Accounting

Academic supporting
material
Level 3
 I. Técnicas de traducción más relevantes

o 1.1 La traducción literal

o 1.2 El préstamo semántico
o 1.3 El calco
o 1.4 La transposición
o 1.5 La modulación
o 1.6 La equivalencia
o 1.7 La adaptación

A continuación, repasaremos las técnicas de traducción más conocidas.

La traducción literal (LITERAL TRANSLATION)

La traducción literal o palabra por palabra es aplicable cuando entre dos lenguas existe una
correspondencia previa de estructura y de significación e impera una equivalencia exacta entre las
distintas palabras.
En realidad, este tipo de traducción se utiliza en contadas ocasiones ya que existen muy pocas palabras
que tenga una única traducción en un único idioma. Es el caso de objetos concretos, en la combinación
español-inglés, como «gato» / «cat» o «ventana» / «window». O incluso de palabras que expresan
sentimientos o conceptos abstractos e intangibles como «amor» / «love» o «muerte» / «death».

El préstamo semántico (BORROWING)

El préstamo semántico como técnica de traducción consiste en utilizar una palabra o una expresión del
texto original exactamente igual en el texto de destino. Normalmente los préstamos figuran en cursiva en
las traducciones. La idea es reproducir tal cual una expresión del texto original en el texto de destino.
En definitiva, se trata de dejar sin traducir alguna expresión o nombre que pertenezca al acervo cultural
del idioma de origen. En múltiples ocasiones, los términos que designan instituciones nacionales que no
tienen un equivalente exacto en la otra cultura se dejan en cursiva en el idioma original. Es el caso de
términos como «siesta» o «fashion week».
Autores como García Yebra aconsejan evitar esta técnica siempre que sea posible, o aclarar su significado
si el contexto no basta para ello, si bien en muchos textos esta técnica sirve para aportar una nota de color
local a la traducción.

El calco (CALQUE)
El calco consiste en traducir literalmente los elementos que componen un sintagma para evitar caer en los
extranjerismos o préstamos semánticos. En definitiva, es una especie de préstamo en la que se toma
prestado el sintagma del idioma de origen, pero se traducen literalmente los elementos que lo componen.
Un ejemplo: «weekend» / «fin de semana».
Para diferenciar entre préstamos o extranjerismos adaptados y los calcos, veamos el ejemplo de
«football». Si se conserva en inglés, sería un extranjerismo puro, si lo adaptamos como “fútbol”
estaríamos ante un préstamo, mientras que el calco de este término en español sería «balompié».

La transposición (TRANSPOSITION)
Este proceso de transposición consiste en cambiar de categoría gramatical una parte de la oración sin
alterar su significado general. Por lo tanto, esta técnica supone un cambio en la estructura gramatical de la
frase. Así por ejemplo, la frase «Two hundred years ago» sería en español «Hace doscientos años», en
este caso hemos pasado de adverbio a verbo.
Se trata de un proceso que suele aplicarse de manera inconsciente.

La modulación (MODULATION)

Se entiende por modulación el proceso de traducción que tiene lugar cuando se produce un cambio en la
base conceptual de un término, es decir, en el punto de vista, en la perspectiva, pero sin alterar su sentido.
Se trata pues de un plano más abstracto que consiste en adoptar un punto de vista modificado o una base
metafórica diferente. Un ejemplo podría ser «Health insurance», que en español puede traducirse por
«seguro de enfermedad».

La equivalencia (EQUIVALENCE OR REFORMULATION)

Cuando hablamos de equivalencia a la hora de traducir, nos referimos a intentar reproducir una misma
situación mediante recursos estilísticos y estructurales completamente distintos.
Un ejemplo de equivalencia sería «No parking at all times»: «No estacionar». La equivalencia es muy
habitual a la hora de traducir refranes o dichos propios de una cultura. Así, por ejemplo, el británico «it’s
raining cats and dogs» suele traducirse por nuestro «llueve a cántaros».

La adaptación (ADAPTATION)

Esta técnica de traducción, también conocida como sustitución cultural o equivalente cultural, consiste en
traducir elementos culturales del idioma de origen por otros que se adapten a la cultura del idioma de
destino. Otro claro ejemplo de adaptación cultural sería el caso del «té», en Inglaterra se queda para tomar
el té, en España nos solemos reunir para tomar un «café».
 II. Cognates o cognadas y false cognateso falsas cognadas: lista de
palabras.
Dentro de la variedad de términos lingüísticos asociados al aprendizaje del inglés se encuentran dos
términos opuestos entre sí pero asociados debido a las coincidencias de escritura que existen entre
palabras del idioma español y el idioma inglés, y además coincidencias o no entre sus significados. Estos
términos denominados palabras cognadas (cognates) y falsas cognadas (false cognates) son sin duda
elementos que deben conocerse a plenitud al aprender el idioma inglés.

Para poder entender en qué consisten y saber la diferencia entre las palabras cognadas (cognates) y falsas
cognadas (False cognates) vamos a definirlas brevemente. Las palabras cognadas (cognates) son palabras
que se escriben igual o se parecen tanto en el idioma inglés como en el idioma español y su significado
absolutamente es el mismo, ejemplos de estas palabras pueden ser, restaurant (restaurante), color, (color),
accident (accidente), banana (banana), bicycle (bicicleta), adult (adulto), entre otras. En cambio se dice
que una palabra es un falso cognado (False cognate) cuando la palabra tanto en el idioma inglés como en
el idioma español se escriben igual o se parecen pero su significado es radicalmente diferente, ejemplos
de estas palabras pueden ser, actually (realmete) tiende a confundirse con actual, advice (consejo) tiende a
confundirse con aviso, arena (estadio) tiende confundirse con la arena, army (Ejercito) tiende a
confundirse con armada, best (mejor) tiende a confundirse con bestia, bigot (intolerancia) tiende a
confundirse con bigote, entre otras.
Como se puede apreciar en los ejemplos anteriores el desconocimiento de la existencia de palabras Falsas
cognadas (false cognates) pueden generar problemas provenientes del cruce de significados entre las
palabras del idioma español y el idioma inglés, y a su vez el conocimiento de la existencia de las palabras
cognadas (cognates) puede ser también una ventaja debido a las coincidencias de significados entre
palabras del idioma inglés y el español.

Cognates o cognadas y false cognateso falsas cognadas: lista de palabras.

Las siguientes listas de palabras servirán como una guía para conocer ciertos cognados y falsos cognados
existentes entre el idioma inglés y el idioma español:

Lista de Palabras cognadas (cognates)

Accidental Accidental
Accidental fall are common Las caídas accidentales son comunes
Accompany Acompañar
Parents must Accompany children Los padres deben acompañar a los niños
Acrobatic Acrobático
The acrobatic routes are perfect for enjoying Las rutas acrobáticas son perfectas para divertirse
Active Activo
Active carbon is used to purify water El carbón activado es usado para purificar el agua
Activities Actividades
There are more activities for each objective Hay más actividades por cada objetivo
Admire admirar
I admire his feels for music Yo admire su sentimiento por la música
Admit admitir
We have to admit that yon win Debemos admitir que tu ganas
Adopt Adoptar
The boos adopted his responsibilities El jefe adopto su nueva responsabilidad
Adoption Adoption
Adoption of the euro is valid La adpcion del euro es valida
Adventure Aventura
My brother loves the new adventure Mi hermano ama la nueva Aventura
African African
The traditional African society is amazing La tradicional sociedad africana es impresionante
Agent Agente
My agent got me a role in the new film Mi agente me dio un papel en la nueva película

Lista de falsos cognados (false cognates).

Arm Arma
Bill was kill with a gun Bill fue asesinado con un arma
Assist Ayudar
The nurse assisted to the doctor La enfermera ayudó al doctor
Attend Asistir
Many people attend to the meeting Muchas personas asistieron a la reunion
Avocado Aguacate
The avocado is a green fruit El aguacate es una fruta verde
Carpet Alfombra
She stained the carpet with red wine Ella manchó la carpeta con vino rojo
Choke Ahogar
I almost choked with the sandwich Casi me ahogo con el sandwich
Date Fecha
I need to mark the date in my calendar Necesito marcar la fecha en mi calendario
Deception Engaño
Her friend admitted the deception Su amigo admitió el engaño
Dinner Cena
Let´s go to dinner Vamos a cenar
Embarrassed Avergonzado
I felt embarrassed by my mistake Me siento avergonzado de mi error
Exit Salir
They used the exit room Ellos usaron la puerta de salida
Fabric Tela
The fabric is impermeably to wáter La tela es impermeable al agua
Form Formulario
Please fill all this form first Por favor llene todo el formulario primero
Horn Cuerno
To catch the bull, grab its horn Hay que agarrar el toro por los cuernos
Actually de hecho, en realidad
Will people actually be able to live on Mars? La gente en realidad vivirá en Martes?
 READINGS

1. Introduction to accounting

When deciding on a future career a lot of people don't give accountancy a second thought. Most

people don't realize how varied the world of accounting is and in fact it is often seen as boring.

The truth is that accounting is the backbone of any organization and offers a wide number of

attractive careers within it.

Below you will hear about just some of the more common careers in the field of accountancy,

there are of course many more, but we don't have time to talk about all of them.

When we consider the accounts team within a company, we generally think about clerks,

both sales ledger clerks and purchase ledger clerks recording the financial information from

all transactions the company makes. Other roles include the payroll clerk responsible for

processing staff salaries and the tax which occurs from them. Higher up the hierarchy we have

the management accountant who finalizes the accounts and prepares the annual financial

statements. The people doing these jobs make sure that the directors or owners of the

company always know its true financial position.

However, accounting is more than just reporting financial data. A good accounts team actually

works to save the company money by minimizing the tax payable and delaying payments so

companies can earn interest from their banks.

These job roles are not so clear in smaller accounting practices, where the accounting staff

often need to perform various tasks from meeting clients to helping with loan applications. Often

the majority of the work in these smaller practices is done by bookkeepers. Generally, the

owner of the practice is the most senior accountant and is usually a chartered accountant,

which means that their signature is accepted on the financial statements.

The job opportunities for accountants don't stop there: auditors are the police of the accounting

world and when they are called into a company it is their job to ensure that the accounts were

done in the correct way and that everything was accounted for. The most feared of these

auditors are the government auditors who are sent to companies suspected of somehow

breaking the rules. Working as an auditor is very different from other accountancy work as there

is no routine; you work in many locations and have contact with many people. Although, you
should be thick-skinned as often the accounting staff in companies do not like the idea of being

audited.

Career progression within accountancy often results from a specialist knowledge in a particular

area, tax advisors are able to help their clients lower their tax bill thanks to their in-depth

knowledge of taxation law and specifically what a client can off-set against tax.

As you can see the world of accountancy offers various careers, but in all of these areas there

are some qualities that a potential accountant should have. Firstly, as accounting is the process

of collecting and classifying financial data all accountants need to be perfectionists unwilling to

accept anything less than an exact result. Also, as accountants deal with large volumes of data

they need to have a good eye for detail and a real love of numbers.

A talented accountant will also be able to advise their clients on the best course of action to take

so as to save money and at the same time stay within the local accounting standards.

Accountants have to follow very strict rules and codes of conduct in order to make sure that

they do everything in a legal way. If an accountant breaks these rules they could face severe

punishment, but some accountants practice creative accounting to get around rules without

breaking them. Confidentiality is obligatory for all people working with accounts as the financial

data could be very sensitive.

Whether working in the public or private sector, accountants can expect to earn very good

salaries and also gain valuable knowledge on topics like income tax, value added tax (VAT)

and pension schemes which can help them in their life outside of work. What's more, as

accounting is such an important part of a company's success there will always be a demand for

good accountants.

After reading this text I hope that you will appreciate the complexity and the variety of

accounting and the value accountants serve in an organization. So the next time you hear

someone say that accounting is dull, please correct them. Accounting is about truth and money,

and there is nothing dull about that!

Questions

1. Why do you think accounting is seen as boring?

2. Which of the jobs mentioned would be most interesting for you?

3. Why is it so important for accountants to be ethical?

 4. Why do people think that accounting is more than just reporting financial data?

5. Why working as an auditor is very different from other accountancy work ?

GRAMMAR FOCUS
1. FUTURE WILL
2. CONNECTORS

WILL

Use of will Future

 a spontaneous decision

example: Wait, I will help you.

 an opinion, hope, uncertainty or assumption regarding the future

example: He will probably come back tomorrow.

 a promise

example: I will not watch TV tonight.

 an action in the future that cannot be influenced

example: It will rain tomorrow.

 conditional clauses type I

example: If I arrive late, I will call you.

Form of will Future

Positive Negative question

no differences I will speak. I will not speak. Will I speak?

CONNECTORS

Order
In the second place: En segundo lugar
First parragraph Second: Segundo
Secondly: En segundo lugar
At first sight: A primera vista Third: Tercero
First: En primer lugar Thirdly: En tercer lugar
First of all: Antes que nada
In the first place: En primer lugar
To start with: Para empezar Conclusion

Finally: Por último

Second parragraph In conclusion: Para concluir
Lastly: Por último
And eventually: Y finalmente
Adding information
apart from: Aparte de
in addition: Además
in addition to: Además de
What’s more: Además; lo que es más
moreover: Además
on top of that: Además
besides: Además
On the one hand: Por una parte
On the other hand: Por otra parte
and eventually: Y finalmente
Contrast
all the same: a pesar de todo
however: sin embargo
instead of: en vez de
in spite of / despite: a pesar de
nevertheless: no obstante
on the contrary: por el contrario
whereas / while: mientras
though / although: aunque
as far as I am concerned por lo que a mí
respecta
from my point of view desde mi punto de vista
I agree estoy de acuerdo
I disagree no estoy de acuerdo
in my opinion en mi opinión
in my view según lo veo
I think that creo que
it is true that es verdad que
personally personalmente
to be honest, para ser honesto
to tell the truth, a decir verdad
Explain
that is (to say): es decir
in other words: en otras palabras
in short: en resumen
above all: sobre todo
all in all: en general
at least: al menos
basically: básicamente, fundamentalmente
especially: especialmente, sobre todo
essentially: esencialmente
in general: en general
in particular: en particular
more or less: más o menos
on the whole: en general
to a certain extent: hasta cierto punto

Reason Exemplifying
and so on: etcétera
because of + noun: a causa de for example: por ejemplo
due to + noun: debido a for instance: por ejemplo
due to the fact that + sentence: debido a que such: as tal(es)como
for this / that reason: por esta / esa razón
owing to + noun: debido a Summarizing
owing to the fact that + sentence: debido a que all in all: en suma
in brief: en resumen
Result in conclusion: Para concluir
in short: en resumen
as a result: como resultado on the whole: en general
because of: a causa de to sum up: Para resumir
consequently: en consecuencia
so: por lo tanto
that's why: por eso, por esa razón... Sequencing
therefore: por lo tanto after that: después de eso
all of a sudden: de repente
Finally: Finalmente
Expressing facts First of all: En primer lugar
actually: en realidad in the end: al final
as a matter of fact: de hecho in the meantime: mientras tanto
in fact: de hecho meanwhile: mientras tanto
really: en realidad next: luego
suddenly: de repente
Expressing a personal opinion then: entonces, después
while: mientras
 2.Bookkeeping

A lot of people look down on bookkeepers, and the act of bookkeeping is often seen as
one of the less challenging aspects of accountancy. However, without good
bookkeepers, accounts would find that they were faced with a huge amount of extra
work. Bookkeeping is the foundation of accounting and is just as, if not even more
important than some of the more 'glamorous' accounting work.

So why are bookkeepers seen as being less important to the success of an accounting
department than accountants? Well to get the answer to this, it is important to
understand what exactly bookkeeping is.

Bookkeeping within a business is basically the recording of any financial transactions.

These transactions include purchases, sales, receipts and payments- in fact just about
every financial transaction.

A lot of people think that bookkeeping and accounting is the same thing, but this is
wrong. The confusion comes from the fact that bookkeeping is an element of the
accounting process. Accountants create reports from the financial transactions, which
were recorded, and file the appropriate forms with the government. But it is the
bookkeeper who provides the accountant with the source information which these
reports are based on. So without the bookkeeper the accountant would be forced to
spend a great amount of time recording every transaction.

It is also incorrect to think that bookkeeping is easy. Bookkeepers use one of several
methods of recording transactions, the single entry bookkeeping system and
the double entry bookkeeping system being the most common. Of these methods, it
is universally recognized that double entry bookkeeping is a more effective system for
accounting. By using double entry you can prove the accuracy of the records
to ensure that the two sides agree. This being said double entry bookkeeping is known
for being difficult, with some qualified accountants not completely understanding it.

The double entry system works by recording two sides to

each income or expenditure transaction. For example, if you buy a new computer for
the office the two sides would be that: the amount of money in your bank account
would decrease and the value of assets in the office would increase. This follows the
accounting equation that assets - liability = capital.

Traditionally, bookkeepers kept written records in the form of daybooks, sales ledgers,
purchase ledgers and other journals. Recently, computerized accounting programmers
have overtaken these in popularity as they allow bookkeepers to record transactions
faster and at the same time automatically generate reports based on the figures. In the
traditional paper form bookkeeping required an exact knowledge of which transactions
should be posted into which T-accounts, now a bookkeeper can do the same job by
memorizing the nominal code attached to an account.

Although automated bookkeeping software has made bookkeeping easier, it is still an

area of great difficulty for anyone without suitable training or experience. Bookkeeping,
as with accounting, requires a thorough understanding of the system which is being
used and the effects of the transactions being posted.

In the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once. This means that the
record does not accurately show the effect of the transaction and as such is less
effective. Single entry bookkeeping is often used by sole-traders starting out in
business as it requires little expert knowledge. In fact most people who have balanced
their checkbook have used a single entry system.

Bookkeepers bring 'the books' to the trial balance stage at which point the work is
passed to the accountant to prepare the income statement and balance sheet using the
work prepared by the bookkeeper.

Bookkeepers usually also deal with petty cash and authorize its use, VAT returns and
personal tax returns. In fact, just about any 'accounting' function that doesn't require an
official statement from a certified accountant.
In effect anyone working on accounts preparation before this stage can be labelled as
a bookkeeper although most people prefer a more formal title such as accounts
payable. Self-employed bookkeepers face the added difficulty of having to deal with
clients who have either incomplete or disorganized financial records and as a result
have to spend hours wading through boxes of receipts before they can start recording
the financial information contained in these receipts.

Unfortunately a lot of people remain unaware of the complexity of the role of the
bookkeeper, and the term is now more commonly used to show an individual preparing
basic financial records rather than a member of a professional accounting team.

Questions
1. Have you ever done any bookkeeping?
2. Why do you think bookkeepers are not as respected as chartered / certified
accountants?
3. Can you think of anything which accountants do, that bookkeepers can't?
4. A lot of people think that bookkeeping and accounting is the same thing, is it true?
5. What is bookkeeping within a business?

GRAMMAR FOCUS

Use of Passive
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known,
however, who or what is performing the action.
Example: My bike was stolen.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example
shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
Form of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)
Example: A letter was written.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
 the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
 the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
 the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is
dropped)
 3. Management Accounting

Most businesses are aware of the value of highly skilled accountants, as their knowledge can
save the company money. However, a lot of companies forget that good accountants can
actually help in increasing revenue and decreasing overheads as well.
Accountancy is much more than recording financial transactions in order to calculate profit or
show the tax liability of a company. Management accountants actually help shape company
policy and the direction that the company will take in the future.
Whereas financial accounting is focused on providing reports for both internal users like the
board of management and external users such as the tax office, management accounting
focuses on providing information for internal users so that they can choose the correct course
of action in any situation and confirm that actions are taken efficiently.
Unlike financial accounting, management accounting has no set of standard reports - instead
management accountants compile any reports which are likely to assist the company in
making the right choice.
So how can managerial accounting help your company?
The primary function of managerial accounting is focused on increasing knowledge inside a
company and as a result reducing risks connected with decision making. Accountants
can draft reports on the cost of production, workforce expenditure, and the cost of various
projects and schemes, among other activities. Managers may then utilise these reports to
measure the difference, or "variance," between the expected and actual results, or to
compare performance to other benchmarks.
Because of the need for a variety of detailed information about specific areas within a
company, the reports produced by management accountants are often much more in-
depth than financial accounting reports, such as balance sheet ratios and net income
calculations. Managerial reports can also differ from financial reports in the frequency at which
they are produced with these reports being prepared on a monthly, weekly or even daily basis.
One of the characteristics of most managerial accounting reports is the summary format that
they are presented in. This format makes it easier for managers to quickly identify potential
problem areas and then study those areas to aid in determining the correct way to resolve
these problems.
The majority of managerial accounting functions produce information which is used to make
decisions about the future and to evaluate the effectiveness of past decisions. Monitoring
financial results and measuring the outcome is called "controlling." The person in charge of a
company's accounting department is called the "controller." This person plays a key role in
planning and controlling processes throughout the company.
Management plans are formally shown as budgets, and the term "budgeting" usually talks
about management planning. The controller supervises the creation of budgets. Budgets are
often prepared for individual teams and departments within a company as well as for the
company as one entity.
After the budgets have been established, managerial accountants collect information
generated by the organization that indicates the actual company performance in contrast to
the budgeted figures.
The managerial accounting findings are presented using performance reports tailored for the
individual needs of the executives or departments. The performance reports compare budgets
with actual results for a particular time period, which allows managers to identify problem
areas.
Management accountants can also create special reports which are used to help make
decisions about proposed projects or possible takeovers. Reports are created to analyze cost
and benefit relationships connected to different variables. For example, if a company's
competitor lowers its prices, management may ask for a report comparing possible responses,
such as lowering its prices, or increasing advertising. These reports usually include the
collection of outside data as well as forecasting.
Managerial accounting staff are now often expected to help in creating strategies to increase
the profitability of a company and to cooperate in cross-functional teams with managers from
operational departments throughout the organization. As a result of these additional duties,
management accountants are now not only accountants but key members of finance teams.

1. How can management accountants help a business?

2. Do you agree that management accounting is more valuable to a company than
financial accounting? Why / why not?
3. 'Accounting records the past while management accounting predicts the future' Do
you agree? Why / why not?
4. What does the term "budgeting" usually talk about ?
5. What does Management accountants actually help?

GRAMMAR FOCUS

The modal verb "can"

Can is a verb that is very often used in the English language. We use it when we
 express that someone is able to do something: He can speak Spanish.;
 express that something is possible: The accountants can stay at our place tonight.
 ask for something: Can I have some water, please?;
 ask for or give permission: Can I go to the meeting tonight? Yes, you can go.;
 offer to do something: Can I help you?.
 4. Tax Accounting vs GAAP

In the 21st century many laws and regulations have been standardized but there are still some
standards which are specific to each country.
If you work in accounting in the US you will have heard of and understand tax accounting, but
your European counterpart will have no idea what it is. Unlike a lot of countries where
the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) is the only method for calculating tax,
accountants in America have two options; tax accounting and GAAP.
So to clear up the question: ‘What is the difference between GAAP and tax accounting?’
The primary difference between the methods is that under GAAP, all financial transactions
must be recorded and accounted for whereas tax accounting focuses on the transactions
which have an impact on the tax situation of the company, with other transactions
being omitted.
The Generally Accepted Accounting Principles is the compulsory method of accounting for
a public company. Tax accounting can be similar, but with far more options available.
Knowing the differences between these two methods of accounting will help you determine
the best method to use for your clients and your business.
GAAP exists to provide accounting principles, standards and practices, which as a result of
being standardised provides financial statements capable of being compared amongst each
other. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) developed a tax accounting system to levy taxes
against net earnings or taxable income. Taxable income differs from revenue as defined by
GAAP.
Depreciation, the allocation of cost over the estimated useful life of an asset, also varies
between the two methods. Common depreciation methods under U.S. GAAP include straight
line and reducing balance depreciation. Tax accounting commonly uses the Modified
Accelerated Cost Recovery System, or MACRS, which uses declining percentages defined by
the IRS. In addition, the IRS allows taxpayers to expense a fixed asset in the year of the
purchase.
The accounting basis used in the production of financial statements determines how to report
transactions and what information appears on the finished financial statements. Under GAAP
the only option is accrual basis accounting. But the tax accounting system allows for the use of
cash, accrual or modified basis accounting. Developing and using the GAAP accounting system
can be too expensive for small business, so the IRS lets smaller companies account for their
business transactions using alternative methods.
Using GAAP, unpaid due expenses accrue on the balance sheet. This results in an expense
accrual, which is a liability to be paid at a later date. Tax accounting does not need an accrual
basis unless you report your company tax return as an accrual basis taxpayer.
The IRS imposes limits for both cash and modified basis accounting, which includes income and
expense reporting limits as well as revenue limits.
Having highlighted the differences between the two systems, it is clear that the two are not
equal and depending on your business one may be better suited for your needs.
There are several reasons why so many small and medium sized enterprises (SME) use the tax
accounting system over GAAP.
Tax accounting is significantly simpler than GAAP, as instead of having to record every single
transaction, only those which impact on the tax situation are taken into consideration. This
makes tax accounting the preferred method for the majority of CPA’s and SME’s.
Many firms use professional accountants to prepare the tax returns and financial statements.
When the basis of the taxes differs from the financial statements, more time is spent on the
process, resulting in higher fees. Businesses often change to tax accounting basis when
changes required by GAAP are too expensive.
Most business owners have a degree of knowledge on income taxes because they usually
check their returns and sign them. This knowledge should be consistent with tax accounting
principles. Tax regulations use everyday language and easily understandable examples as they
are not just meant for experienced accountants but also business owners. GAAP rules are
more technical and are designed for professionals with wide financial knowledge who can fully
understand and apply them.
Essential GAAP Principles
There are 10 primary principles set forth in GAAP standards. These help guide both consistency
and accuracy in GAAP accounting.
1. The Principle of Consistency ensures that consistent practices are followed in financial
reporting.
2. The Principle of Permanent Methods refers specifically to accounting techniques and
procedures.
3. The Principle of Non-Compensation states that no entity should expect extra
compensation for providing accurate reports.
4. The Principle of Prudence provides accurate and factual reporting, free of speculation.
5. The Principle of Regularity says that accountants must follow GAAP at all times.
6. The Principle of Sincerity says accountants adhere to standards of honesty and
accuracy in reporting.
7. The Principle of Good Faith states that anyone involved in financial reporting (not only
accountants) must act honestly and in good faith.
8. The Principle of Materiality says reports must clearly disclose a company's genuine
financial health.
9. The Principle of Continuity states that asset valuations are based on the assumption
the business will continue operations in the future.
10. The Principle of Periodicity says reports must be generated consistently within
common financial reporting periods, such as monthly, quarterly and annually.

QUESTIONS

1. What does GAAP stand for and what does it mean?

2. Should accounting principles be standardized across the world?
3. How could GAAP be made simpler?
4. Is it necessary to have two systems for accounting for tax? Why / why not?
5. In your opinion What principle is more important?

GRAMMAR FOCUS
TWO WORDS VERBS
 In English grammar, a phrasal verb is composed of two or three words – One verb is
combined with a preposition (at, on, in) or an adverb (up, down). Some examples of
phrasal verbs with the verb “GET” are “get at”, “get in”, “get out”, “get off”, “get
away”, “get over”, “get back”… and they ALL have different meanings!

1. Answer: responder
 Answer back: contestar (de mala gana). Ejemplo: His daughter answered him back (su
hija le contestó de mala manera).
 Answer for: responder por. Ejemplo: I’ll answer for him (respondo por él).
2. Ask: preguntar
 Ask after: preguntar por. Ejemplo: He asked after you (preguntó por ti).
 Ask for: pedir o solicitar algo. Ejemplo: She asked for help (pidió ayuda).
3. Break: romper, descomponerse
 Break up: separarse, romper con alguien. Ejemplo: They broke up two months ago (lo
dejaron hace dos meses).
 Break off: romper un compromiso o relaciones diplomáticas. Ejemplo: The president
threatened to break off diplomatic relations (el presidente amenazó con romper las
relaciones diplomáticas).
 Break down: averiarse, descomponerse. Ejemplo: The car broke down on the way
to Madrid (el coche se averió de camino a Madrid).
4. Bring: traer
 Bring back: devolver. Ejemplo: I’ll bring your book back tomorrow (te traeré el
libro mañana).
 Bring down: reducir. Ejemplo: The measure brought the crime figures down (la
medida redujo las cifras de crimen).
 Bring up: criar. Ejemplo: I was brought up by my aunt (me crio mi tía).
5. Call: llamar
 Call back: volver a llamar. Ejemplo: I’ll call you back as soon as possible (te devolveré
la llamada lo antes posible).
 Call for: pedir, exigir. Ejemplo: He called for silence (él pidió silencio).
 Call off: cancelar un evento. Ejemplo: Martha called off the wedding (Martha canceló
la boda).
6. Carry: llevar
 Carry on: continuar. Ejemplo: Carry on the good work (continúa trabajando tan bien).
 Carry off: tener éxito en algo, lograr algo. Ejemplo: She carried off the dance routine
perfectly. (ella logró hacer la rutina perfectamente).
 Carry out: llevar a cabo, realizar. Ejemplo: Only health-service personnel may carry
out surgeries (solo el personal sanitario puede realizar cirugías).
7. Check: verificar
 Check in: registrarse. Ejemplo: She hasn’t checked in yet (no se ha registrado aún).
 Check out: dejar la habitación. Ejemplo: They already checked out of the hotel (ya
salieron del hotel).
8. Come: venir, llegar
 Come back: volver. Ejemplo: I just came back from Mexico (acabo de volver de
México).
 Come in: entrar, llegar. Ejemplo: She came in second (llegó la segunda).
 Come from: venir de, ser originario de. Ejemplo: Laura comes from abroad (Laura
viene del extranjero).
 Come down: bajar, caer. Ejemplo: Many people came to see how the famous
castle came down (mucha gente vino a ver cómo caía el famoso Castillo).
9. Drive: conducir
 Drive off: irse, partir. Ejemplo: I saw him drive off in his car (lo vi irse en su coche).
10. Fill: llenar
 Fill in: rellenar, completar, llenar. Ejemplo: Fill in the fields below (rellena los campos
de abajo).
 Fill up: llenar, rellenar. Ejemplo: Please Fill up the car before our roadtrip (necesitamos
empacar (llenar el coche) antes de nuestro viaje por carretera).
11. Find: encontrar
 Find out: descubrir, averiguar, enterarse. Ejemplo: My parents found out about my
grades (mis padres se enteraron de mis calificaciones).
12. Give: dar
 Give away: donar, regalar. Ejemplo: My dad will give money away to help abandoned
puppies (mi padre donará dinero para ayudar a cachorros abandonados).
 Give back: devolver. Ejemplo: She gave him back his book (ella le devolvió el libro).
 Give in: ceder, darse por vencido. Ejemplo: I give in, I can’t (me doy por vencido,
no puedo).
13. Go: ir
 Go on: seguir, continuar. Ejemplo: I can’t go on, I’m too tired (no puedo seguir, estoy
muy cansado).
 Go over: repasar, revisar. Ejemplo: I’ll meet you downstairs to go over the results (te
veo abajo para revisar los resultados).
14. Keep: mantener
 Keep away: alejar, mantener alejado. Ejemplo: This is to keep away the bad vibes (esto
es para mantener alejadas a las malas vibraciones).
 Keep on: seguir. Ejemplo: We must keep on working (debemos seguir trabajando).
 Keep up: mantenerse al día. Ejemplo: It’s challenging for him to keep up
with technology (para él es un reto mantenerse al día con la tecnología).
15. Look: mirar
 Look after: cuidar. Ejemplo: He doesn’t look after himself (no se cuida).
 Look away: apartar la vista, mirar para otro lado. Ejemplo: I looked away (aparté la
mirada).
 Look for: buscar. Ejemplo: Are you looking for your cat? (¿estás buscando a tu gato?).
16. Make: hacer
 Make up: maquillar. Ejemplo: Kim taught me how to make up (Kim me enseñó a
maquillarme).
17. Pick: elegir, escoger
 Pick out: elegir, escoger. Ejemplo: Thanks for helping me pick out the gift (gracias
por ayudarme a escoger el regalo).
 Pick up: recoger. Ejemplo: You can pick me up at the airport (puedes recogerme en el
aeropuerto).
18. Put: poner
 Put on: ponerse. Ejemplo: Put your coat on (ponte el abrigo).
 Put out: sacar. Ejemplo: Have you put the dog out? (¿has sacado al perro?)
19. Run: correr
 Run out: agotar, acabar. Ejemplo: The fuel will run out one day (el combustible se
agotará algún día).
 Run over: atropellar, pasar por encima. Ejemplo: Slow down! We don’t want to run
over somebody (¡Baja la velocidad!, no queremos atropellar a nadie).
20. Take: tomar
 Take after: parecerse. Ejemplo: She doesn’t take after her mother at all (ella no se
parece en nada a su madre)
 Take away: llevar(se). Ejemplo: Two more to take away, please (dos más para llevar,
por favor)
 Take out: eliminar. Ejemplo: We should take out that claim we made in the
article (deberíamos eliminar esa afirmación que hicimos en el artículo)
 Take back: regresar. Ejemplo: I took the plates back to the kitchen (regresé los platos a
la cocina)
21.Talk: hablar
 Talk about: hablar de. Ejemplo: We’ll talk about it when you’re calmer (hablaremos de
ello cuando estés más tranquilo)
 Talk back: responder mal. Ejemplo: He is very polite and doesn’t talk back to his
parents (él es muy educado y no le responde a sus padres)
 Talk over: discutir. Ejemplo: There’s something I want to talk over with you (hay algo
que quiero discutir contigo)
22. Tell: decir
 Tell off: regañar. Ejemplo: She told him off after she was late again (ella le dijo que se
fuera luego de que llegara tarde otra vez)
 Tell on: delatar. Ejemplo: Don’t tell on us! (¡no nos delates!)
23. Turn: (hacer) girar
 Turn up: subir el volumen. Ejemplo: Could you turn the music up? (¿podrías subirle a
la música?)
 Turn down: bajar el volumen. Ejemplo: It’s time to turn down the volume (es hora
de bajar el volumen)
 Turn around: darse la vuelta. Ejemplo: Now turn around and get home (ahora den
la vuelta y regresen a casa)
 Turn on: encender. Ejemplo: I’m going to turn on the heater because it’s very cold (voy
a a encender la calefacción porque hace mucho frío)
 Turn off: apagar. Ejemplo: I’ve forgot to turn off the TV (olvidé apagar el televisor)
24. Walk: caminar
 Walk away: alejarse. Ejemplo: The actress walked away plenty of times (la actriz se
alejó muchas veces)
 Walk in: entrar. Ejemplo: When they walk in there will be sweets on the table (cuando
entren habrán dulces sobre la mesa)
 Walk off: marcharse. Ejemplo: You can’t just walk off and leave me here (no puedes
marcharte y dejarme aquí)
25. Work: trabajar
 Work out: ejercitar, entrenar. Ejemplo: You can work out 5 days a week (puedes
entrenar cinco días a la semana)
Las partículas gramaticales que acompañan a los phrasal verbs
Las siguientes son las preposiciones y los adverbios más comunes que acompañan a los
phrasal verbs. Si tienes claridad respecto a su connotación, el significado del phrasal
verb será a piece of cake!
1. About: preposición por / acerca de
2. After: preposición por
3. Around: preposición alrededor de/ en torno a /girar en su propio eje
4. Away: adverbio de lugar indica distanciamiento
5. Back: adverbio repetición o retorno
6. Down: preposición que indica dirección hacia abajo / adverbio abajo
7. For: preposición causal por
8. From: preposición punto de partida o de Origen
9. In: preposición de lugar en / adverbio dentro
10. Off: adverbio remover / acabar
11. On: preposición que indica posición
12. Out: adverbio fuera
13. Over: preposición sobre, encima de, por encima
14. Up: adverbio arriba
 ACTIVITY
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)
By BARCLAY PALMER
Reviewed By GORDON SCOTT

Export the topic to a Concept map or semantic network

Updated Jan 29, 2020

What are International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)?
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) set common rules so that financial
statements can be consistent, transparent and comparable around the world. IFRS are issued
by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). They specify how companies must
maintain and report their accounts, defining types of transactions and other events with
financial impact. IFRS were established to create a common accounting language, so that
businesses and their financial statements can be consistent and reliable from company to
company and country to country.

International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)

Understanding International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)

IFRS are designed to bring consistency to accounting language, practices and statements, and
to help businesses and investors make educated financial analyses and decisions. The IFRS
Foundation sets the standards to “bring transparency, accountability and efficiency to financial
markets around the world… fostering trust, growth and long-term financial stability in the
global economy.” Companies benefit from the IFRS because investors are more likely to put
money into a company if the company's business practices are transparent.
 IFRS are used in at least 120 countries, as of March 2018, including those in the European
Union (EU) and many in Asia and South America, but the U.S. uses Generally Accepted
Accounting Principles (GAAP).
The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has said it won't switch to International
Financial Reporting Standards, but will continue reviewing a proposal to allow IFRS information
to supplement U.S. financial filings. GAAP has been called "the gold standard" of accounting.
However, some argue that global adoption of IFRS would save money on duplicative
accounting work, and the costs of analyzing and comparing companies internationally.

IFRS are sometimes confused with International Accounting Standards (IAS), which are the
older standards that IFRS replaced. IAS was issued from 1973 to 2000, and the International
Accounting Standards Board (IASB) replaced the International Accounting Standards
Committee (IASC) in 2001.

Standard IFRS Requirements

IFRS covers a wide range of accounting activities. There are certain aspects of business practice
for which IFRS set mandatory rules.

Statement of Financial Position: This is also known as a balance sheet. IFRS influences the ways
in which the components of a balance sheet are reported.
Statement of Comprehensive Income: This can take the form of one statement, or it can be
separated into a profit and loss statement and a statement of other income, including property
and equipment.
Statement of Changes in Equity: Also known as a statement of retained earnings, this
documents the company's change in earnings or profit for the given financial period.
Statement of Cash Flow: This report summarizes the company's financial transactions in the
given period, separating cash flow into Operations, Investing, and Financing.
In addition to these basic reports, a company must also give a summary of its accounting
policies. The full report is often seen side by side with the previous report, to show the
changes in profit and loss. A parent company must create separate account reports for each of
its subsidiary companies.

IFRS vs. American Standards

Differences exist between IFRS and other countries' Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
(GAAP) that affect the way a financial ratio is calculated. For example, IFRS is not as strict on
defining revenue and allow companies to report revenue sooner, so consequently, a balance
sheet under this system might show a higher stream of revenue than GAAP's. IFRS also has
different requirements for expenses; for example, if a company is spending money on
development or an investment for the future, it doesn't necessarily have to be reported as an
expense (it can be capitalized).

Another difference between IFRS and GAAP is the specification of the way inventory is
accounted for. There are two ways to keep track of this, first in first out (FIFO) and last in first
out (LIFO). FIFO means that the most recent inventory is left unsold until older inventory is
sold; LIFO means that the most recent inventory is the first to be sold. IFRS prohibits LIFO,
while American standards and others allow participants to freely use either.
 KEY TAKEAWAYS
IFRS were established to create a common accounting language, so business and accounts can
be understood from company to company and country to country.
Both companies and investors benefit from IFRS because people are more confident investing
in a company if its business practices are transparent and reliable.
The IFRS are set by the International Accounting Standards Board, an independent body of the
IFRS Foundation, which provide updates, insights and guidance on the standards.

History of IFRS
IFRS originated in the European Union, with the intention of making business affairs and
accounts accessible across the continent. The idea quickly spread globally, as a common
language allowed greater communication worldwide. Although the U.S. and some other
countries don't use IFRS, most do, and they are spread all over the world, making IFRS the
most common global set of standards.

The goal of IFRS is to make international comparisons as easy as possible. That goal hasn't fully
been achieved because, in addition to the U.S. using GAAP, some countries use other
standards. And U.S. GAAP is different from Canadian GAAP. Synchronizing accounting
standards across the globe is an ongoing process in the international accounting community.
 WORKSHOP

The Future of Accounting

Since man started conducting business almost 7000 years ago, there has been a need to record
and track these transactions - from this need came accountancy. As business changes so, too,
does accounting and prior methods are forced to change- so the question is: how will
accounting change as we move into the future?
There are many predictions on this topic, but in this article we have selected our top 5 for you.

1. Web-based technology
Although there are already web-based accounting solutions, we expect to see the number and
functionality of them improve greatly in the coming years. These solutions will include
software which integrates with the various government taxation organs. The result of which
will be a system where compliance work is automated.
Current predictions are that this will reduce the amount of time spent on compliance work by
10% - 40%. As such firms will need to undertake new services which will offset this loss
in billable hours and make it possible to stay afloat.

2. Simplified compliance
The trend of simplified compliance isn't new, and shouldn't come as a surprise to anyone. The
simple truth is that governments want to be reelected, so it is in their own best interests to
satisfy the people, and one way of doing that is to reduce the amount of red tape associated
with owning and running a business.
We already have online filing of tax forms, and online help desks in taxation authorities - so the
continuation of this trend may see a complete shift to a paperless system of accounting.

3. Fewer, but larger firms

Unlike the majority of professions, the accounting profession is still a cottage
industry comprised primarily of thousands of small firms. In fact, it is estimated that there are
over 1.2 million accounting firms worldwide, but only 60,000 have revenues of over $3 million,
with most firms having fewer than 5 staff.
Most small accounting firms are currently made up of 2 partners and a handful of staff, who
are only capable of offering limited services.
Arising from the reduction in compliance work, these firms may find it unprofitable to continue
in this sector so we are likely to see smaller firms merging to form companies which can offer
an extended range of services.
 4. Additional services
In conjunction with point 3, larger firms will find themselves competing for clients by offering
services which were traditionally offered by financial advisors, or even legal council. We expect
these services to include:
• Growth - helping with the development of the clients company by advising them on methods
to grow the business.
• Succession - aiding clients in selling commodities, or part or all of the business when the time
is right.
• Planning - developing strategic plans for the company including asset and the owners, this is
likely to take in retirement planning.
These additional services will aim at integrating all clients needs in one place, and will add to
the growing trend for such work to be outsourced.
5. Business success center
By offering the additional services mentioned above, the accounting firm will be transformed
into a center for business success. We speculate that these centers will be much more client
friendly and each client will have their own relationship manager who will be responsible for
advising on the best package of services for the client. This will avoid the current system
of duplication of questions, when a client speaks with an accountant, a lawyer and a financial
planner separately.
While these are only predictions of what will happen in the coming years and do not take into
account any unknowns, one thing is for certain: the future of accounting looks exciting.

Activity

Write down a journal article about this topic , using the following questions

1. What’s the one thing about your business that you’re most proud of?

2. What keeps you awake at night?

3. In the past, we’ve talked about [x, y, z] challenges. If you could solve one of those,
when would you like that to happen?

4. What are some areas you plan to keep focusing on this year, and which ones have
fallen off the priority list?.

5. Life is always full of change and surprise. [Share a personal example.] May I ask
about any personal changes you’re experiencing that could affect the company or
how you do business?.

6. It seems like [economic changes, fuel prices, other external factors] have made the
clients rethink their strategy this year. What’s going on for you?.

7. What’s the one thing you’re doing that you would love to delegate in a company?

8. Can I ask your opinion on this?

A business must maintain accurate bookkeeping practices. The oil giant, Enron was
exposed in 2001 for "cooking the books" to misrepresent profits. The deception
affected stockholder prices, and many public shareholders lost huge amounts of
money because of the ethics violation. The company went bankrupt as a result, and
the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was established to protect public shareholders with
stricter financial reporting laws.
Even small privately held companies must keep accurate financial records to pay
appropriate taxes and employee profit sharing or to attract business partners and
investments.