fluorescence and whiteness
FTM20
introduction
Fluorescent substances in papers, inks and coatings
are used in labels for spotting and identifying particular
types of labels. Fluorescent brighteners impart increased
brightness or whiteness to label papers. Assessment of
whiteness requires a specified standard light spectrum
including a defined range and intensity of ultraviolet
radiation.
Fluorescence is the emission of light in the visible or
adjacent UV or IR spectrum, from matter that is suitably
energized by incident radiation. The whiteness of paper or
textiles may be enhanced by the fluorescence of ‘optical
brighteners’ that convert the invisible UV component
of daylight into visible light. The material thus appears
brighter and whiter.
The whiteness of an optically brightened paper depends
on:
1. chemical structure of the optical brightener;
2. concentration of brightener;
3. the ‘activation potential’ of paper fibres in relation to
the brightener;
4. the UV component of incident light (this means that
for correct measurement of whiteness a well-
defined standard light source is required).
test methods
For inspection and control purposes test methods outlined
here concern (A) fluorescence and (B) whiteness.
A. Fluorescence
1. A surface printed with fluorescent inks or optical
brighteners is viewed under UV light which reveals
whether the print is as intended.
2. Actual measurement of fluorescence is possible with
equipment (as supplied by SICK or LAETUS) that emits
ultraviolet light of controlled intensity and measures
reflected light at longer wavelengths. A pre-set
threshold allows the equipment to decide whether the
printing is satisfactory or whether a label is present or
not.
B. Whiteness
Whiteness is the result of basic white colour of the material
and the effect of optical brightener added. The effect of
optical brighteners can only be appreciated under a light
source containing ultraviolet similar to daylight.
1. A set of twelve whiteness calibration plates was
available from CIBA-GEIGY.
Steps 1 to 4 do not contain any optical brightener but
have decreasing doses of yellow pigment. Steps 5 to
12 have increasing doses of optical brightener. CIBA
GEIGY no longer produces this set, but it is still used
as common standard.
Based on the same concept, LAETUS has developed
a ruler with a twelve step whiteness scale allowing
visual assessment of the whiteness of a paper surface.
Again, the light used for such an assessment should
combine UV-light, otherwise no fluorescence will
occur. Comparative testing is also possible using the
analogue output (in milliamps) of a fluorescence
testing device.
2. The best assessment of whiteness is obtained using
a spectrophotometer that allows UV calibration of its
light source (normally standard source D65).
One such device is the Datacolor Elrepho 3000.
White is in fact a colour like red, green or blue and
may be determined with colorimetric methods. The
difference is that white has high brightness and low
saturation, which makes measurement more difficult
than for a high saturation colour. In the literature one
finds over 100 whiteness formulas. The most practical
whiteness formula is the one developed by E. Ganz
(see appendix). Ganz ratings correlate with the CIBA
GEIGY scale as follows:
GANZ rating CIBA-GEIGY scale
-2 1
5 2
25 3
50 4
70 5
90 6
105 7
130 8
FINAT TECHNICAL HANDBOOK 2014 |
150 9
175 10
185 11
210 12
41
 FTM20
appendix
Fluorescence is a form of luminescence, the emission
of radiation in the form of light when an electron
changes from a state of higher energy to a lower state.
In fluorescence this is caused by absorbed radiation,
mostly ultraviolet followed by emission in longer, visible
wavelengths. Luminescence covers fluorescence and
phosphorescence, fluorescence lifetimes being from 10-6
to 10-9 seconds, phosphorescence lifetimes being from
10-4 to 10-2 seconds.
For measurement of these phenomena a well-defined
light source is important, i.e. constant output and constant
spectral characteristic. Three types of standard light sources
have been defined: A, C, D65.
For FTM 20 only source type D65 is of interest, as it
approximates average daylight with a colour temperature of
6500K. It emits sufficient ultraviolet to induce fluorescence
of optical brighteners.
light sources
1. For a first approximation, natural daylight may be used
instead of a standard light source. However, daylight
varies in colour temperature and intensity.
2. Artificial daylight sources such as those available
from HERAEUS provide a much more constant source
approximating D65.
3. Light cabinets are offered on the market, having lamps
with different dominant wavelengths, E.S. 254 nm
and 360 nm. With such a cabinet one can observe the
activity of different optical brighteners.
4. When the purpose is to test fluorescence as
such, without a basic whiteness of the material
(for instance, a transparent film overprinted with
fluorescent ink), an ultraviolet source should be
used, normally a UV-A source with 380 nm dominant
wavelength.
5. The best source for testing whiteness is a standard
FINAT TECHNICAL HANDBOOK 2014 |
D65 source used under the standard lighting
conditions of an Ulbricht integrating sphere. Also, the
UV spectrum of the source (generally a flash tube)
needs to be calibrated.
These requirements are fulfilled in instruments such
as the Datacolor Elrepho 2000 and similar instruments
from other suppliers.
42
fluorescence and whiteness
test equipment
a. Fluorescence
• Light cabinet equipped with UV light source
(comparative testing)
• Luminescence sensor (actual measurement)
b. Whiteness
• Whiteness scale ruler (comparative testing)
• Light cabinet equipped with daylight source
(comparative testing)
• Spectrophotometer (actual measurement)
See Section 3 of this Handbook.
For any verification or calibration of the LAETUS scale,
please contact the scale maker: Laetus (former Romaco).
ganz whiteness formula
Judgment of neutral whiteness varies from person to
person. That is why in the GANZ formula (or Ganz-Griesser
formula)
W=(D.Y)+(P.x)+(Q.y)+C
where Y, x, y are luminance or luminosity and chromaticity
coefficients or tristimulus reflectance factors, GANZ
parameters D, P, Q, C are introduced. They reflect the
judgment of the majority of observers.
literature
3. E. Ganz, Whiteness: photometric specification and
colorimetric evaluation. Appl. Optics 15 (1976) 9 pp
2039-2058.
4. Rolf Griesser (1979), Methods and uses of colorimetric
evaluation of paper. CIBA-Geigy pamphlet 7009, pp
25-29.
Fluorescent marking standard negotiations are going on in
the labelling industry to establish a standard for fluorescent
identification of labels, to ensure optimal detection by an
appropriate luminescence probe. Enquiries: Sick Vertriebs
GmbH, www.sick.de. (See also Section 3.3).
Issued March 1999
Revised May 2001
Revised May 2004
Addresses revised February 2014