90 118.89 665.78 1.7134 90 88.818 665.62 1.6792 90 70.870 665.46 1.6527
100 121.07 670.85 1.7225 100 90.449 670.70 1.6883 100 72.175 670.55 1.6619
110 123.24 675.93 1.7315 110 92.080 675.79 1.6974 110 73.479 675.64 1.6709
120 125.42 681.03 1.7404 120 93.709 680.89 1.7062 120 74.782 680.76 1.6798
130 127.60 686.15 1.7491 130 95.338 686.02 1.7150 130 76.085 685.89 1.6886
140 129.77 691.28 1.7578 140 96.967 691.16 1.7237 140 77.387 691.04 1.6973
150 131.95 696.44 1.7663 150 98.594 696.33 1.7322 150 78.688 696.21 1.7058
160 134.12 701.62 1.7747 160 100.22 701.51 1.7406 160 79.989 701.40 1.7142
170 136.29 706.82 1.7830 170 101.85 706.71 1.7490 170 81.289 706.61 1.7226
180 138.47 712.04 1.7913 180 103.48 711.94 1.7572 180 82.589 711.84 1.7308
190 140.64 717.28 1.7994 190 105.10 717.19 1.7653 190 83.888 717.09 1.7390
200 142.81 722.55 1.8074 200 106.73 722.46 1.7734 200 85.187 722.37 1.7470
220 147.16 733.15 1.8233 220 109.98 733.07 1.7892 220 87.785 732.99 1.7629
240 151.50 743.85 1.8388 240 113.23 743.78 1.8048 240 90.381 743.70 1.7784
260 155.84 754.65 1.8540 260 116.47 754.58 1.8200 260 92.976 754.51 1.7937
280 160.18 765.55 1.8689 280 119.72 765.49 1.8349 280 95.570 765.42 1.8086
300 164.52 776.55 1.8836 300 122.97 776.49 1.8496 300 98.164 776.43 1.8233
320 168.86 787.66 1.8981 320 126.21 787.61 1.8641 320 100.76 787.55 1.8377
340 173.20 798.88 1.9123 340 129.46 798.83 1.8783 340 103.35 798.78 1.8520
360 177.54 810.21 1.9263 360 132.70 810.16 1.8923 360 105.94 810.11 1.8660
380 181.88 821.65 1.9400 380 135.95 821.60 1.9061 380 108.53 821.55 1.8798
400 186.219 833.20 1.9536 400 139.19 833.16 1.9197 400 111.12 833.11 1.8934
450 197.063 862.58 1.9869 450 147.30 862.54 1.9529 450 117.60 862.51 1.9266
500 207.906 892.70 2.0191 500 155.41 892.66 1.9851 500 124.08 892.63 1.9588
550 218.747 923.55 2.0504 550 163.52 923.52 2.0165 550 130.55 923.49 1.9902
600 229.588 955.17 2.0810 600 171.62 955.14 2.0470 600 137.02 955.11 2.0207
650 240.427 987.54 2.1108 650 179.73 987.52 2.0769 650 143.49 987.49 2.0506
700 251.266 1020.68 2.1400 700 187.83 1020.66 2.1061 700 149.96 1020.64 2.0798
750 262.105 1054.60 2.1687 750 195.93 1054.58 2.1347 750 156.44 1054.56 2.1084
800 272.943 1089.28 2.1968 800 204.04 1089.26 2.1628 800 162.91 1089.25 2.1365
850 283.78 1124.74 2.2244 850 212.14 1124.72 2.1904 850 169.38 1124.71 2.1641
900 294.618 1160.96 2.2515 900 220.24 1160.95 2.2176 900 175.85 1160.93 2.1913

May 2008
-100 0.021993 -61.98 -0.1592 -100 0.021993 -61.97 -0.1593 -100 0.021993 -61.96 -0.1593
-90 0.022177 -51.84 -0.1314 -90 0.022177 -51.83 -0.1314 -90 0.022177 -51.83 -0.1315
-80 0.022368 -41.62 -0.1042 -80 0.022368 -41.62 -0.1042 -80 0.022368 -41.61 -0.1042
-70 0.022567 -31.33 -0.0774 -70 0.022566 -31.33 -0.0774 -70 0.022566 -31.32 -0.0774
-60 0.022773 -20.96 -0.0511 -60 0.022773 -20.96 -0.0512 -60 0.022773 -20.95 -0.0512
-51.40 0.022957 -11.99 -0.0289 -50 0.022987 -10.52 -0.0254 -50 0.022987 -10.51 -0.0254
-42.04 0.023164 -2.15 -0.0051 -40 0.023210 0.00 0.0000
-51.40 34.501 592.92 1.4527 -34.43 0.023338 5.89 0.0139
-50 34.630 593.65 1.4545 -42.04 26.337 596.60 1.4285
-40 35.542 598.88 1.4671 -40 26.479 597.69 1.4311 -34.43 21.364 599.51 1.4099
-30 36.447 604.05 1.4793 -30 27.169 602.99 1.4436 -30 21.613 601.90 1.4155
-20 37.347 609.19 1.4911 -20 27.854 608.23 1.4557 -20 22.169 607.25 1.4278
-10 38.242 614.31 1.5026 -10 28.533 613.43 1.4674 -10 22.720 612.55 1.4397
0 39.133 619.40 1.5138 0 29.209 618.61 1.4788 0 23.267 617.80 1.4513
10 40.021 624.48 1.5248 10 29.881 623.75 1.4898 10 23.810 623.02 1.4625
20 40.905 629.55 1.5354 20 30.550 628.88 1.5006 20 24.350 628.21 1.4734
30 41.787 634.61 1.5459 30 31.216 634.00 1.5112 30 24.887 633.38 1.4841
40 42.667 639.68 1.5561 40 31.881 639.11 1.5215 40 25.422 638.53 1.4945
50 43.545 644.74 1.5662 50 32.543 644.21 1.5316 50 25.955 643.68 1.5047
60 44.421 649.81 1.5760 60 33.203 649.32 1.5416 60 26.487 648.82 1.5147
70 45.296 654.88 1.5857 70 33.862 654.42 1.5513 70 27.017 653.96 1.5245
80 46.170 659.97 1.5952 80 34.520 659.54 1.5609 80 27.546 659.11 1.5341
90 47.042 665.06 1.6045 90 35.177 664.66 1.5703 90 28.073 664.25 1.5436
100 47.914 670.17 1.6137 100 35.833 669.79 1.5795 100 28.599 669.41 1.5529
110 48.784 675.29 1.6228 110 36.487 674.93 1.5886 110 29.125 674.57 1.5620
120 49.654 680.42 1.6318 120 37.141 680.09 1.5976 120 29.650 679.75 1.5710
130 50.523 685.57 1.6406 130 37.794 685.25 1.6064 130 30.174 684.93 1.5799
140 51.392 690.74 1.6492 140 38.447 690.44 1.6151 140 30.697 690.13 1.5886
150 52.259 695.92 1.6578 150 39.099 695.64 1.6237 150 31.220 695.35 1.5973
160 53.127 701.13 1.6663 160 39.750 700.85 1.6322 160 31.742 700.58 1.6058
170 53.993 706.35 1.6747 170 40.401 706.09 1.6406 170 32.264 705.83 1.6142
180 54.860 711.59 1.6829 180 41.052 711.35 1.6489 180 32.785 711.10 1.6225
190 55.726 716.86 1.6911 190 41.702 716.62 1.6571 190 33.306 716.38 1.6307
200 56.591 722.14 1.6991 200 42.352 721.92 1.6652 200 33.826 721.69 1.6388
220 58.322 732.78 1.7150 220 43.650 732.57 1.6811 220 34.867 732.36 1.6547
240 60.051 743.51 1.7306 240 44.948 743.32 1.6967 240 35.905 743.12 1.6703
260 61.779 754.33 1.7458 260 46.244 754.15 1.7119 260 36.943 753.98 1.6856
280 63.506 765.25 1.7608 280 47.540 765.09 1.7269 280 37.981 764.92 1.7006
300 65.233 776.28 1.7755 300 48.835 776.13 1.7416 300 39.017 775.97 1.7154
320 66.959 787.41 1.7900 320 50.129 787.26 1.7561 320 40.053 787.12 1.7298
340 68.684 798.64 1.8042 340 51.423 798.51 1.7704 340 41.088 798.37 1.7441
360 70.409 809.98 1.8182 360 52.716 809.86 1.7844 360 42.123 809.73 1.7581
380 72.134 821.44 1.8320 380 54.009 821.32 1.7982 380 43.157 821.20 1.7720
400 73.858 833.00 1.8456 400 55.301 832.89 1.8118 400 44.191 832.78 1.7856
450 78.167 862.41 1.8789 450 58.531 862.31 1.8451 450 46.775 862.21 1.8189
500 82.474 892.54 1.9111 500 61.759 892.46 1.8773 500 49.357 892.37 1.8511
550 86.781 923.42 1.9425 550 64.986 923.34 1.9087 550 51.938 923.27 1.8825
600 91.086 955.05 1.9731 600 68.212 954.98 1.9393 600 54.517 954.91 1.9131
650 95.390 987.43 2.0029 650 71.437 987.37 1.9691 650 57.096 987.31 1.9430
700 99.694 1020.59 2.0321 700 74.662 1020.53 1.9984 700 59.675 1020.48 1.9722
750 104.00 1054.51 2.0608 750 77.886 1054.46 2.0270 750 62.253 1054.41 2.0008
800 108.30 1089.20 2.0889 800 81.109 1089.16 2.0551 800 64.830 1089.11 2.0290
850 112.60 1124.67 2.1165 850 84.332 1124.63 2.0827 850 67.407 1124.58 2.0566
900 116.91 1160.90 2.1436 900 87.555 1160.86 2.1099 900 69.984 1160.82 2.0837


May 2008
Pressure 0 psig (14.696 psia) Pressure 5 psig (19.696 psia) Pressure 10 psig (24.696 psia)
-100 0.021993 -61.96 -0.1593 -100 0.021993 -61.94 -0.1593 -100 0.021992 -61.93 -0.1593
-90 0.022176 -51.82 -0.1315 -90 0.022176 -51.80 -0.1315 -90 0.022176 -51.79 -0.1315
-80 0.022367 -41.60 -0.1042 -80 0.022367 -41.59 -0.1042 -80 0.022367 -41.58 -0.1042
-70 0.022566 -31.31 -0.0774 -70 0.022566 -31.30 -0.0775 -70 0.022565 -31.28 -0.0775
-60 0.022772 -20.94 -0.0512 -60 0.022772 -20.93 -0.0512 -60 0.022772 -20.92 -0.0512
-50 0.022987 -10.50 -0.0254 -50 0.022986 -10.49 -0.0254 -50 0.022986 -10.48 -0.0254
-40 0.023210 0.01 0.0000 -40 0.023209 0.02 0.0000 -40 0.023209 0.04 -0.0001
-30 0.023441 10.59 0.0249 -30 0.023440 10.61 0.0249 -30 0.023440 10.62 0.0249
-27.99 0.023489 12.73 0.0299 -20 0.023680 21.26 0.0494 -20 0.023680 21.27 0.0494
-17.19 0.023750 24.26 0.0562 -10 0.023929 31.98 0.0735
-27.99 18.007 601.90 1.3947 -8.41 0.023970 33.69 0.0773
-20 18.383 606.26 1.4047 -17.19 13.692 605.78 1.3704
-10 18.849 611.65 1.4168 -10 13.949 609.79 1.3794 -8.41 11.077 608.79 1.3517
0 19.310 616.99 1.4286 0 14.302 615.30 1.3915 0 11.321 613.58 1.3622
10 19.767 622.28 1.4399 10 14.652 620.74 1.4032 10 11.606 619.17 1.3742
20 20.222 627.53 1.4510 20 14.998 626.12 1.4146 20 11.888 624.70 1.3859
30 20.673 632.75 1.4618 30 15.341 631.46 1.4256 30 12.167 630.15 1.3971
40 21.122 637.96 1.4723 40 15.682 636.77 1.4363 40 12.443 635.56 1.4081
50 21.570 643.14 1.4826 50 16.020 642.05 1.4468 50 12.717 640.93 1.4187
60 22.015 648.32 1.4927 60 16.357 647.30 1.4570 60 12.990 646.27 1.4291
70 22.459 653.50 1.5025 70 16.693 652.55 1.4670 70 13.261 651.59 1.4392
80 22.902 658.67 1.5122 80 17.027 657.78 1.4768 80 13.530 656.89 1.4491
90 23.343 663.85 1.5217 90 17.359 663.02 1.4864 90 13.798 662.18 1.4588
100 23.784 669.03 1.5310 100 17.691 668.25 1.4958 100 14.065 667.46 1.4684
110 24.223 674.21 1.5402 110 18.022 673.48 1.5051 110 14.331 672.74 1.4777
120 24.662 679.41 1.5493 120 18.352 678.71 1.5142 120 14.597 678.02 1.4869
130 25.100 684.61 1.5582 130 18.681 683.96 1.5232 130 14.861 683.30 1.4959
140 25.537 689.83 1.5669 140 19.010 689.21 1.5320 140 15.125 688.58 1.5048
150 25.974 695.06 1.5756 150 19.338 694.47 1.5407 150 15.388 693.88 1.5136
160 26.410 700.31 1.5841 160 19.665 699.75 1.5493 160 15.651 699.18 1.5222
170 26.846 705.57 1.5925 170 19.992 705.04 1.5577 170 15.913 704.50 1.5307
180 27.281 710.85 1.6009 180 20.318 710.34 1.5661 180 16.175 709.83 1.5391
190 27.716 716.15 1.6091 190 20.644 715.66 1.5744 190 16.436 715.17 1.5474
200 28.151 721.46 1.6172 200 20.970 721.00 1.5825 200 16.697 720.53 1.5556
220 29.019 732.15 1.6332 220 21.620 731.73 1.5985 220 17.218 731.30 1.5717
240 29.886 742.93 1.6488 240 22.269 742.54 1.6142 240 17.737 742.15 1.5874
260 30.752 753.80 1.6641 260 22.918 753.44 1.6296 260 18.256 753.07 1.6028
280 31.617 764.76 1.6791 280 23.565 764.42 1.6446 280 18.774 764.09 1.6179
300 32.481 775.82 1.6939 300 24.212 775.50 1.6594 300 19.291 775.19 1.6327
320 33.345 786.98 1.7084 320 24.858 786.68 1.6739 320 19.807 786.39 1.6473
340 34.208 798.24 1.7226 340 25.503 797.96 1.6882 340 20.323 797.69 1.6616
360 35.071 809.61 1.7367 360 26.148 809.35 1.7023 360 20.839 809.09 1.6757
380 35.933 821.08 1.7505 380 26.793 820.84 1.7161 380 21.354 820.60 1.6895
400 36.795 832.66 1.7641 400 27.437 832.44 1.7298 400 21.869 832.21 1.7032
450 38.948 862.12 1.7974 450 29.046 861.92 1.7631 450 23.154 861.72 1.7366
500 41.100 892.29 1.8297 500 30.654 892.11 1.7954 500 24.438 891.94 1.7689
550 43.251 923.19 1.8611 550 32.260 923.04 1.8268 550 25.720 922.88 1.8003
600 45.400 954.84 1.8917 600 33.866 954.71 1.8574 600 27.002 954.57 1.8309
650 47.549 987.25 1.9216 650 35.470 987.13 1.8873 650 28.282 987.01 1.8609
700 49.697 1020.42 1.9508 700 37.074 1020.31 1.9166 700 29.562 1020.20 1.8901
750 51.845 1054.36 1.9795 750 38.677 1054.26 1.9452 750 30.842 1054.16 1.9188
800 53.992 1089.07 2.0076 800 40.280 1088.98 1.9734 800 32.121 1088.89 1.9469
850 56.139 1124.54 2.0352 850 41.883 1124.46 2.0010 850 33.400 1124.38 1.9745
900 58.285 1160.79 2.0624 900 43.485 1160.71 2.0281 900 34.678 1160.64 2.0017

May 2008
-100 0.021992 -61.90 -0.1593 -100 0.021991 -61.87 -0.1594 -100 0.021990 -61.84 -0.1594
-90 0.022175 -51.76 -0.1315 -90 0.022174 -51.73 -0.1316 -90 0.022173 -51.71 -0.1316
-80 0.022366 -41.55 -0.1043 -80 0.022365 -41.52 -0.1043 -80 0.022364 -41.49 -0.1043
-70 0.022564 -31.26 -0.0775 -70 0.022563 -31.23 -0.0776 -70 0.022563 -31.20 -0.0776
-60 0.022771 -20.89 -0.0513 -60 0.022770 -20.86 -0.0513 -60 0.022769 -20.84 -0.0513
-50 0.022985 -10.45 -0.0255 -50 0.022984 -10.42 -0.0255 -50 0.022983 -10.40 -0.0255
-40 0.023208 0.06 -0.0001 -40 0.023206 0.09 -0.0001 -40 0.023205 0.11 -0.0002
-30 0.023439 10.64 0.0248 -30 0.023437 10.67 0.0248 -30 0.023436 10.69 0.0247
-20 0.023679 21.29 0.0493 -20 0.023677 21.32 0.0493 -20 0.023676 21.34 0.0492
-10 0.023928 32.01 0.0734 -10 0.023926 32.03 0.0734 -10 0.023925 32.05 0.0733
0 0.024187 42.79 0.0971 0 0.024185 42.81 0.0971 0 0.024184 42.83 0.0970
5.55 0.024335 48.80 0.1101 10 0.024455 53.66 0.1204 10 0.024453 53.68 0.1204
16.60 0.024639 60.85 0.1356 20 0.024734 64.59 0.1434
5.55 8.050 613.30 1.3236 25.84 0.024903 71.00 0.1566
10 8.145 615.94 1.3292 16.60 6.342 616.62 1.3026
20 8.355 621.75 1.3414 20 6.400 618.69 1.3069 25.84 5.241 619.20 1.2858
30 8.561 627.47 1.3532 30 6.567 624.69 1.3193 30 5.299 621.80 1.2911
40 8.765 633.10 1.3646 40 6.731 630.56 1.3311 40 5.439 627.93 1.3035
50 8.966 638.66 1.3756 50 6.892 636.33 1.3426 50 5.575 633.93 1.3154
60 9.166 644.17 1.3863 60 7.051 642.02 1.3536 60 5.709 639.81 1.3268
70 9.363 649.64 1.3968 70 7.209 647.64 1.3644 70 5.841 645.61 1.3379
80 9.559 655.07 1.4069 80 7.365 653.22 1.3748 80 5.972 651.33 1.3486
90 9.754 660.48 1.4169 90 7.519 658.75 1.3849 90 6.101 656.99 1.3590
100 9.948 665.87 1.4266 100 7.672 664.25 1.3949 100 6.228 662.61 1.3691
110 10.141 671.24 1.4361 110 7.825 669.73 1.4045 110 6.355 668.19 1.3790
120 10.333 676.61 1.4454 120 7.976 675.18 1.4140 120 6.481 673.74 1.3886
130 10.524 681.97 1.4546 130 8.127 680.62 1.4233 130 6.606 679.26 1.3981
140 10.714 687.33 1.4636 140 8.277 686.06 1.4325 140 6.730 684.77 1.4073
150 10.904 692.69 1.4725 150 8.426 691.48 1.4415 150 6.854 690.27 1.4164
160 11.093 698.05 1.4812 160 8.574 696.91 1.4503 160 6.977 695.76 1.4254
170 11.282 703.42 1.4898 170 8.722 702.34 1.4590 170 7.099 701.25 1.4341
180 11.470 708.80 1.4983 180 8.870 707.77 1.4675 180 7.221 706.73 1.4428
190 11.658 714.19 1.5066 190 9.017 713.21 1.4760 190 7.342 712.22 1.4513
200 11.845 719.60 1.5149 200 9.164 718.66 1.4843 200 7.463 717.71 1.4597
220 12.219 730.45 1.5311 220 9.457 729.59 1.5006 220 7.705 728.72 1.4761
240 12.592 741.36 1.5469 240 9.748 740.57 1.5165 240 7.944 739.77 1.4922
260 12.963 752.35 1.5624 260 10.039 751.61 1.5321 260 8.183 750.88 1.5078
280 13.334 763.41 1.5776 280 10.328 762.73 1.5473 280 8.421 762.05 1.5231
300 13.704 774.56 1.5924 300 10.617 773.93 1.5623 300 8.659 773.30 1.5381
320 14.073 785.80 1.6070 320 10.905 785.22 1.5769 320 8.895 784.63 1.5528
340 14.442 797.14 1.6214 340 11.193 796.59 1.5914 340 9.132 796.04 1.5673
360 14.811 808.57 1.6355 360 11.480 808.06 1.6055 360 9.367 807.54 1.5815
380 15.179 820.11 1.6494 380 11.767 819.63 1.6195 380 9.602 819.14 1.5955
400 15.546 831.75 1.6631 400 12.053 831.29 1.6332 400 9.837 830.83 1.6092
450 16.464 861.32 1.6966 450 12.768 860.92 1.6667 450 10.423 860.53 1.6428
500 17.380 891.59 1.7289 500 13.480 891.24 1.6991 500 11.007 890.89 1.6753
550 18.295 922.57 1.7604 550 14.192 922.27 1.7306 550 11.589 921.96 1.7069
600 19.209 954.29 1.7911 600 14.903 954.02 1.7613 600 12.171 953.74 1.7376
650 20.121 986.76 1.8210 650 15.612 986.51 1.7913 650 12.752 986.27 1.7676
700 21.034 1019.98 1.8503 700 16.322 1019.76 1.8206 700 13.332 1019.54 1.7969
750 21.946 1053.96 1.8790 750 17.030 1053.76 1.8493 750 13.912 1053.56 1.8256
800 22.857 1088.71 1.9071 800 17.738 1088.52 1.8775 800 14.491 1088.34 1.8538
850 23.768 1124.21 1.9348 850 18.446 1124.05 1.9051 850 15.070 1123.88 1.8815
900 24.679 1160.49 1.9619 900 19.154 1160.33 1.9323 900 15.649 1160.18 1.9087

May 2008
-100 0.021989 -61.78 -0.1595 -100 0.021987 -61.73 -0.1595 -100 0.021986 -61.67 -0.1596
-90 0.022172 -51.65 -0.1317 -90 0.022170 -51.59 -0.1317 -90 0.022169 -51.54 -0.1318
-80 0.022363 -41.44 -0.1044 -80 0.022361 -41.38 -0.1045 -80 0.022359 -41.33 -0.1046
-70 0.022561 -31.15 -0.0777 -70 0.022559 -31.09 -0.0777 -70 0.022557 -31.04 -0.0778
-60 0.022767 -20.78 -0.0514 -60 0.022765 -20.73 -0.0515 -60 0.022763 -20.68 -0.0516
-50 0.022981 -10.35 -0.0256 -50 0.022979 -10.29 -0.0257 -50 0.022977 -10.24 -0.0258
-40 0.023203 0.16 -0.0003 -40 0.023201 0.21 -0.0004 -40 0.023199 0.26 -0.0004
-30 0.023434 10.74 0.0246 -30 0.023432 10.79 0.0246 -30 0.023429 10.84 0.0245
-20 0.023674 21.39 0.0491 -20 0.023671 21.44 0.0490 -20 0.023669 21.48 0.0490
-10 0.023922 32.10 0.0732 -10 0.023920 32.15 0.0731 -10 0.023917 32.19 0.0730
0 0.024181 42.88 0.0969 0 0.024178 42.92 0.0968 0 0.024175 42.97 0.0967
10 0.024450 53.72 0.1203 10 0.024447 53.76 0.1202 10 0.024444 53.81 0.1201
20 0.024730 64.63 0.1433 20 0.024727 64.67 0.1431 20 0.024723 64.71 0.1430
30 0.025023 75.61 0.1659 30 0.025019 75.65 0.1658 30 0.025015 75.69 0.1657
40 0.025328 86.67 0.1883 40 0.025324 86.70 0.1881 40 0.025320 86.74 0.1880
40.93 0.025357 87.70 0.1903 50 0.025643 97.84 0.2102 50 0.025639 97.87 0.2101
53.14 0.025746 101.35 0.2171 60 0.025973 109.09 0.2319
40.93 3.8984 623.02 1.2597 63.49 0.026094 113.02 0.2394
50 3.9956 628.91 1.2714 53.14 3.1076 625.73 1.2397
60 4.1001 635.23 1.2836 60 3.1678 630.39 1.2487 63.49 2.5844 627.74 1.2233
70 4.2024 641.40 1.2954 70 3.2535 636.98 1.2612 70 2.6332 632.32 1.2320
80 4.3029 647.44 1.3067 80 3.3370 643.38 1.2732 80 2.7061 639.14 1.2447
90 4.4017 653.39 1.3176 90 3.4188 649.64 1.2847 90 2.7771 645.74 1.2569
100 4.4992 659.25 1.3282 100 3.4990 655.78 1.2958 100 2.8463 652.18 1.2685
110 4.5955 665.05 1.3384 110 3.5780 661.82 1.3065 110 2.9142 658.48 1.2796
120 4.6908 670.80 1.3484 120 3.6558 667.77 1.3168 120 2.9808 664.67 1.2904
130 4.7851 676.50 1.3582 130 3.7327 673.67 1.3269 130 3.0464 670.76 1.3008
140 4.8787 682.17 1.3677 140 3.8087 679.50 1.3367 140 3.1111 676.78 1.3110
150 4.9716 687.81 1.3771 150 3.8840 685.30 1.3463 150 3.1750 682.74 1.3208
160 5.0639 693.43 1.3862 160 3.9586 691.06 1.3557 160 3.2382 688.64 1.3304
170 5.1556 699.03 1.3952 170 4.0326 696.79 1.3649 170 3.3008 694.50 1.3398
180 5.2467 704.63 1.4040 180 4.1061 702.50 1.3738 180 3.3628 700.33 1.3490
190 5.3375 710.22 1.4127 190 4.1791 708.19 1.3827 190 3.4243 706.13 1.3580
200 5.4278 715.80 1.4212 200 4.2518 713.87 1.3914 200 3.4854 711.92 1.3668
220 5.6074 726.98 1.4379 220 4.3958 725.22 1.4083 220 3.6065 723.44 1.3840
240 5.7857 738.17 1.4541 240 4.5387 736.56 1.4247 240 3.7262 734.93 1.4007
260 5.9630 749.40 1.4699 260 4.6804 747.92 1.4408 260 3.8448 746.42 1.4169
280 6.1395 760.69 1.4854 280 4.8213 759.31 1.4564 280 3.9626 757.92 1.4326
300 6.3151 772.03 1.5005 300 4.9614 770.75 1.4716 300 4.0795 769.46 1.4480
320 6.4901 783.44 1.5154 320 5.1008 782.25 1.4866 320 4.1957 781.05 1.4631
340 6.6646 794.93 1.5299 340 5.2396 793.82 1.5012 340 4.3114 792.70 1.4778
360 6.8385 806.50 1.5442 360 5.3779 805.46 1.5156 360 4.4265 804.41 1.4923
380 7.0120 818.16 1.5583 380 5.5158 817.18 1.5297 380 4.5413 816.20 1.5065
400 7.1851 829.92 1.5721 400 5.6534 828.99 1.5436 400 4.6556 828.07 1.5205
450 7.6165 859.73 1.6058 450 5.9957 858.93 1.5775 450 4.9399 858.13 1.5545
500 8.0463 890.19 1.6384 500 6.3364 889.49 1.6102 500 5.2226 888.79 1.5873
550 8.4748 921.34 1.6700 550 6.6758 920.72 1.6419 550 5.5040 920.10 1.6191
600 8.9023 953.19 1.7008 600 7.0142 952.64 1.6728 600 5.7844 952.09 1.6500
650 9.3290 985.77 1.7309 650 7.3519 985.28 1.7028 650 6.0640 984.79 1.6801
700 9.7550 1019.09 1.7602 700 7.6888 1018.65 1.7323 700 6.3430 1018.20 1.7096
750 10.1806 1053.16 1.7890 750 8.0253 1052.76 1.7611 750 6.6214 1052.36 1.7384
800 10.6056 1087.98 1.8172 800 8.3612 1087.61 1.7893 800 6.8993 1087.25 1.7667
850 11.0303 1123.55 1.8449 850 8.6968 1123.22 1.8170 850 7.1769 1122.89 1.7944
900 11.4547 1159.88 1.8721 900 9.0321 1159.58 1.8442 900 7.4542 1159.28 1.8217


May 2008
-100 0.021984 -61.60 -0.1597 -100 0.021983 -61.52 -0.1598 -100 0.021981 -61.45 -0.1598
-90 0.022167 -51.46 -0.1319 -90 0.022165 -51.39 -0.1320 -90 0.022163 -51.32 -0.1321
-80 0.022357 -41.26 -0.1047 -80 0.022355 -41.19 -0.1047 -80 0.022353 -41.12 -0.1048
-70 0.022555 -30.97 -0.0779 -70 0.022553 -30.90 -0.0780 -70 0.022551 -30.84 -0.0781
-60 0.022761 -20.61 -0.0517 -60 0.022759 -20.55 -0.0518 -60 0.022756 -20.48 -0.0519
-50 0.022974 -10.18 -0.0259 -50 0.022972 -10.11 -0.0260 -50 0.022969 -10.05 -0.0261
-40 0.023196 0.33 -0.0005 -40 0.023194 0.39 -0.0006 -40 0.023191 0.46 -0.0008
-30 0.023426 10.90 0.0244 -30 0.023424 10.96 0.0243 -30 0.023421 11.03 0.0241
-20 0.023665 21.54 0.0488 -20 0.023662 21.60 0.0487 -20 0.023659 21.66 0.0486
-10 0.023914 32.25 0.0729 -10 0.023910 32.31 0.0728 -10 0.023907 32.37 0.0727
0 0.024172 43.02 0.0966 0 0.024168 43.08 0.0965 0 0.024164 43.14 0.0964
10 0.024440 53.86 0.1199 10 0.024436 53.91 0.1198 10 0.024432 53.97 0.1197
20 0.024719 64.77 0.1429 20 0.024715 64.82 0.1428 20 0.024711 64.87 0.1426
30 0.025010 75.74 0.1656 30 0.025006 75.79 0.1654 30 0.025001 75.84 0.1653
40 0.025315 86.79 0.1879 40 0.025310 86.83 0.1877 40 0.025304 86.88 0.1876
50 0.025633 97.91 0.2099 50 0.025628 97.95 0.2098 50 0.025622 98.00 0.2096
60 0.025967 109.12 0.2317 60 0.025961 109.16 0.2316 60 0.025955 109.20 0.2314
70 0.026319 120.43 0.2533 70 0.026312 120.47 0.2531 70 0.026306 120.50 0.2529
74.63 0.026488 125.71 0.2632 80 0.026683 131.87 0.2744 80 0.026675 131.90 0.2743
84.34 0.026851 136.86 0.2837 90 0.027067 143.43 0.2954
74.63 2.1349 629.59 1.2063 92.99 0.027189 146.89 0.3017
80 2.1693 633.53 1.2136 84.34 1.8177 630.92 1.1918
90 2.2315 640.64 1.2266 90 1.8495 635.22 1.1997 92.99 1.5815 631.87 1.1792
100 2.2919 647.50 1.2390 100 1.9041 642.57 1.2129 100 1.6168 637.37 1.1891
110 2.3506 654.16 1.2508 110 1.9567 649.64 1.2255 110 1.6654 644.91 1.2025
120 2.4079 660.66 1.2621 120 2.0079 656.50 1.2374 120 1.7122 652.16 1.2151
130 2.4642 667.03 1.2730 130 2.0578 663.17 1.2488 130 1.7576 659.16 1.2271
140 2.5194 673.29 1.2835 140 2.1065 669.69 1.2598 140 1.8018 665.98 1.2386
150 2.5737 679.46 1.2938 150 2.1544 676.10 1.2704 150 1.8450 672.63 1.2496
160 2.6274 685.56 1.3037 160 2.2014 682.40 1.2806 160 1.8872 679.16 1.2602
170 2.6803 691.59 1.3133 170 2.2478 688.62 1.2906 170 1.9288 685.58 1.2705
180 2.7327 697.58 1.3228 180 2.2935 694.77 1.3003 180 1.9697 691.90 1.2804
190 2.7846 703.52 1.3320 190 2.3387 700.87 1.3097 190 2.0100 698.16 1.2901
200 2.8360 709.43 1.3410 200 2.3833 706.91 1.3190 200 2.0497 704.35 1.2996
220 2.9375 721.18 1.3586 220 2.4714 718.90 1.3369 220 2.1280 716.58 1.3179
240 3.0378 732.87 1.3755 240 2.5581 730.79 1.3541 240 2.2047 728.68 1.3354
260 3.1368 744.53 1.3919 260 2.6436 742.62 1.3708 260 2.2803 740.69 1.3523
280 3.2350 756.18 1.4079 280 2.7282 754.42 1.3869 280 2.3548 752.64 1.3687
300 3.3323 767.85 1.4235 300 2.8119 766.22 1.4027 300 2.4285 764.57 1.3846
320 3.4289 779.55 1.4387 320 2.8949 778.03 1.4180 320 2.5015 776.50 1.4001
340 3.5250 791.29 1.4535 340 2.9773 789.88 1.4330 340 2.5739 788.46 1.4153
360 3.6205 803.10 1.4681 360 3.0591 801.77 1.4477 360 2.6457 800.44 1.4301
380 3.7156 814.96 1.4824 380 3.1406 813.72 1.4621 380 2.7170 812.48 1.4446
400 3.8103 826.91 1.4965 400 3.2216 825.74 1.4763 400 2.7880 824.57 1.4588
450 4.0455 857.12 1.5306 450 3.4226 856.11 1.5106 450 2.9639 855.10 1.4933
500 4.2791 887.91 1.5636 500 3.6220 887.02 1.5437 500 3.1380 886.14 1.5265
550 4.5113 919.32 1.5955 550 3.8200 918.54 1.5757 550 3.3109 917.76 1.5586
600 4.7426 951.40 1.6265 600 4.0171 950.71 1.6068 600 3.4827 950.01 1.5898
650 4.9731 984.17 1.6567 650 4.2133 983.55 1.6371 650 3.6538 982.93 1.6202
700 5.2029 1017.65 1.6862 700 4.4088 1017.09 1.6666 700 3.8241 1016.53 1.6498
750 5.4321 1051.85 1.7151 750 4.6039 1051.35 1.6956 750 3.9939 1050.85 1.6788
800 5.6609 1086.80 1.7434 800 4.7984 1086.34 1.7239 800 4.1633 1085.89 1.7071
850 5.8893 1122.48 1.7712 850 4.9926 1122.06 1.7517 850 4.3323 1121.65 1.7350
900 6.1174 1158.90 1.7985 900 5.1865 1158.53 1.7790 900 4.5009 1158.15 1.7623

May 2008
-100 0.021979 -61.38 -0.1599 -100 0.021977 -61.31 -0.1600 -100 0.021976 -61.24 -0.1601
-90 0.022162 -51.25 -0.1322 -90 0.022160 -51.18 -0.1322 -90 0.022158 -51.11 -0.1323
-80 0.022351 -41.05 -0.1049 -80 0.022349 -40.98 -0.1050 -80 0.022347 -40.91 -0.1051
-70 0.022549 -30.77 -0.0782 -70 0.022547 -30.70 -0.0783 -70 0.022544 -30.63 -0.0784
-60 0.022754 -20.41 -0.0520 -60 0.022752 -20.35 -0.0521 -60 0.022749 -20.28 -0.0521
-50 0.022967 -9.98 -0.0262 -50 0.022964 -9.92 -0.0263 -50 0.022962 -9.85 -0.0264
-40 0.023188 0.52 -0.0009 -40 0.023185 0.58 -0.0010 -40 0.023183 0.65 -0.0011
-30 0.023418 11.09 0.0240 -30 0.023415 11.15 0.0239 -30 0.023412 11.21 0.0238
-20 0.023656 21.72 0.0485 -20 0.023653 21.78 0.0484 -20 0.023650 21.84 0.0483
-10 0.023904 32.43 0.0726 -10 0.023900 32.48 0.0725 -10 0.023897 32.54 0.0723
0 0.024161 43.19 0.0962 0 0.024157 43.25 0.0961 0 0.024153 43.30 0.0960
10 0.024428 54.02 0.1196 10 0.024424 54.08 0.1194 10 0.024420 54.13 0.1193
20 0.024706 64.92 0.1425 20 0.024702 64.97 0.1424 20 0.024698 65.02 0.1423
30 0.024996 75.88 0.1651 30 0.024992 75.93 0.1650 30 0.024987 75.98 0.1649
40 0.025299 86.92 0.1875 40 0.025294 86.97 0.1873 40 0.025289 87.01 0.1872
50 0.025617 98.04 0.2095 50 0.025611 98.08 0.2093 50 0.025605 98.12 0.2092
60 0.025949 109.24 0.2312 60 0.025943 109.28 0.2311 60 0.025937 109.32 0.2309
70 0.026299 120.53 0.2528 70 0.026292 120.57 0.2526 70 0.026286 120.60 0.2524
80 0.026668 131.93 0.2741 80 0.026661 131.96 0.2739 80 0.026653 131.99 0.2737
90 0.027059 143.45 0.2952 90 0.027051 143.47 0.2950 90 0.027042 143.49 0.2949
100 0.027475 155.10 0.3162 100 0.027466 155.12 0.3160 100 0.027456 155.13 0.3158
100.81 0.027510 156.05 0.3179 107.97 0.027816 164.50 0.3327 110 0.027899 166.93 0.3367
114.58 0.028112 172.39 0.3463
100.81 1.3986 632.52 1.1681 107.97 1.2526 632.94 1.1579
110 1.4406 639.93 1.1812 110 1.2613 634.67 1.1610 114.58 1.1333 633.17 1.1487
120 1.4844 647.62 1.1946 120 1.3030 642.87 1.1753 120 1.1548 637.86 1.1568
130 1.5265 655.00 1.2072 130 1.3428 650.67 1.1886 130 1.1929 646.14 1.1710
140 1.5673 662.14 1.2192 140 1.3811 658.15 1.2012 140 1.2293 654.02 1.1842
150 1.6070 669.07 1.2306 150 1.4181 665.39 1.2131 150 1.2644 661.58 1.1967
160 1.6457 675.83 1.2417 160 1.4542 672.41 1.2246 160 1.2983 668.89 1.2086
170 1.6837 682.46 1.2523 170 1.4893 679.27 1.2356 170 1.3313 675.99 1.2200
180 1.7209 688.98 1.2625 180 1.5237 685.98 1.2461 180 1.3634 682.92 1.2309
190 1.7575 695.40 1.2725 190 1.5574 692.58 1.2564 190 1.3949 689.70 1.2414
200 1.7936 701.74 1.2822 200 1.5906 699.08 1.2663 200 1.4257 696.37 1.2516
220 1.8643 714.23 1.3008 220 1.6554 711.85 1.2854 220 1.4859 709.42 1.2711
240 1.9335 726.55 1.3187 240 1.7187 724.38 1.3035 240 1.5443 722.20 1.2896
260 2.0014 738.74 1.3359 260 1.7806 736.76 1.3210 260 1.6015 734.77 1.3074
280 2.0683 750.85 1.3525 280 1.8415 749.04 1.3378 280 1.6575 747.21 1.3244
300 2.1344 762.92 1.3686 300 1.9015 761.25 1.3541 300 1.7126 759.56 1.3409
320 2.1997 774.97 1.3842 320 1.9608 773.42 1.3699 320 1.7669 771.86 1.3569
340 2.2643 787.03 1.3995 340 2.0194 785.59 1.3853 340 1.8206 784.14 1.3724
360 2.3285 799.11 1.4144 360 2.0774 797.76 1.4004 360 1.8737 796.41 1.3876
380 2.3921 811.23 1.4290 380 2.1350 809.97 1.4151 380 1.9263 808.70 1.4024
400 2.4554 823.39 1.4433 400 2.1921 822.21 1.4295 400 1.9785 821.02 1.4169
450 2.6119 854.08 1.4780 450 2.3334 853.06 1.4644 450 2.1075 852.04 1.4520
500 2.7668 885.25 1.5114 500 2.4730 884.36 1.4979 500 2.2347 883.47 1.4856
550 2.9204 916.98 1.5436 550 2.6113 916.20 1.5302 550 2.3606 915.41 1.5180
600 3.0729 949.32 1.5749 600 2.7485 948.62 1.5615 600 2.4854 947.93 1.5495
650 3.2246 982.31 1.6053 650 2.8849 981.69 1.5920 650 2.6094 981.07 1.5800
700 3.3756 1015.98 1.6350 700 3.0206 1015.42 1.6218 700 2.7327 1014.86 1.6098
750 3.5261 1050.35 1.6640 750 3.1558 1049.84 1.6508 750 2.8554 1049.34 1.6389
800 3.6761 1085.43 1.6924 800 3.2905 1084.97 1.6793 800 2.9777 1084.52 1.6674
850 3.8257 1121.24 1.7203 850 3.4248 1120.82 1.7072 850 3.0997 1120.41 1.6953
900 3.9750 1157.77 1.7477 900 3.5588 1157.39 1.7346 900 3.2213 1157.02 1.7228

May 2008
-100 0.021972 -61.09 -0.1603 -100 0.021969 -60.95 -0.1604 -100 0.021965 -60.80 -0.1606
-90 0.022154 -50.97 -0.1325 -90 0.022150 -50.83 -0.1327 -90 0.022147 -50.69 -0.1328
-80 0.022343 -40.77 -0.1053 -80 0.022339 -40.63 -0.1055 -80 0.022335 -40.49 -0.1056
-70 0.022540 -30.50 -0.0786 -70 0.022536 -30.36 -0.0788 -70 0.022532 -30.22 -0.0789
-60 0.022745 -20.15 -0.0523 -60 0.022740 -20.01 -0.0525 -60 0.022735 -19.88 -0.0527
-50 0.022957 -9.72 -0.0266 -50 0.022952 -9.59 -0.0268 -50 0.022947 -9.46 -0.0270
-40 0.023177 0.77 -0.0013 -40 0.023172 0.90 -0.0015 -40 0.023167 1.03 -0.0017
-30 0.023406 11.34 0.0236 -30 0.023400 11.46 0.0234 -30 0.023395 11.58 0.0232
-20 0.023644 21.96 0.0481 -20 0.023637 22.09 0.0478 -20 0.023631 22.21 0.0476
-10 0.023890 32.66 0.0721 -10 0.023883 32.78 0.0719 -10 0.023877 32.89 0.0716
0 0.024146 43.42 0.0958 0 0.024139 43.53 0.0955 0 0.024132 43.64 0.0953
10 0.024412 54.24 0.1191 10 0.024405 54.35 0.1188 10 0.024397 54.45 0.1186
20 0.024689 65.12 0.1420 20 0.024681 65.23 0.1417 20 0.024672 65.33 0.1415
30 0.024978 76.08 0.1646 30 0.024969 76.18 0.1643 30 0.024960 76.27 0.1640
40 0.025279 87.10 0.1869 40 0.025269 87.20 0.1866 40 0.025259 87.29 0.1863
50 0.025594 98.21 0.2089 50 0.025584 98.29 0.2086 50 0.025573 98.38 0.2083
60 0.025925 109.39 0.2306 60 0.025913 109.47 0.2303 60 0.025901 109.55 0.2300
70 0.026272 120.67 0.2521 70 0.026259 120.74 0.2518 70 0.026246 120.81 0.2515
80 0.026639 132.05 0.2734 80 0.026624 132.11 0.2730 80 0.026609 132.17 0.2727
90 0.027026 143.54 0.2945 90 0.027010 143.59 0.2941 90 0.026994 143.64 0.2938
100 0.027438 155.17 0.3155 100 0.027420 155.20 0.3151 100 0.027402 155.24 0.3147
110 0.027878 166.94 0.3363 110 0.027857 166.96 0.3359 110 0.027837 166.98 0.3355
120 0.028350 178.90 0.3571 120 0.028327 178.90 0.3567 120 0.028304 178.90 0.3562
126.52 0.028679 186.80 0.3707 130 0.028835 191.03 0.3774 130 0.028808 191.01 0.3769
137.10 0.029222 199.80 0.3922 140 0.029357 203.37 0.3977
126.52 0.94962 633.16 1.1321 146.65 0.029751 211.75 0.4116
130 0.96201 636.38 1.1376 137.10 0.81471 632.67 1.1175
140 0.99617 645.21 1.1525 140 0.82413 635.50 1.1223 146.65 0.71123 631.80 1.1044
150 1.0286 653.55 1.1662 150 0.85526 644.83 1.1377 150 0.72132 635.24 1.1101
160 1.0596 661.50 1.1792 160 0.88462 653.58 1.1520 160 0.75000 645.01 1.1259
170 1.0895 669.16 1.1914 170 0.91259 661.89 1.1653 170 0.77691 654.12 1.1405
180 1.1184 676.56 1.2031 180 0.93942 669.85 1.1778 180 0.80244 662.74 1.1541
190 1.1465 683.76 1.2143 190 0.96531 677.53 1.1897 190 0.82686 670.97 1.1669
200 1.1739 690.79 1.2250 200 0.99041 684.98 1.2011 200 0.85036 678.89 1.1790
220 1.2271 704.46 1.2454 220 1.0387 699.33 1.2225 220 0.89518 694.00 1.2016
240 1.2784 717.73 1.2647 240 1.0849 713.14 1.2425 240 0.93773 708.41 1.2224
260 1.3282 730.72 1.2830 260 1.1296 726.57 1.2615 260 0.97857 722.32 1.2420
280 1.3769 743.50 1.3005 280 1.1730 739.73 1.2795 280 1.0181 735.87 1.2606
300 1.4246 756.15 1.3174 300 1.2154 752.69 1.2968 300 1.0565 749.16 1.2784
320 1.4715 768.71 1.3337 320 1.2569 765.52 1.3135 320 1.0940 762.27 1.2954
340 1.5177 781.21 1.3495 340 1.2978 778.25 1.3296 340 1.1308 775.25 1.3118
360 1.5634 793.69 1.3649 360 1.3380 790.93 1.3453 360 1.1669 788.15 1.3278
380 1.6085 806.16 1.3800 380 1.3777 803.58 1.3605 380 1.2025 800.98 1.3432
400 1.6532 818.64 1.3947 400 1.4170 816.23 1.3754 400 1.2376 813.80 1.3583
450 1.7633 849.99 1.4301 450 1.5135 847.92 1.4112 450 1.3238 845.84 1.3945
500 1.8716 881.68 1.4640 500 1.6081 879.88 1.4454 500 1.4081 878.08 1.4290
550 1.9786 913.84 1.4967 550 1.7014 912.26 1.4783 550 1.4911 910.67 1.4621
600 2.0846 946.53 1.5283 600 1.7937 945.13 1.5101 600 1.5729 943.73 1.4941
650 2.1897 979.82 1.5590 650 1.8850 978.57 1.5409 650 1.6539 977.32 1.5251
700 2.2941 1013.74 1.5889 700 1.9757 1012.62 1.5709 700 1.7342 1011.50 1.5552
750 2.3979 1048.33 1.6181 750 2.0659 1047.32 1.6002 750 1.8139 1046.32 1.5846
800 2.5013 1083.61 1.6467 800 2.1556 1082.69 1.6289 800 1.8932 1081.78 1.6133
850 2.6043 1119.58 1.6747 850 2.2448 1118.75 1.6569 850 1.9720 1117.92 1.6414
900 2.7070 1156.26 1.7021 900 2.3338 1155.51 1.6845 900 2.0506 1154.76 1.6690

May 2008
-100 0.021962 -60.66 -0.1608 -100 0.021959 -60.52 -0.1609 -100 0.021955 -60.37 -0.1611
-90 0.022143 -50.54 -0.1330 -90 0.022139 -50.40 -0.1332 -90 0.022136 -50.26 -0.1334
-80 0.022331 -40.35 -0.1058 -80 0.022327 -40.21 -0.1060 -80 0.022323 -40.07 -0.1062
-70 0.022527 -30.09 -0.0791 -70 0.022523 -29.95 -0.0793 -70 0.022519 -29.81 -0.0795
-60 0.022731 -19.74 -0.0529 -60 0.022726 -19.61 -0.0531 -60 0.022722 -19.48 -0.0533
-50 0.022942 -9.33 -0.0272 -50 0.022937 -9.20 -0.0274 -50 0.022932 -9.07 -0.0276
-40 0.023161 1.16 -0.0019 -40 0.023156 1.28 -0.0021 -40 0.023151 1.41 -0.0023
-30 0.023389 11.71 0.0230 -30 0.023383 11.83 0.0227 -30 0.023378 11.96 0.0225
-20 0.023625 22.33 0.0474 -20 0.023619 22.45 0.0472 -20 0.023613 22.57 0.0469
-10 0.023870 33.01 0.0714 -10 0.023864 33.13 0.0712 -10 0.023857 33.24 0.0709
0 0.024125 43.75 0.0950 0 0.024117 43.87 0.0948 0 0.024110 43.98 0.0946
10 0.024389 54.56 0.1183 10 0.024381 54.67 0.1181 10 0.024374 54.78 0.1178
20 0.024664 65.43 0.1412 20 0.024656 65.54 0.1409 20 0.024647 65.64 0.1407
30 0.024951 76.37 0.1638 30 0.024941 76.47 0.1635 30 0.024932 76.57 0.1632
40 0.025249 87.38 0.1860 40 0.025240 87.47 0.1857 40 0.025230 87.57 0.1855
50 0.025562 98.46 0.2080 50 0.025551 98.55 0.2077 50 0.025540 98.64 0.2074
60 0.025889 109.63 0.2297 60 0.025877 109.70 0.2294 60 0.025866 109.78 0.2291
70 0.026233 120.88 0.2511 70 0.026220 120.95 0.2508 70 0.026207 121.02 0.2505
80 0.026595 132.23 0.2724 80 0.026581 132.29 0.2720 80 0.026566 132.35 0.2717
90 0.026978 143.69 0.2934 90 0.026962 143.73 0.2930 90 0.026946 143.79 0.2927
100 0.027384 155.27 0.3143 100 0.027366 155.31 0.3139 100 0.027348 155.35 0.3135
110 0.027817 167.00 0.3351 110 0.027797 167.02 0.3346 110 0.027777 167.05 0.3342
120 0.028281 178.90 0.3558 120 0.028258 178.90 0.3553 120 0.028236 178.91 0.3549
130 0.028782 190.99 0.3764 130 0.028756 190.98 0.3760 130 0.028730 190.96 0.3755
140 0.029326 203.32 0.3972 140 0.029296 203.28 0.3967 140 0.029266 203.24 0.3961
150 0.029924 215.94 0.4180 150 0.029888 215.86 0.4175 150 0.029853 215.79 0.4169
155.38 0.030271 222.86 0.4293 160 0.030545 228.78 0.4385 160 0.030503 228.66 0.4378
163.43 0.030788 233.29 0.4457 170 0.031233 241.95 0.4591
155.38 0.62921 630.60 1.0923 170.91 0.031304 243.18 0.4611
160 0.64225 635.59 1.1004 163.43 0.56251 629.12 1.0810
170 0.66885 645.72 1.1166 170 0.58000 636.53 1.0928 170.91 0.50714 627.40 1.0704
180 0.69372 655.15 1.1314 180 0.60478 646.96 1.1093 180 0.53006 638.03 1.0871
190 0.71723 664.03 1.1452 190 0.62786 656.64 1.1243 190 0.55319 648.69 1.1037
200 0.73966 672.50 1.1582 200 0.64965 665.74 1.1382 200 0.57470 658.57 1.1187
220 0.78201 688.47 1.1820 220 0.69029 682.71 1.1635 220 0.61425 676.67 1.1458
240 0.82183 703.53 1.2039 240 0.72806 698.49 1.1864 240 0.65053 693.27 1.1699
260 0.85977 717.96 1.2242 260 0.76377 713.48 1.2075 260 0.68450 708.87 1.1918
280 0.89625 731.93 1.2433 280 0.79790 727.90 1.2273 280 0.71677 723.78 1.2123
300 0.93158 745.57 1.2615 300 0.83080 741.91 1.2460 300 0.74772 738.19 1.2315
320 0.96597 758.98 1.2790 320 0.86271 755.63 1.2638 320 0.77763 752.23 1.2497
340 0.99958 772.21 1.2957 340 0.89381 769.13 1.2809 340 0.80668 766.01 1.2672
360 1.03254 785.33 1.3119 360 0.92422 782.47 1.2974 360 0.83502 779.59 1.2840
380 1.06494 798.36 1.3276 380 0.95406 795.71 1.3134 380 0.86276 793.03 1.3002
400 1.09687 811.35 1.3429 400 0.98340 808.87 1.3289 400 0.89000 806.38 1.3159
450 1.17497 843.74 1.3795 450 1.05502 841.64 1.3659 450 0.95629 839.51 1.3533
500 1.25117 876.26 1.4143 500 1.12470 874.44 1.4010 500 1.02061 872.60 1.3888
550 1.32596 909.08 1.4477 550 1.19293 907.48 1.4346 550 1.08346 905.88 1.4226
600 1.39964 942.32 1.4798 600 1.26005 940.91 1.4669 600 1.14518 939.50 1.4551
650 1.47246 976.07 1.5109 650 1.32630 974.81 1.4981 650 1.20603 973.56 1.4865
700 1.54459 1010.38 1.5412 700 1.39185 1009.26 1.5285 700 1.26617 1008.13 1.5169
750 1.61615 1045.30 1.5707 750 1.45683 1044.29 1.5581 750 1.32574 1043.28 1.5466
800 1.68725 1080.87 1.5995 800 1.52135 1079.96 1.5870 800 1.38483 1079.04 1.5756
850 1.75795 1117.10 1.6277 850 1.58547 1116.27 1.6152 850 1.44353 1115.44 1.6039
900 1.82832 1154.00 1.6553 900 1.64925 1153.25 1.6429 900 1.50190 1152.5 1.6317

May 2008
-100 0.021952 -60.23 -0.1612 -100 0.021945 -59.94 -0.1616 -100 0.021938 -59.65 -0.1619
-90 0.022132 -50.12 -0.1335 -90 0.022125 -49.83 -0.1339 -90 0.022117 -49.55 -0.1342
-80 0.022319 -39.94 -0.1063 -80 0.022312 -39.66 -0.1067 -80 0.022304 -39.38 -0.1071
-70 0.022514 -29.68 -0.0797 -70 0.022506 -29.40 -0.0800 -70 0.022498 -29.13 -0.0804
-60 0.022717 -19.34 -0.0535 -60 0.022708 -19.07 -0.0539 -60 0.022699 -18.81 -0.0543
-50 0.022927 -8.94 -0.0278 -50 0.022918 -8.67 -0.0282 -50 0.022908 -8.41 -0.0286
-40 0.023146 1.54 -0.0025 -40 0.023135 1.79 -0.0029 -40 0.023125 2.05 -0.0033
-30 0.023372 12.08 0.0223 -30 0.023361 12.33 0.0219 -30 0.023349 12.58 0.0215
-20 0.023607 22.69 0.0467 -20 0.023595 22.93 0.0463 -20 0.023583 23.18 0.0458
-10 0.023850 33.36 0.0707 -10 0.023837 33.60 0.0703 -10 0.023824 33.83 0.0698
0 0.024103 44.09 0.0943 0 0.024089 44.32 0.0938 0 0.024075 44.55 0.0934
10 0.024366 54.89 0.1176 10 0.024351 55.11 0.1171 10 0.024336 55.33 0.1166
20 0.024639 65.75 0.1404 20 0.024623 65.96 0.1399 20 0.024606 66.17 0.1394
30 0.024923 76.67 0.1630 30 0.024906 76.87 0.1624 30 0.024888 77.07 0.1619
40 0.025220 87.66 0.1852 40 0.025200 87.85 0.1846 40 0.025181 88.04 0.1841
50 0.025530 98.72 0.2071 50 0.025508 98.90 0.2065 50 0.025487 99.07 0.2059
60 0.025854 109.86 0.2288 60 0.025831 110.02 0.2281 60 0.025807 110.18 0.2275
70 0.026194 121.09 0.2501 70 0.026168 121.23 0.2495 70 0.026143 121.38 0.2489
80 0.026552 132.41 0.2713 80 0.026524 132.53 0.2706 80 0.026496 132.66 0.2700
90 0.026930 143.84 0.2923 90 0.026899 143.94 0.2916 90 0.026868 144.05 0.2909
100 0.027331 155.38 0.3131 100 0.027296 155.46 0.3124 100 0.027261 155.55 0.3116
110 0.027757 167.07 0.3338 110 0.027718 167.12 0.3330 110 0.027679 167.18 0.3322
120 0.028213 178.92 0.3544 120 0.028169 178.93 0.3536 120 0.028126 178.96 0.3527
130 0.028704 190.95 0.3750 130 0.028654 190.93 0.3741 130 0.028604 190.91 0.3731
140 0.029237 203.20 0.3956 140 0.029179 203.13 0.3946 140 0.029122 203.07 0.3936
150 0.029819 215.72 0.4163 150 0.029751 215.59 0.4152 150 0.029685 215.46 0.4141
160 0.030462 228.55 0.4372 160 0.030382 228.35 0.4360 160 0.030304 228.15 0.4347
170 0.031183 241.79 0.4584 170 0.031086 241.49 0.4570 170 0.030992 241.20 0.4556
177.91 0.031823 252.62 0.4755 180 0.031884 255.10 0.4784 180 0.031768 254.70 0.4769
190 0.032810 269.35 0.5005 190 0.032663 268.77 0.4987
177.91 0.46038 625.45 1.0602 190.72 0.032883 270.42 0.5022 200 0.033722 283.65 0.5214
180 0.46567 628.13 1.0644 202.25 0.033991 287.14 0.5267
190 0.48937 640.07 1.0830 190.72 0.38556 620.90 1.0411
200 0.51099 650.89 1.0995 200 0.40704 633.51 1.0603 202.25 0.32811 615.53 1.0228
220 0.55001 670.34 1.1285 220 0.44669 656.56 1.0948 220 0.36591 640.77 1.0605
240 0.58523 687.86 1.1540 240 0.48091 676.33 1.1234 240 0.40061 663.67 1.0937
260 0.61787 704.13 1.1769 260 0.51183 694.18 1.1486 260 0.43081 683.51 1.1217
280 0.64866 719.56 1.1980 280 0.54049 710.79 1.1714 280 0.45820 701.53 1.1464
300 0.67803 734.38 1.2178 300 0.56750 726.54 1.1924 300 0.48363 718.35 1.1688
320 0.70628 748.77 1.2365 320 0.59326 741.68 1.2120 320 0.50764 734.32 1.1896
340 0.73364 762.84 1.2543 340 0.61802 756.36 1.2306 340 0.53053 749.69 1.2090
360 0.76026 776.67 1.2714 360 0.64198 770.72 1.2484 360 0.55254 764.61 1.2275
380 0.78627 790.32 1.2879 380 0.66527 784.82 1.2654 380 0.57383 779.20 1.2451
400 0.81175 803.86 1.3038 400 0.68800 798.75 1.2818 400 0.59453 793.55 1.2619
450 0.87360 837.38 1.3417 450 0.74289 833.06 1.3206 450 0.64422 828.69 1.3017
500 0.93344 870.76 1.3774 500 0.79568 867.05 1.3569 500 0.69172 863.31 1.3387
550 0.99179 904.27 1.4115 550 0.84693 901.04 1.3915 550 0.73764 897.78 1.3738
600 1.04900 938.08 1.4441 600 0.89702 935.23 1.4245 600 0.78236 932.37 1.4072
650 1.10533 972.30 1.4757 650 0.94620 969.77 1.4564 650 0.82615 967.23 1.4393
700 1.16094 1007.01 1.5063 700 0.99466 1004.75 1.4872 700 0.86922 1002.49 1.4704
750 1.21597 1042.27 1.5361 750 1.04253 1040.24 1.5172 750 0.91169 1038.21 1.5006
800 1.27053 1078.13 1.5651 800 1.08993 1076.30 1.5464 800 0.95368 1074.47 1.5299
850 1.32470 1114.61 1.5935 850 1.13693 1112.95 1.5749 850 0.99527 1111.30 1.5586
900 1.37853 1151.74 1.6213 900 1.18359 1150.24 1.6028 900 1.03652 1148.73 1.5867

May 2008
-100 0.021931 -59.36 -0.1622 -100 0.021925 -59.07 -0.1625 -100 0.021918 -58.78 -0.1629
-90 0.022110 -49.27 -0.1345 -90 0.022103 -48.98 -0.1349 -90 0.022095 -48.70 -0.1352
-80 0.022296 -39.10 -0.1074 -80 0.022288 -38.82 -0.1078 -80 0.022280 -38.54 -0.1081
-70 0.022489 -28.85 -0.0808 -70 0.022481 -28.58 -0.0811 -70 0.022472 -28.31 -0.0815
-60 0.022690 -18.54 -0.0546 -60 0.022681 -18.27 -0.0550 -60 0.022672 -18.00 -0.0554
-50 0.022898 -8.15 -0.0290 -50 0.022888 -7.89 -0.0294 -50 0.022879 -7.62 -0.0297
-40 0.023114 2.31 -0.0037 -40 0.023104 2.57 -0.0041 -40 0.023093 2.82 -0.0046
-30 0.023338 12.83 0.0210 -30 0.023327 13.08 0.0206 -30 0.023316 13.33 0.0202
-20 0.023570 23.42 0.0454 -20 0.023558 23.66 0.0450 -20 0.023547 23.91 0.0445
-10 0.023811 34.07 0.0693 -10 0.023798 34.31 0.0689 -10 0.023786 34.54 0.0684
0 0.024061 44.78 0.0929 0 0.024047 45.01 0.0924 0 0.024033 45.24 0.0920
10 0.024320 55.55 0.1161 10 0.024305 55.77 0.1156 10 0.024291 55.99 0.1151
20 0.024590 66.38 0.1389 20 0.024574 66.59 0.1384 20 0.024558 66.80 0.1379
30 0.024870 77.27 0.1614 30 0.024852 77.47 0.1608 30 0.024835 77.67 0.1603
40 0.025162 88.22 0.1835 40 0.025143 88.42 0.1830 40 0.025124 88.61 0.1824
50 0.025466 99.25 0.2054 50 0.025446 99.43 0.2048 50 0.025425 99.61 0.2042
60 0.025785 110.35 0.2269 60 0.025762 110.51 0.2263 60 0.025740 110.68 0.2257
70 0.026118 121.53 0.2482 70 0.026093 121.68 0.2476 70 0.026069 121.83 0.2470
80 0.026468 132.79 0.2693 80 0.026441 132.92 0.2686 80 0.026414 133.06 0.2680
90 0.026837 144.16 0.2902 90 0.026807 144.27 0.2895 90 0.026777 144.38 0.2888
100 0.027227 155.63 0.3109 100 0.027194 155.72 0.3101 100 0.027161 155.82 0.3094
110 0.027642 167.24 0.3314 110 0.027604 167.30 0.3306 110 0.027567 167.37 0.3298
120 0.028083 178.98 0.3519 120 0.028041 179.02 0.3510 120 0.028000 179.05 0.3502
130 0.028556 190.90 0.3722 130 0.028508 190.90 0.3713 130 0.028462 190.90 0.3704
140 0.029066 203.01 0.3926 140 0.029012 202.96 0.3916 140 0.028958 202.92 0.3907
150 0.029620 215.35 0.4130 150 0.029557 215.25 0.4119 150 0.029496 215.16 0.4109
160 0.030228 227.98 0.4335 160 0.030154 227.81 0.4324 160 0.030082 227.66 0.4312
170 0.030901 240.93 0.4543 170 0.030813 240.69 0.4530 170 0.030728 240.45 0.4517
180 0.031657 254.32 0.4754 180 0.031551 253.96 0.4739 180 0.031448 253.63 0.4725
190 0.032523 268.24 0.4970 190 0.032390 267.74 0.4953 190 0.032263 267.27 0.4936
200 0.033538 282.88 0.5193 200 0.033366 282.17 0.5173 200 0.033203 281.52 0.5154
212.75 0.035170 303.11 0.5497 220 0.036023 314.27 0.5652 220 0.035706 312.87 0.5622
222.41 0.036450 318.60 0.5716 231.35 0.037869 333.85 0.5928
212.75 0.28236 609.31 1.0051
220 0.29890 621.82 1.0236 222.41 0.24481 602.19 0.9874 231.35 0.21319 594.02 0.9693
240 0.33597 649.47 1.0637 240 0.28166 633.07 1.0321 240 0.23359 613.08 0.9967
260 0.36640 671.95 1.0954 260 0.31346 659.25 1.0690 260 0.26853 645.02 1.0418
280 0.39320 691.70 1.1225 280 0.34027 681.17 1.0991 280 0.29604 669.81 1.0758
300 0.41763 709.75 1.1466 300 0.36416 700.71 1.1251 300 0.31979 691.14 1.1042
320 0.44040 726.68 1.1686 320 0.38610 718.72 1.1486 320 0.34122 710.41 1.1293
340 0.46193 742.80 1.1890 340 0.40662 735.69 1.1700 340 0.36102 728.33 1.1520
360 0.48248 758.35 1.2082 360 0.42607 751.91 1.1901 360 0.37963 745.29 1.1729
380 0.50226 773.46 1.2264 380 0.44468 767.58 1.2090 380 0.39732 761.57 1.1925
400 0.52140 788.24 1.2438 400 0.46260 782.84 1.2269 400 0.41427 777.33 1.2111
450 0.56708 824.26 1.2845 450 0.50511 819.77 1.2687 450 0.45423 815.23 1.2540
500 0.61048 859.53 1.3223 500 0.54523 855.71 1.3072 500 0.49169 851.86 1.2932
550 0.65224 894.51 1.3578 550 0.58367 891.21 1.3432 550 0.52741 887.89 1.3298
600 0.69277 929.50 1.3916 600 0.62086 926.61 1.3774 600 0.56185 923.71 1.3644
650 0.73237 964.69 1.4241 650 0.65708 962.14 1.4102 650 0.59532 959.58 1.3975
700 0.77122 1000.22 1.4554 700 0.69256 997.95 1.4418 700 0.62803 995.68 1.4293
750 0.80948 1036.18 1.4857 750 0.72743 1034.15 1.4723 750 0.66012 1032.11 1.4600
800 0.84725 1072.64 1.5153 800 0.76181 1070.81 1.5020 800 0.69172 1068.98 1.4899
850 0.88461 1109.64 1.5441 850 0.79578 1107.99 1.5310 850 0.72291 1106.33 1.5190
900 0.92164 1147.23 1.5722 900 0.82941 1145.73 1.5592 900 0.75375 1144.23 1.5474

May 2008
-100 0.021911 -58.49 -0.1632 -100 0.021898 -57.91 -0.1638 -100 0.021884 -57.33 -0.1645
-90 0.022088 -48.41 -0.1356 -90 0.022074 -47.84 -0.1362 -90 0.022059 -47.27 -0.1369
-80 0.022272 -38.26 -0.1085 -80 0.022257 -37.70 -0.1091 -80 0.022242 -37.13 -0.1098
-70 0.022464 -28.03 -0.0819 -70 0.022447 -27.48 -0.0826 -70 0.022431 -26.93 -0.0833
-60 0.022663 -17.73 -0.0558 -60 0.022645 -17.19 -0.0565 -60 0.022627 -16.65 -0.0573
-50 0.022869 -7.36 -0.0301 -50 0.022850 -6.83 -0.0309 -50 0.022831 -6.30 -0.0317
-40 0.023083 3.08 -0.0050 -40 0.023063 3.60 -0.0058 -40 0.023042 4.12 -0.0066
-30 0.023305 13.59 0.0198 -30 0.023283 14.09 0.0189 -30 0.023261 14.60 0.0181
-20 0.023535 24.15 0.0441 -20 0.023511 24.65 0.0432 -20 0.023488 25.14 0.0424
-10 0.023773 34.78 0.0680 -10 0.023747 35.26 0.0671 -10 0.023722 35.74 0.0662
0 0.024020 45.47 0.0915 0 0.023992 45.93 0.0906 0 0.023965 46.40 0.0897
10 0.024276 56.21 0.1146 10 0.024246 56.66 0.1137 10 0.024217 57.11 0.1127
20 0.024542 67.02 0.1374 20 0.024510 67.44 0.1364 20 0.024479 67.88 0.1354
30 0.024818 77.88 0.1598 30 0.024783 78.29 0.1588 30 0.024750 78.70 0.1577
40 0.025105 88.80 0.1819 40 0.025068 89.19 0.1808 40 0.025031 89.58 0.1797
50 0.025405 99.79 0.2036 50 0.025364 100.16 0.2025 50 0.025325 100.53 0.2014
60 0.025717 110.85 0.2251 60 0.025673 111.19 0.2240 60 0.025630 111.53 0.2228
70 0.026044 121.98 0.2464 70 0.025996 122.29 0.2451 70 0.025949 122.61 0.2439
80 0.026387 133.20 0.2673 80 0.026335 133.47 0.2660 80 0.026283 133.76 0.2648
90 0.026748 144.50 0.2881 90 0.026690 144.74 0.2867 90 0.026633 145.00 0.2854
100 0.027128 155.91 0.3087 100 0.027064 156.11 0.3072 100 0.027002 156.32 0.3058
110 0.027531 167.44 0.3291 110 0.027460 167.59 0.3276 110 0.027390 167.75 0.3261
120 0.027959 179.10 0.3494 120 0.027879 179.19 0.3477 120 0.027802 179.30 0.3462
130 0.028416 190.90 0.3696 130 0.028326 190.93 0.3678 130 0.028239 190.98 0.3661
140 0.028906 202.89 0.3897 140 0.028804 202.84 0.3879 140 0.028706 202.82 0.3860
150 0.029436 215.08 0.4099 150 0.029319 214.94 0.4079 150 0.029208 214.83 0.4059
160 0.030013 227.51 0.4301 160 0.029878 227.26 0.4279 160 0.029750 227.05 0.4258
170 0.030646 240.24 0.4505 170 0.030488 239.85 0.4481 170 0.030339 239.51 0.4457
180 0.031349 253.32 0.4711 180 0.031161 252.75 0.4684 180 0.030985 252.26 0.4658
190 0.032141 266.83 0.4920 190 0.031913 266.04 0.4890 190 0.031702 265.35 0.4861
200 0.033050 280.91 0.5135 200 0.032766 279.82 0.5100 200 0.032507 278.87 0.5068
220 0.035421 311.62 0.5594 220 0.034923 309.48 0.5543 220 0.034496 307.68 0.5498
239.68 0.039486 349.15 0.6138 240 0.038303 344.39 0.6049 240 0.037401 340.47 0.5973
254.80 0.043834 381.71 0.6576 260 0.043239 384.55 0.6594
239.68 0.18589 584.59 0.9504 268.17 0.055167 432.18 0.7251
240 0.18684 585.59 0.9519 254.80 0.13945 559.94 0.9071
260 0.22909 628.61 1.0126 260 0.15685 581.91 0.9378 268.17 0.09221 511.34 0.8338
280 0.25818 657.40 1.0521 280 0.19522 627.96 1.0010 280 0.14053 586.31 0.9363
300 0.28222 680.96 1.0835 300 0.22137 658.26 1.0414 300 0.17296 631.06 0.9960
320 0.30340 701.71 1.1105 320 0.24287 682.90 1.0734 320 0.19602 661.73 1.0359
340 0.32272 720.69 1.1345 340 0.26177 704.50 1.1008 340 0.21516 686.87 1.0678
360 0.34069 738.47 1.1565 360 0.27895 724.21 1.1251 360 0.23204 708.98 1.0951
380 0.35766 755.40 1.1769 380 0.29491 742.62 1.1473 380 0.24741 729.17 1.1194
400 0.37383 771.71 1.1961 400 0.30994 760.12 1.1679 400 0.26169 748.05 1.1416
450 0.41170 810.62 1.2401 450 0.34462 801.23 1.2144 450 0.29411 791.60 1.1909
500 0.44696 847.98 1.2801 500 0.37646 840.11 1.2560 500 0.32344 832.11 1.2343
550 0.48042 884.55 1.3172 550 0.40640 877.81 1.2944 550 0.35074 871.01 1.2738
600 0.51258 920.80 1.3523 600 0.43496 914.95 1.3302 600 0.37662 909.05 1.3106
650 0.54374 957.02 1.3857 650 0.46250 951.87 1.3643 650 0.40144 946.71 1.3453
700 0.57413 993.40 1.4177 700 0.48925 988.84 1.3969 700 0.42545 984.27 1.3784
750 0.60391 1030.07 1.4487 750 0.51537 1026.00 1.4283 750 0.44883 1021.93 1.4102
800 0.63318 1067.15 1.4787 800 0.54099 1063.49 1.4586 800 0.47168 1059.83 1.4409
850 0.66205 1104.68 1.5079 850 0.56618 1101.38 1.4881 850 0.49412 1098.09 1.4707
900 0.69057 1142.73 1.5364 900 0.59103 1139.74 1.5169 900 0.51621 1136.77 1.4996

May 2008
-100 0.021858 -56.16 -0.1657 -100 0.021825 -54.70 -0.1673 -100 0.021793 -53.23 -0.1688
-90 0.022031 -46.12 -0.1382 -90 0.021996 -44.68 -0.1398 -90 0.021961 -43.24 -0.1414
-80 0.022211 -36.01 -0.1112 -80 0.022173 -34.59 -0.1129 -80 0.022136 -33.17 -0.1146
-70 0.022398 -25.82 -0.0847 -70 0.022358 -24.43 -0.0865 -70 0.022318 -23.04 -0.0882
-60 0.022592 -15.56 -0.0587 -60 0.022549 -14.20 -0.0605 -60 0.022507 -12.83 -0.0623
-50 0.022794 -5.24 -0.0332 -50 0.022748 -3.90 -0.0351 -50 0.022702 -2.55 -0.0369
-40 0.023002 5.16 -0.0081 -40 0.022953 6.47 -0.0101 -40 0.022905 7.78 -0.0120
-30 0.023218 15.61 0.0165 -30 0.023165 16.89 0.0145 -30 0.023114 18.18 0.0125
-20 0.023442 26.13 0.0407 -20 0.023385 27.38 0.0386 -20 0.023330 28.64 0.0365
-10 0.023673 36.70 0.0645 -10 0.023612 37.92 0.0623 -10 0.023553 39.15 0.0602
0 0.023912 47.33 0.0878 0 0.023848 48.52 0.0856 0 0.023784 49.71 0.0834
10 0.024160 58.02 0.1108 10 0.024091 59.16 0.1085 10 0.024023 60.33 0.1062
20 0.024417 68.75 0.1334 20 0.024342 69.86 0.1310 20 0.024270 70.98 0.1287
30 0.024683 79.54 0.1557 30 0.024603 80.60 0.1532 30 0.024525 81.69 0.1508
40 0.024960 90.38 0.1776 40 0.024873 91.40 0.1750 40 0.024789 92.44 0.1725
50 0.025247 101.28 0.1992 50 0.025153 102.25 0.1965 50 0.025062 103.24 0.1939
60 0.025546 112.24 0.2205 60 0.025444 113.15 0.2177 60 0.025346 114.09 0.2150
70 0.025857 123.26 0.2415 70 0.025747 124.11 0.2386 70 0.025641 125.00 0.2358
80 0.026183 134.36 0.2623 80 0.026063 135.14 0.2592 80 0.025948 135.96 0.2563
90 0.026523 145.52 0.2828 90 0.026392 146.23 0.2796 90 0.026267 146.98 0.2765
100 0.026881 156.78 0.3031 100 0.026737 157.39 0.2997 100 0.026600 158.07 0.2965
110 0.027257 168.12 0.3231 110 0.027099 168.64 0.3196 110 0.026949 169.23 0.3163
120 0.027654 179.57 0.3431 120 0.027479 179.98 0.3394 120 0.027315 180.47 0.3358
130 0.028074 191.14 0.3629 130 0.027880 191.42 0.3590 130 0.027699 191.80 0.3552
140 0.028520 202.84 0.3825 140 0.028304 202.98 0.3784 140 0.028103 203.23 0.3744
150 0.028997 214.70 0.4022 150 0.028755 214.67 0.3977 150 0.028531 214.77 0.3935
160 0.029509 226.73 0.4217 160 0.029235 226.51 0.4170 160 0.028985 226.44 0.4125
170 0.030062 238.97 0.4413 170 0.029750 238.51 0.4362 170 0.029468 238.25 0.4314
180 0.030663 251.45 0.4610 180 0.030304 250.71 0.4554 180 0.029984 250.22 0.4503
190 0.031321 264.21 0.4808 190 0.030905 263.14 0.4747 190 0.030539 262.37 0.4691
200 0.032049 277.31 0.5008 200 0.031560 275.82 0.4941 200 0.031137 274.74 0.4880
220 0.033787 304.82 0.5419 220 0.033079 302.17 0.5334 220 0.032499 300.22 0.5261
240 0.036119 334.95 0.5855 240 0.034998 330.30 0.5742 240 0.034153 327.01 0.5649
260 0.039674 370.03 0.6349 260 0.037580 361.17 0.6177 260 0.036242 355.63 0.6052
280 0.047539 420.06 0.7034 280 0.041470 396.96 0.6667 280 0.039035 386.96 0.6482
300 0.091524 543.45 0.8679 300 0.048868 443.97 0.7294 300 0.043105 422.71 0.6958
320 0.12575 608.13 0.9521 320 0.066662 513.76 0.8200 320 0.049790 466.04 0.7521
340 0.14760 645.89 0.9999 340 0.090750 579.97 0.9039 340 0.061011 518.27 0.8182
360 0.16503 675.12 1.0360 360 0.11001 625.01 0.9596 360 0.075677 570.57 0.8829
380 0.18007 700.04 1.0661 380 0.12549 659.00 1.0006 380 0.090098 614.23 0.9355
400 0.19357 722.36 1.0924 400 0.13874 687.29 1.0339 400 0.10285 649.68 0.9772
450 0.22316 771.64 1.1481 450 0.16640 745.49 1.0997 450 0.12903 718.41 1.0551
500 0.24907 815.76 1.1953 500 0.18967 794.78 1.1525 500 0.15046 773.46 1.1140
550 0.27273 857.21 1.2374 550 0.21042 839.72 1.1982 550 0.16920 822.13 1.1635
600 0.29485 897.18 1.2761 600 0.22952 882.24 1.2393 600 0.18623 867.31 1.2072
650 0.31585 936.34 1.3122 650 0.24745 923.37 1.2772 650 0.20206 910.47 1.2470
700 0.33602 975.12 1.3464 700 0.26450 963.72 1.3128 700 0.21701 952.43 1.2840
750 0.35552 1013.79 1.3790 750 0.28089 1003.69 1.3465 750 0.23128 993.70 1.3188
800 0.37450 1052.55 1.4104 800 0.29674 1043.53 1.3788 800 0.24502 1034.63 1.3520
850 0.39306 1091.54 1.4408 850 0.31216 1083.44 1.4099 850 0.25832 1075.46 1.3837
900 0.41126 1130.85 1.4702 900 0.32723 1123.54 1.4399 900 0.27128 1116.35 1.4144

May 2008
-100 0.021730 -50.29 -0.1718 -100 0.021607 -44.35 -0.1776 -100 0.021491 -38.35 -0.1831
-90 0.021893 -40.34 -0.1446 -90 0.021763 -34.48 -0.1506 -90 0.021639 -28.57 -0.1563
-80 0.022064 -30.32 -0.1178 -80 0.021925 -24.55 -0.1241 -80 0.021793 -18.72 -0.1300
-70 0.022241 -20.23 -0.0916 -70 0.022093 -14.55 -0.0981 -70 0.021953 -8.80 -0.1043
-60 0.022424 -10.07 -0.0658 -60 0.022267 -4.48 -0.0726 -60 0.022118 1.18 -0.0790
-50 0.022614 0.15 -0.0406 -50 0.022446 5.65 -0.0475 -50 0.022289 11.23 -0.0541
-40 0.022811 10.44 -0.0158 -40 0.022632 15.84 -0.0230 -40 0.022466 21.33 -0.0298
-30 0.023013 20.79 0.0086 -30 0.022824 26.09 0.0012 -30 0.022647 31.50 -0.0058
-20 0.023223 31.19 0.0325 -20 0.023021 36.39 0.0249 -20 0.022834 41.71 0.0177
-10 0.023439 41.64 0.0560 -10 0.023225 46.74 0.0482 -10 0.023027 51.97 0.0407
0 0.023662 52.14 0.0791 0 0.023434 57.13 0.0710 0 0.023224 62.26 0.0634
10 0.023892 62.69 0.1018 10 0.023650 67.56 0.0935 10 0.023427 72.60 0.0856
20 0.024130 73.28 0.1241 20 0.023871 78.03 0.1155 20 0.023635 82.96 0.1075
30 0.024375 83.91 0.1461 30 0.024099 88.54 0.1372 30 0.023849 93.36 0.1289
40 0.024628 94.58 0.1677 40 0.024334 99.07 0.1585 40 0.024068 103.79 0.1500
50 0.024890 105.30 0.1889 50 0.024575 109.64 0.1794 50 0.024293 114.23 0.1707
60 0.025161 116.06 0.2098 60 0.024824 120.24 0.2000 60 0.024523 124.71 0.1910
70 0.025441 126.86 0.2304 70 0.025080 130.87 0.2203 70 0.024760 135.20 0.2111
80 0.025731 137.70 0.2507 80 0.025344 141.54 0.2402 80 0.025003 145.72 0.2307
90 0.026033 148.60 0.2707 90 0.025616 152.23 0.2599 90 0.025253 156.26 0.2501
100 0.026346 159.55 0.2904 100 0.025898 162.96 0.2792 100 0.025510 166.83 0.2691
110 0.026672 170.56 0.3099 110 0.026189 173.73 0.2983 110 0.025774 177.42 0.2879
120 0.027012 181.63 0.3292 120 0.026490 184.54 0.3171 120 0.026046 188.03 0.3063
130 0.027368 192.77 0.3482 130 0.026802 195.39 0.3357 130 0.026326 198.67 0.3245
140 0.027740 203.98 0.3671 140 0.027125 206.29 0.3540 140 0.026615 209.34 0.3425
150 0.028130 215.28 0.3858 150 0.027461 217.23 0.3721 150 0.026913 220.04 0.3602
160 0.028540 226.67 0.4043 160 0.027810 228.23 0.3900 160 0.027221 230.77 0.3776
170 0.028973 238.17 0.4227 170 0.028174 239.30 0.4077 170 0.027539 241.54 0.3949
180 0.029431 249.78 0.4410 180 0.028554 250.42 0.4252 180 0.027867 252.35 0.4119
190 0.029916 261.52 0.4592 190 0.028950 261.62 0.4426 190 0.028208 263.20 0.4287
200 0.030433 273.41 0.4774 200 0.029365 272.90 0.4598 200 0.028561 274.10 0.4454
220 0.031576 297.67 0.5136 220 0.030257 295.70 0.4939 220 0.029307 296.04 0.4782
240 0.032902 322.74 0.5499 240 0.031244 318.90 0.5275 240 0.030113 318.20 0.5103
260 0.034470 348.82 0.5867 260 0.032345 342.56 0.5609 260 0.030987 340.61 0.5419
280 0.036365 376.19 0.6242 280 0.033581 366.73 0.5940 280 0.031938 363.30 0.5730
300 0.038719 405.23 0.6629 300 0.034981 391.50 0.6270 300 0.032977 386.29 0.6036
320 0.041738 436.44 0.7035 320 0.036575 416.93 0.6601 320 0.034114 409.60 0.6339
340 0.045722 470.35 0.7464 340 0.038402 443.07 0.6932 340 0.035361 433.24 0.6639
360 0.051004 507.06 0.7918 360 0.040505 469.96 0.7264 360 0.036731 457.23 0.6935
380 0.057667 545.37 0.8379 380 0.042924 497.58 0.7597 380 0.038234 481.54 0.7228
400 0.065343 583.09 0.8823 400 0.045690 525.81 0.7929 400 0.039881 506.15 0.7518
450 0.085320 665.59 0.9757 450 0.054077 597.31 0.8737 450 0.044665 568.62 0.8224
500 0.10324 731.53 1.0463 500 0.063867 666.05 0.9473 500 0.050338 631.21 0.8894
550 0.11897 787.62 1.1033 550 0.073998 729.23 1.0115 550 0.056639 692.24 0.9514
600 0.13312 838.12 1.1522 600 0.083827 786.93 1.0673 600 0.063236 750.67 1.0079
650 0.14613 885.31 1.1957 650 0.093149 840.37 1.1166 650 0.069867 806.27 1.0591
700 0.15830 930.44 1.2355 700 0.10196 890.77 1.1610 700 0.076381 859.33 1.1059
750 0.16982 974.29 1.2725 750 0.11032 939.05 1.2018 750 0.082707 910.33 1.1490
800 0.18083 1017.36 1.3074 800 0.11830 985.88 1.2397 800 0.088827 959.73 1.1890
850 0.19143 1059.99 1.3406 850 0.12595 1031.74 1.2755 850 0.094744 1007.95 1.2265
900 0.20169 1102.44 1.3724 900 0.13332 1076.97 1.3093 900 0.100472 1055.33 1.2621

May 2008
Pressure 10000 psig (10015 psia) Pressure 15000 psig (15015 psia) Pressure 20000 psig (20015 psia)
-90 0.021520 -22.59 -0.1618 -90 0.021246 -7.47 -0.1744

-80 0.021667 -12.83 -0.1357 -80 0.021378 2.11 -0.1489 -80 0.021118 17.28 -0.1607
-70 0.021820 -2.99 -0.1101 -70 0.021515 11.76 -0.1238 -70 0.021242 26.76 -0.1361
-60 0.021978 6.91 -0.0851 -60 0.021657 21.48 -0.0991 -60 0.021371 36.31 -0.1119
-50 0.022141 16.88 -0.0604 -50 0.021803 31.27 -0.0749 -50 0.021505 45.94 -0.0881
-40 0.022309 26.91 -0.0362 -40 0.021954 41.12 -0.0512 -40 0.021642 55.64 -0.0647
-30 0.022482 36.99 -0.0125 -30 0.022109 51.03 -0.0278 -30 0.021782 65.40 -0.0417
-20 0.022660 47.12 0.0108 -20 0.022268 60.99 -0.0049 -20 0.021927 75.22 -0.0191
-10 0.022842 57.30 0.0337 -10 0.022431 71.00 0.0176 -10 0.022074 85.08 0.0031
0 0.023030 67.51 0.0562 0 0.022597 81.04 0.0397 0 0.022224 94.98 0.0249
10 0.023222 77.76 0.0782 10 0.022767 91.11 0.0613 10 0.022378 104.92 0.0463
20 0.023418 88.04 0.0999 20 0.022941 101.22 0.0826 20 0.022534 114.89 0.0672
30 0.023619 98.35 0.1211 30 0.023118 111.34 0.1035 30 0.022693 124.88 0.0879
40 0.023825 108.68 0.1420 40 0.023298 121.48 0.1240 40 0.022854 134.88 0.1081
50 0.024036 119.03 0.1625 50 0.023482 131.64 0.1441 50 0.023018 144.90 0.1279
60 0.024252 129.39 0.1827 60 0.023669 141.81 0.1639 60 0.023185 154.93 0.1474
70 0.024473 139.78 0.2025 70 0.023860 151.99 0.1833 70 0.023354 164.97 0.1666
80 0.024699 150.18 0.2219 80 0.024054 162.18 0.2024 80 0.023526 175.01 0.1853
90 0.024931 160.60 0.2411 90 0.024252 172.37 0.2211 90 0.023700 185.05 0.2038
100 0.025168 171.03 0.2599 100 0.024454 182.57 0.2395 100 0.023877 195.09 0.2219
110 0.025411 181.48 0.2784 110 0.024659 192.77 0.2575 110 0.024057 205.13 0.2396
120 0.025660 191.94 0.2966 120 0.024868 202.97 0.2753 120 0.024238 215.16 0.2571
130 0.025916 202.42 0.3145 130 0.025081 213.18 0.2927 130 0.024423 225.19 0.2743
140 0.026178 212.92 0.3322 140 0.025297 223.38 0.3099 140 0.024610 235.22 0.2911
150 0.026448 223.43 0.3495 150 0.025518 233.59 0.3268 150 0.024800 245.24 0.3077
160 0.026724 233.97 0.3667 160 0.025743 243.81 0.3434 160 0.024993 255.26 0.3240
170 0.027009 244.53 0.3836 170 0.025973 254.02 0.3598 170 0.025188 265.27 0.3400
180 0.027301 255.11 0.4003 180 0.026207 264.24 0.3759 180 0.025386 275.28 0.3558
190 0.027602 265.71 0.4167 190 0.026445 274.46 0.3917 190 0.025587 285.28 0.3713
200 0.027913 276.35 0.4330 200 0.026689 284.69 0.4073 200 0.025791 295.28 0.3866
220 0.028561 297.70 0.4648 220 0.027191 305.17 0.4379 220 0.026208 315.26 0.4164
240 0.029252 319.19 0.4960 240 0.027713 325.67 0.4676 240 0.026638 335.23 0.4454
260 0.029988 340.83 0.5265 260 0.028258 346.21 0.4966 260 0.027081 355.20 0.4735
280 0.030775 362.62 0.5564 280 0.028827 366.80 0.5248 280 0.027538 375.16 0.5009
300 0.031617 384.59 0.5857 300 0.029421 387.43 0.5523 300 0.028008 395.12 0.5275
320 0.032521 406.75 0.6145 320 0.030041 408.12 0.5792 320 0.028494 415.09 0.5535
340 0.033490 429.09 0.6428 340 0.030689 428.87 0.6055 340 0.028994 435.08 0.5788
360 0.034529 451.63 0.6706 360 0.031365 449.67 0.6312 360 0.029511 455.08 0.6035
380 0.035644 474.35 0.6980 380 0.032072 470.54 0.6563 380 0.030043 475.10 0.6276
400 0.036839 497.23 0.7249 400 0.032808 491.46 0.6810 400 0.030591 495.13 0.6512
450 0.040191 555.05 0.7903 450 0.034788 543.99 0.7404 450 0.032034 545.32 0.7079
500 0.044064 613.25 0.8526 500 0.036965 596.76 0.7968 500 0.033580 595.64 0.7618
550 0.048390 671.08 0.9113 550 0.039331 649.60 0.8505 550 0.035227 646.05 0.8130
600 0.053039 727.83 0.9662 600 0.041868 702.35 0.9015 600 0.036968 696.52 0.8618
650 0.057870 783.05 1.0171 650 0.044545 754.80 0.9499 650 0.038792 746.97 0.9083
700 0.062764 836.62 1.0643 700 0.047329 806.83 0.9957 700 0.040689 797.37 0.9527
750 0.067638 888.66 1.1083 750 0.050185 858.35 1.0392 750 0.042644 847.66 0.9952
800 0.072443 939.36 1.1493 800 0.053083 909.33 1.0805 800 0.044644 897.81 1.0358
850 0.077152 988.99 1.1880 850 0.055998 959.79 1.1198 850 0.046675 947.82 1.0747
900 0.081754 1037.78 1.2245 900 0.058911 1009.81 1.1573 900 0.048726 997.69 1.1121

May 2008
Pressure 30000 psig (30015 psia) Pressure 50000 psig (50015 psia) Pressure 70000 psig (70015 psia)
-70 0.020772 57.23 -0.1577

-60 0.020882 66.49 -0.1342
-50 0.020995 75.84 -0.1111 -50 0.020210 136.81 -0.1483
-40 0.021111 85.27 -0.0883 -40 0.020300 145.81 -0.1266
-30 0.021231 94.78 -0.0659 -30 0.020392 154.92 -0.1052 -30 0.019769 215.85 -0.1363
-20 0.021353 104.36 -0.0439 -20 0.020487 164.12 -0.0840 -20 0.019846 224.74 -0.1159
-10 0.021478 114.00 -0.0222 -10 0.020583 173.42 -0.0631 -10 0.019924 233.76 -0.0956
0 0.021605 123.69 -0.0009 0 0.020681 182.78 -0.0425 0 0.020004 242.87 -0.0755
10 0.021734 133.41 0.0200 10 0.020781 192.22 -0.0222 10 0.020086 252.08 -0.0557
20 0.021865 143.18 0.0406 20 0.020882 201.70 -0.0022 20 0.020168 261.36 -0.0362
30 0.021999 152.97 0.0608 30 0.020985 211.23 0.0175 30 0.020252 270.70 -0.0169
40 0.022134 162.78 0.0806 40 0.021088 220.80 0.0368 40 0.020336 280.09 0.0021
50 0.022270 172.61 0.1001 50 0.021192 230.39 0.0558 50 0.020422 289.53 0.0208
60 0.022409 182.44 0.1192 60 0.021298 240.01 0.0745 60 0.020507 299.01 0.0392
70 0.022549 192.29 0.1380 70 0.021404 249.64 0.0928 70 0.020594 308.51 0.0573
80 0.022690 202.14 0.1564 80 0.021511 259.28 0.1109 80 0.020681 318.03 0.0751
90 0.022833 211.99 0.1745 90 0.021619 268.93 0.1286 90 0.020769 327.57 0.0926
100 0.022977 221.83 0.1922 100 0.021727 278.58 0.1460 100 0.020857 337.11 0.1098
110 0.023123 231.67 0.2096 110 0.021836 288.23 0.1631 110 0.020945 346.67 0.1268
120 0.023270 241.51 0.2268 120 0.021946 297.87 0.1799 120 0.021034 356.22 0.1434
130 0.023419 251.33 0.2436 130 0.022056 307.51 0.1964 130 0.021123 365.77 0.1597
140 0.023568 261.15 0.2601 140 0.022167 317.14 0.2125 140 0.021212 375.32 0.1758
150 0.023720 270.95 0.2763 150 0.022278 326.76 0.2284 150 0.021301 384.86 0.1915
160 0.023872 280.75 0.2922 160 0.022389 336.36 0.2441 160 0.021391 394.39 0.2071
170 0.024026 290.53 0.3079 170 0.022502 345.96 0.2594 170 0.021481 403.91 0.2223
180 0.024182 300.30 0.3233 180 0.022614 355.54 0.2745 180 0.021571 413.42 0.2373
190 0.024338 310.06 0.3384 190 0.022727 365.10 0.2894 190 0.021662 422.91 0.2520
200 0.024496 319.81 0.3533 200 0.022841 374.65 0.3039 200 0.021752 432.39 0.2665
220 0.024817 339.27 0.3824 220 0.023069 393.70 0.3324 220 0.021934 451.31 0.2947
240 0.025143 358.68 0.4105 240 0.023299 412.69 0.3599 240 0.022116 470.16 0.3221
260 0.025475 378.06 0.4378 260 0.023531 431.63 0.3866 260 0.022299 488.95 0.3486
280 0.025814 397.39 0.4643 280 0.023765 450.50 0.4125 280 0.022482 507.68 0.3742
300 0.026158 416.70 0.4901 300 0.024000 469.33 0.4376 300 0.022666 526.36 0.3991
320 0.026508 435.97 0.5151 320 0.024238 488.10 0.4620 320 0.022851 544.97 0.4233
340 0.026865 455.23 0.5395 340 0.024477 506.83 0.4857 340 0.023036 563.54 0.4468
360 0.027229 474.46 0.5633 360 0.024718 525.52 0.5088 360 0.023222 582.06 0.4697
380 0.027599 493.68 0.5864 380 0.024961 544.18 0.5313 380 0.023408 600.53 0.4920
400 0.027976 512.89 0.6090 400 0.025206 562.81 0.5532 400 0.023595 618.98 0.5137
450 0.028946 560.91 0.6633 450 0.025826 609.30 0.6058 450 0.024066 664.96 0.5657
500 0.029959 608.95 0.7147 500 0.026459 655.73 0.6555 500 0.024541 710.84 0.6148
550 0.031014 657.06 0.7636 550 0.027105 702.17 0.7026 550 0.025022 756.69 0.6614
600 0.032107 705.27 0.8102 600 0.027762 748.68 0.7476 600 0.025507 802.59 0.7057
650 0.033238 753.59 0.8548 650 0.028432 795.33 0.7906 650 0.025998 848.60 0.7481
700 0.034403 802.04 0.8975 700 0.029114 842.16 0.8319 700 0.026493 894.78 0.7889
750 0.035598 850.63 0.9385 750 0.029806 889.20 0.8716 750 0.026994 941.17 0.8280
800 0.036820 899.35 0.9780 800 0.030509 936.49 0.9099 800 0.027500 987.83 0.8658
850 0.038063 948.21 1.0160 850 0.031221 984.05 0.9469 850 0.028010 1034.77 0.9024
900 0.039325 997.23 1.0527 900 0.031941 1031.91 0.9828 900 0.028525 1082.05 0.9378

May 2008
Saturation Properties of Ammonia — SI Units
Table A-4 Saturation Properties of Ammonia — SI Units
Temperature Pressure Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kg-K) Liq. Density Vapor Sp. Vol.
(°C) (kPa) Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor (kg/m3) (L/kg)
-77 6.42 -140.392 1342.470 -0.4575 7.1023 732.21 14856.938

-76 6.94 -136.183 1344.355 -0.4361 7.0736 731.16 13797.202
-75 7.51 -131.969 1346.235 -0.4148 7.0452 730.10 12824.122
-74 8.11 -127.749 1348.110 -0.3936 7.0172 729.03 11929.795
-73 8.75 -123.523 1349.979 -0.3724 6.9896 727.96 11107.107
-72 9.43 -119.292 1351.843 -0.3513 6.9623 726.88 10349.649
-71 10.16 -115.055 1353.702 -0.3303 6.9354 725.80 9651.641
-70 10.94 -110.812 1355.554 -0.3094 6.9088 724.72 9007.864
-69 11.77 -106.563 1357.401 -0.2885 6.8825 723.63 8413.603
-68 12.65 -102.309 1359.242 -0.2677 6.8566 722.53 7864.593
-67 13.58 -98.048 1361.076 -0.2470 6.8309 721.43 7356.972
-66 14.57 -93.782 1362.905 -0.2264 6.8056 720.33 6887.240
-65 15.62 -89.510 1364.726 -0.2058 6.7807 719.22 6452.225
-64 16.74 -85.232 1366.542 -0.1853 6.7560 718.11 6049.044
-63 17.92 -80.948 1368.350 -0.1649 6.7316 716.99 5675.080
-62 19.17 -76.659 1370.152 -0.1446 6.7075 715.87 5327.952
-61 20.49 -72.363 1371.947 -0.1243 6.6837 714.75 5005.493
-60 21.89 -68.062 1373.734 -0.1040 6.6602 713.62 4705.729
-59 23.37 -63.754 1375.515 -0.0839 6.6369 712.48 4426.859
-58 24.93 -59.441 1377.288 -0.0638 6.6140 711.35 4167.243
-57 26.58 -55.122 1379.053 -0.0438 6.5913 710.20 3925.380
-56 28.32 -50.797 1380.811 -0.0238 6.5689 709.06 3699.900
-55 30.14 -46.467 1382.560 -0.0040 6.5467 707.90 3489.548
-54 32.07 -42.130 1384.302 0.0159 6.5248 706.75 3293.178
-53 34.10 -37.788 1386.036 0.0356 6.5031 705.59 3109.737
-52 36.24 -33.440 1387.761 0.0553 6.4817 704.43 2938.263
-51 38.48 -29.087 1389.478 0.0749 6.4606 703.26 2777.871
-50 40.84 -24.727 1391.186 0.0945 6.4396 702.09 2627.750
-49 43.31 -20.363 1392.886 0.1140 6.4189 700.91 2487.152
-48 45.91 -15.992 1394.577 0.1334 6.3985 699.73 2355.393
-47 48.64 -11.616 1396.258 0.1528 6.3782 698.55 2231.842
-46 51.49 -7.234 1397.930 0.1721 6.3582 697.36 2115.918
-45 54.49 -2.847 1399.594 0.1914 6.3384 696.17 2007.084
-44 57.63 1.545 1401.247 0.2106 6.3188 694.97 1904.849
-43 60.91 5.943 1402.891 0.2297 6.2994 693.77 1808.755
-42 64.34 10.347 1404.525 0.2488 6.2803 692.57 1718.384
-41 67.94 14.756 1406.149 0.2678 6.2613 691.36 1633.346
-40 71.69 19.170 1407.763 0.2867 6.2425 690.15 1553.282
-39 75.61 23.590 1409.367 0.3056 6.2240 688.94 1477.861
-38 79.71 28.015 1410.960 0.3245 6.2056 687.72 1406.775
-37 83.99 32.445 1412.542 0.3432 6.1874 686.49 1339.739
-36 88.45 36.880 1414.114 0.3619 6.1694 685.27 1276.489
-35 93.10 41.321 1415.675 0.3806 6.1516 684.04 1216.781
-34 97.95 45.767 1417.225 0.3992 6.1339 682.80 1160.388
-33 103.00 50.218 1418.764 0.4177 6.1165 681.57 1107.098

May 2008
Table A-4 Saturation Properties of Ammonia — SI Units (continued)
-32 108.26 54.675 1420.291 0.4362 6.0992 680.33 1056.717

-31 113.73 59.136 1421.807 0.4547 6.0820 679.08 1009.061
-30 119.43 63.603 1423.311 0.4730 6.0651 677.83 963.963
-29 125.35 68.075 1424.804 0.4914 6.0483 676.58 921.263
-28 131.51 72.551 1426.284 0.5096 6.0317 675.32 880.816
-27 137.92 77.033 1427.752 0.5278 6.0152 674.06 842.486
-26 144.57 81.521 1429.208 0.5460 5.9989 672.80 806.144
-25 151.47 86.013 1430.652 0.5641 5.9827 671.53 771.672
-24 158.64 90.510 1432.082 0.5821 5.9667 670.26 738.959
-23 166.08 95.013 1433.501 0.6001 5.9508 668.98 707.901
-22 173.79 99.520 1434.906 0.6180 5.9351 667.71 678.403
-21 181.79 104.033 1436.298 0.6359 5.9195 666.42 650.374
-20 190.08 108.550 1437.677 0.6538 5.9041 665.14 623.730
-19 198.67 113.073 1439.042 0.6715 5.8888 663.85 598.390
-18 207.56 117.601 1440.394 0.6893 5.8736 662.55 574.283
-17 216.77 122.134 1441.733 0.7069 5.8586 661.25 551.338
-16 226.31 126.672 1443.057 0.7246 5.8437 659.95 529.490
-15 236.17 131.216 1444.368 0.7421 5.8289 658.65 508.679
-14 246.37 135.764 1445.664 0.7597 5.8143 657.34 488.849
-13 256.91 140.318 1446.946 0.7771 5.7997 656.02 469.944
-12 267.82 144.876 1448.214 0.7946 5.7853 654.70 451.916
-11 279.08 149.441 1449.466 0.8119 5.7710 653.38 434.717
-10 290.71 154.010 1450.705 0.8293 5.7569 652.06 418.303
-9 302.73 158.584 1451.928 0.8466 5.7428 650.73 402.632
-8 315.13 163.164 1453.136 0.8638 5.7289 649.39 387.666
-7 327.93 167.750 1454.329 0.8810 5.7150 648.06 373.367
-6 341.14 172.340 1455.506 0.8981 5.7013 646.71 359.701
-5 354.76 176.936 1456.668 0.9152 5.6877 645.37 346.635
-4 368.80 181.538 1457.814 0.9323 5.6741 644.02 334.139
-3 383.27 186.145 1458.944 0.9493 5.6607 642.66 322.184
-2 398.19 190.758 1460.058 0.9662 5.6474 641.30 310.742
-1 413.56 195.376 1461.156 0.9831 5.6342 639.94 299.788
0 429.38 200.000 1462.238 1.0000 5.6210 638.57 289.297
1 445.68 204.630 1463.303 1.0168 5.6080 637.20 279.247
2 462.46 209.265 1464.351 1.0336 5.5951 635.82 269.616
3 479.72 213.907 1465.382 1.0503 5.5822 634.44 260.384
4 497.48 218.554 1466.396 1.0670 5.5695 633.06 251.531
5 515.75 223.207 1467.393 1.0837 5.5568 631.66 243.039
6 534.53 227.867 1468.373 1.1003 5.5442 630.27 234.891
7 553.85 232.532 1469.335 1.1169 5.5317 628.87 227.071
8 573.70 237.204 1470.279 1.1334 5.5192 627.46 219.563
9 594.09 241.882 1471.206 1.1499 5.5069 626.05 212.352
10 615.05 246.566 1472.114 1.1664 5.4946 624.64 205.426
11 636.57 251.257 1473.004 1.1828 5.4824 623.22 198.770
12 658.66 255.954 1473.875 1.1992 5.4703 621.79 192.372

May 2008
13 681.35 260.659 1474.728 1.2155 5.4583 620.36 186.221

14 704.63 265.369 1475.562 1.2318 5.4463 618.93 180.305
15 728.52 270.087 1476.376 1.2481 5.4344 617.49 174.614
16 753.03 274.812 1477.172 1.2643 5.4226 616.04 169.138
17 778.17 279.544 1477.948 1.2805 5.4108 614.59 163.867
18 803.95 284.283 1478.704 1.2967 5.3991 613.13 158.793
19 830.38 289.029 1479.441 1.3128 5.3874 611.67 153.906
20 857.48 293.783 1480.157 1.3289 5.3759 610.20 149.198
21 885.24 298.544 1480.853 1.3449 5.3643 608.72 144.662
22 913.69 303.313 1481.529 1.3610 5.3529 607.24 140.290
23 942.83 308.089 1482.184 1.3770 5.3415 605.76 136.076
24 972.68 312.874 1482.818 1.3929 5.3301 604.26 132.012
25 1003.24 317.667 1483.431 1.4089 5.3188 602.76 128.092
26 1034.53 322.468 1484.022 1.4248 5.3076 601.26 124.311
27 1066.56 327.277 1484.592 1.4406 5.2964 599.75 120.662
28 1099.34 332.095 1485.140 1.4565 5.2853 598.23 117.140
29 1132.88 336.921 1485.665 1.4723 5.2742 596.70 113.740
30 1167.20 341.757 1486.169 1.4881 5.2631 595.17 110.457
31 1202.30 346.601 1486.649 1.5038 5.2521 593.63 107.285
32 1238.19 351.455 1487.107 1.5196 5.2412 592.08 104.221
33 1274.89 356.318 1487.541 1.5353 5.2303 590.53 101.261
34 1312.42 361.190 1487.952 1.5509 5.2194 588.97 98.399
35 1350.77 366.073 1488.340 1.5666 5.2086 587.40 95.632
36 1389.97 370.965 1488.703 1.5822 5.1978 585.82 92.957
37 1430.02 375.867 1489.041 1.5979 5.1870 584.24 90.370
38 1470.94 380.780 1489.355 1.6134 5.1763 582.65 87.867
39 1512.73 385.703 1489.645 1.6290 5.1656 581.05 85.445
40 1555.42 390.637 1489.908 1.6446 5.1549 579.44 83.101
41 1599.01 395.581 1490.146 1.6601 5.1443 577.82 80.832
42 1643.52 400.538 1490.358 1.6756 5.1337 576.20 78.635
43 1688.96 405.505 1490.544 1.6911 5.1231 574.56 76.507
44 1735.33 410.484 1490.703 1.7065 5.1126 572.92 74.446
45 1782.66 415.475 1490.835 1.7220 5.1020 571.27 72.450
46 1830.95 420.479 1490.939 1.7374 5.0915 569.61 70.515
47 1880.23 425.494 1491.016 1.7528 5.0810 567.94 68.640
48 1930.49 430.523 1491.064 1.7683 5.0706 566.25 66.822
49 1981.75 435.564 1491.083 1.7836 5.0601 564.56 65.060
50 2034.03 440.619 1491.074 1.7990 5.0497 562.86 63.350
51 2087.34 445.687 1491.034 1.8144 5.0393 561.15 61.692
52 2141.69 450.770 1490.965 1.8297 5.0289 559.43 60.084
53 2197.10 455.866 1490.865 1.8451 5.0185 557.70 58.523
54 2253.58 460.977 1490.734 1.8604 5.0081 555.95 57.008
55 2311.13 466.103 1490.572 1.8758 4.9977 554.20 55.537
56 2369.78 471.244 1490.377 1.8911 4.9873 552.43 54.110
57 2429.54 476.401 1490.150 1.9064 4.9770 550.65 52.723

May 2008
58 2490.42 481.573 1489.889 1.9217 4.9666 548.86 51.377

59 2552.44 486.762 1489.595 1.9370 4.9562 547.06 50.068
60 2615.60 491.968 1489.267 1.9523 4.9458 545.24 48.797
61 2679.93 497.191 1488.903 1.9676 4.9355 543.41 47.562
62 2745.43 502.431 1488.504 1.9829 4.9251 541.57 46.361
63 2812.12 507.690 1488.068 1.9982 4.9147 539.72 45.194
64 2880.01 512.967 1487.596 2.0135 4.9043 537.85 44.059
65 2949.13 518.262 1487.085 2.0288 4.8939 535.96 42.955
66 3019.48 523.577 1486.536 2.0441 4.8834 534.06 41.881
67 3091.07 528.912 1485.948 2.0594 4.8730 532.15 40.837
68 3163.92 534.268 1485.320 2.0747 4.8625 530.22 39.820
69 3238.05 539.644 1484.651 2.0901 4.8520 528.27 38.831
70 3313.47 545.042 1483.940 2.1054 4.8415 526.31 37.868
71 3390.20 550.462 1483.186 2.1208 4.8310 524.33 36.931
72 3468.24 555.905 1482.389 2.1361 4.8204 522.33 36.018
73 3547.63 561.371 1481.547 2.1515 4.8098 520.32 35.129
74 3628.36 566.860 1480.659 2.1669 4.7992 518.28 34.263
75 3710.45 572.375 1479.724 2.1823 4.7885 516.23 33.419
76 3793.93 577.915 1478.742 2.1977 4.7778 514.16 32.596
77 3878.81 583.481 1477.710 2.2131 4.7670 512.07 31.795
78 3965.09 589.073 1476.628 2.2286 4.7562 509.96 31.014
80 4141.97 600.342 1474.309 2.2596 4.7344 505.67 29.509
82 4324.69 611.729 1471.771 2.2908 4.7124 501.29 28.078
84 4513.39 623.240 1469.005 2.3220 4.6901 496.82 26.715
86 4708.20 634.883 1465.995 2.3534 4.6675 492.24 25.417
88 4909.26 646.669 1462.727 2.3850 4.6446 487.56 24.179
90 5116.72 658.605 1459.186 2.4168 4.6213 482.75 22.997
92 5330.72 670.705 1455.351 2.4488 4.5976 477.82 21.868
94 5551.41 682.980 1451.204 2.4810 4.5734 472.76 20.790
96 5778.96 695.443 1446.719 2.5136 4.5487 467.55 19.757
98 6013.52 708.111 1441.872 2.5464 4.5234 462.18 18.768
100 6255.27 721.003 1436.632 2.5797 4.4975 456.63 17.820
102 6504.38 734.138 1430.963 2.6133 4.4708 450.90 16.910
104 6761.04 747.541 1424.825 2.6474 4.4432 444.95 16.035
106 7025.45 761.241 1418.171 2.6821 4.4147 438.78 15.192
108 7297.81 775.275 1410.944 2.7173 4.3851 432.34 14.380
110 7578.34 789.683 1403.076 2.7533 4.3542 425.61 13.596
112 7867.28 804.520 1394.482 2.7902 4.3219 418.54 12.837
114 8164.87 819.855 1385.058 2.8280 4.2879 411.08 12.100
116 8471.40 835.777 1374.670 2.8671 4.2519 403.15 11.383
118 8787.16 852.409 1363.141 2.9077 4.2134 394.67 10.682
120 9112.49 869.923 1350.230 2.9502 4.1719 385.49 9.993
122 9447.75 888.578 1335.588 2.9953 4.1266 375.40 9.311
124 9793.37 908.788 1318.682 3.0440 4.0761 364.08 8.628
126 10149.84 931.287 1298.614 3.0980 4.0183 350.95 7.933
128 10517.73 957.605 1273.634 3.1611 3.9489 334.79 7.202
130 10897.68 992.018 1239.317 3.2437 3.8571 312.29 6.379

May 2008
Superheated Vapor Properties of Ammonia — SI Units
Table A-5 Superheated Vapor Properties of Ammonia — SI Units
Saturation t = –50 C, p = 40.84 kPa Saturation t = –45 C, p = 54.49 kPa

°C kJ/kg kJ/(kg-K) L/kg °C kJ/kg kJ/(kg-K) L/kg
-50 1391.186 6.4396 2627.7756 -45 1399.594 6.3384 2007.1027

-45 1402.027 6.4877 2690.8291 -40 1410.584 6.3860 2054.8351
-40 1412.785 6.5343 2753.4876 -35 1421.477 6.4323 2102.2216
-35 1423.476 6.5797 2815.8111 -30 1432.293 6.4772 2149.3139
-30 1434.116 6.6239 2877.849 -25 1443.047 6.5210 2196.1549
-25 1444.717 6.6671 2939.6421 -20 1453.754 6.5637 2242.7801
-20 1455.289 6.7092 3001.2246 -15 1464.426 6.6055 2289.2191
-15 1465.841 6.7505 3062.6249 -10 1475.071 6.6463 2335.4967
-10 1476.380 6.7909 3123.8671 -5 1485.699 6.6863 2381.6337
-5 1486.913 6.8306 3184.9713 0 1496.316 6.7255 2427.6479
0 1497.446 6.8695 3245.9546 5 1506.929 6.7641 2473.5542
5 1507.984 6.9077 3306.8316 10 1517.544 6.8019 2519.3653

-40 1407.763 6.2425 1553.3015 -35 1415.675 6.1516 1216.7791

-35 1418.919 6.2899 1589.9925 -30 1427.016 6.1987 1245.3904
-30 1429.964 6.3358 1626.3779 -25 1438.228 6.2443 1273.7301
-25 1440.918 6.3804 1662.5033 -20 1449.336 6.2887 1301.8381
-20 1451.800 6.4238 1698.406 -15 1460.359 6.3318 1329.7477
-15 1462.626 6.4661 1734.1172 -10 1471.316 6.3738 1357.4862
-10 1473.408 6.5075 1769.6628 -5 1482.220 6.4149 1385.0766
-5 1484.157 6.5480 1805.0646 0 1493.083 6.4550 1412.5380
0 1494.882 6.5876 1840.3408 5 1503.916 6.4943 1439.8868
5 1505.592 6.6264 1875.5071 10 1514.728 6.5328 1467.1366
10 1516.294 6.6646 1910.5765 15 1525.527 6.5706 1494.2991
15 1526.994 6.7020 1945.5604 20 1536.319 6.6078 1521.3844

-30 1423.311 6.0651 963.9667 -25 1430.652 5.9827 771.6731

-25 1434.856 6.1121 986.5824 -20 1442.420 6.0297 789.7789
-20 1446.253 6.1576 1008.9544 -15 1454.019 6.0751 807.6648
-15 1457.529 6.2017 1031.1188 -10 1465.481 6.1190 825.3633
-10 1468.708 6.2446 1053.1050 -5 1476.829 6.1617 842.9009
-5 1479.808 6.2863 1074.9375 0 1488.086 6.2033 860.2996
0 1490.845 6.3271 1096.6368 5 1499.270 6.2439 877.5778
5 1501.834 6.3670 1118.2199 10 1510.395 6.2836 894.7508
10 1512.785 6.4060 1139.7013 15 1521.474 6.3223 911.8316
15 1523.708 6.4443 1161.0933 20 1532.519 6.3603 928.8312
20 1534.613 6.4818 1182.4062 25 1543.538 6.3976 945.7589
25 1545.506 6.5186 1203.6491 30 1554.541 6.4342 962.6227

May 2008
Table A-5 Superheated Vapor Properties of Ammonia — SI Units (continued)

-20 1437.677 5.9041 623.7291 -15 1444.368 5.8289 508.6798

-15 1449.690 5.9511 638.4000 -10 1456.647 5.8760 520.7037
-10 1461.510 5.9965 652.8712 -5 1468.708 5.9214 532.5449
-5 1473.173 6.0404 667.1721 0 1480.590 5.9653 544.2305
0 1484.707 6.0830 681.3269 5 1492.324 6.0079 555.7827
5 1496.135 6.1244 695.3555 10 1503.937 6.0493 567.2196
10 1507.477 6.1649 709.2745 15 1515.452 6.0896 578.5563
15 1518.750 6.2043 723.0977 20 1526.885 6.1289 589.8055
20 1529.969 6.2429 736.8370 25 1538.255 6.1674 600.9777
25 1541.145 6.2807 750.5021 30 1549.573 6.2051 612.0821
30 1552.289 6.3178 764.1016 35 1560.851 6.2420 623.1262
35 1563.410 6.3542 777.6427 40 1572.099 6.2782 634.1167

-10 1450.705 5.7569 418.3027 -5 1456.668 5.6877 346.6356

-5 1463.273 5.8042 428.2639 0 1469.550 5.7353 354.9727
0 1475.595 5.8497 438.0570 5 1482.154 5.7810 363.1542
5 1487.714 5.8937 447.7072 10 1494.528 5.8251 371.2036
10 1499.665 5.9363 457.2347 15 1506.714 5.8677 379.1398
15 1511.478 5.9776 466.6564 20 1518.743 5.9091 386.9783
20 1523.178 6.0179 475.9861 25 1530.642 5.9494 394.7319
25 1534.785 6.0571 485.2353 30 1542.435 5.9886 402.4112
30 1546.317 6.0955 494.4138 35 1554.141 6.0269 410.0251
35 1557.788 6.1330 503.5299 40 1565.776 6.0644 417.5814
40 1569.210 6.1698 512.5904 45 1577.353 6.1010 425.0864
45 1580.596 6.2059 521.6016 50 1588.886 6.1370 432.5456
Saturation t = 0 C, p = 429.39 kPa Saturation t = 5 C, p = 515.75 kPa

0 1462.240 5.6211 289.3115 5 1467.393 5.5568 243.0391

5 1475.461 5.6690 296.3574 10 1480.980 5.6052 249.0486
10 1488.368 5.7150 303.2586 15 1494.216 5.6515 254.9226
15 1501.018 5.7593 310.0370 20 1507.162 5.6961 260.6818
20 1513.455 5.8021 316.7103 25 1519.869 5.7391 266.3430
25 1525.715 5.8436 323.2930 30 1532.378 5.7807 271.9198
30 1537.829 5.8839 329.7969 35 1544.721 5.8210 277.4232
35 1549.822 5.9231 336.2320 40 1556.927 5.8603 282.8625
40 1561.714 5.9614 342.6065 45 1569.019 5.8986 288.2453
45 1573.524 5.9988 348.9275 50 1581.016 5.9361 293.5783
50 1585.267 6.0354 355.2008 55 1592.936 5.9727 298.8669
55 1596.957 6.0713 361.4317 60 1604.793 6.0085 304.1160

May 2008

10 1472.114 5.4946 205.4257 15 1476.376 5.4344 174.6143

15 1486.095 5.5436 210.5966 20 1490.783 5.4840 179.1011
20 1499.683 5.5903 215.6398 25 1504.750 5.5312 183.4670
25 1512.947 5.6352 220.5754 30 1518.355 5.5765 187.7312
30 1525.944 5.6784 225.4190 35 1531.661 5.6200 191.9089
35 1538.718 5.7202 230.1835 40 1544.719 5.6620 196.0121
40 1551.306 5.7607 234.8794 45 1557.569 5.7027 200.0507
45 1563.740 5.8001 239.5154 50 1570.245 5.7423 204.0331
50 1576.045 5.8385 244.0985 55 1582.776 5.7808 207.9659
55 1588.242 5.8760 248.6350 60 1595.186 5.8183 211.8549
60 1600.350 5.9126 253.1301 65 1607.494 5.8550 215.7051
65 1612.385 5.9485 257.5881 70 1619.719 5.8909 219.5204

20 1480.157 5.3759 149.1978 25 1483.431 5.3188 128.0924

25 1495.023 5.4262 153.1223 30 1498.792 5.3699 131.5518
30 1509.397 5.4740 156.9318 35 1513.603 5.4184 134.9010
35 1523.367 5.5197 160.6447 40 1527.965 5.4646 138.1580
40 1537.004 5.5636 164.2756 45 1541.956 5.5090 141.3370
45 1550.365 5.6059 167.8362 50 1555.639 5.5516 144.4492
50 1563.493 5.6468 171.3359 55 1569.065 5.5929 147.5035
55 1576.428 5.6866 174.7824 60 1582.275 5.6328 150.5076
60 1589.200 5.7252 178.1823 65 1595.303 5.6716 153.4675
65 1601.836 5.7628 181.5408 70 1608.178 5.7094 156.3883
70 1614.357 5.7996 184.8628 75 1620.924 5.7463 159.2745
75 1626.781 5.8355 188.1519 80 1633.561 5.7823 162.1297

30 1486.169 5.2631 110.4567 35 1488.340 5.2086 95.6325

35 1502.065 5.3151 113.5289 40 1504.816 5.2616 98.3806
40 1517.347 5.3643 116.4949 45 1520.605 5.3116 101.0256
45 1532.128 5.4112 119.3724 50 1535.837 5.3591 103.5853
50 1546.498 5.4560 122.1752 55 1550.612 5.4045 106.0731
55 1560.526 5.4991 124.9143 60 1565.007 5.4480 108.4998
60 1574.268 5.5406 127.5983 65 1579.086 5.4900 110.8739
65 1587.770 5.5809 130.2344 70 1592.898 5.5305 113.2021
70 1601.070 5.6199 132.8286 75 1606.486 5.5698 115.4904
75 1614.198 5.6579 135.3857 80 1619.884 5.6081 117.7433
80 1627.182 5.6949 137.9099 85 1633.120 5.6453 119.9649
85 1640.045 5.7311 140.4048 90 1646.221 5.6816 122.1585

May 2008

40 1489.908 5.1549 83.1008 45 1490.835 5.1020 72.4498

45 1507.015 5.2091 85.5764 50 1508.629 5.1575 74.6954
50 1523.352 5.2601 87.9514 55 1525.560 5.2095 76.8420
55 1539.069 5.3083 90.2434 60 1541.798 5.2586 78.9076
60 1554.277 5.3543 92.4660 65 1557.472 5.3053 80.9055
65 1569.065 5.3984 94.6296 70 1572.679 5.3500 82.8464
70 1583.502 5.4408 96.7426 75 1587.498 5.3929 84.7383
75 1597.644 5.4817 98.8117 80 1601.991 5.4342 86.5880
80 1611.538 5.5213 100.8424 85 1616.209 5.4742 88.4008
85 1625.220 5.5598 102.8394 90 1630.194 5.5129 90.1811
90 1638.724 5.5972 104.8064 95 1643.980 5.5507 91.9327
95 1652.076 5.6338 106.7467 100 1657.597 5.5874 93.6587

50 1491.074 5.0497 63.3503 55 1490.572 4.9977 55.5375

55 1509.621 5.1067 65.4013 60 1509.950 5.0563 57.4236
60 1527.198 5.1598 67.3541 65 1528.231 5.1108 59.2114
65 1544.000 5.2099 69.2271 70 1545.644 5.1619 60.9203
70 1560.173 5.2574 71.0340 75 1562.356 5.2103 62.5640
75 1575.830 5.3027 72.7853 80 1578.494 5.2563 64.1533
80 1591.056 5.3461 74.4892 85 1594.156 5.3003 65.6962
85 1605.923 5.3879 76.1521 90 1609.420 5.3427 67.1994
90 1620.485 5.4283 77.7793 95 1624.348 5.3835 68.6679
95 1634.790 5.4674 79.3753 100 1638.992 5.4230 70.1063
100 1648.875 5.5054 80.9436 105 1653.394 5.4613 71.5178
105 1662.772 5.5424 82.4873 110 1667.588 5.4986 72.9056

60 1489.267 4.9458 48.7972 65 1487.085 4.8939 42.9551

65 1509.568 5.0063 50.5436 70 1508.419 4.9565 44.5835
70 1528.622 5.0623 52.1909 75 1528.326 5.0141 46.1110
75 1546.699 5.1146 53.7593 80 1547.129 5.0677 47.5589
80 1563.992 5.1639 55.2631 85 1565.053 5.1181 48.9424
85 1580.648 5.2107 56.7132 90 1582.266 5.1659 50.2727
90 1596.776 5.2555 58.1180 95 1598.894 5.2113 51.5583
95 1612.464 5.2984 59.4839 100 1615.036 5.2549 52.8057
100 1627.782 5.3397 60.8161 105 1630.768 5.2968 54.0202
105 1642.786 5.3796 62.1189 110 1646.154 5.3372 55.2060
110 1657.522 5.4183 63.3957 115 1661.245 5.3763 56.3665
115 1672.030 5.4560 64.6496 120 1676.084 5.4143 57.5047

May 2008

70 1483.940 4.8415 37.8682 75 1479.724 4.7885 33.4187

75 1506.439 4.9066 39.3976 80 1503.553 4.8564 34.8662
80 1527.294 4.9661 40.8230 85 1525.470 4.9181 36.2049
85 1546.893 5.0212 42.1675 90 1545.949 4.9749 37.4608
90 1565.504 5.0728 43.4473 95 1565.310 5.0278 38.6511
95 1583.320 5.1215 44.6741 100 1583.779 5.0777 39.7881
100 1600.486 5.1679 45.8565 105 1601.524 5.1249 40.8809
105 1617.112 5.2121 47.0013 110 1618.670 5.1699 41.9365
110 1633.286 5.2546 48.1137 115 1635.317 5.2131 42.9601
115 1649.079 5.2956 49.1980 120 1651.542 5.2546 43.9560
120 1664.546 5.3352 50.2577 125 1667.409 5.2947 44.9278
125 1679.736 5.3736 51.2955 130 1682.970 5.3336 45.8783

80 1474.309 4.7344 29.5092 85 1467.531 4.6789 26.0581

85 1499.674 4.8057 30.8901 90 1494.698 4.7542 27.3871
90 1522.789 4.8698 32.1559 95 1519.177 4.8212 28.5923
95 1544.245 4.9285 33.3358 100 1541.726 4.8820 29.7073
100 1564.430 4.9830 34.4487 105 1562.820 4.9382 30.7534
105 1583.611 5.0340 35.5079 110 1582.777 4.9906 31.7448
110 1601.981 5.0823 36.5227 115 1601.826 5.0400 32.6914
115 1619.686 5.1282 37.5003 120 1620.133 5.0868 33.6009
120 1636.838 5.1721 38.4463 125 1637.826 5.1316 34.4789
125 1653.524 5.2143 39.3651 130 1655.004 5.1744 35.3299
130 1669.816 5.2550 40.2600 135 1671.748 5.2157 36.1573
135 1685.770 5.2943 41.1340 140 1688.120 5.2556 36.9642

90 1459.186 4.6213 22.9970 95 1449.005 4.5612 20.2677

95 1488.499 4.7015 24.2883 100 1480.927 4.6473 21.5361
100 1514.550 4.7718 25.4441 105 1508.810 4.7215 22.6530
105 1538.330 4.8351 26.5043 110 1533.986 4.7877 23.6670
110 1560.431 4.8932 27.4927 115 1557.210 4.8479 24.6058
115 1581.240 4.9471 28.4250 120 1578.956 4.9036 25.4867
120 1601.026 4.9978 29.3120 125 1599.544 4.9556 26.3214
125 1619.982 5.0457 30.1616 130 1619.204 5.0047 27.1182
130 1638.257 5.0913 30.9798 135 1638.103 5.0513 27.8835
135 1655.961 5.1350 31.7710 140 1656.371 5.0958 28.6220
140 1673.185 5.1769 32.5390 145 1674.108 5.1384 29.3373
145 1690.001 5.2174 33.2866 150 1691.394 5.1795 30.0325

May 2008
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram — IP Units
May 2008
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram —SI Units
May 2008
Appendix B
Ammonia Refrigeration Application

Data
General
Refrigeration engineers frequently need to consult ammonia thermodynamic property
tables as they analyze a particular mechanical vapor compression refrigeration cycle.
Many repetitive and similar computations are performed by these engineers for typically
encountered conditions.
IIAR has attempted to develop some special application tables which can eliminate
many of the tedious, repetitive calculations, particularly when close approximations are
sufficient for the task such as when a variety of options are being compared or trend
graphs are being developed.
Application tables and graphs have been developed to allow rapid approximation of
compressor power per ton, compressor displacement per ton, mass flow rate per ton,
and liquid flow rate per ton for liquid overfeed systems. Coupled with knowledge
of evaporator tonnage, suction temperature (pressure) and condensing temperature
(pressure), a conceptual cycle analysis and preliminary design of a refrigeration system
can be completed with minimal calculation effort on the part of the engineer.
As a design is more fully developed it is recommended that the detailed calculations
based on the property tables be performed for the final set of design conditions. These
application tables and graphs are to help the engineer get “in the ballpark” quickly to
avoid tedious calculations for a variety of possible design conditions.
Compressor Displacement
A refrigeration compressor is a volumetric device whereby the capacity is a function of
swept volume and a volumetric efficiency. The swept volume is calculable for a given
compressor based on speed and geometry. Volumetric efficiency accounts for losses
due to leakage, re-expansion of gas associated with clearance volumes (reciprocating
compressors), pressure losses through valve openings, over-compression or under-
compression (rotary screw compressors), etc.
For a given refrigeration evaporator tonnage, liquid temperature and suction pressure, the
volumetric flow of ammonia vapor at the compressor suction inlet can be computed by
performing a series of calculations using thermodynamic property data.
Ammonia Data Book B-1

May 2008
Appendix B — Ammonia Refrigeration Application Data
Alternatively, Figure B-1 has been generated which allows one to quickly look up a cfm/
ton for a series of more commonly encountered refrigeration cycle conditions. Figure B-2
does the same for booster applications.
Figure B-3 provides reasonable estimates of typical volumetric efficiencies for different
compressor types. The required compressor displacement (C. D.) is then computed as
follows:
Evaporator Tons x cfm/ton x 1⁄Effvol = C. D.
The following example shows how the table and graph can be used to quickly estimate
required compressor displacement.
Example A 1000 ton load must be handled at a suction temperature of +20°F and condensing
temperature of 95°F. What compressor swept volume will be required if reciprocating
compressors are used?
Figure B-1 indicates that the actual flowrate at the above conditions will be 2.53 cfm/
ton. Figure B-4 provides the compression ratio (C.R.) of 4.06. Looking at the graph of
volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor (Figure B-3) at a C.R. of about 4.1
we find a predicted volumetric efficiency of about 0.78. The compressor swept volume
cfm required is calculated:
1000 x 2.53 x 1⁄0.78 = 3244 cfm
Compressor Power
A refrigeration compressor’s power requirement expressed in terms of brake horsepower
per ton (BHP/Ton) is a function of suction conditions, discharge conditions, and to a
lesser extent the type of compressor. Normally the BHP/Ton is determined by using
manufacturer’s catalog data along with certain adjustments for liquid subcooling, type of
oil cooling, etc.
Approximate compressor BHP/Ton can also be established by calculating the isentropic
work of compression, refrigerant mass flow and then applying an appropriate adiabatic
compression efficiency. Figures B-6 and B-7 show the isentropic work of compression for
some typically encountered high stage and booster applications. These figures eliminate
the calculations and interpolations normally required for determination of isentropic work
of compression.
Figures B-8 and B-9 depict the isentropic power per ton for commonly encountered
refrigeration cycle conditions. These figures are based on liquid being supplied to the
evaporator at the saturated discharge temperature, saturated compressor suction and
isentropic (perfect) compression. Results are given in terms of HP/Ton.
The actual work of compression and compressor BHP/Ton are related to the isentropic
work of compression and HP/Ton by a factor known as the adiabatic compression
efficiency. Adiabatic compression efficiency is defined as:
isentropic _ work _ of _ compression

Effa.c. =
actual _ work _ of _ compression
The range of typical adiabatic compression efficiencies for ammonia compressors is

shown in Figure B-10.
B-2 Ammonia Data Book

May 2008
The estimated actual compressor brake horsepower requirements can then be computed as
follows:
HP / Ton
BHP = Tons ×
Effa.c.
The following example shows how the tables and graphs can be used to quickly estimate
the compressor brake horsepower requirement for a given set of conditions.
Example A 1000 ton evaporator load must be handled at a suction temperature of +20°F and
condensing temperature of 95°F. Screw compressors with thermosyphon oil cooling will
be used. What brake horsepower requirement is expected?
C.R. = 4.06 (Figure B-4)
HP
⁄Ton = 0.874 (Figure B-8)
Looking at Figure B-10 for a suction temperature of +20°F and maximum adiabatic
efficiency (due to compressor type and oil cooling method) we would get an efficiency of
about 0.80. The resultant brake horsepower requirement would be:
0.874HP / Ton
1000 Tons × = 1093 BHP
0.80
Refrigerant Mass Flow

Tables and graphs (Figures B-11 and B-12) of refrigerant mass flow per ton of
refrigeration have been prepared for both high stage and booster conditions. The
temperature of the liquid supplied to the evaporator is assumed to be the saturation
temperature corresponding with condensing or intermediate pressure. These tables are
relatively straight forward and do not require further explanation.
Liquid Overfeed System Pump Rates

A table and graph (Figure B-13) has been prepared which allows one to look up a flow
rate if the saturated evaporator temperature and the circulating number (ratio of liquid
weight pumped to the weight vaporized) are known. The table is based on the assumption
that the liquid temperature supplied to the evaporator is equal to the suction saturation
temperature.

May 2008
Figure B-1 High Stage Volumetric Flow Rate Per Ton
Sat Disch Temp
Figure B-2 Booster Volumetric Flow Rate Per Ton
Sat Disch Temp

May 2008
Figure B-3 Typical Compressor Volumetric Efficiency
Figure B-4 High Stage Compression Ratio
Sat Disch Temp

May 2008
Figure B-5 Booster Compression Ratio
Sat Disch Temp
Figure B-6 High Stage Isentropic Work of Compression
Sat Disch Temp

May 2008
Figure B-7 Booster Isentropic Work of Compression
Sat Disch Temp
Figure B-8 High Stage Isentropic Power Per Ton
Sat Disch Temp

May 2008
Figure B-9 Booster Isentropic Power Per Ton
Sat Disch Temp
Figure B-10 Typical Adiabatic Compression Efficiency

May 2008
Figure B-11 High Stage Mass Flow Rate Per Ton
Sat Disch Temp
Figure B-12 Booster Mass Flow Rate Per Ton
Sat Disch Temp

May 2008
Figure B-13 Liquid Overfeed Circulating Number

May 2008
Chapter Two
Properties of Ammonia
Physical Properties
General Anhydrous ammonia exists as either a colorless gas, colorless liquid, or white solid,
depending on its pressure and temperature. In nearly all commonly encountered
situations, it exists as either a liquid or a gas. The gas is less dense than air and the liquid
is less dense than water at standard conditions. Ammonia gas (vapor) diffuses readily in
air and the liquid is highly soluble in water with an accompanying release of heat.
Ammonia exhibits classical saturation relationships whereby pressure and temperature
are directly related so long as both the vapor and liquid phase are present. It does have a
critical pressure and temperature. At atmospheric pressure, a closed container of ammonia
vapor and liquid will be in equilibrium at a temperature of –28°F [–33°C]. It should be
noted however that if liquid ammonia is spilled or released to the atmosphere at normal
temperatures, the resultant pool of boiling liquid will be significantly colder than –28°F
due to the law of partial pressures (the partial pressure of the ammonia vapor in the air
near the liquid surface will be less than atmospheric pressure).
The following table provides some of the important physical properties of ammonia.
TABLE 2-1
Physical Properties of Ammonia
Property Condition Value (IP) Value (SI)
Molecular Weight 17.03 17.03

Color None None
Physical State Room Temp Gas Gas
Freezing Point P=1 atm –108°F –78°C
Boiling Point P=1 atm –28.1°F –33.3°C
Critical Pressure 1657 psia 11,410 kPa
Critical Temp 271°F 133°C
Specific Gravity 32°F/1 atm/vap 0.596 0.596
Specific Gravity 60°F/liquid 0.62 0.62
Specific Volume 32°F/1 atm/vap 20.8 ft3/lb 1.30 m3/kg
Odor Threshold 5–50 ppm 5–50 ppm
Upper Flam Lim 25–28% 25–28%
Lower Flam Lim 15–16% 15–16%
Ignition Temp No Catalyst 1204°F 651°C
Ammonia Data Book 2-1

May 2008
Chapter 2 — Properties of Ammonia
Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia
Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia

Thermodynamic Property
Tables Reader is directed to Appendix A of this Data Book for an extensive set of
Thermodynamic Property tables. For those using the thermodynamic properties for
ammonia refrigeration cycle analysis, Appendix B contains a number of Ammonia
Refrigeration Application Tables.
Ammonia and the Ideal
Gas Relationship It is oftentimes of interest to know how closely the properties of an actual gas can be
approximated by the ideal gas equation:
Pv = ZRT
(For I-P units — psia, ft3/pound, °Rankine):
Pv = 0.6Tr (ZR = 0.60)
Some checks of actual data compared to that calculated by the ideal gas equation are
shown in the following table.
TABLE 2-2
Ideal Gas Equation Accuracy
The above checks show that the ideal gas equation can be used with reasonable accuracy
to approximate pressure, specific volume, or temperature if two of the three properties
are known. Errors are greatest near the saturation line and at higher pressures. In the
superheat area results are typically within 5% of actual. Refer to Thermodynamic
Properties of Ammonia as an Ideal Gas NSDS-NBS 19 (1968) by Lester Haar for a very
detailed assessment of ideal gas relationships for ammonia.
2-2 Ammonia Data Book

May 2008
Chemical Properties of Ammonia
Chemical Properties
Anhydrous ammonia is a naturally occurring compound comprised of two very common
elements — nitrogen and hydrogen. The atmosphere is nearly 80% nitrogen, whereas
hydrogen is a common element in many organic compounds. This helps to explain why
ammonia is a vital chemical in both plant and animal life (see Chapter 3 – Ammonia and
the Environment).
Ammonia is a four-atom molecule comprised of one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen
atoms. The molecular weight is computed as shown in the following table.
TABLE 2-3
Molecular Weight
1 Nitrogen Atom x 14.007 14.007

3 Hydrogen Atoms x 1.008 3.024
Total 17.031
Thus 1 gram-mole weighs 17.031 grams and 1 pound-mole weighs 17.031 pounds.
The following table contains some additional chemical data for ammonia taken from
Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (1997) and the Chemical Rubber Company CRC
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (1969).
TABLE 2-4
Ammonia Chemical Property Data
Property Condition Value
Heat of Formation 25°C –10.96 kcal/mole

Free Energy of Formation 25°C –3.903 kcal/mole
Log10 Kf 25°C 2.914
Dielectric Constant –77.7°C Liquid 25.0
Dielectric Constant –33.4°C Liquid 22.4
Dielectric Constant 5.0°C Liquid 18.9
Dipole Moment – 1.3 x 10-18 e.s.u.
Ionization Potential – 11.2 volts
Magnetic Susceptibility – –18 x 10-6 cgs
Index of Refraction Gas, white light 1.000383
Heat of Combustion Net htg. value 8001 Btu/lb
Information from Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook is reproduced with permission of The McGraw-Hill
Companies.

May 2008
Hazardous Reactions Ammonia is considered to be a relatively stable compound but this does not mean that
ammonia does not participate in any hazardous or potentially hazardous reactions with
other materials. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has published Fire
Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials (2001), which itemizes several reactions which
could be hazardous. The following table summarizes those substances which can react
hazardously with ammonia.
TABLE 2-5
Substances Reacting Hazardously with Ammonia
Acetaldehyde Magnesium Perchlorate

Acrolein Mercury
Boron Nitric Acid
Boron Trioxide Nitrogen Tetroxide
Bromine Nitrogen Trifluoride
Caloric Acid Nitryl Chloride
Chlorine Oxygen Difluoride
Chlorine Monoxide Phosphorous Pentoxide
Chlorine Trifluoride Phosphorous Trioxide
Chlorites Picric Acid
Chlorisilane Potassium
Chromic Anhydride Potassium Chlorate
Chromyl Chloride Potassium Ferricyanide
Ethylene Dichloride Potassium Mercuricyanide
Ethylene Oxide Potassium Tricyanomercurate
Fluorine Silver
Gold Silver Chloride
Hexachloromelamine Sodium
Hydrazide Stilbene
Hydrogen Bromide Sulfur
Hypochlorous Acid Tellurium
Iodine Trichloromelamine

May 2008
Compatibility Ammonia reacts readily with a wide variety of substances. Ammonia is incompatible
with copper, zinc, or copper-based alloys, and corrosion of these metals will occur.
However, there are journal bearings, thrust washers, and piston rings containing copper
bearing materials used within ammonia compressors which are acceptable since they
are continually coated with lubricating oil and no degrading chemical reaction occurs.
Ammonia is compatible with aluminum, steel, and stainless steels. Certain high tensile
strength steels can experience stress corrosion cracking if the ammonia is totally
anhydrous. The susceptibility of carbon steels to stress corrosion cracking increases with
higher strength steels, particularly in situations with high residual or applied stresses.
The susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking is enhanced when the concentration of
oxygen is as low as 0.5 ppm (Bansch 2007) and becomes more inhibited with increasing
concentration of water to approximately 0.2%. Ammonia is soluble in water, alcohol,
ether, and other organic solvents. It is virtually immiscible with most mineral-based
lubricating oils although liquid ammonia will physically carry oil along as it flows.
Ammonia exhibits varying degrees of compatibility with elastomers that are commonly
used as gaskets and valve trim. Compatibility for various elastomers along with the
functional service temperature range is given in the following table (Fisher Controls
Company 1977).
TABLE 2-6
Elastomer/Ammonia Compatibility
Material Compatibility
Natural Rubber Not recommended.

Neoprene Acceptable at lower temperatures. Marginal at higher temperatures.
Buna N o-rings are acceptable and are used by some manufacturers of
ammonia compressors.
Recommended service temperature limits of –40°F to 175°F.
Nitrile Not recommended.
Ethylene Propylene Acceptable at lower temperatures. Marginal at higher temperatures.
Polyurethane Not recommended.
Hypalon Marginal. Recommended service temperature limits of 0°F to 225°F.
Butyl Acceptable at lower temperatures. Not recommended at higher temperatures.
Silicone Not recommended at low temperatures. Marginal at higher temperatures.
Service temperature limits of –65°F to 400°F.
Teflon Although technically not an elastomer, it is highly compatible with ammonia
and is recommended as a valve seat material within the overall service
temperature range of teflon.
Viton Not recommended.

May 2008
Stress Corrosion
Cracking of Steel Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a generic term describing both the initiation and
propagation of cracks in a metal or alloy influenced by a combination of tensile stress in
the presence of an encouraging chemical environment (Hogan 1959, Bates and Loginow
1964, Hehemann 1985, Stafford and Mueller 1992, Vander Voort 2002, and others).
Bansch (2007) and Pearson (2007) separately reviewed cases of stress corrosion cracking
of carbon steel materials used in ammonia service. The susceptibility of a material to
exhibit stress corrosion cracking depends on the presence of three distinct factors
(Bansch 2007):
1. Material — higher yield strength materials are more susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking
2. Environment — an enabling chemical environment for ammonia refrigeration
systems shows an increased tendency towards stress corrosion cracking when
oxygen is present with water as an inhibitor
3. Stress — the susceptibility of a material to stress corrosion cracking increases
with increasing applied stress where the stress could be due to pressure, static
loading, dynamic loading, and residual stresses that result from welding and/or
forming.
The risks of stress corrosion cracking can be reduced or eliminated by addressing one
or more of the above mentioned factors. Recent recommendations to prevent stress
corrosion cracking in ammonia refrigeration systems have been made by the IIAR Stress
Corrosion Cracking taskforce, Bansch (2007), Pearson (2007) and IRC (2005), and can
be summarized by the following:
Material — lower yield strength materials are less susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking. Where possible, specify a carbon steel with a minimum yield stress that does
not exceed 50 ksi [350 MPa]. As Bansch (2007) points out, “the most economical and
widely available steel plate suitable for refrigeration pressure vessels is SA516-70. The
minimum yield strength of 262 MPa [38,000 psi] categorizes SA516-70 as a low to
medium strength steel which is less susceptible to SCC. Actual yield strengths may be
significantly higher; up to 386 MPa [56,000 psi] is common, with some yield strengths
as high as 435 MPa [63,000 psi].” Unfortunately, the volume of steel consumed by the
refrigeration industry is quite small making the prospect of dictating or hand-selecting
lower yield strength steel specifically for vessel construction not practical.
Post-weld heat treatment — One of the most effective approaches to reduce the likelihood
of stress corrosion cracking is to stress relieve vessels following the construction process.
The use of hot-formed heads is recommended followed by post weld heat treatment of the
entire vessel to relieve the residual stress of welding and forming. Exceptions should be
made for compressor oil separators and specialized vessels, such as plate heat exchangers,
containing internal components that could be damaged, e.g. internal bushings, gaskets, etc.
Non-condensable gases — The presence of non-condensable gases (specifically, oxygen)
increases the probability of SCC. As such, purging of air from the system during both
initial start-up and during operation and maintenance is important. At initial start-up
and during commissioning, adhere to evacuation recommendations in IIAR Bulletin 110
(IIAR, 2004). During refrigeration system operation, maintain effective air purging.

May 2008
Common Reactions
Involving Ammonia While there are many hundreds of possible reactions involving ammonia, some of the
more common and commercially important ones are presented here.
TABLE 2-7
Common Reactions Involving Ammonia
Reaction Description Chemical Formula
Nitric acid can be produced by oxidizing ammonia in the 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O
presence of a platinum-rhodium catalyst. 2NO + O2 → 2NO2
3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO
The ability of ammonia to neutralize acids is of great HNO3 + NH3 → NH4 NO3
commercial importance to the fertilizer industry. Three H2SO4 + 2NH3 → (NH4)2SO4
major fertilizers, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, H3PO4 + 3NH3 → (NH4)3PO4
and ammonium phosphate are produced by reaction of
ammonia with nitric, sulfuric, and phosphoric acid.

Amides of potassium and sodium can be generated by 2Na + 2NH3 → 2NaNH2 + H2
dissolving the metal in liquid ammonia. 2K + 2NH3 → 2KNH2 + H2

The amides of the alkali metals can be produced by (liq NH3)
double-decomposition reactions in liquid ammonia. NaI + KNH2 → NaNH2 + KI
Nitride can be produced by heating ammonia with a more 3Mg + 2NH3 → Mg3N2 + 3H2
active metal such as magnesium.
Sulfur vapor and ammonia react to give ammonium sulfide 10S + 4NH3 → 6H2S + N4S4
and nitrogen. Sulfur also reacts with liquid ammonia to
produce nitrogen sulfide.
Ammonia and phosphorus vapor at red heat yields nitrogen 2NH3 + 2P → 2PH3 + N2
and phosphine.
Ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to make ammonium 2NH3 + CO2 → NH2CO2NH4
carbamate. which then decomposes to urea and water
NH2 CO2 NH4 → NH2 CONH2 + H2O
Carbon dioxide, ammonia, and water vapor react to form O2 + 4CO2 + 2H2O + 4NH3 → 4NH4 CO3
ammonium carbonate. This reaction can be important when
dealing with ammonia leaks and spills.

May 2008
Flammability Although ammonia is designated as a non-flammable gas for shipping purposes by the
United Nations and the U.S. Department of Transportation, it is flammable in air within
a certain range of concentrations. Because these concentrations are quite high, it would
be extremely difficult to reach those conditions in an outdoor shipping situation. The fact
that ammonia gas is lighter than air and that it diffuses readily in air makes it difficult to
create a flammable situation outdoors.
In confined spaces, vessels, or in controlled process conditions, it is possible to ignite
gaseous ammonia. Different sources list different flammability limits for ammonia. The
likely explanation for the discrepancy between these published limits of flammability
is that the test procedures have changed and/or have become more technologically
advanced. Older flammability limits for ammonia (Bureau of Mines 1931) were expressed
as follows:
• Lower flammability limit 16%
• Upper flammability limit 25%
The more current NFPA Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials (2001), now lists
ammonia’s flammability limits as:
• Lower flammability limit 15%
• Upper flammability limit 28%
NFPA does not indicate the source of the newer limits but these limits are consistent
with the findings of two German researchers who published a paper in 1980 entitled
Determination of Explosion Limits of Ammonia in Mixtures with Simple Hydrocarbons
and Air (Kalbert and Schecher 1980). These same tests found that the flammability limits
of ammonia/hydrocarbon/air mixtures follow Le Chatelier’s Law governing mixtures
of combustible gases quite well. The net result is that the presence of hydrocarbons can
significantly lower the ammonia concentration required to create a flammable situation.
This same German research also measured explosion pressures both in terms of peak
pressure and rate of pressure rise. These tests confirmed that ammonia explosions result
in lower peak pressures and slower rates of pressure rise than do methane explosions.
TABLE 2-8
Explosion Pressures
Explosion Characteristic Methane Ammonia
Peak Pressure ~105 psig ~60 psig

Rate of Pressure Rise 3000 psi/second 440 psi/second
More recent tests conducted as part of ASHRAE sponsored research at Kansas State
University found the flammability limits to be 15% and 27.4% with dry air. Although
humidity and temperature are thought to affect the flammability limits, conclusive results
have not yet been obtained (Khan et. al. 1995).
In summary, humidity and temperature are generally considered to be factors which result
in these limit ranges:
• Lower flammability limit 15–16%
• Upper flammability limit 25–28%

May 2008
Ammonia explosions are technically termed deflagrations because the propagation speed
of the combustion zone is less than the speed of sound. Explosions involving the more
flammable fuel gases such as methane are termed detonations because the propagation
velocity exceeds the speed of sound.
Ammonia can be purposefully burned or flared in a controlled process. The following
table contains some of the pertinent combustion data for ammonia gas. The numbers in
this table can also be found in Thermodynamics, an Engineering Approach (Cengel and
Boles 1989).
TABLE 2-9
Ammonia Combustion Data
Combustion Parameter Value
Gross Btu/lb 9,668

Net Btu/lb 8,001
Air Required (lb/lb) 6.10
Comb. Products (lb/lb)
Water 1.59
Nitrogen 5.51
Efforts to ignite a standing pool of liquid ammonia in an outdoor situation have not been
successful.
Explosion Venting Rooms or enclosures subject to explosive concentrations of ammonia due to leaks or
releases can be designed to relieve the deflagration energy in a controlled fashion via
properly designed explosion venting in the enclosure envelope.
NFPA has published guidelines for the design of explosion venting systems in NFPA
68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting (NFPA 2007). They
have developed an equation for calculating the venting area (Av) as a function of total
internal surface area of enclosure (As), the maximum internal overpressure that could be
withstood by the weakest non-venting structural element of the enclosure (Pred), and a
venting equation constant (C) for the gas mixture of interest.
The subjects of explosion suppression and deflagration pressure containment are
addressed in NFPA 69 Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems (NFPA 2008). It
specifically covers the design of ventilation systems needed to prevent build-up of
explosive concentrations.

May 2008
Transport/Thermophysical Properties of Ammonia
Transport/Thermophysical Properties
General The subject of transport phenomena covers the fields of heat transfer, mass transfer,
and momentum transfer. These transfer mechanisms are governed by a variety of key
properties of ammonia. These properties in turn are often grouped into dimensionless
groups, such as Reynolds numbers, in order to predict the transfer rates of heat, mass, and
momentum.
The Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants (Liley and Desai, 1993) is the best
overall collection of information. A number of transport properties are dependent on
the pressure and temperature of the gas or liquid. Several of these properties have been
depicted graphically herein. ASHRAE also suggests some relatively complex polynomial
correlations suitable for computerized applications requiring high levels of accuracy.

May 2008
Thermal Conductivity (k) Both ammonia gas and liquid have high thermal conductivities (k) relative to most other
compounds. This attribute gives ammonia excellent heat transfer characteristics.
Refer to the following graphs for the thermal conductivity of ammonia liquid and for the
thermal conductivity of ammonia gas/vapor.
FIGURE 2-1 Thermal Conductivity of Ammonia Liquid
0.45
Saturated Liquid
0.4
0.35
Thermal Conductivity (Btu/hr ft F)
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature (F)
FIGURE 2-2 Thermal Conductivity of Ammonia Gas/Vapor

May 2008
Specific Heat
(Heat Capacity-cp ) Both ammonia gas and liquid have high specific heats or heat capacities (cp) compared
to most other compounds. This characteristic makes ammonia an excellent heat transfer
fluid.
Refer to the following graphs for the specific heat of ammonia liquid and the specific heat
of ammonia gas/vapor.
Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (1997) lists the following relationship for specific
heat of gas/vapor as a function of temperature (K) for the range of 300–800K:
cp = 0.393 + 0.00037Τk (cal/g°C)
FIGURE 2-3 Specific Heat of Ammonia Liquid
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
Speciﬁc Heat (Btu/lb F)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Saturated Liquid
0
-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature (F)
FIGURE 2-4 Specific Heat of Ammonia Gas/Vapor

May 2008
Viscosity (µ) The viscosity (µ) of ammonia gas and liquid is about average compared to other fluids.
Refer to the following graphs for the viscosity of ammonia liquid and the viscosity of
ammonia gas/vapor.
FIGURE 2-5 Viscosity of Ammonia Liquid
0.7
Saturated Liquid
0.6
0.5
Viscosity (lbm/ft hr)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (F)
FIGURE 2-6 Viscosity of Ammonia Gas/Vapor

May 2008
Heat Capacity Ratio (k)* There are numerous equations and relationships that use k (dimensionless) which is the
ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.
According to Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (1997), a good average value of k
for ammonia vapor is 1.3. Using REFPROP 7 (NIST 2002) for ammonia vapor at several
constant temperatures with pressure ranging from 1.0 psia to the corresponding saturated
vapor pressure shows that as the saturated vapor condition is approached, k increases
somewhat. The ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (2005) gives values of k for saturated
ammonia vapor as a function of temperature. An excerpt of these values is shown in the
table below where k is noted to increase slightly with saturated temperature:
Figure 2-7 Heat Capacity Ratio with Pressure and Temperature
* The Greek symbol γ is also used to represent the heat capacity ratio in many
publications.

May 2008
Variation of k for Saturated Ammonia Vapor with Temperature:

T (°F) k
–100 1.3262
–50 1.3379
0 1.3657
50 1.4222
100 1.529
150 1.724
200 2.290
250 5.420
Velocity of Sound in Ammonia (@ 32°F) = 1361 ft/s [415 m/s] (in gas — CRC 1969)
V = 4900 ft/s [1494 m/s] (in liquid — Chaudry 1987)
The acoustic velocity is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature for the
gas:
γRT
cideal =
M
In situations when real gas effects are important and ideal gas behavior cannot be
assumed, including when liquid is present, the acoustic velocity becomes:
Ks
c= ρ
where Ks is the isentropic bulk modulus and ρ is the density of the fluid.
Critical Pressure Ratio (rc ) The critical pressure ratio (rc) is the ratio of absolute pressures that will accelerate a gas
to the acoustic velocity in a frictionless nozzle. At this condition, the nozzle is said to
be “choked.” Any pressure ratio greater than rc will not result in a greater mass flow rate
through the nozzle when upstream stagnation temperature and pressure remain the same.
The relationship for rc of an ideal gas is representative for ammonia (Perry 1997):
k
rc = 2 k+1
= 0.55
k–1

May 2008
Surface Tension (σ ) Surface tension (σ) is an important property when heat transfer involving phase change
is analyzed. It affects how well heat transfer surfaces stay wetted, etc. Surface tension has
been found to be a linear function of temperature of the form:
σ = a - b•t over some range of temperature (t)
The CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (1969) lists surface tension at two
temperatures:
@ 11.1°C 23.4 dynes/cm
@ 34.1°C 18.1 dynes/cm
In the range of 0°C to 50°C it could be inferred that the following relationship would
apply:
σ = 26.0–(0.23 • Tc) (dynes/cm)
Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion (β) The coefficient of thermal expansion (β) is used when evaluating natural convection
situations. It is a measure of how much the volume (or inversely, density) of the fluid
changes with each degree change in temperature. A fluid with a high coefficient of
thermal expansion will have higher film heat transfer coefficients in natural convection
situations. The coefficient can apply both to gases and liquids but ideal gas relationships
can generally be used for gas situations. In the case of ammonia liquid, an average value
of the coefficient of thermal expansion would be:
β = 3.0 x 10-5 (ft3/°F–lb)
Isothermal
Compressibility (Kt ) The isothermal compressibility Kt relates the change in specific volume to the change
in pressure at constant temperature. Values for Kt were obtained using the software
REFPROP Version 7.0 (NIST 2002) where the ammonia properties are based on Baehr
and Tillner-Roth (1994). Values are given in 1/bar for both saturated liquid and vapor as a
function of pressure for a few selected values in the following table.
TABLE 2-10
Values for Kt
Press (bar) Temp (°C) Liq. Iso. Compressibility, Kt (1/bar) Vap. Iso. Compressibility, Kt (1/bar)
0.50 -46.517 0.000062755 2.0359

1.00 -33.588 0.000072851 1.0288
10.00 24.895 0.00015795 0.11529
20.00 49.351 0.00024385 0.063791
30.00 65.725 0.00035075 0.047060
The isothermal compressibility is defined mathematically by the equation:

∆V
Kt = – _____
V∆ P
Kt = Isothermal compressibility
V = Volume of liquid or vapor
∆P = Pressure change in bar

May 2008
Heat Transfer Involving Ammonia

Of the three modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection, radiation), it is convective
heat transfer that is typically of interest when dealing with ammonia. The key to
convective heat transfer involving ammonia is to be able to compare or empirically know
the heat transfer film coefficient. These film coefficients are most readily predicted when
there is no change of phase taking place.
Most convective heat transfer correlations are based on several dimensionless groups
which relate transfer properties of the fluid, in either gaseous or liquid form. These
dimensionless groups follow. Note that the properties needed for all of these groups are
presented in earlier sections of this chapter.
TABLE 2-11
Dimensionless Numbers Commonly Used in Heat Transfer
Name Symbol Value Application

Nusselt Number Nu (hD/k) or (hL/k) Natural, Forced Convection,
Boiling, Condensing
Reynolds Number Re (GD/µ) or (ρVL/µ) Forced Convection
Prandtl Number Pr µcp/k Natural, Forced Convection,
Boiling, Condensing
Stanton Number St h/Gcp Forced Convection
Grashof Number Gr L ρ g∆T/Tµ2
3 2 Natural Convection (ideal gases)
L3ρ2βg∆T/µ2 Natural Convection
h = heat transfer coefficient

D = diameter
k = thermal conductivity
L = length
G = mass velocity
µ = absolute viscosity
cp = specific heat
ρ = density
β = coefficient of thermal expansion
T = absolute temperature
g = gravitational acceleration

May 2008
Free and Forced Convection

with Phase Change Correlations for free and forced convection with phase change occurring are very
complex. The reader should consult a heat transfer text or contact a firm which specializes
in ammonia evaporators and condensers for assistance. Ammonia exhibits excellent heat
transfer properties in phase change situations, which is one of the reasons it is considered
an excellent refrigerant.
Research efforts conducted at Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) power plants
in the late 70’s and early 80’s found that ammonia was the most desirable working fluid
for the Rankine cycle. As a result of this finding, some interesting work was performed on
ammonia evaporators and condensers. Experiments were conducted on conventional plain
tube heat exchangers as well as on advanced heat exchangers employing various types
of enhanced surfaces. An excellent overview of these results was presented by T. Rabas
of Argonne National Laboratory at the 1991 IIAR Annual Meeting in a paper entitled
Energy-Efficiency Comparison of Advanced Ammonia Heat-Exchanger Types (Rabas
1991). The performance results reported in that paper are briefly summarized:
Ammonia has excellent transport properties. It is also an excellent candidate for surface
enhancement because of its large values for surface tension and latent heat.
Values of the ammonia-side film heat transfer coefficient for various evaporator and
condenser types were reported.
TABLE 2-12
Film Heat Transfer Coefficients For Selected Applications
Heat Exchanger Description Film Coefficient (Btu/hr-ft2-°F)
Evaporators (Unenhanced)
Plate and Shell — Falling Film — Plain Surface 510
Shell and Tube — Plain Tube — Spray Film 1000
Plate and Frame — Plain Chevron 1010
Evaporators (Enhanced)
Shell and Tube — Porous Surface Tube — Flooded 4800
Shell and Tube — Porous Surface Tube — Spray Film 4590
Plate and Frame — Porous Surface Chevron 5185
Condensers (Unenhanced)
Shell and Tube — Plain Tube 1290
Plate and Frame — Plain 60° Chevron 1850
Plate and Frame — Plain 30° Chevron 2590
Condensers (Enhanced)
Shell and Tube — Horizontal Wire-Wrapped Tubes 5180
Shell and Tube — Vertical-Axial Fluting 8350
Plate and Fin — Serrated Fins 5040

May 2008
Mass Transfer Involving Ammonia

There are many situations where mass transfer involving ammonia gas or liquid is
important. Some mass transfers are directly linked to heat transfer situations involving
phase change. There are numerous other mass transfer situations that are not addressed
by simple evaporation and condensation processes involving essentially pure ammonia.
Several of the more common mass transfer scenarios are discussed herein. Perry’s
Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (1997) is a very useful reference for the various modes
of mass transfer. The ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (2005) also has a simplified
summary of mass transfer.
Gas Diffusion Ammonia gas may be introduced into another gas or vice versa. The rate at which these
two gases mix without benefit of any mechanical mixing is governed by Fick’s Law of
Diffusion. In most practical applications one of the two gases being mixed is very dilute.
In those cases the diffusion rate is governed by the equation:
ρB
mB = DAB • d
dy
mB = mass transfer rate of dilute gas B (mass/time — unit area)
DAB = Diffusivity of gas B in gas A (area/time)
ρB = Density of gas B (mass/unit volume)
y = Distance (length)
The density (ρB) is directly related to concentration. Concentration can typically be
measured fairly readily. The distance (y) between the two points of known concentration
is also easily determined. The mass flow of gas B (ammonia in this case) is from the point
where concentration is higher to the point where it is lower.
The remaining need is to know the diffusivity (DAB) that governs the diffusion of gases A
and B. The literature lists diffusivity of ammonia in air at room conditions:
DAB (Ammonia-Air, @ 77°F, 14.696 psia) = 1.08 ft2/hr (ASHRAE 2005)
DAB (Ammonia-Air, @ 25°C, 1 atm) = 0.28 cm2/sec (Holman 1972)

May 2008
For other conditions of temperature and pressure or for ammonia diffusing with other
gases, there is an accepted method of computing the diffusivity coefficient (see Perry,
1997):
1
1
0.001TK1.75 +
MA MB
DAB = _______________________
P ( 3 VA 3 VB )2
TK = Temperature in K
MA = Molecular weight of gas A
MB = Molecular weight of gas B
P = Total pressure, in atmospheres
VA = Diffusion Volume of gas A
VB = Diffusion Volume of gas B
The Diffusion Volumes (V) for several common gases are listed in the following table.
See Perry (1997) for other gases.
TABLE 2-13
Diffusion Volumes for Common Gases
Gas Diffusion Volume (V)
Hydrogen 7.07
Helium 2.88
Nitrogen 17.90
Carbon Monoxide 18.9
Oxygen 16.60
Nitrogen Dioxide 35.9
Carbon Dioxide 26.90
Ammonia 14.90
Water Vapor 12.70
Air 20.10

May 2008
Gas Absorption in an
Ammonia-Air-Water System Removal of ammonia gas from an air stream is a mass transfer situation that has been
studied extensively over the years. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (1997)
addresses the subject and shows four figures that are related specifically to ammonia-air-
water absorption systems where ammonia is absorbed from an air stream in a water spray/
packed column device. Perry also mentions several references which provide even greater
detail about the subject.
The book Absorption and Extraction (Sherwood 1937) contains extensive information
concerning absorption of ammonia by water in packed towers, by liquid spheres, in spray
towers, and in wetted wall towers.
The paper Performance of Drip-Point Grid Tower Packings: III. Gas-Film Mass Transfer
Coefficients; Additional Liquid-Film Mass Transfer Coefficients by Molstad, McKinney,
and Abbey (1943) reports on a myriad of tests of absorption of ammonia in water. The
resultant gas phase mass transfer coefficients for various packings at different gas and
liquid flow rates are presented.
A follow-up paper IV. Additional Gas-Film Mass Transfer Coefficients by Parsly, Molstad,
Cress, and Bauer (1950) reports on additional tests of the rate of ammonia absorption in
water.
Absorption of ammonia gas by a water spray in a chamber without packing media was
studied by D. Fenton in ASHRAE-sponsored research at Kansas State University. His
paper Absorption of Ammonia into Water (1991) addresses the theory and some actual
results from field testing. The testing showed that a simple fog nozzle spraying downward
against the flow of ammonia gas was 85% effective at absorbing ammonia gas when
sprayed at a ratio of two gallons of water per pound of ammonia.
Indications are that by checking these above references, in addition to the references
they cite, there is little in the area of ammonia gas absorption in water that has not been
thoroughly tested.

May 2008
Evaporation of Liquid
Ammonia Into Air Inadvertent spills of liquid ammonia can result in pools of pure liquid ammonia or
aqueous ammonia being exposed to the atmosphere. The rate of ammonia evaporation to
the air may be of interest for emergency response planning and/or modeling needed for
process hazard management activities.
When a quantity of liquid ammonia is released into an open container or into a pool
on the ground, its behavior will be a function of its temperature prior to release, how
readily the liquid can absorb heat from its surroundings, the amount of free surface for
evaporation, extent of movement of air over the surface, etc.
The warmer the liquid prior to release, the greater the amount that will flash to vapor
immediately upon release. If no air were present, the liquid would cool very quickly to
approach –28°F which is the saturation temperature at atmospheric pressure. However,
because air is present, the partial pressure of the ammonia is significantly less than
atmospheric pressure. As a result, the liquid will cool to a temperature well below –28°F.
The final temperature will be a function of heat transfer from the container walls or
ground, the sensible heating effect of the warmer air, and the cooling effect resulting from
evaporation of ammonia at the air interface.
The U.S. EPA has provided an equation (EPA 1987) which can be used to predict the
evaporation rate of ammonia from a 1 cm deep pool of liquid. The equation has been
modified to use IP units and to be based on one square foot of pool surface:
QR 0.0597u0.78 VP
=
A TR
QR
= Evaporation rate (lb/min –ft2)
A
u = Wind speed (miles/hour)
VP = Vapor pressure at temperature of liquid (psia)
TR = Absolute temperature of liquid (degrees Rankine)
Evaporation rates have been calculated for several different liquid temperatures and at
two different wind speeds. The results show that evaporation rates are strongly influenced
by both the liquid temperature and the wind speed.
TABLE 2-14
Calculated Evaporation Rates (lb/min-ft2)
Liquid Temperature Wind Speed

5 mph 15 mph
–50°F 0.004 0.009

0°F 0.014 0.033
50°F 0.037 0.086
100°F 0.079 0.186
Note that if warm liquid is spilled, the initial rate of evaporation will be quite high. As the
evaporation process cools the remaining liquid, the evaporation rate will decrease. Deeper
pools will not cool as rapidly, maintaining a higher evaporation rate.
The rate of evaporation of ammonia from an open pool or container can be greatly
reduced by covering the surface with a tarpaulin suitable for very low temperature.
If the outer edges of the tarpaulin can be sealed to the container or to the ground the
evaporation can essentially be stopped. Another method of reducing the evaporation rate
by as much as 80% is to apply a special alkaline-compatible foam to the surface.

May 2008
Frictional Losses (Momentum Transfer) for Ammonia

Ammonia gas and liquid are commonly transported within closed piping systems. It is
necessary to be able to calculate the friction losses experienced by the gas or liquid as it
passes through a piping system. Friction loss calculations allow pumps and piping to be
properly designed.
Several charts and tables have been developed for the ammonia refrigeration industry.
These tools cover the situations most commonly encountered in refrigeration applications
but do not provide the basic correlations from which the specific data was developed.
These correlations are particularly useful if one is interested in computer-aided design
and analysis of piping systems. Simplified algebraic expressions for pressure loss can
be developed for vapor and liquid in typically encountered Reynolds Number ranges for
steel pipe. Such expressions are derived in the following section of this chapter. Because
of the complexity of the expressions, users should verify and test the expressions for
accuracy with available charts or tables prior to general use.
Derivation of Simplified
Pressure Loss Expressions Perry (1997) provides the Fanning or Darcy equation for steady flow in full pipes under
isothermal conditions as follows:
4 fL V2 32 fLq2
F
D 2gc π2 gcD5
Rearranging the equation, we can arrive at an expression for pressure loss per 100 feet of
pipe which is a commonly used measure for pressure loss:
∆p = 3200fq2ρ
100ft π2gcD5
∆p = pressure loss (pound per square foot)

f = friction factor (dimensionless)
q = volume flow rate of fluid (ft3/sec)
gc = gravitational constant (32.2 lbm - ft/lbm - sec2)
D = diameter (feet)
ρ = fluid density (lb/ft3)
Volume flow rates can be expressed in terms of mass flow rate G (lb/sec) and density (ρ)
as follows:
G
q=
ρ

May 2008
Vapor The density of ammonia vapor can be reasonably approximated by the expression:
P
ρ=
0.6 (TF + 460)
P = absolute pressure (psia)

TF = temperature (degrees F)
Combining all of the above expressions results in the following:

∆p 6.05 fG2 (TF + 460)
=
100 ft D5P
For very precise calculations the friction factor f needs to be determined by looking
at a Moody chart, which is a plot of friction factor vs. Reynolds number and relative
roughness of the pipe material. A Moody chart can be found in Perry’s or any one of a
number of other references. However, Perry also suggests a relationship for f which is a
relatively simple function of the Reynolds number for turbulent flow (1997). It results in
a reasonable approximation of the friction factor for ordinary steel pipe. The expression is
as follows:
f = 0.014
Re0.16
which is valid over the Reynolds (Re) number range: 3 x 103 to 3 x 108 and relative
roughness (ε / D) range: 10-6 to 10-2. The pipe’s surface roughness is ε and the inside
pipe diameter is D. The ratio (ε / D) is dimensionless. The Reynolds number, also
dimensionless, is defined as follows:
Re = DVρ
µ
The viscosity of the vapor (µ) can be approximated by the expression:
TF lbm
µ = 0.024 +
18000 ft – hr
Velocity can be represented by the expression:

V = 4G
πD2
Using these expressions, f can be calculated as follows:
0.014
f =
0.16
4575gc
TF
D 0.024 +
18000

May 2008
Combining equations, the resultant expression for pressure loss of ammonia vapor in
turbulent flow is as follows:
TF 0.16
73.29W1.84 (TF + 460) 0.024 +
∆p 18000
100 ft D4.84 P
W = mass flow (lb/sec)
D = diameter (inches)
P = pressure (psia)
This expression will normally result in pressure losses which are 10–20% higher than
will be obtained if the solution is determined precisely. The IIAR Piping Handbook
presents calculation methods that are more accurate than the above procedure and also
accommodate a wider range of application (IIAR 1999).
Liquid A derivation approach similar to that for ammonia vapor can be performed for ammonia
liquid:
lb
ρ = 41.34 – (0.049TF)
ft3
The viscosity of ammonia liquid can be expressed as a function of temperature:

TF lbm
µ = 0.56 –
400 ft–hr
Combining the above equations, the following expression is obtained for pressure loss of
ammonia liquid in turbulent flow:
TF 0.16
121.4W 1.84 0.56 –
∆p 400
100 ft D4.84 (41.34 – (0.049TF))
W = mass flow (lb/sec)

D = diameter (inches)
This expression yields results which are very close to those obtained by precise solution.

May 2008
If the reader uses either of these two simplified expressions on either a programmable
calculator or a computer, programming errors can be detected by running the following
test cases:
Test Case 1 Ammonia vapor
TF = 20°F
P = 45 psia
W = 2 lb/sec
D = 4.026"
∆p/100 ft = 1.83
Test Case 2 Ammonia liquid
TF = 90°F
W = 20 lb/sec
D = 3.068"
∆p/100 ft = 3.01
Two Phase Flow When pipes carry both ammonia liquid and vapor simultaneously, the above pressure
drop correlations do not apply directly. The gas relationship is used but with a multiplier
which is based on the mass fraction, volume fraction, and viscosity fraction of each
phase. For further information, refer to a paper by Chawla and Thome, Total Pressure
Drop of Refrigerants Flowing Through Evaporator Tubes published in Kaltetechnik-
Klimatisiering, No. 10, 1967, p. 306–309. Also refer to the paper Pressure Drop in Two
Phase Flow presented by P. Jacobsen at the IIAR 1991 Annual Meeting.
Catastrophic Release of
Pressurized Ammonia Emergency response planning for catastrophic releases of pressurized ammonia requires
that a special type of momentum transfer be addressed. Because ammonia can be stored
as a gas, saturated gas/liquid, or subcooled liquid, several different types of flow regimes
can occur when a tank, nozzle, or pipe ruptures. For further information, refer to the
Guidelines for Evaluating the Characteristics of Vapor Cloud Explosions, Flash Fires
and BLEVEs (AIChE 1994). Also refer to Desert Tortoise Series Data Report — 1983
Pressurized Ammonia Spills (Goldwire et al. 1985).

May 2008
Aqueous Solution Properties

Although the primary subject of this Data Book is anhydrous ammonia, it is deemed
appropriate to also address the subject of aqueous solutions. Perhaps the most common
human exposure to ammonia is by way of weak (2–5%) aqueous solutions used for
household cleaning.
Aqueous ammonia solutions are correctly referred to as ammonium hydroxide solutions
but are also referred to as aqua ammonia or water-ammonia. The solubility of ammonia in
water is strongly affected by the solution temperature, with decreased solubility at higher
temperatures. Refer to Figure 2-8 for a chart of solubility vs. temperature.
FIGURE 2-8 Solubility of Ammonia in Water
Recent ASHRAE sponsored research was conducted by Fenton et al. (1991) which
studied and then tested the mixing process involving liquid ammonia and water. The
paper Absorption of Ammonia into Water (Fenton et al. 1991) presents good information
about the formation of aqueous ammonia solutions.
Concentrative Properties of Aqueous Ammonia (Ammonium Hydroxide) solutions are
provided in Table 2-15. Additional information can be found in the CRC Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics (1969).

May 2008
TABLE 2-15
Concentrative Properties of Ammonium Hydroxide Solutions
WT % NH3% S.G. g/l M #/GAL I.R. FP°C FP° F
0.00 0.00 1.000 0.0 0.000 0.00 1.333 0.0 32.0

5.00 2.43 0.989 49.4 1.409 0.20 1.334 -3.2 26.2
10.00 4.86 0.979 97.8 2.789 0.40 1.335 -6.0 20.8
15.00 7.29 0.970 145.2 4.142 0.59 1.337 -9.6 14.6
20.00 9.72 0.960 191.7 5.470 0.78 1.338 -14.4 6.06
30.00 14.58 0.943 282.3 8.055 1.14 1.341 -28.9 -20.0
40.00 19.44 0.926 369.9 10.55 1.50 1.344 -54.7 -66.4
The table columns are:

WT % = Weight percent of ammonium hydroxide
NH3 % = Weight percent of anhydrous ammonia
S.G. = Specific gravity of solution at 20°C
g/l = Grams of ammonium hydroxide per liter of solution
M = Molar concentration of ammonium hydroxide in g-moles/liter
#/GAL = The weight of ammonia per gallon of solution
I.R. = Index of refraction at 20°C relative to air, for sodium yellow light
FP°C = Freezing point in Celsius
FP°F = Freezing point in Fahrenheit
When ammonia is dissolved in water the theoretical reaction is as follows:
NH3 + H2O → NH4OH
However, it is known that dissociation takes place:
NH4OH → NH4+ + OH
(There is also some evidence that some ammonia exists in solution in the form of
NH3 • H2O and NH3 • 2H2O.)

May 2008
The dissociation constants of aqueous ammonia solutions in the temperature range of 0 to

50°C are as follows (CRC 1969):
TABLE 2-16
Dissociation Constants
Temperature °C pKb Kb
0 4.862 1.374 x 10-5

10 4.804 1.570 x 10-5
20 4.767 1.710 x 10-5
30 4.740 1.820 x 10-5
40 4.730 1.862 x 10-5
50 4.723 1.892 x 10-5
These constants can be used to calculate the extent of dissociation of the ammonium
hydroxide molecules.
Ammonia is considered a weak base and ionizes in water much less than a strong
base such as sodium hydroxide. A molar solution of ammonia has an hydroxyl ion
concentration of about 2 percent of that in a molar sodium hydroxide solution.
Hydroxyl ion (and hydrogen ion) concentration is measured by pH. As ammonia is
dissolved in water the pH elevates rapidly and then flattens out in the pH = 12 range.
Figure 2-9 shows the logarithmic relationship between pH and concentration expressed as
normality.
FIGURE 2-9 Ammonium Hydroxide Solution pH (70 deg. F)

May 2008
Corbitt’s Standard Handbook of Environmental Engineering (1990) shows a graph

demonstrating the influence of pH and temperature on the relative presence of ammonium
and unionized ammonia in water solutions. The graph is reproduced as Figure 2-10.
FIGURE 2-10 Influence of pH and Temperature
Reproduced with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.

May 2008
It is sometimes necessary to know the surface tension of a solution. Following is a brief

table of surface tension of ammonium hydroxide at 18°C as a function of the weight
percent of ammonium hydroxide in the solution.
TABLE 2-17
Surface Tension of Ammonium Hydroxide
NH4OH Concentration Surface Tension (Dynes/cm)
1.72 71.65
3.39 70.65
4.99 69.95
9.51 67.85
17.37 65.25
34.47 61.05
54.37 57.05
When gaseous ammonia or liquid ammonia is dissolved in water to form an aqueous

solution there is liberation of heat from the exothermic reaction which takes place. More
temperature rise occurs when the ammonia is dissolved from the gaseous form than when
it is dissolved from the liquid form. This is consistent with the higher energy level of the
gaseous ammonia. Heats of solution for gas and liquid are reported to be (CRC 1969):
Gas -771 Btu/lb [-7290 cal/g-mole]
Liquid -348 Btu/lb [-3290 cal/g-mole]
An aqueous solution of ammonia exerts a total vapor pressure at its surface which is
comprised of the partial pressure of the water and the partial pressure of the ammonia.
Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (1997) contains extensive tables of both partial
pressures and the total vapor pressure. Some selected conditions of solution temperature
and ammonia concentration are shown in Table 2-18.
TABLE 2-18
Vapor Pressure of Ammonium Hydroxide (psia)
TEMP NH3 % H20 V.P. NH3 V.P. TOT V.P.
40°F 4.74 0.115 0.33 0.45

40°F 9.50 0.108 0.66 0.77
40°F 19.10 0.095 1.92 2.01
40°F 28.81 0.083 5.13 5.21
80°F 4.74 0.48 1.04 1.52
80°F 9.50 0.45 1.98 2.43
80°F 19.10 0.40 5.45 5.85
80°F 28.81 0.34 13.52 13.86
120°F 4.74 1.60 2.67 4.27
120°F 9.50 1.51 4.95 6.46
120°F 19.10 1.33 13.09 14.42
120°F 28.81 1.15 30.54 31.69

May 2008
Following are some selected values of specific heat for aqueous ammonia solutions as
given in Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (1997).
TABLE 2-19
Specific Heat of Aqueous Ammonia Solutions
MOLE % NH3 2.4°C 20.6°C 41.0°C 61.0°C
0.0 1.01 1.00 0.995 1.00

10.5 0.98 0.995 1.06 1.02
20.9 0.96 0.99 1.03 N/A
31.2 0.956 1.00 N/A N/A
41.4 0.985 N/A N/A N/A
Note: Units are cal/g–°C or Btu/lb–°F
The viscosity of aqueous ammonia solutions is higher than for pure liquid ammonia.
Table 2-20 contains viscosity data for 26% concentration aqueous ammonia as obtained
from Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (1997).
TABLE 2-20
Viscosity of Aqueous Ammonia Solutions at 26% Concentration
Temperature Centipoise
–40°F [–40°C] 5.0

0°F [–18°C] 2.8
40°F [ 4°C] 1.7
80°F [ 27°C] 1.1
120°F [ 49°C] 0.7
As concentration varies between 0% and 100% the viscosity varies from that of pure
water to that of pure ammonia.
The diffusivity of ammonia in water is reported to be in the range of 1.7 to 2.3 x 105 cm2/
sec at 25°C (Perry 1997). The effect of temperature is such that the diffusivity-viscosity
product divided by absolute temperature is a constant.
An excellent source of information on ammonia-water mixtures is the Institute of Gas
Technology’s Bulletin No. 34, Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia-
Water Mixtures (1964).
There are also three references which have equations of state for ammonia-water
mixtures:
• Equations of State for the System Ammonia-Water for use with Computers by S.
Schulz (1971) presented at the XIII International Congress of Refrigeration, Vol. 2.
• Equation of State for Ammonia-Water Mixtures by Ziegler and Trepp, published in the
International Journal of Refrigeration in March of 1984.
• NH3-H2O (ammonia-water) — Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants edited by the
International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris, France, 1993.

May 2008
Th e C ol d F ro n t
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2004
INN THHIISS ISSSSUUEE VAARRIIAABBLLEE FRREEQ QUUEEN

NCCYY DR RIIV
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• VFD Application to 1-8
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Evaporative Condenser Fans
REEFFRRIIGGEERRAATTIIO
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• Upcoming Ammonia Classes 2
This issue of the Cold Front kicks off a three-part series of articles
• Noteworthy 2 focusing on the application of variable frequency drives (VFDs) in
industrial refrigeration systems. In this issue, we consider applying
• Join the IRC 7 variable frequency drives for evaporative condenser fan operation.
• Overview of Ammonia 9 When properly applied, variable frequency drives can deliver
significant energy savings and operational advantages over fixed
Refrigeration Systems speed fan controls. Look for other applications of variable
Webcourse Announcement frequency drives in the next two issues of the Cold Front.
VFD OPPORTUNITY 1: EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER FANS

The energy benefits associated with applying variable frequency
IRC Staff drives for condensers depend strongly on the available condensing
capacity for a given system. Systems with greater condenser
capacity benefit more from a variable frequency drive than systems
Director that are short of condenser capacity.
How do I evaluate whether or not my system has “surplus”
or 608/262-6381 condensing capacity? The engineering approach to answering this
dreindl@wisc.edu question involves determining the refrigeration system’s total heat
of rejection requirement and comparing that with the installed
Jim Elleson 608/262-6940 condensing capacity. The greater the difference between the
jselleson@wisc.edu installed and required condensing capacity, the greater opportunity
you have to benefit by the application of variable frequency drives
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008
for your condenser fans.
tbjekel@wisc.edu
Dan Dettmers 608/262-8221 Are there any other ways of determining whether or not my system
djdettme@wisc.edu has “surplus” condensing capacity? There are qualitative indicators
that can provide you with a measure of a system’s condensing
capacity relative to its requirement. For example, do you notice
Toll-free 1-866-635-4721 prolonged periods of refrigeration system operation when a number
Phone 608/262-8220 of the condenser fans are cycled off? Are there times during the
FAX 608/262-6209 year when you need to “valve out” one or more condensers just to
maintain head pressure? If you answered yes to one or both of
Mail these questions, there is a high likelihood that your system’s
1415 Engineering Drive efficiency could be improved with the application of variable
Room 2342 frequency drives for condenser fans. However, prior to applying
Madison, WI 53706-1607 condenser fan VFDs, it is important to evaluate the extent that you
can float your condensing (or head) pressure. Can you lower the
condensing pressure with the current condensers and still provide
e-mail info@irc.wisc.edu stable system operation? Once you have established the new
Website www.irc.wisc.edu lower condensing pressure control set point, re-evaluate whether
you still have “surplus” condensing capacity as outlined above.
1
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2004
Because condenser size is such an important issue

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in evaluating the magnitude of the energy efficiency
benefit of applying variable frequency drives to Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for
condenser fans, we first review alternative Peak Performance and Efficiency
strategies for sizing evaporative condensers. We September 13-16, 2004 Madison, WI
then will look at strategies that lead to efficient
system operation.
CONDENSER SIZING ALTERNATIVES October 6-8, 2004 Madison, WI
Properly sizing evaporative condensers is an
important requisite for efficient refrigeration system WEBCOURSE: Overview of Ammonia
operation – with or without variable frequency Refrigeration
drives. A number of factors influence the October 18-22, 2004 7-9 AM Central
performance of an evaporative condenser during Anywhere
the course of its operation. These factors also
influence condenser performance under worst case
Intermediate Ammonia Refrigeration
summer conditions (i.e. design weather conditions
under full load system operation with no other December 1-3, 2004 Madison, WI
coincident use of hot-gas, e.g. defrost). Properly
sizing an evaporative condenser requires knowing: Process Safety Management Audits
January 12-14, 2005 Madison, WI
• the total heat of rejection for the system
• design outside air wet bulb temperature
Ammonia Refrigeration: Uncovering
Opportunities for Energy Efficiency
• knowledge of the heat transfer characteristics
for a particular manufacturer’s condenser, and Improvements
February 16-18, 2005 Madison, WI
• establishing a desired upper limit on system
head pressure
The evaporative condensers need to have sufficient March 2-4, 2005 Madison, WI
heat transfer capability to dump the entire “heat of
rejection” from the refrigeration system to the Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
ambient environment under all conditions. The total April 13-15, 2005 Madison, WI
heat of rejection for a refrigeration system is the
sum of all heat absorbed to meet refrigeration Engineering Calculations for PSM & RMP
loads, the total work input to the compressors (less
May 18-20, 2005 Madison, WI
the inefficiencies of the driving motors), parasitic
piping and vessel heat gains, refrigerant pump heat
gains, and oil pump heat gains. Underestimating See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
the total heat of rejection will lead to operation with information.
saturated condensing temperatures in excess of the
design saturated condensing temperature during
Noteworthy
• Watch our website for a TechNote entitled Refrigerant Inventory Determination. The
report will cover charge estimation methodologies for evaporators, condensers, vessels &
piping for industrial refrigeration systems.
• Todd Jekel has been appointed Assistant Center Director for the IRC.
• Doug Reindl has been appointed as the Chair for standing committee on ASHRAE
Standard 15, Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems.
2
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2004
hot and humid outdoor conditions. out of the need to provide designers information that
allows them to properly select equipment whose
Table 1 shows design outside air weather conditions for performance is sensitive to the outside air wet bulb
a number of different locations within the United States conditions. We recommend that condenser selection
representing a variety of climate types. Historically, be based on the design wet bulb rather than the mean
designers selecting heat transfer equipment dependent coincident wet bulb that corresponds to the design dry
on the outside air wet bulb (such as evaporative bulb temperature.
condensers) have used the design outside air dry bulb
and the corresponding mean coincident wet bulb The final piece of information needed to select an
temperature as the basis for the component selection. evaporative condenser is the design saturated
In 2001, ASHRAE updated and expanded the weather condensing temperature. Typically, evaporative
information contained in its Handbook of Fundamentals condensers for use in industrial ammonia refrigeration
to include design wet bulb temperatures with systems are sized for a saturated condensing
corresponding mean coincident dry bulb. temperature of 95°F (181 psig condensing pressure)
[35°C, 1,350 kPa] at design outside air conditions and
The differences between wet bulb temperatures that loads as documented by Skak, et al. [1981], ASHRAE
are coincident with the design dry bulb and the design [2002], Brown, [1988] and others. Historically, the
wet bulb temperatures are particularly noteworthy. selection of a design condensing temperature of 95°F
Take Davenport, IA for example. The coincident mean [35°C] for ammonia systems was intended to balance
wet bulb temperature at the design dry bulb is 76°F the capital cost of the condenser with the operational
[24°C] (0.4% condition) while the design wet bulb costs at higher head pressures (or saturated
temperature is 78°F [26°C]. condensing temperatures).
A designer selecting an evaporative condenser for 95°F As the design saturated condensing temperature
[35°C] saturated condensing temperature assuming the decreases, the following results:
outside air wet bulb temperature of 76°F [24°C] vs. an • the size (or number) of condensers increases
actual design wet bulb temperature of 78°F [26°C] • condenser capital cost increases
would realize a 10% condenser capacity shortfall. As a
result, accessing and selecting the appropriate outdoor • required condenser water flow rate increases
design weather information is essential for properly • condenser fan energy consumption increases
sizing evaporative condensers. The addition of design • compressor discharge pressure decreases
wet bulb temperatures to the weather data chapter of
the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals [2001] grew • compressor discharge temperature decreases
(decreasing condenser’s tendency to scale)
Table 1: Design weather conditions [ASHRAE 2001].
ASHRAE Design Weather Conditions
Dry Bulb/Coincident Mean Wet Wet Bulb/Coincident Mean Dry

Bulb [°F] Bulb [°F]
Location
0.4% 1% 2% 0.4% 1% 2%
Davenport, IA 93 / 76 90 / 74 87 / 73 78 / 90 77 / 87 75 / 85
Madison, WI 90 / 73 87 / 72 84 / 70 76 / 86 74 / 84 72 / 82
Miami, FL 91 / 77 90 / 77 89 / 77 80 / 87 79 / 87 78 / 86
Phoenix, AZ 110 / 70 108 / 70 106 /70 76 / 97 75 / 96 74 / 95
Portland, OR 90 / 67 86 / 66 83 / 64 69 / 87 67 / 84 65 / 80
Tampa, FL 92 / 77 91 / 77 90 / 77 80 / 88 79 / 88 78 / 87
Sioux City, IA 94 / 75 90 / 74 88 / 72 78 / 89 76 / 87 75 / 85
3
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2004
• compressor energy consumption decreases temperature (pressure) reset to yield optimum system
• chemical water treatment costs increase performance [ECW 2001 and Manske, et al. 2001].
Although the most common design condensing For systems with an 85°F [29°C] design condensing
temperature is 95°F [35°C], systems with larger temperature, two opposing system energy
“close approach” evaporative condensers have been consumption effects become important. First, close
designed and constructed. For an evaporative approach evaporative condensers require increased
condenser, th “approach” is the temperature condenser fan energy (and condenser water pumps
difference between the saturated condensing to a lesser extent) but deliver decreased compressor
tempature and the wet bulb temperature. Later in energy consumption. What Manske, et al. [2001]
this article, we consider effects of close approach found for a system with close approach condensers
condensers that yield saturated condensing was a trade-off between compressor energy savings
temperatures below 95°F [35°C] at design outside air and increased condenser fan energy expenditures.
conditions. Two alternative design condensing
This behavior is illustrated in Figure 1 below.
temperatures that warrant consideration are: 85°F
[29°C] and 90°F [32°C]. The alternative design
With a single-speed on/off fan control strategy (the
saturated condensing temperatures offer the potential
upper-most curve), there exists a condensing
for increased refrigeration system energy efficiency.
pressure that minimizes the aggregate energy
In addition, close approach evaporative condensers
consumption of the compressor and condenser fans
provide a level of redundancy for the system’s heat
combined. Starting at high head pressures, the
rejection capabilities.
compressor energy consumption dominates. As the
head pressure is decreased, the compressor energy
In the United Kingdom, a close approach (85°F
consumption decreases faster than the condenser
[29°C] condensing temperature) evaporative
fan energy increases. At approximately 127 psia
condenser for a cold storage warehouse resulted in a
(112 psig, 69°F [874 kPa, 21°C]), the sum of the
2 year simple payback [EEO 1996]. Manske [1999]
compressor and condenser fan energy is at a
evaluated a two temperature level ammonia
minimum (for an outside air wet bulb temperature of
refrigeration system serving a cold storage
60°F [16°C]). If the head pressure were to drop
warehouse. Condensers selected for this installation
further, the compressor energy would continue to
resulted in a design condensing temperature of 85°F
decrease; however, the condenser fan energy
[29°C]. The close approach evaporative condenser
increases at a faster rate and the combination of
selection led to an unexpected characteristic in
condenser and compressor energy consumption
system performance that required condensing
Figure 1: System energy consumption with an evaporative condenser designed for 85°F [29°C]
condensing temperature for a 60°F [16°C] outdoor air wet bulb temperature [Manske, et al.
2001].
4
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2004
again begins to rise. This behavior is discussed later dry operation and visa versa as a means of condenser
in this article. Although counterintuitive, a system capacity control should be avoided. The difference in
with a larger evaporative condenser capacity can condenser capacity from wet to dry operation is too
have higher energy use if the head pressure is large to provide stable head pressure control and leads
driven too low. Keep in mind that the above curves to condenser water pump short-cycling. More
are for a day when outside air wet bulb temperatures importantly, cycling water causes the evaporative
are moderately low. condenser tubes to repeatedly wet and dry promoting
scale formation on the condenser tube bundle.
Manske [1999] also evaluated the energy
performance of the same refrigeration system Evaporative condenser operating strategies are
operating with condensers selected for a 95°F [35°C] dictated, in part, by the design of the connected
design condensing temperature. Manske found that refrigeration system and the selection of the condenser
the smaller condensers did not yield the optimum fan motors. The three most common strategies for
behavior at 60°F [16°C] wet-bulb as exhibited in condenser fan capacity control are:
Figure 1 for close approach condensers. In other • On/off control with single-speed fans
words, the operating point for minimum system • High/low/off control with two-speed fans
energy consumption is at a condensing temperature
as low as can be achieved by running all condenser • Variable speed fans
fans (albeit smaller ones) at full speed.
Evaporative condensers equipped with centrifugal fans
A compromise between the larger condensers have also utilized dampers as a means of condenser
required to achieve an 85°F [29°C] design saturated capacity control but this strategy is relatively
condensing temperatures and the more typical 95°F uncommon. From the standpoint of establishing a
[35°C] saturated condensing temperature is to select condenser operating strategy, the single greatest
90°F [32°C] as the design saturated condensing impact on energy efficiency is the choice of condenser
temperature. Selecting evaporative condensers at a fan capacity modulation. As previously presented, the
90°F [32°C] design condensing temperature provides relationship between condenser heat rejection capacity
a good balance in heat rejection performance. and fan speed (or air flow rate) is given by [Manske,
1999].
OPERATING STRATEGIES Q cond , actual ⎛ FanSpeed actual ⎞
0.76
Once the condensers are selected, operating = ⎜ ⎟ Eq. 1

strategies that will lead to efficient system operation Q cond , rated ⎝ FansSpeed rated ⎠
need to be developed and implemented. This
where Q
process requires an understanding of the factors that cond , actual is the actual condenser heat rejection
influence the performance, capacity control
rate; Q cond , rated is the condenser heat rejection capacity
alternatives, condenser fan types, and efficiency
characteristics of condensers. Additional details on as cataloged by the manufacturer at the current wet-
these factors can be found by referring to bulb temperature, rated water flow, and rated air flow;
manufacturer’s literature or in Chapter 2 of the FanSpeed actual is the actual condenser fan speed; and
Industrial Refrigeration Systems Energy Effiency
Guidebook (IRC 2004).
FanSpeed rated is the condenser fan speed for the
condenser at its rated condition.
An operating strategy is defined as a mode or series
of modes that the condenser sequences through in To reduce the capacity of a condenser, a single speed
the course of its operation within a system to achieve fan will cycle the fan on and off. An on-off control
an objective. Under most circumstances, evaporative strategy cannot take advantage of the relationship we
condensers are automatically controlled with the find from the fan laws that shows the fan power
objective of maintaining head pressure within a target increases as a cubic function of the fan speed.
range. The control system (hardware and software) 3
HPcond , actual ⎛ FanSpeed actual ⎞
accomplishes this by varying the rate of heat =⎜ ⎟ Eq. 2
rejection through sequencing the operation of HPcond , rated ⎝ FansSpeed rated ⎠
condenser fans during both wet and dry operation.
where HPcond ,actual is the actual condenser fan
The decision to operate wet (condenser water pumps horsepower required and HPcond ,rated is the rated
on) or dry (condenser water pumps off) may be either
manual or automatic based on the outside air condenser fan horsepower.
temperature. The frequent change-over from wet to
As the required heat rejection capacity for the on-off
5
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2004
control strategy diminishes, the dwell time between What about the potential for applying variable
fan operation lengthens and the actual fan on-time frequency drives to condenser water pumps? In most
decreases. The result is a linear relationship applications, applying variable frequency drives for
between the condenser part-load ratio and the condenser water pumps could provide a marginal
energy required for condenser fan operation to energy benefit while, potentially, compromising the
maintain that part-load ratio. water-side operation of the condenser. Evaporative
condenser water distribution nozzles require a
For the two-speed and variable speed fan control minimum inlet pressure to achieve the desired water
options, the condenser capacity is altered by spray pattern over the condenser tube bundle.
changing the fan speed. Combining Equations 1 Decreasing the speed of the condenser water pump
and 2 to eliminate fan speed results in the will decrease the head the pump can develop; thereby,
following: reducing the water supply pressure to the spray
nozzles and the consistent wetting of the entire
⎛ Q
3.95
HPcond , actual ⎞
≈ ( PLR )
4 condenser tube bundle. If the heat exchanger tube
= ⎜ cond , actual ⎟⎟ Eq. 3
HPcond , rated ⎜Q bundle is not consistently wetted, the condenser’s
⎝ cond , rated ⎠
capacity will decrease over time due to a tendency
where PLR (part-load ratio) is the ratio of the toward increased scaling in those areas that are
condenser capacity at reduced condenser fan periodically wetted and dried.
speed to the capacity at design or rated condenser
fan speed. Equation 3 underscores the energy A final operational consideration note for the variable
benefit provided by variable speed condenser fans. speed condenser fan option deals with fan vibration
As the required part-load ratio of a condenser characteristics. In some cases, one or more natural
decreases (e.g. during low loads or low outside air frequencies of the fan may occur within the range of
wet bulb conditions), the power required to drive fan speed modulation. It is essential to request
the condenser fans decreases fourfold! natural frequency information from the condenser
manufacturer and to utilize either system
Figure 2 illustrates the energy performance of fixed supervisory controls or variable frequency drive
speed (on/off) vs. variable speed fan control controls to avoid prolonged operation at these
strategies for a typical axial fan evaporative critical speeds. It is also essential to field-verify
condenser. The energy required for the constant and fine tune these “blackout speeds” upon initial
fan speed strategies (on-off control) decreases start-up. Failing to account for this behavior may
linearly with condenser part-load ratio. The result in catastrophic failure of one or more condenser
variable speed drive option simultaneously fans with a high probability of rupturing the condenser
modulates the speed of all condenser fan motors to heat exchanger leading to a release of ammonia.
maintain head pressure. The fan power curve for
the variable speed option illustrates the 4th power CONCLUSIONS
relationship between heat rejection capacity and
Applying variable frequency drives for evaporative
the power to drive the condenser fans. The cost of
condenser fan operation can deliver refrigeration
variable frequency drives has steadily declined
system energy efficiency improvements as well as
since the late 1980’s while reliability has increased
collateral benefits. The energy benefit of applying
over that same time period. As a result, the
variable frequency drives for condenser fans increases
variable frequency drive is an alternative you might
as the size of the condensers increase.
consider for efficiency condenser operation.
A collateral operational benefit of variable speed fan
It is important to emphasize that control strategies
control is minimal fluctuation in system head pressure
for heat rejection systems equipped with variable
because the condenser fan motor drive(s) continually
speed drives be configured to modulate all
modulate the condenser capacity to maintain head
condenser fans up and down simultaneously.
pressure. Stable head pressures are a key factor in
Controls strategies that “base-load” one or more
stabilizing system operation. Variable frequency
condensers at full-load (full speed) while using a
drives also reduce (or eliminate) the starting and
final condenser in variable speed mode as the
stopping of fan motors. Frequently starting and
“trim” will suffer considerable performance penalty
stopping fan motors (as required in strategies that use
when compared to initiating variable speed on all
single and two-speed fans) increases wear and tear on
condensers. In severe cases, the “base-load” with
fan belts (if equipped), bearings, shafts, and fan
“trim” fan control strategy will require 360% more
blades. Cycling electric motors on and off also
fan energy than operation of all condenser fans at
shortens motor life. Operating condenser fans at
reduced speed.
reduced speed also decreases drift losses from the
condensers.
6
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2004
100
Evaporative Condenser Energy Peformance, typ.
90
Percent of Full Load Power 80
70
On/Off Single Speed Fan Control
60
50
40
30
VFD Fan Control
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of Full Load Capacity
Figure 2: Energy performance of fixed vs. variable speed condenser fan control alternatives
[adapted from Manske 1999].
JO HEE IN
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The IRC’s mission is to improve the safety, reliability, efficiency, and productivity of industrial
refrigeration systems. Our vision is to make continuous progress toward improving the safety,
productivity, and efficiency of the systems and technologies that form the foundation of the
industrial refrigeration industry.
Does your company have needs in the areas of education, technical assistance or strategic
planning for refrigeration? If so, please contact us to see how joining the IRC can benefit you
and your company. We can schedule and deliver a presentation on the benefits of IRC
membership to you and other decision-makers in your company.
Benefits include
• unbiased and authoritative information on industrial refrigeration

• applied research results to improve refrigeration system efficiency, productivity, and safety
• preferred access to refrigeration education programs to expand staff capabilities
In addition, IRC members have access to telephone hot-line support on technical, operational
and regulatory issues, internet-based information resources (including access to IRC web
courses), technical bulletins, safety updates, specialized publications, and refrigeration
education for personnel at all levels.
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7
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2004
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER RESOURCE LIST

ASHRAE, Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of Heating Refrigerating, and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, (2001).
ASHRAE, Refrigeration Handbook, American Society of Heating Refrigerating, and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, (2002).
BAC, “Evaporative Condenser Engineering Manual”, Bulletin E115/1-OC Baltimore Air Coil
Company Baltimore, MD (1976).
Comisac, Glenn, “Demonstrating the Effectiveness of Field Testing Evaporative Vapor
Condensers”, pp. 181-206, 2001 IIAR Ammonia Refrigeration Conference Long Beach, CA,
International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Arlington, VA, (2001).
Dunn, P. J. and Norsworthy, R., “Control of Corrosion Basics: Corrosion Under Insulation”, IIAR
Ammonia Refrigeration Conference – Kansas City, pp. 33-57, International Institute of
Ammonia Refrigeration, Arlington, VA (2002).
ECW, “Evaporative Condenser Control: Techniques to cut energy waste in large refrigeration
systems”, Energy Center of Wisconsin Factsheet number 335- 1, 01/01, www.ecw.org (2001).
EEO, “Use of Larger Condensers to Improve Refrigeration Efficiency”, a Good Practice Case
Study published by the Energy Efficiency Office, Bureau of the Energy Technology Support
Unit, Harwell, Oxfordshire, UK, March (1996).
EPRI, “Evaporative Condenser Piping and Placement – Impacts on Energy Consumption”,
Technical Brief RP3412, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, May (1995).
Evapco, “Evaporative Condensers Engineering Manual”, Bulletin 173A-EM, Taneytown, MD.
IIAR, Guidelines for: Start-up, Inspection, and Maintenance of Ammonia Mechanical Refrigerating
Systems, International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Arlington, VA, (1993).
IIAR, Ammonia Refrigeration Piping Handbook, International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration,
2000.
IRC, Industrial Refrigeration Systems Energy Efficiency Guidebook, Reindl, D. T., Jekel, T. B., and
Elleson, J. S., Industrial Refrigeration Consortium, Madison, WI (2004).
Manske, K. A., “Performance Optimization of Industrial Refrigeration Systems”, University of
Wisconsin-Madison M.S. Thesis, (1999).
Manske, K. A., Reindl, D. T., Klein, S. A., “Evaporative Condenser Control in Industrial
Refrigeration Systems”, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 24, No. 7, pp. 676-691,
(2001).
Reindl, D. T. and Denkmann, J. L., “Automatic Purgers in Industrial Refrigeration Systems”,
ASHRAE Journal, August, pp. 31-36, (2001).
Reindl, D. T., “VFDs for Condensers”. IRC Research & Technology Forum,
www.irc.wisc.edu/activities/rtforum.php, January, (2004).
Skak, O., “Energy Savings in the Operation of Refrigeration Plants”, Scandinavian Refrigeration,
Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 214-217, (1981).
Vilter, “VSA/VSC Evaporative Condensers”, Bulletin No. 9750, Vilter Manufacturing, Cudahy, WI,
(1998).
York International, “XL Evaporative Condensers”, Equipment Selection Manual – Section 140;
E140-600 SED/FEB 97, (1997).
8
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2004
DISTANCE TRAINING OPPORTUNITY

OVERVIEW OF AMMONIA REFRIGERATION
October 18-22, 2004
M-F 7-9 AM Central
Anywhere
OVERVIEW:
This course is designed to effectively deliver the basics of industrial ammonia refrigeration
systems in an easy-to-use and convenient format over the Internet. The course consists of five
two-hour sessions delivered by our professional staff during a one week period.
PARTICIPATE AND BENEFIT:

One of the principal benefits of this educational opportunity is your ability to participate without
having to travel. Through this format, we maximize the information you derive from the course
while minimizing lost productivity associated with traveling to another location to participate. Your
company benefits by minimizing productivity loss and scheduling impacts, and by avoidance of
travel expenses.
AUDIENCE:
This course is intended and designed for those who need an overview of the principles of
industrial refrigeration systems and key aspects involved with safely operating these systems. In
the past, a wide range of staff have benefited from participating in this course including: plant
safety staff, PSM coordinators, refrigeration system operators (new operators or experienced
operators looking for a refresher), plant engineers, plant managers, contractors, as well as utility
and other personnel who want to increase their understanding of ammonia refrigeration systems.
Because this course stresses the basics, it is ideal for those new to the industry as well as those
who want to strengthen their foundation of ammonia refrigeration knowledge.
WHAT DO I NEED TO PARTICIPATE?:

The course is delivered through an easy-to-use presentation software
package called “Live Meeting”. Each participating location will need a
computer equipped with a web browser (either Microsoft Internet Explorer
or Netscape), an Internet connection, and a phone line for the audio link.
The instructors' presentation materials appear on the web browser while

the audio is supplied via a standard teleconference bridge. Participants
can interact with the instructors using either the on-line interface or via
telephone.
COURSE FEES:
IRC members can enroll at a reduced per person fee of $495. Enrollment is limited to maximize
knowledge transfer. All other attendees can enroll on a space-available basis for a fee of $795.
9
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2004
VAARRIIAABBLLEE FRREEQ QUUEEN

NCCYY DR RIIV
VEE
INN THHIISS ISSSSUUEE
OPPPPO
S IIN NDDUUSSTTR
RIIA
ALL
Screw Compressors REEFFRRIIGGEERRAATTIIO
ON N SYYSSTTEEM
MS S
• Upcoming Ammonia Classes 2 In our last issue of the Cold Front (Vol. 4 No. 2), we discussed
• Noteworthy 2 the application of variable frequency drives for evaporative
condenser heat rejection systems. In this issue, we continue
• Benefits of IRC membership 8 exploring variable frequency drives – focusing on compressor
applications. Our objective is to develop your understanding of
• IRC Webcourse Reminder 8 opportunities for applying variable frequency drives to screw
compressors to achieve energy efficient capacity control. The
• Mechanical Integrity 9 importance is heightened because a range of methods for screw
Workshop compressor capacity control are available but not all of the methods
are equally efficient. We also present results from a field test of a
variable speed drive compressor conducted with one of our
members.
IRC Staff VFD OPPORTUNITY II: SCREW COMPRESSORS

The fastest growing compressor technology in industrial
Director refrigeration is the twin screw. In fact, today the twin screw
Doug Reindl 608/265-3010 compressor comprises 80% of the industrial refrigeration screw
compressor market [Stosic, et al. 1997] far surpassing the
or 608/262-6381
traditional reciprocating compressor. As a result, we narrow our
dreindl@wisc.edu attention here to the application of screw compressors for industrial
Jim Elleson 608/262-6940
jselleson@wisc.edu We begin by discussing the need for compressor capacity control
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008 and alternative approaches for achieving capacity control. We then
compare the energy and efficiency characteristics of alternative
tbjekel@wisc.edu capacity control options. Finally, the results of evaluating a field
Dan Dettmers 608/262-8221 installation for a variable speed screw compressor are presented.
djdettme@wisc.edu
SCREW COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CONTROL
Toll-free 1-866-635-4721
Phone 608/262-8220 Theory of Operation
Since the refrigeration load on a vapor compression system can be
FAX 608/262-6209 highly variable, some means of adjusting the system’s capacity to
Mail meet the prevailing load is essential. Refrigeration systems are
1415 Engineering Drive commonly setup to control compressor capacity by maintaining
Room 2342 suction pressure (which is related to the evaporating temperature)
within a dead band range around a desired set point. Control of
Madison, WI 53706-1607 suction pressure is achieved by modulating the gas processing
capability (flow) of compressors operating on a given suction level.
e-mail info@irc.wisc.edu As suction pressure increases (an indicator of increasing load),
Website www.irc.wisc.edu additional compressor gas-carrying capacity is brought on-line to
maintain suction pressure at or near its set point. As suction
1
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2004
pressure decreases (an indicator of decreasing

load), the gas-carrying capacity of operating
compressors is reduced to maintain the desired U
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Coouurrsseess
suction pressure. There are a number of
alternative methods to accomplish compressor
capacity control including: unit cycling, slide valve Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for
control, plug valves, and variable speed operation. Peak Performance and Efficiency
Other “hot gas bypass” methods are not used in September 13-16, 2004 Madison, WI
ammonia systems for capacity control because they
can quickly result in unacceptably high discharge Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
temperatures.
One of the simplest means of achieving capacity
control is to utilize multiple compressors that WEBCOURSE: Overview of Ammonia
operate on a common suction main. In this Refrigeration
configuration, capacity control is achieved by simply October 18-22, 2004 7-9 AM Central
starting and stopping individual compressors in Anywhere
response to increases in suction pressure
(increasing load) or decreases in suction pressure Intermediate Ammonia Refrigeration
(decreasing load), respectively. Although simple,
this “unit cycling” approach quickly loses it December 1-3, 2004 Madison, WI
practicality in industrial system applications for a
number of reasons. First, larger refrigeration Process Safety Management Audits
systems rely on individual compressors having January 12-14, 2005 Madison, WI
relatively big refrigeration capacities (ca. hundreds
of CFM volume flow with multi-hundred horsepower Ammonia Refrigeration: Uncovering
motors). As a result, starting and stopping these Opportunities for Energy Efficiency
compressors results in large steps in capacity
making the task of suction pressure (e.g. system Improvements
capacity) control difficult. Second, large February 16-18, 2005 Madison, WI
compressors will, necessarily, have large frame
motors. Frequent starting and stopping of large Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
frame, air-cooled motors will greatly reduce motor March 2-4, 2005 Madison, WI
life expectancy. Third, frequent starting and
stopping of large electric loads creates an Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
opportunity for plant power quality problems.
The slide valve is the most widely used means for
screw compressor capacity control in industrial Engineering Calculations for PSM & RMP
refrigeration systems. Alternative configurations of May 18-20, 2005 Madison, WI
slide valves are available and they can be used in
solo or tandem with other mechanisms for See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
achieving simultaneous volume ratio control.
information.
Some screw compressors are equipped with “plug
valves” for capacity control. Plug valves consist of
openings positioned in the compressor housing
Noteworthy
• We have unveiled our new website (www.irc.wisc.edu). Please take a look and
offer any comments!
2
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2004
along the axis of the rotor that are capable of being modulated drive (PWM), adjustable-speed drive
opened or closed. When a plug is opened, it provides (ASD), and adjustable-frequency drive (AFD)
a path for gas trapped in the pocket of the screw to [ASHRAE 2004]. Internal combustion engine drives
shunt back to the suction side of the machine [Pillis utilize either spark or compression-ignition engines.
1998]. Capacity is capable of being controlled in fixed As the load on the compressor increases, a controller
increments e.g. 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25%. will increase the speed of the engine to maintain
desired refrigeration system capacity. A steam-driven
The last means for achieving capacity control is by compressor utilizes higher pressure steam to turn a
varying the speed driving the compressor rotors. In this turbine on a common shaft or gear-coupled with the
case, the compressor capacity will vary in direct refrigeration system compressor. The last two drive
proportion with speed. In a variable speed options are not widely found due to their high capital
arrangement, there is a lower limit of speed to maintain cost. In addition, engine-driven compressors suffer
an efficient compression process and proper lubrication from higher operational costs attributable to the
to bearings [Pillis 1998]. Each manufacturer will internal combustion engine maintenance. If the ratio
establish a lower limit on speed for their particular of fuel (natural gas or diesel) to electric cost is low, the
compressor model and its implementation in a engine-driven option should be evaluated. If low cost
compressor package. Generally, a capacity turn-down high pressure steam is available, a steam drive might
with speed control for screw compressors is warrant consideration.
approximately 50%. Additional capacity modulation
beyond 50% can be achieved on screw compressors Compressor Part-load Performance
equipped with another capacity control mechanism e.g. The full-load efficiency of a screw compressor
a slide valve. As we will see later, the first stage of operating with a given refrigerant will depend,
unloading should always be based on speed control primarily, on the suction and discharge pressures (or
with additional unloading accomplished through the use saturation temperatures) [IRC 2002]. In addition to
of the slide valve once at minimum speed. these primary factors, there are other factors that
influence full-load efficiency of a screw compressor
There are three methods capable of achieving variable including:
speed for driving the compressor: electric motors • volume ratio (fixed vs. variable)
equipped with a variable speed drive, engine-drive, and • superheat (useful vs. non-useful)
steam-drive. An electric motor equipped with a • subcooling
controller capable of varying the speed of the motor is
called a “variable-speed drive” which is synonymous Figure 1 below shows the trends in full-load efficiency
with variable-frequency drive (VFD), pulse-width- for a typical twin screw compressor as a function of
Full-Load Compressor Efficiency [BHP/ton]
5.0
4.5
4.0 Saturated Discharge Temperatures
95°F
3.5
85°F
3.0
75°F
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Saturated Suction Temperature [°F]
Figure 1: Full-load efficiency for a typical twin screw compressor.
3
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2004
saturated suction temperature and saturated load conditions. From a pure financial standpoint, the
discharge temperatures (single stage of energy savings that results from efficiency advantage
compression). As the suction temperature decreases of a variable speed drive screw compressor operating
for a fixed condensing temperature, the efficiency of at part-load conditions needs to be sufficient to justify
the compressor decreases (i.e. BHP/ton increases). the capital cost premium associated with the drive
controller. In other words, as with all VFD
As a screw compressor unloads, its efficiency applications, enough hours of part-load operation
decreases. The nature of the efficiency change is must exist for the device “to pay.” This analysis will
dependent on individual machine’s design and the be presented in the next section based on field tests
method used to achieve capacity control. Figure 2 performed on an actual installation.
below shows the part-load performance, based on
manufacturer’s data, for a fixed speed compressor
with slide valve capacity control and the same FIELD TESTING VARIABLE SPEED TWIN SCREW
compressor equipped with a variable speed drive as In late 2002, IRC staff began collaborating with an
its first stage of unloading. The efficiency of the IRC member company to field test a newly installed
compressor is expressed in terms of the required twin screw compressor with a primary goal of
BHP per ton of refrigeration and varies as a function establishing a quantitative performance benefit
of the compressor’s part-load ratio. The part-load afforded by the application of a variable speed drive
ratio is defined as the current capacity of the for capacity control. The compressor tested was a
compressor divided by the capacity of the FES 315S package built around a Howden twin
compressor at 100% speed and slide valve position. screw compressor. The unit tested is shown in
In the variable speed case, the compressor Figure 3. It was a fixed volume ratio (Vi=2.6) booster
preferentially uses speed as the first stage of compressor equipped with both a variable frequency
capacity control down to a minimum speed of 1,775 drive and continuous slide valve for capacity control.
rpm at 30 Hz. Once at minimum speed, further Oil cooling was external and accomplished with a
capacity reductions are achieved with slide valve closed-circuit glycol heat exchanger. The unit was
unloading. capable of being operated with either speed or the
slide-valve as the lead for capacity control. Fixed
It is clear that the variable speed compressor has the speed operation was arranged by electrically
best efficiency advantage at low part-load conditions bypassing the drive controller.
but the efficiency advantage erodes at higher part-
4.0
Compressor Efficiency [BHP/ton]
FES 315S
Capacity Control Method
Minimum speed
Variable speed
with slide valve
3.0
Fixed Speed
2.0
1.0
Variable Speed
0.0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Part Load Ratio [%]
Figure 2: Part-load efficiency characteristics from manufacturer’s data for both a fixed speed and
variable speed twin screw compressor (operating at 0.5 psig suction and 34 psig discharge).
4
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2004
Figure 3: Field installation of a variable speed twin screw compressor.
The booster operated with a nominal saturated compressor-to-compressor differences in operating

suction pressure of 15.2 psia (-26.8°Fsaturated with characteristics could be eliminated. As a result, the
35°F of suction superheat) and discharged to an collected data allows a direct assessment of the fixed
intercooler maintained at 49 psia. Loads were vs. variable speed performance characteristics.
intentionally varied to exercise the machine over its
entire range of part-load operation. The data A series of tests were conducted that operated the
measured and collected included the following: booster compressor in both fixed and variable speed
modes. The machine’s part-load condition was
• System operating states: established by first specifying combinations of speed
and slide valve position. For the variable speed
o Saturated evaporator pressure cases, speed was used as the primary means for
o Intercooler pressure achieving capacity control and the slide valve was the
secondary means for achieving capacity control.
o Suction gas mass flow rate During variable speed mode, the slide valve was
• Screw compressor operating states: “locked in” at 100% until the compressor speed
reached the minimum (30 Hz or 1,793 RPM). If
o Suction and discharge pressures additional capacity reductions were required, then the
o Suction and discharge temperatures target part-load condition was established by
adjusting the slide valve position as-needed. Once
o Compressor motor speed the combination of speed and slide valve position
o Drive frequency was prescribed, the suction pressure was maintained
to a common base for all tests.
o Compressor slide valve position
The fixed speed tests were run in similar manner. A
o Compressor true RMS power
prescribed part-load condition was established by
consumption
“locking” the slide valve to a fixed percentage.
The twin screw compressor being tested was
configured to be operable in either a fixed speed (via.
electrical bypass of the variable frequency drive) or RESULTS
variable speed mode. By running the same Figure 4 compares the relative power for the
compressor in both fixed and variable speed modes, compressor as a function of the machine’s part-load
5
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2004
ratio (percent capacity) for both the fixed and Alone, the information provided in Figure 4 is
variable speed cases. At near full-load, the fixed insufficient to evaluate the cost-effectiveness
speed compressor operates with approximately 3% associated with specifying a variable frequency drive
lower power input to the compressor. This screw compressor in this application. Obviously, the
performance advantage of the fixed speed case greater the percentage of compressor runtime at low
due to the electrical power losses associated with part-load ratios will favor the variable frequency drive
the variable drive speed controller. The magnitude case. Because the fixed vs. variable speed data were
of the loss measured is consistent with the drive collected during a series of fictitiously maintained
manufacturer’s quoted performance. Below a part- operating states, additional data was collected to
load ratio of approximately 0.95, the variable speed determine the part-load operating frequency.
drive screw compressor delivers equal capacity
with lower electrical power requirements than the For a period of six months, additional data was
fixed speed compressor. At a part-load ratio of collected at the site to determine the frequency of part-
27%, the variable speed drive operation requires load operating conditions for all booster compressors
40% less electrical power than the fixed speed installed at the site. This data, along with the electric
case – each providing equal refrigeration capacity. utility rates for the installation, was utilized to estimate
Another interesting feature of the variable speed the annual electric operating cost savings attributable
drive case is that its operation, in tandem with the to the variable frequency drive.
slide valve, extends the capacity modulation range
The measured performance for both fixed speed and
below that of the fixed speed drive case as shown
in Figure 4. It is also interesting to note that the variable speed operation along with the load-frequency
relative power for the variable speed mode of data collected over a six month period provided
sufficieint information to estimate the annual operating
operation is slightly better than linear unloading.
This behavior is due to the reduction in system cost savings by projecting the semi-annual costs
parasitic losses that results from lower gas flow incurred during the monitored period. The estimated
annual operating cost savings for this installation was
through both the suction side and discharge side of
the machine. Since pressure drop varies with the $4,000. The installed cost for the drive was $20,000
square of velocity, a decrease in velocity by 50% leading to a simple payback of 5 yrs.
yields a four-fold decrease in parasitic pressure
losses.
1.0
Fixed Vi=2.6
0.9 July 17, 2003
FES 315S Booster Compressor
0.8
0.7
Relative Power [-]
Fixed Speed
0.6
0.5
0.4
Variable Speed
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Part-Load Ratio [%]
Figure 4: Measured relative compressor power for operation as fixed vs. variable speed (symbols)
along with trend lines (dashed).
6
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2004
CONCLUSIONS
Variable frequency drives for screw compressors offer the opportunity to achieve more efficient part-load
operation when compared to fixed speed drive alternatives. At full-load, the variable frequency drive is
approximately 3% less efficient than the fixed speed drive case due to drive losses. The energy efficiency
benefit of the variable frequency drive option vs. fixed speed drive with slide valve for capacity control
increases at the compressor unloads. Although the simple payback for the drive application presented in this
newsletter was somewhat long, the cost of variable frequency drives continues to decrease and their reliability
improve. It is also important to note that other installations with different operating conditions and different
utility rate structures will yield different economic results.
There are other benefits of variable frequency drives for compressors that were not specifically covered in this
article but remain important to operations staff. For example, capacity control with a variable speed drive will
reduce wear and tear on slide valves. Very stable suction pressures are achievable with a frequency drive.
Finally, operation at lower speeds will extend the life of the compressor and critical components such as
bearings.
If you are considering the installation of a new compressor, don’t look past using a variable frequency drive.
To best utilize VFDs for compressors, apply a VFD to one compressor per controlled suction level. Then
control that compressor for load-following with the remaining compressors operating full-load at a fixed speed
to meet the base refrigeration requirement for the plant. If you are unsure of the potential for variable speed
drive compressors in your facility, feel free to contact the IRC for additional information.
POSTSCRIPT – VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE REQUIREMENTS

Unlike the application of variable frequency drives to pump and fan motors, VFD use on compressors (screw
or reciprocating) requires specifying a motor for variable speed operation. Motors specified as “inverter duty”
are designed and constructed to reject the heat generated in the process of transforming electrical to
mechanical power within the motor at lower shaft speeds. This feature is more important in applications such
as compressors vs. pumps and fans. Why? Well the horsepower requirement for a compressor will decrease
linearly with speed (a situation commonly referred to as a “constant torque application”). Thus, a compressor
realizes a relatively large power requirement when compared to pumps and fans whose horsepower
decreases cubically with reductions in speed.
Our next Cold Front issue will conclude our series of VFD applications. In that issue, we will look at VFD
applications for industrial refrigeration evaporator fans. We will include a focus on VFD and motor efficiency
issues that become increasingly important when applied to smaller motors.
REFERENCES
ASHRAE, HVAC Systems and Equipment Handbook, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, (2004).
IRC, “TechNote: Selection of Screw Compressors for Energy Efficient Operation”, Industrial Refrigeration
Consortium, University of Wisconsin-Madison, available at www.irc.wisc.edu, (2002).
Stosic, N., Smith, I. K., Kovacevic, A. and Aldis, C. A., “The Design of a Twin-Screw Compressor Based on a
New Rotor Profile”, Journal of Engineering Design, Vol. 8, No. 4, (1997).
7
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2004
BEECCO
OM AN
MEE A N IRC MEEM
MB N 2005
R IIN
BEER
Most of you know that the IRC’s mission is to improve the safety, reliability, efficiency, and
productivity of industrial refrigeration systems. However, do you know that the IRC operates
wholly on external funds primarily from ammonia refrigeration end users?
In many ways, IRC member companies are just like yours, they have refrigeration needs in the
areas of education, technical assistance, and strategic planning. An important difference is
that IRC member companies see refrigeration as an important component of their business.
Through their involvement in the IRC, they reap the benefits that IRC membership offers:
• collaboration on refrigeration projects as evidenced by the lead article in this issue

• unbiased and authoritative information on industrial refrigeration
• applied research results to improve refrigeration system efficiency, productivity, and safety
• preferred access to refrigeration education programs to expand staff capabilities
Membership in the IRC will allow your organization to engage staff and other IRC member
companies to improve your refrigeration capabilities. As an IRC member, you will have access
to telephone hot-line support on technical, operational and regulatory issues, internet-based
information and technical resources (including access to IRC webcourses and web-based
tools), technical bulletins, safety updates, specialized publications, and refrigeration education
for personnel at all levels.
Hopefully you find this and past issues of the Cold Front helpful and relevant to your
operations. By joining the IRC, more awaits you – our best is reserved for members!
IINNNNO
OVVA ON
ATTIIO N–
–KKNNO
OW ED
WLLE GE
DG E–
–PPRRO
OG RE
GR SS
ES S
DISTANCE TRAINING OPPORTUNITY

October 18-22, 2004 M-F 7-9 AM Central
Anywhere
Our last newsletter included a short announcement on the IRC's "Overview of Ammonia Refrigeration
Systems" web course. This course is great opportunity for those new to ammonia to receive basic
information on the principles of operation and safety. The delivery platform allows participation
without travel. All you need is a phone line, computer, and an Internet connection for a web-browser.
The course will meet daily during the week of October 18-22, 2004 from 7-9 AM (Central). Attendees
can interact with the instructional staff live during the delivery of the course and offline as well. Each
session will be recorded to allow attendees to review all or portions of a session missed. Topics that
will be covered during the course are detailed in the attachment. The course fee is $495 for IRC
member companies. All other attendees can enroll on a space-available basis for a fee of $795.
The deadline for registration is October 8.
For more information on the strengths and weaknesses of web-based courses, please browse the e-
learning portion of our website (http://www.irc.wisc.edu/elearning/). If you have any questions on the
course, its topics, or how it fits in with your training requirements, please do not hesitate to call the IRC
toll-free 866/635-4721.
8
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2004
IRC Best Practices Workshop:

Nondestructive Testing Methods for Mechanical
Integrity
Mechanical integrity (MI) is an important facet of insuring the on-going safe operation of industrial
refrigeration systems. The Process Safety Management (PSM) Standard (29 CFR 1910.119(j))
requires end-users having refrigerant inventories in excess of 10,000 lb to develop and implement a
MI program that includes appropriate inspections and tests to insure their systems are safe.
On November 9-10, the Industrial Refrigeration Consortium will be hosting a workshop to explore
mechanical integrity for ammonia refrigeration systems in more depth. The workshop will be held at
the University of Wisconsin-Madison and is open to all stakeholders in the ammonia refrigeration
industry including: end-users, mechanical contractors, Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) contractors,
refrigeration system component manufacturers and NDT equipment manufacturers.
This workshop will feature a mixture of presentations by knowledgeable instructors, in-field

experience by end-users, insightful commentary from NDT contractors and demonstrations by NDT
equipment manufacturers. In addition, this 2-day event will include several hours of direct workshop
interaction among all of the participants. By bringing together stakeholders with such diverse
experiences and expertise, we believe the workshop will help define the parameters of an
acceptable MI program for the ammonia refrigeration industry in the future.
Equipment Demonstrations
Of particular interest to many of the end-users and mechanical contractors will be a hands-on
demonstration period where participants will be able to see demonstrations by the manufacturers of
many relevant NDT technologies and even try the devices out. Some of the technologies that will be
demonstrated include ultrasonic thickness test equipment, infrared thermography, digital
radiographic profiling, and others.
Bring Your MI Program

Because this event will be a true workshop format, we are encouraging all participants to bring their
MI programs to compare with others in the industry. This includes any information relating to your
MI programs for PSM compliance, data from pressure relief valve testing, incident reports from failed
components that were investigated, even anecdotal information on near misses or actual failures. If
you are unsure of what information to bring, please contact us. The more information that is brought
to the meeting, the larger the benefit will be for all attending. Through this collaborative
environment, we will document and disseminate cost- and performance-effective MI best practices
for everyone’s benefit.
A brochure has been attached to this newsletter providing further information on the workshop,
including registration information. Otherwise, information can be found on our websites at
www.irc.wisc.edu under “Conferences”. If you require further information or have any questions, we
can be contacted at 866-635-4721 or info@irc.wisc.edu.
9
Vol. 4 No. 4, 2004
INN THHIISS ISSSSUUEE VAARRIIAABBLLEE FRREEQ QUUEEN

NCCYY DR RIIV
VEE

OPPPPO
S IIN NDDUUSSTTR
RIIA
ALL
Evaporator Fans REEFFRRIIGGEERRAATTIIO
ON N SYYSSTTEEM
MS S
• Upcoming Ammonia Classes 2
In our last issue of the Cold Front (Vol. 4 No. 3), we discussed
• Noteworthy 2 the application of variable frequency drives for screw compressors.
In this issue, we complete our series on variable frequency drives –
• Benefits of IRC membership 7 focusing on evaporator fan applications. Our objective in this issue
is to develop your understanding of opportunities for applying
• IRC Webcourse Wrapup 7 variable frequency drives on evaporator fans to achieve energy
• Mechanical Integrity 8 efficient capacity control. We will discuss drive and motor efficiency
issues that become increasingly important when VFDs are applied
Workshop Wrapup to smaller motors.
• 2005 Research & Technology 8
Forum Reminder VFD OPPORTUNITY III: EVAPORATOR FANS
Like the application of VFDs to condenser fans, the energy benefits
associated with applying VFDs to evaporators depend strongly on
IRC Staff
the available evaporator capacity over the entire range of
refrigeration loads. Systems with greater evaporator capacity (i.e.
surface area) will benefit more from a variable frequency drive than
systems that are short of evaporator capacity.
Director
or 608/262-6381 EVAPORATOR FAN CAPACITY CONTROL
dreindl@wisc.edu Theory of Operation
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008 Since the refrigeration load on a vapor compression system can be
highly variable, some means of adjusting the system’s evaporator
tbjekel@wisc.edu capacity to maintain temperature is essential. Refrigeration
Dan Dettmers 608/262-8221 systems are commonly setup to control evaporator capacity by
djdettme@wisc.edu cycling the liquid feed solenoid to maintain space temperature
Brandon Lachner 608/262-6940 within a dead band range around a desired set point. As the space
temperature increases (an indicator of increasing load), additional
bflachner@wisc.edu evaporator liquid feed solenoids open in attempts to lower the
space temperature back to its set point. As the space temperature
Toll-free 1-866-635-4721 drops (an indicator of decreasing load), the liquid feed solenoid
Phone 608/262-8220 valves on operating evaporators are closed to prevent overcooling.
FAX 608/262-6209
The simplest means of evaporator fan control is operate them
Mail continuously. In the continuous fan operation strategy, capacity
1415 Engineering Drive control is achieved by cycling the refrigerant feed to the evaporator,
Room 2342 as outlined above. Although simple, this approach will maximize
both the direct fan energy and the parasitic refrigeration load on the
Madison, WI 53706-1607 space attributable to fan motor operation. The most notable
advantage of continuous fan operation is that constant air
e-mail info@irc.wisc.edu movement will minimize temperature stratification within the
Website www.irc.wisc.edu refrigerated space.
1
Vol. 4 No. 4, 2004
A variation on this theme is to duty cycle the fans

when the solenoid remains closed for a given dwell
U
Uppccoom
miinngg AAm
mmmoonniiaa C
Coouurrsseess
time. An example of this control would be to de-
energize the fan when the temperature Process Safety Management Audits
requirements remains satisfied for 30 minutes. January 12-14, 2005 Madison, WI
Because prolonged periods of fan inactivity can
lead to temperature stratification, it is common to Ammonia Refrigeration: Uncovering
cycle fans on for short periods even when the
space temperature is at set point. The advantage
of this method is that the electrical power and Improvements
parasitic load associated with fan operation is shed February 16-18, 2005 Madison, WI
during low load periods.
Our focus in this issue is on variable speed fan March 2-4, 2005 Madison, WI
operation using variable frequency drives on the fan
motors. In this strategy, the fan speed will increase
or decrease as the space temperature deviates
Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
above or below set point, respectively. Because April 13-15, 2005 Madison, WI
reducing fan speed results in a reduction in torque,
the power required by the motor drops dramatically. Engineering Calculations for PSM & RMP
From the fan laws, we find that power and speed May 18-20, 2005 Madison, WI
are related by the following:
3
Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for Peak
⎛ hp ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞ Performance and Efficiency
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ September 12-16, 2005 Madison, WI
⎝ hp full ⎠evaporator ⎝ N full ⎠
PHA for Ammonia Refrigeration Systems
where hp is the horsepower requirement of the September 28-30, 2005 Madison, WI
motor, N is the speed in RPM (the speed is
analogous to the drive frequency in hertz) and the
subscript full indicates full speed operation (60 Hz
in the US). In other words, if we reduce fan speed October 12-14, 2005 Madison, WI
by 50%, the required power will decrease by
87.5%! Ammonia Refrigeration Piping
November 2-4, 2005 Madison, WI
How does the capacity of an evaporator vary with
fan speed? The full-load capacity of an evaporator
will depend, primarily, on the difference between
the saturated evaporating temperature and the December 7-9, 2005 Madison, WI
space set point temperature. In addition, there are
other factors that influence the full-load capacity of See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
an evaporator including: information.
• air volume flow rate (cfm)
Noteworthy
• Tyson Foods joins the IRC!
• Brandon Lachner joins the IRC as a Research Intern.
• Jim Elleson leaves the IRC. We wish him the best in his future endeavors.
• IRC releases version 2.0 of its PSM Audit Tool.
2
Vol. 4 No. 4, 2004
• superheat (i.e. direct expansion vs. overfeed)

• subcooled liquid feed (mechanically pumped PART-LOAD EVAPORATOR EFFICIENCY
overfeed evaporators fitted with evaporator The efficiency of the evaporator can be expressed in
pressure regulators (EPRs)) terms of the required BHP per ton of refrigeration load
and varies as a function of the ratio of the load to the
As the speed of an evaporator fan is reduced, the evaporator capacity (PLRevaporator). For continuous
capacity of the evaporator decreases as well; fixed speed fan control, the power requirement of the
however, it is not a linear reduction. The relationship fan is the full-speed power and the load is met by
between the capacity of an air-cooling evaporator cycling the liquid feed solenoid. For aggressive fan
and fan speed is given by the following: cycling control, the refrigerant feed solenoid and the
fan are cycled together (not recommended, included
0.76
Capacity ⎛ N ⎞ here for discussion purposes). In the variable speed
=⎜ ⎟⎟ = PLRevaporator case, the control strategy preferentially uses fan speed
Capacity full ⎜⎝ N full ⎠ as the first stage of capacity control until the minimum
speed is reached (usually at a frequency between 20-
30 Hz). Once at minimum speed, further capacity
where Capacity is the evaporator’s capacity (Btu/hr
reductions are achieved by cycling the liquid feed
or tons), N is the fan speed in RPM, and PLRevaporator
solenoid. Figure 1 shows the fan horsepower per ton
represents the evaporator’s capacity part-load ratio. of space load over a range of evaporator part-load
conditions for the three fan control strategies
Combining the two previous equations results in the previously discussed.
following relationship between fan horsepower
requirement and part-load ratio on the evaporator: It is clear from the figure that the variable speed fan
control has the best efficiency advantage at low part-
⎛ hp ⎞
= ( PLRevaporator )
3.95 load operating conditions but the efficiency advantage
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ decreases at higher part-load conditions. From a
⎝ hp full ⎠evaporator purely financial standpoint, the energy savings that
0.8
0.7
Fixed Speed Fan Control
0.6
(hp / ton)evaporator
0.5
0.4
Aggressive Fan Cycling

0.3
0.2
20 Hz 30 Hz
0.1
VFD Fan Control
0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Load / Evaporator Capacity (PLR)
Figure 1: Full-load efficiency for a typical freezer evaporator (-10°F space, 12°F TD, 850 ft/min velocity).
3
Vol. 4 No. 4, 2004
results from the efficiency advantage of a variable the VFD efficiency over the expected range of
speed evaporator fan operating at part-load speeds. A 1999 ASHRAE Journal article by Bernier
conditions needs to be sufficient to justify the capital & Bourret [1999] highlighted some of these
cost premium associated with the drive controller. In motor/VFD issues. This was further used by Chan
other words, as with all VFD applications we have [2004] to emphasize the inclusion of these
considered, there must be enough hours of part-load inefficiencies when assessing VFDs. Since smaller
operation “to pay” for the drive. horsepower motors are more common on
evaporators, we will assume that the shape of the
Figure 1 only considers the influence of direct fan efficiency curve is the same but the nameplate
horsepower; however, fan power is a “parasitic” efficiency is lower for the smaller motors. The VFD
evaporator load and any reduction in fan horsepower efficiency will be handled the same way: efficiency
will also translate into a reduced load on the curve is the identical shape and scaling it with the full
compressors. Keep in mind that a 5-hp fan power speed efficiency. NEMA requires of full-load motor
reduction is equivalent to a 1 ton reduction in efficiencies of 85-90% for 1- to 5-hp premium efficient
refrigeration load. Because VFDs on evaporator fans motors. Nominal VFD efficiencies are typically in the
offer the opportunity to significantly reduce the fan 94-96% range.
power, it is important to also incorporate the reduced
parasitic load in an analysis that also encompasses The application of the drive and motor efficiencies
the compressor. allow an estimate of the power consumption of the
motor+drive combination. The full-load motor
Finally, keep in mind that there are inefficiencies efficiency is assumed to be 88% and the full-speed
associated with the conversion of electrical energy VFD efficiency is assumed to be 95%. Included in
(what we pay for) to horsepower. Let’s first look at Figure 2 are field data from a 15-hp for a VFD fan
the conversion of electrical energy to horsepower. motor application. Although this data is for
comparison only, it shows that the present analysis
Motor and VFD Efficiencies and assumptions reasonably predicts the power of
In order to estimate the power requirement for a the fan motor and the VFD at lower speed operation.
VFD-driven device, we need both the motor efficiency
over the expected range of part-load horsepower and
Full Load Efficiency

Motor 88%
VFD 95%
0.8
Fraction of Full-Speed Power
0.6
Typical
0.4 Minimum
Frequency
0.2
Data taken from VFD panel

of a ~15-hp application
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Drive Frequency [Hz]
Figure 2: Fraction of full-speed power (kW) as a function of drive frequency for a typical small motor
and VFD.
4
Vol. 4 No. 4, 2004
Parasitic Load Reduction & Compressor applied to the evaporator fans.

Efficiencies
Economic results for the application of VFDs for
To account for the parasitic fan motor loads we
$0.05/kWh results in about $50/ton of design
convert the fan’s power consumption to a load and
evaporator load when compared to continuous fixed
add the full-load compressor efficiency (hp/ton).
speed (FS) fan control. And about $30/ton when
compared to duty cycling (DC) fan control.
Overall Evaporator Part-load Efficiency
The resultant fraction of full-load power as a function CONCLUSIONS
of evaporator part-load ratio is shown in Figure 3 for
a -20°F freezer space with seven (7) evaporators and VFDs offer many benefits when applied to evaporator
a saturated suction pressure of approximately 14.5 fans. Probably the most appealing is the reduction in
psia (0.4 in Hg vacuum) corresponding to a combined electrical energy usage; however, there are other
efficiency of approximately 2.0 hp/ton. Clearly the ancillary more benefits. Consider and assess the
VFD excels at low part-load conditions. At a part- other benefits of applying VFDs on evaporator fans
load ratio of 50%, the VFD control requires 20% including:
lower power (kW) for each ton of refrigeration when • Fewer system transients
compared to the continuous fixed speed fan option. • Better space temperature control
The VFD control retains a 9% efficiency advantage of • Reduced “wind chill”
the duty cycling at 50% as well. • Reduced noise
• Inherently soft-start
ENERGY ANALYSIS • Improved power factor
Now that we have extended the analysis to include all
FURTHER READING
of the inefficiencies and load reduction benefits of
variable speed fan operation, energy analysis allows The Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance (NWEEA)
estimates of operating cost savings. has done a series of projects aimed at identifying the
benefits and barriers associated with the application
For our freezer example, assume that those seven of VFDs to refrigeration evaporator fans. The
(7) evaporators have a total capacity of 100 tons at Evaporator Fan VFD Initiative reports are available
the 8.5°F temperature difference (TD) at design on their website at www.nwalliance.org.
conditions. The average load over the course of the
year is 82.5 tons with the distribution as shown in In addition, IRC staff Todd Jekel gave a presentation
Figure 4. at the 2004 Research & Technology Forum on this
topic. The presentation can be downloaded by
Multiplying the kW/ton data from Figure 3 to the load clicking here.
and hours data from Figure 4 gives us the total
electrical energy consumption (kWh) associated with SERIES CONCLUSION
the compressor and the evaporator fan. Table 1
Over the past three issues of the Cold Front, we
shows the yearly kWh per peak load (100 tons) for
the three fan control methods discussed earlier. have highlighted VFD applications for condenser
Multiplying the savings from Table 1 by the electricity fans, screw compressors, and finally evaporator fans.
rate and design freezer load for a given location We hope that this series has been beneficial to you
results in an estimate of yearly savings for the VFD and encourage you to apply the information from this
series to improve the efficiency of your refrigeration
system.
Table 1: Energy Analysis Results REFERENCES

Yearly Savings Savings Bernier, M.A., B. Bourret, 1999, “Pumping Energy
And Variable Frequency Drives,” ASHRAE
Energy to FS to DC
Journal, December 1999, Atlanta, GA, (2004).
Chan, T., 2004, “Beyond the Affinity Laws,”

kWh/ton per year
Engineered Systems, August 2004.
Fixed Speed (FS) 12,850 Jekel, T.B., 2004, VFDs for Refrigeration
Evaporators, presented at 4th IRC R&T Forum,
Duty Cycling (DC) 12,500 350 January 2004 (www.irc.wisc.edu).
VFD 11,900 950 600
5
Vol. 4 No. 4, 2004
2.4
T space=-20 [F]
Fixed Speed N evap=7
Compressor + Evaporator kW/ton

Duty Cycling TD design=8.4 [F]
Variable Speed
2.2
1.8
1.6
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Evaporator Part-load Ratio
Figure 3: Compressor plus evaporator fan power for part-load evaporator operation.
30
T space = -20 [F]
25
Percent of Hours in Year
20
15
10
0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Figure 4: Estimated yearly load profile for economic analysis.
6
Vol. 4 No. 4, 2004
WEBCOURSE RECAP
Forty people attended the "Overview of Ammonia Refrigeration Systems" webcourse held on October 18-24,
2004. The Overview course was designed to provide attendees with a basic understanding of industrial
"Overall, the course went well. Attendees provided good feedback as well as suggestions for improving the
course that we will incorporate for future offerings" said IRC director Doug Reindl. When asked "Did this course
meet your expectations?", typical responses included:
• "Yes, it exceeded what I expected"
• "Yes, while I fully expected this course to be a review I came expecting that some areas of
understanding would be strengthened and even and occasional “Eureka experience; all of those things
transpired for me. "
• "I found great value in this course as a refresher, reinforcing what I already knew and illuminating a few
“dark” areas. Thanks!"
Attendee responses to the question: "Was this course worth your time and expense?" included:
• "I have been working in this industry since May towards obtaining my Class B license. In one week
you’ve helped me get a firm grasp on principles I’ve been struggling to learn for the past five months. I
look forward to future courses."
• "Somewhat, it was mostly a brief overview of refrigeration. I did learn new information that I can use on
my job."
• "Definitely – though much was already known many of the questions helped me see better how systems
operate. A well-thought out and well-developed course."
Doug Reindl says, "One of the biggest challenges in conducting a course like the Overview of Ammonia
Refrigeration Systems course is meeting the goals of a wide range of attendees with varying degrees of
experience. In this course, we tried to illuminate some of the finer points of systems to keep those more
experienced engaged while not losing those new to refrigeration. It is a delicate balance we strive to maintain."
The IRC will continue to refine its educational programs so look for future courses offered on-line.
BEECCO
OM AN
MEE A N IRC MEEM
MB N 2005
R IIN
BEER
Most of you know that the IRC’s mission is to improve the safety, reliability, efficiency, and
productivity of industrial refrigeration systems. However, do you know that the IRC operates
wholly on external funds primarily from ammonia refrigeration end users?
In many ways, IRC member companies are just like yours, they have refrigeration needs in the
areas of education, technical assistance, and strategic planning. An important characteristic is
that IRC member companies see refrigeration as an important component of their business.
Membership in the IRC will allow your organization to engage staff and other IRC member
companies to improve your refrigeration capabilities. As an IRC member, you will have access
to telephone hot-line support on technical, operational and regulatory issues, internet-based
information and technical resources (including access to IRC webcourses and web-based
tools), technical bulletins, safety updates, specialized publications, and refrigeration education
for personnel at all levels.
Hopefully you find this and past issues of the Cold Front helpful and relevant to your
operations. By joining the IRC, more awaits you – our best is reserved for members!
7
Vol. 4 No. 4, 2004
IRC Hosts Successful Mechanical Integrity

Workshop
On November 9-10, the Industrial Refrigeration Consortium hosted a workshop to explore
mechanical integrity (MI) concerns and solutions available to the ammonia refrigeration industry.
Workshop participants considered it a successful event, all taking home new information on MI
failure mechanics, ways to detect these potential failures and approaches to setting up the MI
portion of their Process Safety Management (PSM) programs.
The focus of the workshop was to bring together stakeholders with diverse experiences and
expertise to help define the parameters of an acceptable MI program for the ammonia refrigeration
industry. Special emphasis was placed on examining the failure methods of piping and vessels and
determining nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques to find these problems. This was
accomplished through presentations by experienced speakers and breakout sessions that
brainstormed on various topics.
Several refrigeration end-users presented examples of the mechanical integrity portion of their PSM
programs. Others shared documented evidence of stress corrosion cracking occurring in their
piping and vessels.
Manufacturers of NDT equipment showed up to demonstrate the technology and to learn the
nuances of the refrigeration industry. Contractors, both refrigeration and NDT, shared their
experiences and participated the brainstorming sessions.
The breakout sessions produced a sampling of the refrigeration components participants felt were at
the highest risk of failure and would have the most significant impact if failure occurred. The
sessions also developed a prioritized list of what is needed to create a proper MI program and a list
of potential changes designers, owners, manufacturers and contractors could make in the design
and construction of refrigeration systems to improve integrity and ease future inspection.
A copy of all presentations, additional notes and the compiled results of the breakout sessions are
available for IRC members to download at www.irc.wisc.edu.
Research & Technology Forum

Registration Reminder
Don’t forget to register on-line for the 5th annual IRC R&T Forum on January 20-21, 2005 in Madison, WI.
Information on the topics and registration are available on our website or by clicking here. We have extended
the registration deadline to January 10. If you have any questions about the forum, please call us toll-free at
(866) 635-4721.
See you in January!
8
Vol. 6 No. 2, 2006

Vol. 6 No. 3, 2006
SINGLE- OR TWO-STAGE
COMPRESSION?
In this issue of the Cold Front, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of single- vs.
two-stage compression systems. Along the way, we will also discuss the advantages of intercooling
and two-stages of liquid expansion.
INTRODUCTION & HISTORY

Historically, the move toward multi-stage compression systems has its roots in the demand for lower
temperature refrigeration.

Director • 1- or 2-stage Compression? 1-9
or 608/262-6381 • Upcoming Ammonia Classes 2
dreindl@wisc.edu
• Noteworthy 2
Assistant Director
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008 • Relief System Design 9
tbjekel@wisc.edu Webcourse
Research Staff
Dan Dettmers 608/262-8221
djdettme@wisc.edu

Phone 608/262-8220 Room 2342
FAX 608/262-6209 Madison, WI 53706-1607
1
Vol. 6 No. 3, 2006
First generation industrial refrigeration

compression technologies (primarily reciprocating
compressors, but also rotary vane) faced two key
constraints. First, both reciprocating and rotary
U
Uppcco
ommiin
nggAAmmmmo
onniia
a
vane compressors have physical compression CCoouur
rssees
s
ratio limits. Second, compressors and the oil
used in compressors have limits on discharge gas Intermediate Ammonia Refrigeration
temperature. Most reciprocating compressors are
limited to compression ratios less than 8:1. The Engineering Safety Relief Systems
compression ratio of a compressor is simply the December 11-15, 2006 (9-11 am CDT)
ratio of discharge pressure to suction pressure Anywhere via the web
(both expressed in absolute terms). A saturated
condensing temperature of 95°F [35°C] is a Process Safety Management Audits
common design point and corresponds to a January 10-12, 2007 Madison, WI
saturation pressure of 196 psia [13.5 bar]. At this
design condition and a compression ratio limit of Ammonia Refrigeration: Uncovering
8:1, a lower limit on suction pressure becomes Opportunities for Energy Efficiency
24.5 psia [1.69 bar], i.e. a saturation temperature Improvements
of approximately -8.5°F [-22.5°C]. Clearly, February 14-16, 2007 Madison, WI
reciprocating compressors operating in a single-
stage of compression have a practical lower March 7-9, 2007 Madison, WI
evaporating temperature limit much higher than
many of the temperature demands of today’s Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
refrigeration processes. April 11-13, 2007 Madison, WI
The second factor limiting single-stage Engineering Calculations for PSM & RMP
compression systems is the behavior that May 16-18, 2007 Madison, WI
ammonia exhibits during the compression
process. As ammonia is compressed, its pressure Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for
increases and with it, a dramatic increase in Peak Performance and Efficiency
September 10-14, 2007 Madison, WI
temperature. With reciprocating compression
technologies, increasing compression ratios
requires an external source of cooling for the
compressor (water or refrigerant-cooled heads).
A high discharge temperature for a reciprocating See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
compressor would be 230°F [110°C]. High information.
discharge temperatures increase the rate of
compressor lubricating oil breakdown as well the
likelihood of material fatigue (in the compressor)
due to high temperatures.
Noteworthy
• The IRC will hold its annual Research & Technology Forum on February 8-9,
2007 in Madison, WI. Put this event on your calendars – you won’t want to miss it. The 2007
Forum will feature presentations on Sustainability, Relief Valves, and the latest on research in
the area of industrial refrigeration. Details on this event to follow shortly.
2
Vol. 6 No. 3, 2006
The combination of compression ratio and refrigerant discharge superheat limit our ability to provide
useful refrigeration in a single stage compression arrangement with reciprocating and rotary vane
compressors. As a result, early refrigeration pioneers developed and implemented the concept of
multi-stage compression systems to reduce the compression ratio on individual compressors and
intercooling to remove the discharge superheat from the first stage of compression.
For screw compressors, the compression ratio limits are relaxed (generally up to 18:1 compression
ratios) and the refrigerant discharge gas temperature is suppressed due to larger flow rates of oil
within the compressor to provide sealing and lubrication. A high discharge temperature for a screw
compressor would be 195°F [90°C]. The application of screw compressors allow for the
consideration of single-stage compression in lower suction temperature cases that historically would
have required two-stage compression systems.
SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS
Since screw compressors are capable of higher compression ratios, the need for two-stage
compression becomes optional over a wider range of suction pressures. Let’s consider the efficiency
difference between single- and two-stage compression systems using screw compression technology.
Before proceeding with coverage of the energy efficiency aspects of two-stage compression systems,
we need to define terminology that we will refer to during our discussion. Multiple stages of
compression are often combined with multiple stages of liquid expansion (throttling) and intercooling.
The term “liquid expansion” used here refers to the number of times liquid refrigerant at the
condensing pressure is expanded (reduced in pressure) to reach the lowest pressure level in the
system with the resulting flash gas being recompressed to the next higher pressure level within the
system at each expansion step. Two stages of liquid expansion can be implemented on both two-
stage compression systems and single-stage compression systems configured with multiple operating
suction pressure levels. The term “intercooling” only applies to two-stage systems and represents
the process of desuperheating the booster discharge gas by direct contact with liquid refrigerant at
the intermediate (intercooling) pressure. In addition to the reduced refrigerant temperature that
would be sent to the high-stage, for anhydrous ammonia, intercooling also reduces the size of the
high-stage compressors required.
We will consider three system configurations in the comparison. The simplest is a single-stage
compression system without a higher temperature load that would dictate an intermediate pressure.
The second level of complication is a single-stage compression system with the presence of a higher
temperature load that fixes the intermediate pressure thus allowing for two-stages of liquid
expansion. And finally, a full-blown two-stage compression system with two-stages of liquid
expansion and intercooling. The three systems are shown schematically in Figure 1.
Screw compressors with external oil cooling will be used for the compressors since they are the most
often specified compressor technology today. All of the compressor performance data used in this
comparative analysis is taken from manufacturers’ selection programs across the ranges of operating
pressures considered. The performance of each compressor is optimized (i.e. variable Vi or properly
chosen fixed Vi) for the conditions. The performance data (i.e. hp/ton) are for packaged
compressors (i.e. including pressure losses associated with suction and discharge trim) with no
suction superheat and saturated liquid from the condenser.
EFFICIENCY COMPARISON
The efficiencies of each of these three different systems will be necessarily affected by the
requirements of the refrigeration load (i.e. suction), the intermediate pressure (if any), and the
3
Vol. 6 No. 3, 2006
Evaporative
Condenser(s)
High
Low
Pressure
Temperature
Receiver
Recirculator/
Intercooler
Low
Temperature
Evaporator(s)
Compressor(s)
(a) Single-stage compression & liquid expansion
Evaporative
Condenser(s)
High
Medium
Pressure
Temperature
Low Receiver
Recirculator
Temperature
Evaporator(s)
Medium
Temperature
Low 5’ Evaporator(s)
Temperature
Recirculator
Low Temperature Medium Temperature

Compressor(s) Compressor(s)
(b) Single-stage compression with Two-stage Liquid Expansion
Evaporative
Condenser(s)
High
Medium
Pressure
Temperature
Low Receiver Medium Recirculator/
Temperature Temperature Intercooler
Evaporator(s) Evaporator(s)
Low 5’
Temperature
Recirculator
Booster High-Stage
Compressor(s) Compressor(s)
(c) Two-Stage compression & expansion
Figure 1 Schematics of refrigeration systems considered.
4
Vol. 6 No. 3, 2006
ambient conditions (i.e. condensing). As such, intermediate as a typical high-stage pressure set
we have a total of 8 degrees of freedom. point. The figure shows, expectedly, that as the
compression ratio increases, the advantages of
as a function of suction two-stages of compression and liquid expansion
pressure increases. Two points are shown on the figure
The most obvious factor that affects the system specifically, c indicates the point (-18.5°F
efficiency is the low-temperature suction [-28°C]) where the hp/ton of the two-stage
pressure requirement. Figure 2 shows the system (Figure 1(c)) is 10% lower than a
effect of suction pressure (expressed as single-stage system (Figure 1(a)) and d
saturated suction temperature) on the indicates the point (-32°F [-35.6°C]) where th
efficiencies of the three systems for a fixed hp/ton for the two-stage system is 10% lower
saturated intermediate pressure (SIP) of 30 psig than the single-stage system with two-stages of
[2.1 bar(g)] (16.5°F [-8.6°C] saturated) and a liquid expansion (Figure 1(b)). Another point to
saturated condensing temperature (SCT) of note is that at approximately -12°F [24.4°C]
85°F [29.4°C] (150 psig [10.3 bar(g)]). The saturated suction (8 psig [0.55 bar(g)]) the two-
condensing pressure is chosen to approximate a stage and single-stage with two-stages of liquid
yearly average condensing pressure for a expansion systems have the same efficiency.
refrigeration system and 30 psig [2.1 bar(g)]
3.5
Single-stage Compression & Liquid Expansion Anhy drous Ammonia (R-717)
Screw Compressor
Full-load Compressor Efficiency [hp/ton]
SIP = 30 psig (16.5°F sat)

SCT = 85°F (150 psig)
3
2.75
Single-stage Compression
Two-stage Liquid Expansion
2.5
2.25 2
2 1
Two-stage Compression & Liqu id Expansion
1.75
1.5
1.25
-55 -45 -35 -25 -15 -5
Figure 2 Refrigeration system efficiency as a function of low-temperature suction requirements.
5
Vol. 6 No. 3, 2006
The advantage of a two-stage compression cfm/ton [1.2 m3/h-kWt] compared to a single-

system is increased system efficiency, especially stage system with two-stages of liquid
for lower temperature process requirements, but expansion.
that increased efficiency comes with a price:
more compressors. More compressors mean as a function of Intermediate
more maintenance, more machinery room floor pressure
space, etc. How these factors play into the total Undoubtedly, you have heard of the presence of
life cycle cost of the system is beyond the scope an “optimum” inter-stage pressure for a two-
of this article; however, you may have internal stage compression system. This “optimum” is a
figures that allow you to account for these function of the total compression ratio on the
factors. Figure 3 shows the total compressor system and theoretically (i.e. mathematically) is
size (i.e. volume flow rate, cfm) per ton of low the pressure that results in equal compression
temperature refrigeration load. Across the ratio across each of the two stages. It is
range of saturated suction temperatures (SST) theoretical though, which means that it is
from -45 to -5°F [-42.8 to -20.6°C], the two- unencumbered by the realities of the equipment
stage system has an incremental compressor used. Figures 4 & 5 show the effect of
size of 1.5-2 cfm/ton [0.75 to 1 m3/h-kWt] intermediate pressure on the efficiencies of the
compared to a single-stage system and 2.5 three systems for a fixed saturated suction
18
Anhy drous Ammonia (R-717)
Screw Compressor
Total Compressor Volume Flow Rate [cfm/ton]

16 SIP = 30 psig (16.5°F sat)
SCT = 85°F (150 psig)
14
12
Two-stage Compression & Liquid Expansion

10
Two-stage Liquid Expansion
8
6
Single-stage Compression & Liquid Expansion
4
-55 -45 -35 -25 -15 -5
Figure 3 Compressor size (i.e. cfm) per ton as a function of low-temperature suction requirements.
6
Vol. 6 No. 3, 2006
3.5
3.25
Full-load Compressor Efficiency [hp/ton] 3

Single-stage Comp ression & Liquid Expansion
2.75
Single-stage Compression, Two-stage L iquid Expansion
2.5
2.25
Theoretical optimum Two -stage Compression & Liquid Expansion
intermediate pressure
2
1.75 Anhy drous Ammonia (R-717)

Screw Compressor
1.5 SST = -40°F (9" Hg)
SCT = 85°F (150 psig)
1.25
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Intermediate Pressure [psig]
Figure 4 Refrigeration system efficiency (-40°F SST) as a function of intermediate pressure.
3.5
Screw Compressor
3.25
SST = -25°F (1.2 psig)

SCT = 85°F (150 psig)
3
2.75
2.5
2.25
Single-stag e Co mpressio n & Liquid Expansion
1.75
Two-stage Compression & Liquid Expansion Single-stage Compression
Two-stage Liquid Expan sion
1.5
Theoretical optimum
intermediate pressure
1.25
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Intermediate Pressure [psig]
Figure 5 Refrigeration system efficiency (-25°F sat) as a function of intermediate pressure.
7
Vol. 6 No. 3, 2006
temperature of -40°F [-40°C] (9” Hg [-0.3 bar(g)]) and -25°F [-31.7°C] (1.2 psig [0.08 bar(g)])
respectively at 85°F [29.4°C] saturated condensing (150 psig [10.3 bar(g)]). The green dot (●)
indicates the theoretical optimum interstage pressure for a system with two-stages of compression.
Notice that the actual optimum (i.e. lowest hp/ton) occurs at intermediate pressures higher than the
theoretical optimum. Also note that the optimum is wide, that is, the intermediate pressure does not
have a large effect on the efficiency. To illustrate that point, in Figure 4, any intermediate pressure
between 27-50 psig [1.9-3.4 bar(g)] gives system efficiencies within 2% of the optimum!
In reality, most refrigeration systems have loads at higher temperatures. Examples of higher
temperature loads include coolers, bulk product storage tanks, production air-conditioning, post-
pasteurization cooling, etc. These loads will also be added to the system. What we can see is that
the presence of these higher temperature loads does not significantly degrade the efficiency of
meeting the low-stage loads. This is excellent news because now we can let the temperature
requirement of the high-stage loads dictate the intermediate pressure set point without compromising
the efficiency of meeting the low-stage loads.
as a function of Condensing pressure

The last factor considered is the condensing pressure. Figure 6 shows the effect of saturated
condensing temperature (pressure) on the efficiencies of the three systems for a fixed intermediate
pressure of 30 psig [2.1 bar(g)] (16.5°F [-8.6°C] saturated) and -25°F [-31.7°C] saturated suction
(1.2 psig [0.08 bar(g)]). As the condensing pressure is reduced, the compression ratio is reduced and
at about 64°F saturated (100 psig [6.9 bar(g)]) the efficiency of the two-stage system is the same as
for a single-stage compression system with two stages of liquid expansion.
3.5
Screw Compressor
SST = -25°F (1.2 psig)

SIP = 30 psig (16.5°F sat)
3
2.75
Single-stage Com pressio n & Liquid Expansion
2.5
2.25
2 Two -stage Liquid Expansion
1.75
Two-stage Compression & Liquid Expan sion

1.5
1.25
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Saturated Condensing Temperature [°F]
Figure 6 Refrigeration system efficiency (-25°F SST) as a function of condensing pressure.
8
Vol. 6 No. 3, 2006
CONCLUSIONS
The use of two-stages of compression is common in today’s industrial refrigeration systems. With
properly chosen compressor volume ratios, the efficiency benefit of two-stages of compression
increases as the temperature requirements are lowered and is relatively independent of the
intermediate pressure. The decision on whether or not to configure the system for multiple-stages
of compression is one that should consider both the advantages & disadvantages at the suction
pressures required by the loads. As a general rule, two-stage compression systems should be
evaluated when the saturated suction temperature is lower than -25°F [-31.7°C] (1.2 psig [0.08
bar(g)]). Regardless of the number of stages of compression, two-stages of liquid expansion is an
effective way to increase the efficiency of the refrigeration system.
COMMENTS & QUESTIONS

If you have any questions or comments on the information in this article, please contact Todd
Jekel at the IRC (866) 635-4721.
OTHER RESOURCES
IRC, Industrial Refrigeration Systems Energy Efficiency Guidebook, 2006. Available for purchase by
clicking here.
Stoecker, W.F., Industrial Refrigeration Handbook, 1998, McGraw-Hill.
Relief System Design Webcourse!

Held via the web December 11-15, 2006 at 9-11 am Central, this workshop is an ideal opportunity to
develop or improve your understanding of engineered safety relief systems. Our primary focus is industrial
refrigeration systems but many of the principles we will discuss apply equally to other applications as well.
Whether you are an end-user, equipment manufacturer, design engineer, or contractor, this course will help
you build your capabilities in the area of the principles and practices of engineering safety relief systems.
Participate and develop your understanding of:
√ Codes and Standards related to safety relief systems

√ Key aspects of engineering code-compliant relief systems
√ Capacity determination for non-standard equipment like heat exchangers
√ Methods for proper sizing of relief vent piping, including headered vent systems
In addition to the course, the IRC has developed a web-based safety relief systems analysis tool. This
powerful tool has a high degree of flexibility to analyze, engineer, and document safety relief systems for
industrial refrigeration applications. The tool features:
√ Graphical user interface to configure relief system to be analyzed
√ Ability to handle headered systems & multiple relief scenarios
√ Quick and accurate algorithm to solve compressible flow equations
√ Relief valve selection wizard
√ Equivalent lengths for elbows & fittings included
√ Detailed compliance checks for each system component
√ One-click reports for easy printing
Access to the tool is provided free of charge to those completing this course. A brochure for the course is
available on or website, or by clicking here.
9
Vol. 7 No. 2, 2007
VISUAL INSPECTION OF PIPING &

VESSELS FOR MECHANICAL INTEGRITY
PART 1: FAILURE MECHANISMS
Mechanical Integrity: Those activities undertaken to provide assurance that mechanical equipment
is designed, fabricated, procured, installed, operated, protected and maintained in a manner
appropriate for its intended application. Others simply define it as a “reliability program.” (IRC
2007)
Today, many plants struggle with both the breadth and depth of developing and implementing a
mechanical integrity (MI) program for their industrial refrigeration systems. The views range from:
“mechanical integrity is a resource-intensive program involving costly inspections by expert

Director • Visual Inspection of Piping & 1-8
Doug Reindl 608/265-3010 Vessels for MI
or 608/262-6381
dreindl@wisc.edu • Upcoming Ammonia Classes 2
Assistant Director • Noteworthy 2
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008
tbjekel@wisc.edu
Research Staff
djdettme@wisc.edu

Phone 608/262-8220 Room 2342
FAX 608/262-6209 Madison, WI 53706-1607
1
Vol. 7 No. 2, 2007
contractors using very specialized equipment” to: U

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“our mechanical integrity program directs us to Co
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fix equipment once it has failed.” Clearly, these
are opposite ends of the spectrum and many
Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for
Peak Performance and Efficiency
end-users are continuing the search for an
appropriate balance in the development and
refinement of their MI programs. Process Hazard Analysis (Emphasizing
Ammonia Refrigeration Systems)
While the more costly non-destructive evaluations
will always be a part of a plant’s MI program, Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
developing and implementing a careful visual October 16-18, 2007 Madison, WI
inspection program is one approach to help
target the application of higher cost non- December 5-7, 2007 Madison, WI
destructive testing to those portions of a system
with potentially deficient MI. A significant benefit Process Safety Management Audits
of visual inspections is that they can be
accomplished with operations staff and other in- Ammonia Refrigeration: Uncovering
house personnel. Opportunities for Energy Efficiency
Improvements
In this two-part series of newsletter articles, we February 13-15, 2008 Madison, WI
discuss key considerations in conducting effective Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
visual inspections. In this first issue, we present March 5-7, 2008 Madison, WI
common mechanisms that can compromise the
mechanical integrity of piping and vessels used in Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
industrial refrigeration systems. Understanding
these modalities of failure is foundational to Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
achieving successful visual inspections. After all, March 5-7, 2008 Madison, WI
those responsible for conducting visual
inspections need to know what “bad” looks like! In See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
the next issue, we will discuss the “whats, wheres, information.
and whens” of visual inspections on piping and
vessels. Although our focus in this series is on
piping and vessels, it is important to realize that
the scope of MI programs is much broader and
encompasses rotating mechanical equipment
Noteworthy
• We congratulate & mourn the retirement of Godan Nambudiripad & Dan Pate
from General Mills. Good luck to both of you in retirement!
2
Vol. 7 No. 2, 2007
(pumps and compressors), engineered safety systems (safety relief, emergency shutdown), and
controls (sensors, alarms, interlocks).
Background
Historically, many industrial refrigeration systems were operated until components outright failed.
With the promulgation of the Process Safety Management (PSM) Standard in 1992 (Federal Register –
29 CFR 1910.119), this operations and maintenance mindset has given way to alternative methods
seeking to repair or replace equipment prior to reaching the end of its useful life. Why? Because the
PSM Standard specifically requires that employers develop and implement an MI program to manage
those systems with hazardous chemicals (1910.119j). The basic intent of the MI provision in the PSM
Standard is to ensure that highly hazardous chemicals are contained within the process and not
released in an uncontrolled manner (PSM Standard Preamble). An effective MI program will ensure the
system is designed, constructed, installed, operated, and maintained properly throughout its life;
thereby, minimizing the probability that hazardous substances will be released as a result of
catastrophic failure.
A significant collateral benefit that end-users are realizing with the implementation of an effective MI
program is the improved reliability of their systems to meet the on-going process needs of a plant.
Increasingly, end-users of industrial refrigeration systems are realizing that “run-‘til failure” (RTF)
maintenance is not consistent with their operational needs and goals. Apart from the obvious safety
risks to personnel, unplanned outages create process interruptions with the potential for significant
direct and indirect impacts to the business. For this reason, more and more industrial refrigeration
end-users have recognized that there is a significant business case associated with better managing
the mechanical integrity of their systems.
Typical Failure Mechanisms

Whether you are establishing or refining an MI inspection program or training your staff to do visual
inspections, it is important to consider and understand some of the typical failure mechanisms of
refrigeration piping and vessels. Although the failure mechanisms presented and discussed in this
article arise in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems, it is worth noting that most of these failure
methods are common to all refrigeration systems using carbon steel piping. Developing and
implementing an MI program for those systems using other refrigerants such as carbon dioxide, R-22,
R-507 or other halocarbon refrigerants is equally important for personnel protection and reliable
system operation. Keep in mind that the use of other materials of construction, such as stainless steel
or copper, introduces a whole new set of failure mechanisms. For example, stainless steel is
extremely susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in the presence of chlorides and anyone dealing
with copper should be aware of formicary (ant’s nest) corrosion that “eats” through the copper in a
series of tiny holes. Further information on these failure mechanisms will not be covered in this article
but can be found in various handbooks on corrosion and reference sources such as the ASM
International Handbooks (ASM International, 2003).
The three most common mechanisms that lead to the loss of mechanical integrity in piping and
vessels where visual inspection can be an effective evaluation tool includes: external corrosion,
erosion, and impact damage. Types of external corrosion are presented as well as those locations
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Vol. 7 No. 2, 2007
where the corrosion is occurring – uninsulated or under insulation. Although internal erosion is not
directly observable with visual inspection, we include it here to highlight the need for awareness of
those locations susceptible to integrity loss by this mode. Clearly impact damage can cause
immediate loss of mechanical integrity (e.g. a severed pipe); however, the more subtle mode is impact
damage causing latent failure (e.g. over-stressed pipe). Each of these mechanisms is discussed in
more detail below.
Corrosion
By far, the most common failure mechanism for carbon steel piping and vessels in ammonia
refrigeration systems is by external material loss from corrosion (rusting). Corrosion is defined by the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) as "the deterioration of a material, usually a metal,
by reaction with its environment" (NACE, 2000). In its simplest form, corrosion of metals requires the
presence of an anode & cathode, electrolyte, and an electrical path joining them (Dunn and Norsworth,
2002). Anodes and cathodes tend to form in numerous locations on metals at surface imperfections,
inclusions, or a lack of material homogeneity. The availability of a fluid, such as water, bridges these
areas and serves as an electrolyte; thereby, affording an opportunity for corrosion to occur. Since a
significant proportion of the piping and vessels used in refrigeration systems are insulated, corrosion
under insulation (CUI) is of particular concern because the material loss can be latent (hidden) -
eluding visual detection for extended periods of time. The two most common forms of corrosion
found in ammonia refrigeration systems are uniform external corrosion and external pitting corrosion.
Uniform external corrosion is the gradual thinning of large areas of a wall due to the removal of
material by the corrosion process. Visual examination of uniformly corroded surfaces will not always
give a good indication as to the severity of the corrosion due to the lack of contrast because the entire
surface is being uniformly diminished. If significant uniform corrosion is suspected by the
overwhelming appearance of rust, a thickness measurement of the component using a non-
destructive technique such as ultrasonics is recommended to quantify the extent of material loss.
(a) Uniform (b) Pitting

Figure 1 Examples of external uniform & pitting corrosion
Pitting external corrosion is the localized loss of wall material in the form of one or more cavities or
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Vol. 7 No. 2, 2007
pits in the surface. Identification of pitting The occurrence of CUI is higher when water or
corrosion by visual examination is obvious due to water vapor migrates into an insulation system
the contrast with surrounding wall material but and reaches underlying carbon steel surfaces.
only if the pitting exists in the area being visually The availability of free water provides the
examined (e.g. not covered by insulation, hidden needed electrolyte to support corrosion of the
in an interstitial space, etc). The severity of the underlying steel piping or vessel. The source of
pitting is assessed by the density of the pits and moisture is variable but can originate from
by the depth of the deepest pit. Failure occurs ambient (rain), a water leak, excessive sanitation
when a pit fully breaches the wall. Figure 1 overspray, discharge from a sprinkler system, or
illustrates examples of both uniform and pitting by the water vapor pressure difference between
type corrosion. the colder pipe/vessel surface and the
surrounding ambient environment. The high
It is important to note that a number of factors vapor pressure of moisture in the ambient will
can combine to increase the rate of corrosion migrate to the low vapor pressure near the cold
including: oxygen (presence of dissolved oxygen pipe/vessel wall. As the moisture moves toward
in water accelerates corrosion), solutes (presence the pipe wall, condensation of water vapor
of acids accelerate corrosion), and temperature occurs when the external surface of the pipe is
(corrosion rates double for every 18°F (10°C) rise below the dew point temperature of the
in temperature). infiltrating moist air.
Internal corrosion, in either uniform or pitting Regardless of its source, moisture has to
corrosion, is virtually impossible in ammonia penetrate a torrential path in a well designed
systems due to the lack of available oxygen and and installed insulation system: outer jacket,
the fact that ammonia itself is a poor electrolyte. vapor retarder, and the insulation media itself.
If the surface of the underlying piping or vessel
CORROSION UNDER has not been protected by a coating (or the
INSULATION coating has been compromised), the moisture
Identifying areas of an uninsulated piping system will enable corrosion on exposed carbon steel
experiencing material loss by corrosion is surfaces. The resulting corrosion will be
relatively straightforward. On the other hand, uniform or pitting-type corrosion.
identifying areas of an insulated piping system
experiencing material loss by corrosion is much In cases where the infiltrating moisture freezes
more difficult. CUI is not a distinct form of (and remains in a frozen state), the tendency for
corrosion; rather it refers to the location of the surface corrosion to occur is decreased because
corrosion – occurring on the external surfaces of ice is a poor electrolyte. In cases where the
piping and vessels beneath insulation systems insulated equipment or surrounding ambient
making it nearly impossible to detect by visual temperatures cycle, the opportunity exists for
examination. CUI can harbor either general ice to melt and provide the electrolyte needed to
surface corrosion or pitting corrosion. Oftentimes support corrosion. As a result, it is important to
other related signs, such as a discolored carefully validate the assumption that various
insulation jacket, are the only outward appearance refrigeration components are consistently
that CUI may be active. frozen. Some piping, vessels and valves thaw
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Vol. 7 No. 2, 2007
during one cycle in their operation, such as preparation prior to application of an insulation
during hot-gas defrost. Other components may system is clearly apparent in this one case.
only have a small portion of their surface Over time, the exterior vapor retarder failed
consistently frozen, such as a low temperature and moisture migrated to the pipe surface
recirculator vessel where those are portions which enabled corrosion to occur. The
continuously below the liquid level, subcooled thickness of the unpainted pipe is
high pressure liquid lines, low-temperature approximately 1/6 that of the protected pipe.
recirculated liquid supply lines, etc. Locations
that have the ability to freeze/thaw water are at
increased risk for CUI. More information on this
topic will be provided in Part 2 of this article in
the next newsletter.
Surfaces that are at the greatest risk of

premature failure are those whose temperatures
fluctuate above and below the freezing point.
These fluctuations tend to pull moisture into the
insulation where it condenses and, possibly,
freezes. Once frozen, the ice expands and
irreversibly damages the insulation. Upon
melting, a larger gap will exist to hold a larger
amount of moisture; thereby, doing further
damage to the insulation system during the next Figure 2 Impact of painting the outside of
cycle. Examples of these surfaces include piping.
defrost condensate return lines, liquid transfer
vessels and wet suction return lines. One of the most effective methods for
preventing CUI is to prevent moisture from
Since all insulation systems will experience a infiltrating the insulation system and coming
moisture breach (failure) at some point in their into contact with the pipe/vessel surface. This
future, it is essential to consider a secondary protection starts with a good outer jacket,
means of corrosion defense. One of the most properly applied vapor retarder and the use of
effective secondary defense strategies against closed cell insulation materials with low
CUI is by treating the underlying piping/vessel. moisture permeability. Most insulation systems
Several options exist including: prime-paint, two are replaced when there is an obvious failure of
part epoxy, enamel paints, and others. The the insulation system, which can lead to latent
long-term impact of failing to apply a protective material loss by CUI prior to replacement.
coating to insulated components can be seen in
Figure 2. This subcooled high pressure liquid Uninsulated vessels and piping without frost
line was installed with only a portion of the accumulation can also suffer from corrosion.
originally-installed pipe primed and painted Because these surfaces are often visible, the
(shown on the right), while the remainder of the presence of surface corrosion can be quickly
same pipe segment was unpainted (shown on identified and remedied. Exceptions to this
the left). The importance of base pipe include uncoated piping that is concealed in
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Vol. 7 No. 2, 2007
piping chases or behind walls as well as piping configured in enclosures (e.g. evaporative condenser
heat exchangers).
Erosion
One internally-driven failure mode is erosion. Erosion is the loss of material due to the repeated
impingement of high momentum liquid droplets or solids on the internal surface. Although not
possible to detect by visual inspection, a sound visual inspection program should identify those
areas that are at risk of erosion so they can be routinely inspected using proper non-destructive
evaluation methods.
Where are erosion “hot spots” in piping

systems and vessels? As a general rule,
there is an increased risk of erosion in
those portions of a system with high
concentrations of suspended particulate
matter (weld slag, roof ballast, dirt, or
other debris) especially in piping
systems that experience high velocities
and changes in flow direction (i.e.
elbows where the refrigerant erodes the
outer radius, at intersections, and
valves). Interior portions of a vessel can
be at risk as well if the entrained liquid
droplets or solid particles impact the
side of the vessel out of a misdirected
or eroded inlet nozzle. Figure 3 Example of internal erosion of a valve.
Additionally, cavitating liquid phase flow is highly erosive, manifesting itself in wire drawing
components such as valve seats. Once wire drawn, these valves become unable to block flow (globe
valves) or properly modulate flow (thermostatic expansion valves). Figure 3 shows an extreme case
of internal erosion on a globe valve body. The change in flow direction through the port caused
material on the inside of the valve to wear away.
Weld Defects
Visual inspections are an important tool during not only the operation phase but also during the
construction phase of a piping system. In particular, visual inspection techniques are an essential
part of insuring the suitability of welds made in accordance with the refrigerant piping standard,
ASME B31.5. There are a number of factors that can contribute to weld defects, particularly those
performed in the field. Weld defects can stem from a metallurgical problem in the base material to
improper selection of weld materials or the ineffectiveness of the welder.
Since radiographic or ultrasonic inspection is not explicitly required under the refrigerant piping
standard (ASME B31.5) for most refrigerants, a common weld defect that goes unidentified is the
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Vol. 7 No. 2, 2007
lack of penetration or lack of fusion (frequently due to a rushed weld job that was created without
supervision). Performing a visual inspection of the final weld only provides an indication on the
condition of the last pass. Many companies recommend performing visual inspections on not only
the root pass on cover passes. Increasingly, end-users are performing post-construction
quantitative evaluation of welds using ultrasonic or radiographic inspection on a small percentage of
all welds.
Physical Impact
Arguably, one of the more dangerous objects in a food processing or distribution facility is the fork
truck. Wayward fork truck drivers have ripped down hot gas lines, pierced refrigerant piping, bent
piping, and dented vessels. Unfortunately, the damage is not always properly reported nor
immediately discovered. The only way to find this damage prior to complete failure is through a
careful inspection program.
Conclusion
The number and variation of failure methods for carbon steel refrigerant vessels and piping seems
limitless. Fortunately, many of these defects can be found through a competent and thorough
inspection program before failure occurs. Visual inspection is an important undertaking to monitor
& locate external deficiencies that occur over time. Visual inspection techniques are also an
important part of quality assurance following the completion of piping system construction. Many
of the failure mechanisms provided telltale signs that can be identified in the course of a plants’
visual inspection.
If you have any questions or comments on the information in this article, please contact Dan
Dettmers at the IRC (866) 635-4721.
In the next volume of the Cold Front, Part 2 of this series will provide guidance on establishing
and conducting a visual inspection of an ammonia refrigeration system.
References
ASM International Handbooks Online, http://products.asminternational.org/hbk/index.jsp (2003)
ASM Handbooks, Volume 13a, “Selecting Materials to Prevent or Control Corrosion” (2003)
Dunn, Patrick, J. and Norsworthy, Richard, “Control of Corrosion Basics: Corrosion Under Insulation”,
Proceedings of IIAR, pp. 33-57, (2002).
IRC, “Nondestructive Testing Methods for Mechanical Integrity Volume 1: MI Fundamentals”, Guidebook
published by the Industrial Refrigeration Consortium, Madison, WI (2007).
NACE, “Storage Tank Corrosion”, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, www.nace.org, (2000).
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Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
VISUAL INSPECTION OF PIPING &

VESSELS FOR MECHANICAL INTEGRITY
PART 2: VISUAL INSPECTION OF PIPING
Mechanical Integrity: Those activities undertaken to provide assurance that mechanical equipment
is designed, fabricated, procured, installed, operated, protected and maintained in a manner
appropriate for its intended application. Others simply define it as a “reliability program.” (IRC
2007)
In the last issue of The Cold Front (Volume 7, Number 2), we featured the article Visual
Inspection of Piping and Vessels for Mechanical Integrity, Part 1: Failure Mechanisms. The article
outlined a number of failure mechanisms applicable to refrigerant vessels and piping constructed of

Director • Visual Inspection of Piping 1-10
Doug Reindl 608/265-3010 & Vessels for MI
or 608/262-6381
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008
tbjekel@wisc.edu
Research Staff
djdettme@wisc.edu

Phone 608/262-8220 Room 2342
FAX 608/262-6209 Madison, WI 53706-1607
1
Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
carbon steel. The intent of the article was to

provide an understanding of these failure
modalities in preparation for this article, which U
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discusses considerations for developing and C
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implementing effective visual inspection
programs. Keep in mind that regardless of the
refrigerant (e.g. ammonia, R-22, CO2, R-134a, or Process Safety Management Audits
any other fluid), there are numerous January 9-11, 2008 Madison, WI
opportunities for failures to occur and effective
mechanical integrity programs are an essential
backstop to guard against failures. Improvements
February 13-15, 2008 Madison, WI
As discussed in Part 1, more common
mechanisms leading to failures of piping and
vessels, such as corrosion and physical impacts,
are external events that usually leave telltale Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
visual signs of their existence. Dents, April 9-11, 2008 Madison, WI
deformation, ice and condensation on the Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
insulation jackets all provide visual indications of March 5-7, 2008 Madison, WI
potential problems at the underlying pipe or
vessel’s external surface. Other less common
Engineering Calculations for PSM and RMP
precursors to failure are internal and difficult to
reliably detect without either advanced Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for
nondestructive inspection technologies or Peak Performance and Efficiency
physically opening the component for inspection. September 15-19, 2008 Madison, WI
These less common failure methods typically Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration

include stress corrosion cracking, internal October 8-10, 2008 Madison, WI
erosion, and weld defects.
Increasingly, facilities are conducting annual
inspections of all piping and vessels using in-
house staff. This inspection process is typically a See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
information.
visual inspection program aimed at identifying
indications of problems that could lead to
failures. In many cases, there is not real clear
Noteworthy
• Welcome NestlÉ USA as the newest IRC member!
• Mark your calendars now for the 2008 IRC R&T Forum – May 5-7, 2008 in Madison
2
Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
direction on how to inspect, when to inspect, and what indications are actually being sought. This
article is intended to provide guidance on establishing an effective visual inspection program to
improve the quality of existing or developing visual inspection programs.
GETTING STARTED
“How often should I inspect my system?” - a common question many industrial refrigeration system
operators ask. One of the first places to look for an answer to this question is the Mechanical Integrity
section of your plant’s Process Safety Management (PSM) program documentation. Many PSM
programs identify IIAR Bulletins 109 and 110 as the basis for their mechanical integrity program.
These offer a good starting point; however, many plants have not yet fully implemented the
recommendations/requirements identified in Bulletins 109 and 110. Let’s look at a few key
requirements from each of these publications to see if they might be familiar to you.
IIAR Bulletin 109 states:

“5.2 Each owner should ensure an ammonia system safety check is conducted annually.”
IIAR Bulleting 110 states:
“6.4.3 Where vessels and heat exchangers are in daily use, a detailed examination of the external
surface of the insulation applied to the external surface of such vessels and heat exchangers shall be
made at intervals of not more than 12 months.”
“6.7.1 All uninsulated piping…shall be inspected annually…”
“6.7.2 At least as part of the annual piping inspection, but preferably more frequently, the external
insulation and supports should be inspected.”
Based on these excerpts, all vessels, piping, supports and other associated components should be
inspected every 12 months. If your plant references these IIAR bulletins as a basis for the mechanical
integrity program, are these provisions currently being followed?
“Which piping do I need to inspect?” The simple answer is you must inspect all piping. IIAR bulletins
109 and 110 do not exempt a given type of pipe from inspection; however, they do differentiate
inspection requirements for insulated and uninsulated pipe. Some may argue that “always frozen”
piping or vessels do not need inspection since ice does not corrode carbon steel.
While it is true that the corrosion process is significantly slowed by the continuous presence of ice, can
you guarantee that any given piece of equipment is “always frozen”? This topic will be further
explained later in the article.
“How can I accomplish inspecting all this piping? I have miles and miles of piping!” It does seem a
daunting task, but notice that none of the above provisions require all vessels and piping to be
examined in one continuous inspection. Since most plants have a limited number of vessels, they are
typically inspected at a single time. To handle the piping inspection, consider breaking the inspection
task up into smaller portions and doing a little bit at a time. Just be sure that no portion of your
piping system goes longer than 12 months without an inspection. Here are some ideas of how to get
that pipe inspection complete:
• Break the job up. Inspect a different portion of the piping system each month.
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Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
• Include the piping inspection as part of inspection/maintenance of valves and other

components. As the team moves from valve station to valve station, inspect the pipe in
between.
• Make the inspection part of on-the-job training for new hires. Send a senior member along to
train on the first few and then let the new guy inspect the rest with a senior member reviewing
and confirming the inspection process and findings.
• Be sure to document the findings of these inspections!
Records of what is inspected and when are essential to avoid omission of vessels, piping or other
components. Also remember that without documentation, the inspection never occurred as far as
your PSM program is concerned.
“What do I need for documentation?” 1910.119(j)(4)(iv) of the PSM Standard states:

“The employer shall document each inspection and test that has been performed on process
equipment. The documentation shall identify the date of the inspection or test, the name of the person
who performed the inspection or test, the serial number or other identifier of the equipment on which
the inspection or test was performed, a description of the inspection or test performed, and the
results of the inspection or test.”
Simply put, any piece of inspection data collected should be documented and stored. A good starting
point for a documentation template is the Ammonia Refrigeration Safety Inspection Checklist which
can be found in the back of IIAR Bulletin 109. These sheets contain many of the items that should be
examined during an annual visual inspection. Modify the sheets to include additional inspection
information that you feel is important to the safety of your system. In the next section, we provide
several ideas for items to add.
“Who can perform the inspection?” The choice of an inspector to conduct the annual inspection is up
to the owner/operator of the system. Most choose a team of on-site personnel to conduct the
inspection. If at all possible, at least one of these participants should not be involved in the day-to-
day operation and maintenance of the system. This allows a new set of eyes to carefully examine all
parts of the system for any mechanical integrity deficiencies. Choices might include the plant’s PSM
coordinator, a maintenance technician from another department, the plant engineer, or perhaps a
corporate engineer.
“What equipment do I need?” The ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code: Section V, “Nondestructive
Examination,” Article 9 outlines the requirements that can be used in selecting and developing visual
inspection procedures. Proper lighting is essential. A minimum of 100 foot-candles (1,000 lux),
which is the equivalent of a 150-watt incandescent bulb held 3 feet from the surface, is
recommended. When possible, surrounding surfaces (walls, floors, ceilings, backdrops, etc.) should
be light colors that reflect light well.
A clean surface also makes inspection easier. A built up opaque dirt layer, whether it be rust or other
debris, obscures the inspector’s vision. When possible, clean the test surface prior to inspection.
The visual inspection process can be enhanced without the application of a probing medium by using
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Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
magnifying lenses and video technology. Both the refrigeration components.

require sufficient lighting, but also offer the
added ability for magnification on the test surface. Most dents or bulges to uninsulated vessels and
piping that are large enough to be of concern
can be found during a visual inspection of the
VISUAL INDICATORS OF POTENTIAL FAILURES
vessel or pipe surface. A powerful light directed
The previous article in this series listed multiple
from multiple angles toward the area being
failure methods including uniform external
inspected will aid the inspector in identifying
corrosion, pitting external corrosion, erosion,
problem areas.
weld defects, and physical impacts. Although the
probability exists, the statistical chances are low
For insulated piping and vessels, look for signs
that Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) is occurring
of damage to the aluminum or PVC jacket. The
in vessels and piping (Cold Front Vol. 5 No. 1 &
damage may not extend all the way to the vessel
Vol. 5 No. 2). Of these, only uniform external
surface but damage to the jacket may have
corrosion, pitting external corrosion and physical
compromised the integrity of the insulation
impacts can be reliably uncovered using a visual
system including the exterior vapor barrier. The
inspection. Internal erosion, SCC, and weld
puncture wound shown in Figure 1 did not
defects cannot be discovered by visual means in
extend all the way to the pipe surface, but it did
an operating system unless they have penetrated
provide an easy entrance for rain and other
to the surface of the pipe.
forms of moisture incursion which puts the
underlying piping at risk for accelerated
The remainder of this article will focus on physical
external corrosion.
damage and Corrosion-Under-Insulation (CUI),
which can manifest itself as either uniform or
pitting corrosion. The application of advanced
nondestructive inspection technologies is required
to discover the other failure methods.
Physical Impacts
All too often, refrigeration system components
and piping are subject to physical impacts.
Refrigeration system piping, evaporators, and
vessels can fall victim to the errant driving habits
of fork truck operators, overambitious cleaning
crews or use as a ladder or step. These
encounters can result in a dented, punctured, or
severed pipe, vessel or related infrastructure (e.g.
insulation system). Optimally, when damage Figure 1 A puncture in a pipe's aluminum
occurs, it should be immediately documented so jacket.
that the extent of damage can be assessed and
follow-up repairs made. Since this does not
What to look for: Scratches, dents or punctures
always happen, visual inspections should look for
in surface of vessel, piping or the insulation
dents or other indications of physical impact
jacket.
damage (deep scratches, flattened surfaces) on
5
Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
External Corrosion on Uninsulated Pipe Inspecting the Outer Jacket for Breeches
Uninsulated piping is usually piping that is on As mentioned earlier, exterior piping is
the high pressure side of the system (i.e. traditionally covered with an aluminum jacket
condenser piping, high pressure liquid) and is while piping and vessels inside the facility is
not commonly insulated. Typically, the piping is protected by a PVC jacket or other similar
protected by an external layer of paint, material. Both types of jackets are designed to
galvanizing or epoxy coating to guard against protect an applied vapor barrier and underlying
external oxidation. If the protective layer on the insulation from physical impact (e.g. hail,
piping or vessel is compromised and the boots, fork trucks) and directly applied water
corrosion process begins, visually observing this (e.g. rain, overspray during a cleaning shift).
is easy (assuming that the pipe or vessel is Unfortunately, all jacketing materials degrade
located in an accessible area). over time and can be subject to damage. If
significant damage is found to the external
In your piping inspection process, be certain to insulation, the problem area should be noted
include piping that is located on the roof, for a more detailed follow-up inspection that
suspended from the ceiling and in other may involve removing a section of the
potentially difficult to access locations by the insulation and vapor retarder for further
best means available. inspection and repair.
During your inspection, look for signs of mild PVC jackets can degrade and crack due to
corrosion or further degradation of the exposure to sunlight and other chemicals.
protective coating (peeling, cracking, flaking). Look for signs of jacket degradation and be
Examine flanges, welds and piping supports for aware that the underlying insulation system
signs of deterioration. Inspect under tags or may be at risk.
anything else covering the surface of the pipe or
vessel. If corrosion is found, IIAR bulletin 109 Aluminum jackets can also degrade by
recommends checking the thickness using corrosion and biological damage. Aluminum
ultrasonic thickness gauges or other methods if jackets are susceptible to corrosion that
the metal loss is estimated to be 10% or more of appears as small blisters that will eventually fall
the original thickness. away leaving small holes such as those seen in
Figure 2. While the process does not present
Since water flows “down hill,” places to be an immediate danger to the safety of the piping
particularly aware of corrosion would be the or vessel, its decomposition provides direct
bottom surface of a horizontal run of pipe, the access to the vapor barrier for the outside
bottom elbow of a vertical run of pipe or any elements.
point where rain water can collect before it drips
off the pipe. Also pay extra attention in areas of Biological growth can be an indicator of
heavy traffic where accidental impacts easily problems such as degraded insulation or
occur. breeched jacket/vapor barrier. Figure 3
shows an example of moss growing on the
What to look for: Signs of rust or damage to the underside of a horizontal pipe. In this example
pipe or pipe protection. the moss took advantage of an overlapping
seam between two pieces of jacket to live off of
6
Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
moisture and dirt that collected there. If the insulation has sufficiently degraded such that water is
continuously condensing moisture from the air, an adequate water supply is available for moss to
grow. Moss and small plants have also been observed growing out of moist insulation when the
outside jacket and vapor barrier have been compromised.
Figure 2 Corrosion of aluminum jacket Figure 3 Biological growth on

aluminum jacket
What to look for: Dents, cracks, punctures, corrosion or moss on the surface of vessel or piping
insulation jacket.
Inspecting the Outer Jacket for Moisture or Ice

The persistent presence of ice or moisture on the outside of jacketing of a vessel or run of piping is
a good indication that the underlying insulation is degraded or saturated (especially if that moisture
is present on warm and dry summer days). As insulation becomes saturated, the thermal
conductivity of the insulation material degrades and is subject to increased physical damage (ice
damming). The reduced insulation thermal conductivity causes the surface temperature of the
insulation and exterior jacket to decrease to the point where atmospheric moisture will readily
condense and freeze on the jacket surface.
While moisture or ice on the outer surface indicates a problem in that area of the vessel or pipe, it
may not be the penetration point where moisture entered the insulation system. Often, moisture
enters the insulation system at a physically higher point and flows downhill to the problem area. The
entry point should also be sought during an inspection.
If there is an odd collection of moisture or ice on the surface of the insulation, think about what it is
indicating and where the problem may have originated. Start at the point of moisture and work
uphill until the breach in the insulation system can be found. Plan to replace all wet and deteriorated
insulation.
7
Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
Locations in a refrigeration system that are extremely susceptible to corrosion-under-insulation

(CUI) and could display an ice/moisture pattern as an indication of damage include:
• Piping with deteriorated or saturated insulation will often have ice/moisture on the jacket
surface. In particular pay attention to:
o Piping that fluctuates significantly in temperature (e.g. ammonia defrost condensate

piping, transfer system piping) is prone to problems because of the thermal stresses
on the pipe and insulation system. This piping may only show signs of
condensate/frost when the evaporator is in defrost mode.
o Wet suction return piping may only have ice on the bottom ¼ of the pipe where the
liquid ammonia tends to collect. The heat transfer from the ammonia vapor may not
be able to cool the rest (i.e. top) of the pipe below the dew-point.
o Elbows or dead-legs at the bottom of a vertical run of piping will collect moisture
that could enter much higher in the pipe run. The ice will often build up and split
open the jacket making identification easy, but the original damage must still be
found and repaired.
o Dips in a horizontal run of pipe if it was not installed properly.
• Piping with insulation that could be easily damaged by impact because of its location in or
around heavy traffic areas.
• Any penetration or break in the insulation system on vessels or piping such as:
o Pipe hangers, wall penetrations and other piping supports. Look for dripping of iced
over pipe hangers and be certain to inspect the insulation under the pipe hanger for
damage due to vibration or moisture.
o Insulation jacketing seams located on the top of horizontal piping or any improperly
lapped or sealed insulation jacketing.
o Valves, valve trains, fittings and other irregular shapes that are difficult to fit with
vapor retarders. These are often covered in ice, but the moisture can work its way
into the face of the insulation system on the adjoining pipe.
o Insulation system penetrations for instrumentation, pump out connections, etc.
o Interface between vessels and attached piping or vessel supports.
• The bottom of vessels, even on the supports. Moisture will enter anywhere on the vessel or
the attached piping and flow to the bottom of the vessel where it will degrade the insulation.
Ice/moisture will be seen on the outside jacket around the bottom of the vessel.
• Sections of the insulation system, such as removable plugs for thickness monitoring that
may be poorly constructed or maintained.
What to look for: condensation or ice on the surface of vessel or piping insulation jacket.
8
Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
“CONSTANTLY” FROZEN PIPING AND VESSELS

In a liquid state, water serves as an electrolyte which enables the carbon steel materials used in the
ammonia refrigeration industry to corrode. In a solid state (ice), water is a much less effective electrolyte;
thereby, substantially reducing or eliminating the potential for enabling corrosion of the underlying pipe
or vessel. If a component is consistently below the freezing point of water, the moisture will form frost or
ice leading to significantly lower corrosion risks.
The difference in the corrosion potential of

underlying piping in the presence of water vs. ice
is not a point of dispute among any party of
interest to ammonia refrigeration. The point of
dispute that often arises in determining what
constitutes a “constantly” frozen pipe, vessel or
other component.
Many times, large sections of piping and certain

vessels are ignored in mechanical integrity
inspections because they are assumed to be
“constantly“ frozen by the plant
owners/operators. In actuality, some
components cyclically freeze and thaw the
infiltrating moisture. The formation of ice under
the insulation tends to quickly degrade the
insulation. When the pipe warms up, the water is
then free to act as an electrolyte and begin to
oxidize the underlying steel surface. Piping that
undergoes the repetition of this freeze/thaw
cycle (e.g. defrost ammonia condensate piping,
transfer station piping, hot gas defrost run-outs)
should be inspected with greater frequency.
Some components only have a portion of their

surface that is constantly frozen. A good
example is surge drums for flooded evaporators
and transfer vessels as shown in Figure 4. The
bottom half of this formerly insulated, vertically
oriented transfer vessel (Section D) always holds
liquid ammonia at temperatures below freezing
which keeps the bottom portion constantly
frozen. When the vessel goes into transfer
mode, the upper portion of the vessel warms up
allowing any moisture trapped to melt. Again, Figure 4 This low temperature liquid transfer vessel
this creates an environment conducive for demonstrates four different conditions that are often
external surface corrosion. In Figure 4, pitting referred to as “constantly frozen.”
9
Vol. 7 No. 3, 2007
corrosion was seen in section A and uniform corrosion in section B, but section D still had some of the
original paint in place.
As previously mentioned, horizontally run wet suction return piping with poor or degraded insulation is
another common location for CUI. In this case the bottom portion of the pipe is full of liquid ammonia
and maintains itself below freezing. The upper portion has only vapor, which cannot maintain the pipe
surface below freezing on a warm, sunny day with degraded insulation. The corrosion occurs on the
top and sides of the pipe where the infiltrated moisture is still in liquid form. On the outside, the
bottom of the jacket is nearly always wet or covered with frost/ice. The top may be damp, but will dry
off as the day warms up.
Figure 5 The large, frosted pipe on the bottom of this picture is a wet suction return with degraded
insulation and ever-present frost on the bottom.
CONCLUSION
This concludes a two part series on typical failure methods for carbon steel refrigerant vessels and
piping and how many of these defects can be found thorough inspection program using only visual
methods.
Unfortunately, the number and variation of failure methods for carbon steel refrigerant vessels and
piping seems limitless. Fortunately, many of these defects can be found before failure occurs through a
competent and thorough inspection program. Many of the failure mechanisms provided telltale signs
that can be picked up in most plants’ annual visual inspections.
References
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code: Section V, Nondestructive Examination, Article 9
IIAR, “Guidelines for: IIAR Minimum Safety Criteria for A Safe Ammonia Refrigeration System”, Bulletin
109 (1997)
IIAR, “Guidelines for: Start-up, Inspection and Maintenance of Ammonia Mechanical Refrigerating
Systems”, Bulletin 110 (1993)
IRC, “Nondestructive Testing Methods for Mechanical Integrity Volume 1: MI Fundamentals”, Guidebook
published by the Industrial Refrigeration Consortium, Madison, WI (2007).
10
The Electronic Newsletter of the Industrial Refrigeration Consortium
Vol. 7 No. 4, 2007
BACK TO BASICS: THE QUEST FOR ENERGY

EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS IN YOUR
INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Refrigeration is one of the more energy-intensive technologies that find use in manufacturing
operations – primarily food plants. Driven by consumer demand for high quality food products
including prepared meals, the trend in many food plants has been toward processes that require
more not less refrigeration. The increase in refrigeration intensity is escalating overall plant end-
use energy requirements. For example, the consumer appetite for frozen ready-to-cook entrees
and sides seems unquenchable. These products require energy-intensive quick freezing unit
operations in order to maintain high product quality. Quick freezing unit operations are among the

Director • Back to Basics: Energy 1-5
Doug Reindl 608/265-3010 Efficiency Improvements
or 608/262-6381
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008
tbjekel@wisc.edu • 2008 R&T Forum 6
Announcement
Research Staff
djdettme@wisc.edu

Phone 608/262-8220 Room 2342
FAX 608/262-6209 Madison, WI 53706-1607
1
Vol. 7 No. 4, 2007
most energy intensive in food plants because of

the low operating temperatures required. The
expanding usage of quick freezing operations U
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results in an increase in the total energy required C
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to produce a unit of finished product albeit at a
higher quality with longer shelf life.
Process Safety Management Audits
Coinciding with the expansion of more energy January 9-11, 2008 Madison, WI
intensive plant processes, corporate executives
and managers with operations responsibility are
pushing to reduce the overall energy Improvements
consumption in their manufacturing plants. Why? February 13-15, 2008 Madison, WI
Because all indications are that the cost of
primary energy to operate plants will rise into the
future. With energy costs rising, it is becoming
increasingly important for plants to improve their Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
operating efficiency to maintain a competitive April 9-11, 2008 Madison, WI
advantage in the marketplace. Second, the move Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
towards sustainability demands peak energy March 5-7, 2008 Madison, WI
performance. These trends are putting pressure
on plant operations staff to identify effective
measures that can level or reduce the energy
consumption in their facilities. Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for
Peak Performance and Efficiency
This article discusses ten strategies for improving September 15-19, 2008 Madison, WI
the efficiency of industrial refrigeration systems. Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
Seemingly a simple order, the fact is that realizing October 8-10, 2008 Madison, WI
energy efficiency improvement in these systems
can be difficult for a number of reasons including:
• Industrial refrigeration systems are
custom-engineered systems to meet
specific process needs – this makes See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
information.
prescriptive energy conservation measures
difficult to identify because each system is
“one-of-a-kind.”
Noteworthy
2
Vol. 7 No. 4, 2007
• Food production facilities often require refrigeration 24x7x365. Energy efficiency

improvement measures that require refrigeration system or plant shutdowns are difficult to
implement.
• Since refrigeration up-time is crucial, plants operations staff are risk averse to any changes
that may undermine their ability to provide “cold” to the production floor.
With that background, here are ten ideas aimed at improving the efficiency of your industrial
refrigeration systems. These ideas are proven - you just need to evaluate each for implementation in
your own plant’s context.
1. Floating Head Pressure Control: Many plants operate their systems with head
(condensing) pressures higher than necessary. Although the ability to lower a system’s head
pressure is limited by ambient conditions, many plants can operate with considerably lower
minimum head pressures. If your ammonia-based refrigeration system’s head pressure never
falls below 125 psig, you may have an opportunity to further improve system efficiency. As a
rule-of-thumb, you can expect the efficiency of your system’s compressors to improve by 1.3%
for each degree F in lower saturated condensing temperature (1°F is about 3 psig for
ammonia).
2. Raise Suction Pressure/Temperature: If your plant utilizes evaporator pressure
regulators on all of its loads, there may be an opportunity to raise your system’s suction
pressure set point. As a rule-of-thumb, you can expect the capacity of your system’s
compressors to improve by 2.5% for each degree F in increase saturated suction temperature.
Efficiency increases will depend on the starting point of your suction pressure increase but
improvements in the range of 2% for each degree F increase in saturated suction temperature
are possible.
3. Variable Frequency Drives for Evaporator Fans: Because most
evaporators do not operate at their design load 100% of the time, their capacity needs to be
varied to meet the instantaneous thermal load. The efficiency of evaporators at part-load
conditions can be improved in most systems by the application of variable speed drives for
evaporator fans. The savings attributable to the application of variable speed drive fans will
depend on a number of factors including: system suction pressure, evaporator part-load ratio,
evaporator fan type, face velocity of air over evaporator coil, and others. Figure 1 illustrates
the potential in a freezer application by showing the combined compressor and evaporator
operating efficiency where the nominal saturated suction temperature for the system is -20°F.
Note the variable speed fan option is increasingly advantageous to the fixed speed fan option
as the part-load ratio of the evaporator decreases. For more information on this opportunity,
see our Cold Front newsletter in Vol. 4 No. 4 (2004).
4. Variable Frequency Drives for Compressors: Variable speed drives for
compressors should be approached with caution. Compressors in these systems tend to be
driven by large frame motors making the cost of applying a variable speed drive expensive. At
most, consider having only one variable speed drive compressor per suction pressure level in
the plant. The variable speed machine should then be used as a “trim machine” by using speed
control for capacity modulation. For more information on this opportunity, see our Cold Front
newsletter in Vol. 4 No. 3 (2004).
3
Vol. 7 No. 4, 2007
2.4
T space=-20 [F]
Fixed Speed
N evap=7
Compressor + Evaporator kW/ton

Duty Cycling
TD design=8.4 [F]
Variable Speed
2.2
1.8
1.6
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 1: Compressor plus evaporator fan power for part-load evaporator operation in a freezer application.
5. Variable Frequency Drives for Condenser Fans: Somewhat similar to comments

on applications for evaporator fans, variable frequency drives for condenser fans can yield
operating costs savings. In many cases, system savings on the order of 2-3% are possible with
this option. Savings will depend on a number of factors including: relationship of heat
rejection capacity available to that required, minimum head pressure set point, type of
condenser fans, and others. If you pursue a VFD project for condenser fans, it is important to
install VFDs on all condenser fans and modulate their capacity equally to avoid liquid
management problems on the system’s high-side. For more information on this opportunity,
see our Cold Front newsletter in Vol. 4 No. 2 (2004).
6. Heat Recovery – Oil Coolers: It is possible to recover heat from the discharge gas
on high-stage compressors; however, a more effective option to consider is heat recovery from
oil cooling heat exchangers on your screw compressor packages. The heat recoverable from
oil cooling heat exchangers is readily available in reasonable quantities and at a higher grade
when compared to the heat capable of being recovered from the discharge gas stream. For
more information on this opportunity, see our Cold Front newsletter in Vol. 6 No. 4 (2006).
7. Compressor Sequencing and Control: Controls are required on compressors to
match their capacity with that required by the system. The most widely used compressor
technology in industrial refrigeration systems today is the screw compressor. Unfortunately,
the efficiency of a screw compressor package decreases as its capacity decreases by unloading.
For example a typical screw compressor operating at -20°F suction and 90°F condensing will
have a full-load efficiency of ~2.2 BHP/ton. When unloaded to its minimum capacity (10% in
4
Vol. 7 No. 4, 2007
this case), the horsepower requirement for excessive conveyor openings, are
this same machine will increase to 8.8 examples of easy fixes to heat gains that
BHP/ton! Sequences of operation should rob your system of both capacity and
be reviewed to minimize the duration of efficiency. Visual inspections and more
individual machines operating at part-load sophisticated thermal imaging can be
ratios less than 70%.
bursack@co.dane.wi.us used to pinpoint these hot spots. Find
8. Improve Defrost Sequences: and fix them.
Air-cooling evaporators that operate at
low temperatures will accumulate frost. As Of course each of these opportunities needs to
frost accumulates on a coil, its capacity be evaluated for an individual system.
will decrease causing the efficiency of the
system to correspondingly decrease. Where can I go for more information? In 2004,
Manske (2000) estimated that poor hot gas the IRC published the Industrial Refrigeration
defrost sequences and controls accounted Energy Efficiency Guidebook that covers these
for 13% of the electrical energy in a cold and other energy efficiency improvement
storage warehouse. Most plants can strategies for industrial refrigeration systems.
benefit by pursuing defrost sequences that The process of seeking out and evaluating
avoid prolonged periods of hot gas supply opportunities for energy efficiency
(i.e. hot gas dwell times in excess of 15 improvements in your plant is not only
minutes should be avoided) and only enjoyable, it is rewarding.
defrosting individual evaporators on an
as-needed basis rather than simply References
defrosting on frequency established by a Manske, K. “Performance Optimization of
time-clock. Industrial Refrigeration Systems”, M. S.
9. Convert Oil Cooling from Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Liquid Injected to External:
(2000).
Screw compressors require some means of Reindl, D. T., et al., Industrial Refrigeration
oil cooling. The use of high pressure Energy Efficiency Guidebook, Industrial
liquid refrigerant for oil cooling is common
Refrigeration Consortium, available for
in a number of systems. Liquid injection
purchase at:
oil cooling results in increased compressor
power and reduced capacity conspiring to
reduce the system’s efficiency. Converting
from liquid injection to external
(thermosiphon or fluid-cooled) oil coolers S
SEEAASSOONNSS G
GRREEEETTIINNGGSS
can yield savings in the range of 3-10%. We at the IRC hope
For more information on this opportunity that you and your
see these past Cold Front issues: Vol. 3 No.
family have a safe
1 and No. 3 (2003).
10. Reduce Parasitic Loads: Look
and happy holiday
for opportunities to eliminate the “heat
season.
leaks” into your system. Failed insulation,
poor door seals, open doors, and
5
Vol. 7 No. 4, 2007
2
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May 7-8, 2008 The Pyle Center - Madison, WI
TheIndustrial Refrigeration Consortium is pleased to announce that the

8th Annual Research & Technology Forum will be held on May 7-8, 2008
at the Pyle Center in Madison, WI. This event will feature presentations by IRC staff, IRC member
organizations, and industry experts.
The 2008 IRC R&T forum is your opportunity to receive the latest information on current refrigeration
research, regulatory updates, emerging technologies. It is also a great opportunity for you to provide
input on needs for future research in the area of industrial refrigeration. During this event you will
also have an opportunity to meet and exchange ideas with other industry experts. We are in the
process of finalizing the agenda for this day-and-a-half event but expect presentations on the
following topics:
• Principles of Mechanical Integrity for Industrial Refrigeration Systems

• Safety and Process Safety Management
• Technology Update
• Trends in Sustainability
• Incidents & Accidents Lesson’s Learned
• Back-to-Basics: Codes and Standards
• Interactive session refrigeration-related research at the UW and IRC tools
The Forum is an event open to everyone with an interest in industrial refrigeration. Staff from IRC-
member organizations are welcome to register at no cost. A nominal registration fee of $99 is
required for non-IRC members to help recover meeting costs. Attendees will receive copies of all
presentation materials. Because seating is limited, we encourage you to register for this event
today! Register on-line here.
IRC members are reminded to arrive early for the Steering Committee business meeting
scheduled to be held from 1-5 pm on May 6, 2008.
For more details on the forum and to register, visit our website www.irc.wisc.edu. If you have any
questions regarding presentation topics, please contact the IRC at 866-635-4721 or
info@irc.wisc.edu.
6
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
REFRIGERANT RELEASE ESTIMATION

One of the more frequently asked questions we receive at the IRC is: how can I estimate the quantity
of refrigerant lost as a result of an incident? Although plants continue to focus on refining their
safety programs, incidents that lead to unintended releases of refrigerant from their systems can
and will occur from time-to-time. In this issue of the Cold Front, we present background on why
we need to estimate release quantities and then provide some simple techniques to estimate vapor-
only, liquid-only, and flashing liquid leaks. This information been adapted from a technical paper
presented at this year’s IIAR conference in Colorado Springs.
Background
Occasionally, plants will have incidents that result in the unintended release of anhydrous ammonia

Director • Refrigerant Release 1-11
Doug Reindl 608/265-3010 Estimation
or 608/262-6381
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008
tbjekel@wisc.edu • 2008 R&T Forum Reminder 12
Research Staff
djdettme@wisc.edu

Phone 608/262-8220 Room 2342
FAX 608/262-6209 Madison, WI 53706-1607
1
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
from their industrial refrigeration systems. When

a release does occur, there is usually a need to
estimate the total quantity of refrigerant lost from U
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the system. This need to estimate the quantity of C
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refrigerant loss is largely driven by regulatory
reporting requirements.
Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
Regulatory Requirements April 9-11, 2008 Madison, WI
In 1986, the U.S. enacted the Emergency Planning
and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) May 13-15, 2008 Madison, WI
which established requirements for Federal, State,
and local governments for reporting of hazardous Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for
and toxic chemicals with the overarching intent of Peak Performance and Efficiency
improving chemical safety and protecting public
health and the environment. The regulation Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
requires any facility using or storing more than October 8-10, 2008 Madison, WI
the threshold quantity (which is 500 lb [227 kg]
for ammonia) on-site to notify their Local December 3-5, 2008 Madison, WI
Emergency Planning Commission (LEPC) and State
Emergency Response Commission (SERC) within Process Safety Management Audits
60 days of its first use or storage. In addition,
these facilities must immediately notify the LEPC Ammonia Refrigeration: Uncovering
and SERC if there is a release equal to or greater Opportunities for Energy Efficiency
than the reportable quantity of the hazardous Improvements
substance (which is 100 lb [45 kg] for ammonia). February 11-13, 2009 Madison, WI

Also in 1986, the U.S. amended the March 4-6, 2009 Madison, WI
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) with the See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
information.
intent of better managing hazardous materials –
including hazardous waste streams. Among
other provisions, CERCLA requires that facilities
accidentally releasing quantities of hazardous
substances in excess of the reportable amount
Noteworthy
• Congratulations to Godan Nambudiripad, retired General Mills, for receiving an IIAR
Honorary Life Membership!
• Congratulations to Bent Wiencke, Nestle, for receiving the Andy Ammonia Award for
best paper & presentation at IIAR!
2
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
notify the National Response Center (NRC) immediately. The NRC is a Coast Guard-operated single
point of contact for reporting incidents involving hazardous materials. Since the NRC does not notify
the LEPC or the SERC, these bodies must be separately notified by the end-user. The NRC maintains a
fully searchable on-line database of reported chemical incidents. That information can be found by
browsing at www.nrc.uscg.mil. Finally, there almost certainly other state, county, and local
jurisdictional reporting requirements that apply in situations of accidental releases of hazardous
chemicals. Please check and follow those local reporting requirements.
These and other regulations require end-users of industrial ammonia refrigeration systems to make
quick determinations as to whether an accidental release of ammonia is likely to exceed 100 lb [45 kg]
prior to initiating the above-mentioned notifications. In addition, end-users will have to develop a
more refined estimate of the total quantity lost following successful mitigation. In this issue of the
Cold Front, we present basic methods to help aid in quickly determining if a release is likely to exceed
the reportable quantity and we provide graphical results from more detailed analyses that permit a
quick estimate of the refrigerant release quantity following an incident.
Regulatory Requirements – How much is 100 lbs [45 kg]?

Any accidental release of ammonia that has exceeded (or is anticipated to exceed) 100 lb [45 kg]
requires immediate notification to the appropriate regulatory agencies as previously discussed. One
difficulty plant operations personnel have is being able to quickly recognize what constitutes a 100 lb
[45 kg] ammonia release. To overcome this difficulty, here are some basic comparisons to enable
operations personnel to gauge the extent of a release to more confidently judge whether an incident is
expected to or has reached a reportable quantity.
When pressurized liquid ammonia is released from a system, a mixture of liquid and flash gas will
result whenever the temperature of the upstream liquid is warmer than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the local atmospheric pressure (-28°F [-33°C] at sea level). If the temperature of the
upstream liquid is colder than the saturation temperature for the local atmospheric pressure, no flash
vapor is formed and the refrigerant will remain in its liquid state as it flows through the leak opening
entering the atmosphere until it has absorbed enough heat from the surrounding to raise its
temperature to saturation. If the geometry of a liquid refrigerant leak aerosolizes the liquid, the
refrigerant will “autocool” to a lower temperature due to evaporation resulting from the concentration
difference between the refrigerant and the surrounding atmosphere. This short transient can locally
produce a liquid+vapor mixture to -60°F or colder. This transient is short lived as heat gain from the
surrounding environment causes the mixture to warm to its saturation temperature with further heat
gain causing evaporation of the liquid phase refrigerant.
At a temperature of -28°F [-33°C], the density of saturated liquid ammonia is 42.7 lb/ft3 [16.0 kg/m3]
which means that a loss greater than 2.3 ft3 [0.067 m3] or 17.6 gallons [66.5 l] would exceed the
reportable quantity of 100 lb [45 kg]. When the upstream liquid refrigerant is at a temperature above
saturation, a portion of the upstream liquid will flash to a vapor as it auto-refrigerates upon entering
the atmosphere. The fraction of refrigerant liquid flashing to a vapor will increase as the temperature
of the upstream liquid increases. This means that by the time a total of 17.6 gallons [66.5 l] of visible
liquid has accumulated outside the system, approximately 130 lb [59 kg] of refrigerant has likely been
3
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
released. Of the 130 lb [59 kg] released, 30 lb [14 kg] is in a vapor state and the remaining 100 lb [45
kg] is in a liquid state.
The volume of vapor that equates to 100 lb [45 kg] of refrigerant mass will depend on the specific
volume of the refrigerant vapor. At atmospheric conditions, the pressure of the ammonia vapor is
fixed; however, the specific volume of ammonia vapor is very temperature-dependent as shown in
Figure 1.
24 1.500
Anhydrous ammonia at sea level pressure
Vapor Specific Volume, ft /lb
3
Vapor Specific Volume, m /kg

22 1.375
3
20 1.250
18 1.125
16 1.000
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
[-34] [-29] [-23] [-18] [-12] [-7] [-1] [4]
Temperature, °F [°C]
Figure 1 Temperature dependence of anhydrous ammonia vapor specific volume.
With a specific volume of ammonia at 18 ft3/lb [1.125 m3/kg], a vapor release of pure ammonia would
occupy 1,800 ft3 [51 m3]. As the ammonia vapor is diluted by mixing with ambient air, the volume
requirement to reach 100 lb [45 kg] of refrigerant mass grows substantially as will be shown in the
last example given in the next section. Figure 1 also demonstrates that the specific volume of
ammonia vapor increases by more than 15% when warming from -28°F [-33°C] to 40°F [4°C]. This
increase in specific volume is particularly important when attempting to relate concentration readings
(which are volumetric) in enclosed spaces to the mass of ammonia in a vapor state.
Because the density (reciprocal of the specific volume) of ammonia in a liquid state is significantly
greater than the vapor state, releases that involve liquid ammonia more rapidly approach the
reportable quantity when compared to vapor releases.
Release Estimation Methods

Following the successful mitigation of an ammonia release, refinement of any rough estimate of the
quantity lost during the incident will be required. A refined estimate is needed for multiple reasons
including: providing written response as a follow-up to the LEPC and SERC, inclusion in the incident
investigation report, 5 year accident history update, RMP re-submittals, as well as other local
jurisdictional requirements. In this section, we present techniques that can be used for estimating
refrigerant release rates as vapor-only, liquid-only, and flashing flow scenarios.
4
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
All too often, sufficient details on the specific vapor velocity. It is important to emphasize that
conditions during the incident are not known or although choking results in no further changes
unavailable, making release quantity estimating in vapor velocity with increasing upstream
quite difficult and error prone. The following are pressure, the mass flow rate of vapor will
details particularly important in refining a release increase due to the increasing density of the
quantity estimate: upstream vapor with increasing pressure.
Figures 2 and 3 summarize the results of
1. Time incident began vapor leaks over a range of differing leak
2. Location of refrigerant release geometries in two classifications that might be
3. State of the refrigerant upstream of the considered “small leaks” and “larger leaks.”
leak site (vapor, liquid, two-phase) Figure 2 shows the resulting vapor leak rates
4. Geometry of the leak site (size of opening, for a range of small openings while Figure 3
shape of opening, physical characteristics
of the opening) shows the vapor leak rates for larger openings.
5. Pressure of the refrigerant upstream of
leak location Knowing the average upstream pressure during
6. Temperature of the refrigerant upstream the incident and matching the characteristics of
of the leak location the leak geometry with those shown in the
7. Behavior of the leak: intermittent, steady, respective figures leads to an estimate of the
decreasing rate, increasing rate, etc.
vapor leak flow rate. Multiplying the resulting
8. Room concentrations
vapor leak rate by the active incident duration
9. Leak duration
leads to an estimate of the total mass of vapor
lost. Because the method outlined in EPA (1999)
This information can then be used as input to the
does not include dynamic losses attributable to
methods presented below to estimate the leak
either upstream fittings or flow through the leak
rate. The product of the leak rate and leak
site itself, the EPA method tends to predict
duration provides an estimate of the total quantity
higher vapor mass flow rates.
of refrigerant lost.
Another common vapor release scenario is from

Vapor-only Leaks
actuation of pressure relief valves. Details on
Refrigerant vapor leaks can occur on the
release rate estimates from pressure relief
discharge gas side of compressors (booster or
valves can be found in Reindl & Jekel (2008).
high-stage) as well as on high-stage dry suction
lines operating above atmospheric pressure. It is
Liquid-only Leaks
important to keep in mind that releases from hot
In situations where the leak source is liquid
gas defrost piping are often vapor-only but could
state refrigerant at a temperature below the
also include some quantity of condensed liquid.
saturation temperature corresponding to the
In estimating flow rates of vapor state refrigerant,
local atmospheric pressure, the liquid will not
it is important to recognize the changes in density
flash but remain in its pure liquid state as it
that can occur which leads to the need for
moves from a higher pressure within the system
consideration of compressibility. In compressible
to atmospheric pressure. An appropriate model
flow scenarios, choking can readily occur and
for estimating the quantity lost in this incident
needs to be considered. Choking is a
scenario is the non-flashing or what is
phenomenon whereby increasing upstream
sometimes referred to as the “frozen flow”
pressure does not result in increasing downstream
model.
5
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
4.0 1.816
2" Flange Gasket Leak

3.5 1.589
Gas Leak Rate [lb/min] 3.0 1.362
Gas Leak Rate [kg/min]

3/8" Gauge Valv e Open
2.5 1.135
2.0 1/4" Gauge Valv e Open

0.908
1.5 0.681
1.0 0.454
Packing Leak: Large Globe Valv e
0.5 Packing Leak: Small Globe Valv e 0.227
0.0 0.000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
[1.4] [2.8] [4.1] [5.5] [6.9] [8.3] [9.7] [11.0] [12.4]
Leak Source Pressure, psig [bar]

Figure 2 Small opening anhydrous ammonia vapor leak rates
(Leak areas for the small and large globe valve are 0.0005 in2 and 0.002 in2, respectively while the equivalent
leak diameter for the 1/4” and 3/8” gauge valves are 1/8” and 3/16’, respectively. The flange gasket leak is
assumed to have an area of 0.0156 in2.)
250 113.0
2" hot gas line sheared of f
225 101.7
200 90.4
Gas Leak Rate [lb/min]
175 79.1 Gas Leak Rate [kg/min]
150 1 1/2" hot gas line sheared of f 67.8
125 56.5
100 45.2
3/4" Line Sheared
75 33.9
1" hot gas line sheared of f
50 22.6
25 11.3
0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
[1.4] [2.8] [4.1] [5.5] [6.9] [8.3] [9.7] [11.0] [12.4]

Figure 3 Large opening anhydrous ammonia vapor leak rates.
6
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
Figure 4 shows liquid leak rates based on the non-flashing or frozen flow model for small openings
and Figure 5 shows leak rates for large openings. It is important to note that the leak rate is a
strong function of the pressure difference across the leak site. In some incidents, the pressure
upstream of the leak site will decrease over time; thereby, requiring consideration of a varying leak
mass flow and time-integration of the dynamic leak quantity to arrive at a reasonable estimate of the
total refrigerant quantity loss.
60
Frozen Flow Liquid Leak Rate [lb/min]
Frozen Flow Liquid Leak Rate [kg/min]

50 22.7
40 18.16
3/8" Gauge Valve Open
30 13.62
20 9.08
10 4.54
Pump seal leak
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
[1.4] [2.8] [4.1] [5.5] [6.9] [8.3] [9.7] [11.0] [12.4]
Figure 4 Small opening anhydrous ammonia liquid leak rates non-flashing flow.
(Leak area for the pump assumed to be 0.0078 in2 and leak diameters for the 1/4” and 3/8” gauge valves are
0.125 in and 0.375 in, respectively.)
1600 725.6
Frozen Flow Liquid Leak Rate [lb/min]
1400 634.9
Frozen Flow Liquid Leak rate [kg/min]
1200 544.2
1" liquid line
1000 453.5
800 362.8
3/4" liquid line
600 272.1
400 181.4
1/2" liquid line
200 90.7
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
[1.4] [2.8] [4.1] [5.5] [6.9] [8.3] [9.7] [11.0] [12.4]
Figure 5 Large opening anhydrous ammonia liquid leak rates (frozen flow).
7
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
Two-phase Flashing Flow Liquid Leaks

In situations where the temperature of liquid upstream of a leak site is above the saturation
temperature for the prevailing ambient pressure, a portion of the upstream liquid will flash to a
vapor as it flows to and through the leak opening. With ammonia, there is a substantial increase in
specific volume in moving from a liquid to a vapor state. This large increase in volume during the
expansion tends to decrease the effective size of a leak opening.
Assuming choked conditions exist for the flashing liquid flow, the mass flow rate of liquid through
the leak site for equilibrium conditions is given by Fauske (1985) for short lengths of upstream
piping (~ 3 ft [1 m]). Figure 6 shows the results of the Fauske model applied for small leak
openings assuming equilibrium conditions are attained and Figure 7 shows results for larger leak
openings. Also included is the impact of subcooling the upstream liquid (dashed lines). As
expected, subcooling the upstream liquid reduces the mass fraction of flash gas generated; thereby,
increasing the mass flow rate of liquid through the leak site. The effects of flash gas in reducing
the mass flow rate through the leak site are apparent when the results of the Fauske, model under
equilibrium conditions, are compared with the non-flashing flow model. In the next section, we
present examples of applying the models presented for estimating the quantities of refrigerant lost
following an incident.
25
Mass Flow Rate of Liquid Leaked [lb/min]
Mass Flow Rate of Liquid Leaked [kg/min]

20 9.08
3/8" Gauge Valve Open with 10°F liquid subcooling
15 3/8" Gauge Valve Open

6.81
1/4" Gauge Valve Open with 10°F liquid subcooling

10 4.54

5 2.27
Pump seal leak
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
[1.4] [2.8] [4.1] [5.5] [6.9] [8.3] [9.7] [11.0] [12.4]
Figure 6 Small opening anhydrous ammonia liquid leak rates (Fauske model - equilibrium).
8
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
Mass Flow Rate of Liquid Leaked [lb/min]

700
1" liquid line with 10°F subcooling

600 272.4
Mass Flow Rate of Liquid Leaked [kg/min]

500 227.0
1" liquid line

400 181.6
3/4" liquid line
300 136.2
200 90.8
1/2" liquid line

100 45.4
1/2" liquid line with 10°F subcooling
0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
[1.4] [2.8] [4.1] [5.5] [6.9] [8.3] [9.7] [11.0] [12.4]
Leak Source Pressure [psig]
Figure 7 Large opening anhydrous ammonia liquid leak rates (Fauske model - equilibrium).
Examples
Pinhole Vapor Leak
At 6:15 am, an employee reports the strong smell of ammonia in the dock area of a cold storage
warehouse. A refrigeration mechanic confirms the odor and believes it is originating from a ceiling-
hung evaporator located in the dock and decides to evacuate the area. A second operator is contacted
by two-way radio to check the operating status of suspect evaporator unit using the system’s
computer-based controls. He confirms that the unit in question is presently in defrost mode and notes
the current system head pressure is at 160 psig [11.03 bar]. Refrigeration personnel quickly close the
globe isolation valve in the hot gas supply line located on the roof immediately above the unit. The
decision is made to manually close the unit’s liquid supply, and suction globe valves as well. The
elapsed time from initial notification of the leak to the isolation of the unit was 13 minutes.
Following the release mitigation, the operators visually inspect the evaporator and discover a pinhole
leak in the hot gas supply line to the unit’s drain pan. The pinhole leak measured approximately 5/32”
[4 mm] in diameter. In looking at Figure 3 for vapor-only leaks, we find leak rate estimates for
openings of 1/8” [3.2 mm] and 3/16” [4.8 mm] but none for a 5/32” [4 mm] leak. Because the leak rate
approximately increases linearly with leak area, Figure 8 shows a sketched line for the leak rate that
could be expected for the 5/32” [4 mm] pinhole leak. Assuming a 5 psig [0.34 bar] pressure drop in
the hot gas line from the engine room to the unit gives an estimate of the pressure immediately
upstream of the leak site at 155 psig [10.55 bar]. The intersection of the assumed leak rate line and
the 155 psig [10.55 bar] source pressure yields a leak rate estimate of 2.35 lb/min [1.07 kg/min].
9
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
4.0 1.816
2" Flange Gasket Leak

3.5 1.589
Gas Leak Rate [lb/min]

3.0 1.362
Gas Leak Rate [kg/min]

3/8" Gauge Valv e Open
2.5 1.135
2.0 1/4" Gauge Valv e Open

0.908
1.5 0.681
1.0 0.454
Packing Leak: Large Globe Valv e
0.5 Packing Leak: Small Globe Valv e 0.227
0.0 0.000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
[1.4] [2.8] [4.1] [5.5] [6.9] [8.3] [9.7] [11.0] [12.4]
Figure 8 Small opening anhydrous ammonia vapor leak rates – derived from
Figure 2.
The quantity lost from the hot gas leak is given by:
lb
M leak = m& ⋅ t = 2.35 ⋅13 min ≈ 31 lb [14 kg ]
min
Assuming the hot-gas supply to the pan and the evaporator are piped in series, it may also be
reasonable to estimate the residual quantity of ammonia vapor in the evaporator unit itself and assume
the entire vapor inventory of the evaporator was discharged into the space following the remote
isolation of the unit. (Note, this scenario would require that the pan check did not fully re-seat.)
Data listing the internal volume of evaporators are typically available from the unit’s manufacturer. In
this case, the internal volume of the evaporator is listed as 3.9 ft3 [0.11 m3]. To find the density of the
refrigerant vapor, assume the ammonia occupying the evaporator is saturated vapor at the relief
regulator set pressure (75 psig [5.2 bar]). In this case, the density of vapor in the evaporator is 0.3065
lb/ft3 [4.91 kg/m3]. The product of the unit’s internal volume and the density of the ammonia at this
pressure provide an estimate of the residual ammonia vapor in the unit.
lb
M residual = ρvapor ⋅ Vcoil = 0.3065 3
⋅ 3.9 ft 3 = 1.2 lb [0.54 kg ]
ft
The contribution to the dynamic loss from the residual vapor is quite small. If the leak occurred early in
the defrost period, there would be a significant amount of condensed liquid ammonia available to leak
out of the coil which would increase the refrigerant quantity lost.
Severed Piping
The forks on a lift truck impacted the ¾” schedule 80 (0.742” ID [18.9 mm]) oil pot drain line causing it
to sever upstream of the pot’s globe isolation valve. The oil pot is connected to an intercooler
operating at pressure of 25 psig [1.72 bar]. Saturated liquid leaks through the short section of severed
pipe for a period of 15 minutes prior to mitigation. Estimate the quantity lost using both the non-
10
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
flashing flow and Fauske models.
The leak rate for non-flashing flow can be obtained from Figure 5 and the leak rate for the Fauske
model from Figure 7. At an upstream pressure of 25 psig [1.72 bar], the leak rate for frozen flow is
330 lb/min [150 kg/min] and the leak rate for the Fauske model is 100 lb/min [45.4 kg/min]. The
total mass lost is the product of the leak rate and the leak duration.
lb
M frozen flow = m& frozen flow ⋅ t = 330 ⋅15 min = 4,950 lb [2, 245 kg ]
min
lb
M Fauske = m& Fauske ⋅ t = 100 ⋅15 min = 1,500 lb [680 kg ]
min
Since the non-flashing or frozen flow model does not include the effects of two-phase flashing flow,
it predicts more than triple the quantity of refrigerant lost when compared to the Fauske model.
Conclusions & Recommendations

Although the emphasis of safety standards such as PSM is to prevent incidents from occurring, they
will still happen from time to time. In the event of a refrigerant leak from a system, the quantity of
refrigerant lost must be estimated as accurately as possible. In this article, we review principles of
leak estimates for vapor-only, flashing liquid, and liquid-only incident scenarios. Results are
provided for a number of leak site geometries in both vapor and liquid leak scenarios. Regardless of
the method used for leak quantity estimation, it is essential that operations staff gather the following
information:
1. Time incident began
2. Location of refrigerant release
3. State of the refrigerant upstream of the leak site (vapor, liquid, two-phase)
4. Geometry of the leak site (size of opening, shape of opening, physical characteristics of
the opening)
5. Pressure of the refrigerant upstream of leak location
6. Temperature of the refrigerant upstream of the leak location
7. Behavior of the leak: intermittent, steady, decreasing rate, increasing rate, etc.
8. Room concentrations
9. Leak duration
Using this information, the total quantity of refrigerant lost from the system following an incident can
be obtained through either the model equations presented or the summary charts.
References
EPA, “Risk Management Program Guidance for Offsite Consequence Analysis”, EPA 550-B-99-009,
April (1999).
Fauske, H. K., “Flashing Flows or: Some Practical Guidelines for Emergency Releases”, Plant/Operations
Progress, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 132-134, (1985).
Reindl, D. T. and Jekel, T. B., “Estimating Refrigerant Releases”, Proceedings of the International
Institute of Refrigeration, Colorado Springs (2008).
11
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2008
2
2000
088 IIR
RCCR
Rees
seea
arrc
chh&
&TTe
ecch
hnno
ollo
oggyy F
Fo ru
or um
m
May 7-8, 2008 The Pyle Center - Madison, WI
Industrial Refrigeration Consortium is pleased to announce that the

The
th
8 Annual Research & Technology Forum will be held on May 7-8, 2008
at the Pyle Center in Madison, WI. This event will feature presentations by IRC staff, IRC member
organizations, and industry experts.
The 2008 IRC R&T forum will provide attendees an opportunity to receive information about current
refrigeration research, regulatory updates, emerging technologies, and to explore needs for future
research in the area of industrial refrigeration. It also provides you with an opportunity to meet and
exchange ideas with other industry experts. Topics may include:
• Mechanical Integrity
• Safety/PSM
• Technology
• Sustainability Update
• Incidents & Accidents
• Back-to-Basics
The forum is open to everyone with an interest in industrial refrigeration. IRC members are welcome
to register at no cost. A nominal registration fee of $99 is required for non-IRC members to help
recover meeting costs. Attendees will receive a binder and CD with all presentation materials.
Because seating is limited, we encourage you to register for this event today!
Overnight accommodations are available at the Campus Inn ($109/$124 Single/Double). To reserve
your overnight accommodations, contact the Campus Inn at (800) 589-6285 by April 15, 2008 and
ask for the “IRC R&T Forum.”
IRC members are reminded to arrive early for the Steering Committee business meeting scheduled
to be held from 1-5 pm on May 6, 2008.
For more details on the forum and to register, visit our website www.irc.wisc.edu. If you have any
questions regarding presentation topics, please contact the IRC at 866-635-4721 or
info@irc.wisc.edu.
12

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Master Training Manual

– La Refrigeracion es un Intercambio Termico o

– Todo se resume a un balance y transformacion de

– Energia Termica a Mecanica y de Mecanica a

– Calor: Calor es una forma de Energia. Es evidente que el

– Luego, FRIO ES LA AUSENCIA DE ENERGIA O CALOR.

• Calor Sensible: Es el calor asociado con el Cambio

• Calor Lantente: Cambio de entalpia o cambio de

• Entalpia: Para evitar el uso de una frase larga como

• Es una propieda termodinamica de cada substancia definida

• Este sistema fue, sigue y sera

• Bajo el concepto de BLOQUE DE

• El termino CAPACIDAD no es mas

• 1 Tonelada masa = 2000 Lbs.

• Luego 1 T.R. = 2000 Lbs x 144

• Dividido por 24 hrs = 12,000 Btu

• O su equivalente a 200 Btu/min.

• En sistema I.P. tener la capacidad de 1 Tonelada

• En sistema Metrico, una 1 Tonelada es la

Presion de Vapor o Presion de

• Presion de Vapor conocida tambien como la presion de vapor

• A una determinada temperatura para una substancia particular

• En el caso del Punto de Saturacion para Ebullicion o

• En el caso de Amoniaco es a -28° F y en el caso de Freon

Punto de Saturacion y Presion

– Presion Absoluta: presion medida por

– Presion Manometrica: mide por encima

– Presion Absoluta = presion

• Subenfriamiento: Cualquier punto

• Para lograr esto, el calor del cuerpo o substancia

• Y como el calor del primero es removido por un

• En todos los sistemas, es la suma parcial o total de

• En el proceso de Refrigeracion, entonces se usara

• Como ya vimos, si el efecto es cambio de

• Cualquiera que sea estos dos efectos, ,para matener

• A lo largo, el calor fluira del espacio que

• Hubo solo calor sensible pero no latente.

• La temperatura del hielo (32°F o 0°C) no

• Hubo calor latente pero no sensible.

• HAY Cambio de Estado.

• Esto haria sistemas muy costosos y poco

• Siendo asi el efecto, se pensaria entonces

• En el caso de los refrigerantes, se

• El cambio de presion brinda el cambio

• Por cuestiones no practicas,

• Los sistemas mecanicos, son

Sistema Elemental Mecanico

LINEA DE REFRIGERANTE LIQUIDO ALTA PRESION

• El Ciclo de Compresion de Vapor,

• Como ya pudimos ver, tenemos 4

• Evaporacion: El resultado del punto C menos

• Compresion: El resultado del punto D menos

• Condensacion: El resultado del punto A

• Expansion: El resultado del punto B menos el

• Para mantener evacuando el refrigerante que ya

• Un proceso adiabatico es un proceso de que

• Para ello debemos llevarlo de su estado Gaseoso a su

• Dentro de este circuito cerrado, llevariamos el gas de

• Este elemento se conoce como CONDENSADOR, y al

• Los mas usados son AGUA y AIRE ambiente o

• De la misma manera que el refrigerante debia estar por debajo

• Debido al aumento de presion por parte del compresor, el

• Para la nueva condicion sera 100.44 = 4.4 ft3 / min 18 =