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Antología de Ética
El imperativo
categórico
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de las promesas”, por ejemplo, no se trata una deportivo en donde está la alberca y no tengo el
máxima bien formada por el simple hecho de valor de inscribirme en las clases de natación.
que no especifica las razones que alguien tiene Supongamos, al mismo tiempo, que yo realmente
para actuar de esta manera. Debo mencionar, quiero aprender a nadar; digamos que mis amigos
sin embargo, que la exposición de Kant no es están planeando ir a bucear en las vacaciones y
perfectamente clara y consistente en este respecto. que yo soy la única que no puedo nadar. Me muero
Kant sostiene que el imperativo categórico nos de ganas por aprender y, sin embargo, el pánico
hace exigencias incondicionales, es decir, que su hace que me comporte irracionalmente: en vez
cumplimiento ha de ser universal y lo contrapone de tomar los medios necesarios para mi fin, no lo
al imperativo hipotético, el cual nos hace hago.
exigencias condicionales, es decir, nos exige que
hagamos ciertas cosas bajo el supuesto de alguna A diferencia del imperativo hipotético, el categórico
condición. El imperativo hipotético es un principio exige incondicionalmente que hagamos ciertas
instrumental y nos dice que si queremos un fin cosas o que las dejemos de hacer, esto es,
debemos también querer los medios para ese fin, sin suponer ninguna condición: uno debe, por
es decir, buscar y querer los medios adecuados que ejemplo, respetar a los demás sin importar lo
nos permitan alcanzar aquello. que uno piense, quiera o desee. Por esta razón,
se trata de exigencias universales. La exigencia
Ambos principios son imperativos porque nos es incondicional. Kant piensa que el carácter
dicen qué debemos hacer: ya sea actuar conforme incondicional de las exigencias morales es una
a máximas que podamos querer como leyes característica necesaria de las mismas y piensa
universales, o bien que tomemos los medios también que nosotros estaremos de acuerdo.
necesarios para la realización de nuestros fines. Además de apelar a nuestra intuición moral, en la
El imperativo hipotético nos hace una exigencia tercera sección de la Fundamentación Kant ofrece
condicional en el siguiente sentido: nos exige que argumentos cuyo fin es, en parte, mostrar que las
tomemos ciertos medios bajo el supuesto de que exigencias incondicionales de este imperativo
queremos un fin. Por ejemplo, si yo digo que tengo están bien fundadas, pero no puedo entrar aquí en
como fin aprender a nadar, el imperativo hipotético ello. Este imperativo, al igual que el hipotético, es
me exige que tome los medios necesarios para ese también un principio de racionalidad práctica, pues
fin, digamos, que tome clases de natación. Pero en nos dice en qué consiste actuar racionalmente.
el momento en que yo decida que después de todo
no me interesa aprender a nadar, el imperativo ya Esto no significa que el problema con la conducta
no me exige que tome clases de natación. inmoral es que sea irracional. En la teoría de
Kant no es el caso que la persona moral actúe
El principio prescribe un curso de acción bajo el moralmente porque quiera ser racional; la
supuesto de que yo tengo un fin. Si renuncio al persona moral actúa moralmente porque valora
fin, el imperativo ya no prescribe que tome los a la humanidad como un fin en sí mismo, en su
medios. El imperativo hipotético es un principio persona y en la de los demás; en otras palabra,
de racionalidad práctica porque nos dice en qué actúa moralmente porque es racional. El fin o la
consiste actuar racionalmente: una persona aspiración de la persona moral no es ser racional,
racional toma los medios para realizar sus fines, sino tratar a la humanidad siempre como un fin y
una persona irracional no. En el ejemplo anterior, nunca como un mero medio. Aunque, desde luego,
supongamos que yo tengo pánico de hundirme la acción moral es, al mismo tiempo, racional
en la alberca y ahogarme; cada vez que pienso en porque se adecua a los principios que gobiernan la
aprender a nadar me imagino que no voy a poder racionalidad práctica. Lo que acabo de decir puede
flotar; así que todos los días me dirijo hacia el sorprender a quienes piensan que la ética kantiana
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es deontológica. De acuerdo con una terminología según la cual debemos tratar a la humanidad
muy de moda, una doctrina ética puede ser, o bien siempre como un fin y nunca como un mero medio.
deontológico, o bien teleológica. Una doctrina
teleológica tiene como punto de partida un bien La tercera es la formulación de la autonomía,
o un valor y nos dice que lo promovamos o que lo de acuerdo con la cual debemos actuar según
maximicemos hasta alcanzarlo con un parámetro máximas que elijamos de manera autónoma. Kant
específico. El ejemplo clásico es el utilitarismo; sostiene que las tres son formulaciones de un
de acuerdo con esta doctrina, el bien o valor mismo principio. Actuar de acuerdo con máximas
fundamental es la felicidad, y lo que debemos que podamos querer como leyes universales es lo
hacer es maximizar la felicidad del mayor número mismo que tratar a la humanidad siempre como
de personas. De acuerdo con esta clasificación, la fin y nunca como un mero medio, lo cual, a su vez,
doctrina ética de Kant sería deontológica porque es lo mismo que actuar de manera autónoma. La
se ocupa de lo correcto y no de lo bueno o de los conocida objeción de que el imperativo categórico
valores. Esta manera de entender la ética kantiana es un principio meramente formal carente de
está, sin embargo, completamente equivocada. contenido es, entonces, falsa: el contenido de este
principio es el valor de la humanidad. Pero aún
En primer lugar, la acción moral, de acuerdo con si nos centramos exclusivamente en la primera
Kant, es acción con miras a un valor fundamental, formulación del principio, la fórmula de la ley
a saber, el valor de la humanidad. Por supuesto que universal, la objeción no se sostiene.
Kant no dice que debamos de maximizar este valor,
pero sí dice que debemos actuar de acuerdo con él. La fórmula de la ley universal no es un principio
Actuar por deber es actuar de tal manera que las del cual podamos derivar deberes morales, sino
acciones expresen el valor de la humanidad, que que opera sobre las máximas del agente moral;
las acciones por sí mismas hablen y se justifiquen es decir, el principio es formal porque exige que
a sí mismas. Una acción moral es, de acuerdo con nuestras máximas sean universales; y el contenido
Kant, buena de manera incondicional. La acción del razonamiento moral viene dado en las máximas
moral o por deber se distingue de acciones de otro que son el punto de partida. Voy a ilustrar este
tipo no porque no esté guiada por valores o bienes, punto con una variación de uno de los ejemplos
sino por el tipo de valor o bien que la guía, a saber, que Kant mismo ofrece en la segunda sección de la
un valor incondicional, es decir, un valor que no Fundamentación.
depende de ninguna condición.
De acuerdo con Kant, el agente que tiene dudas
En la primera sección de la Fundamentación Kant acerca del carácter moral de una máxima de
empieza describiendo la buena voluntad, y a lo acción debe someterla a la siguiente prueba de
largo de la obra queda claro que debemos aspirar universalización en dos pasos. En el primer paso,
a tener una voluntad buena y que una buena uno debe universalizar la máxima, y en el segundo
voluntad se guía por el valor de la humanidad. revisar si hay una contradicción entre la máxima
¿En dónde quedó entonces la exigencia de actuar inicial y su universalización. Si hay contradicción, la
según máximas que podamos querer como leyes máxima no es permisible, y lo opuesto es un deber
universales? En la Fundamentación Kant ofrece tres moral; si no hay contradicción, la máxima es por lo
formulaciones o formas de enunciar el imperativo menos permisible. Supongamos ahora que yo estoy
categórico y afirma que son equivalentes. La en un apuro financiero y que estoy pensando en
primera es la formulación de la ley universal, y es la pedirle dinero prestado a mi amigo Efraín, aunque
más conocida. sé que no podré pagarle; también sé que, si no le
prometo que le pagaré, Efraín no me prestará el
La segunda es la formulación de la humanidad, dinero; entonces pienso prometerle que le pagaré,
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Preguntas
1
¿Cómo define Kant el imperativo categórico y cómo lo diferencia del
imperativo hipotético en términos de sus exigencias y aplicaciones en
la vida moral cotidiana?
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importancia de las máximas como guías para la acción moral, y qué
papel juega la universalización en la determinación de la moralidad de
una máxima?
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The Categorical
Imperative
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Abstract
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fulfillment must be universal, contrasting it with the condition: one must, for example, respect others
hypothetical imperative, which makes conditional regardless of what one thinks, wants, or desires.
demands, meaning it requires us to do certain For this reason, they are universal demands.
things under the assumption of some condition. The demand is unconditional. Kant believes that
The hypothetical imperative is an instrumental the unconditional nature of moral demands is a
principle, telling us that if we want an end, we must necessary characteristic of them and also believes
also want the means to that end, that is, seek and that we will agree. In addition to appealing to
want the appropriate means to achieve it. our moral intuition, in the third section of the
Groundwork, Kant offers arguments whose purpose
Both principles are imperatives because they tell us is, in part, to show that the unconditional demands
what we should do: either act according to maxims of this imperative are well-founded, but I cannot get
that we can want as universal laws or take the into that here. This imperative, like the hypothetical
necessary means for the realization of our goals. one, is also a principle of practical rationality, as it
The hypothetical imperative makes a conditional tells us what it means to act rationally. This does
demand in the following sense: it demands that not mean that the problem with immoral conduct is
we take certain means under the assumption that that it is irrational. In the theory of Kant, it is not the
we want an end. For example, if I say that my goal case that the moral person acts morally because
is to learn to swim, the hypothetical imperative they want to be rational; the moral person acts
demands that I take the necessary means for that morally because they value humanity as an end in
end, say, take swimming lessons. But the moment itself, in their person and in that of others; in other
I decide that after all I am not interested in learning words, they act morally because they are rational.
to swim, the imperative no longer demands that I The end or aspiration of the moral person is not to
take swimming lessons. The principle prescribes a be rational, but to always treat humanity as an end
course of action under the assumption that I have and never as a mere means. Although, of course,
an end. If I give up the end, the imperative no longer moral action is, at the same time, rational because
prescribes that I take the means. it conforms to the principles that govern practical
rationality.
The hypothetical imperative is a principle of
practical rationality because it tells us what it What I just said may surprise those who think that
means to act rationally: a rational person takes the Kantian ethics is deontological. According to a
means to achieve their ends, an irrational person very fashionable terminology, an ethical doctrine
does not. In the previous example, suppose I am can be either deontological or teleological. A
terrified of sinking in the pool and drowning; every teleological doctrine starts with a good or a value
time I think of learning to swim, I imagine that I and tells us to promote it or maximize it until it is
won’t be able to float; so every day I head towards achieved with a specific parameter. The classic
the sports center where the pool is and don’t example is utilitarianism; according to this doctrine,
have the courage to enroll in swimming classes. the fundamental good or value is happiness, and
Suppose, at the same time, that I really want to what we must do is maximize the happiness of
learn to swim; say my friends are planning to go the greatest number of people. According to this
diving on vacation and I’m the only one who can’t classification, Kant’s ethical doctrine would be
swim. I’m dying to learn and yet, panic makes me deontological because it deals with the correct and
behave irrationally: instead of taking the necessary not the good or values.
means for my end, I don’t do it. Unlike the
hypothetical imperative, the categorical demands This way of understanding Kantian ethics is,
unconditionally that we do certain things or refrain however, completely wrong. First, moral action,
from doing them, that is, without assuming any according to Kant, is action with a view to a
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fundamental value, namely, the value of humanity. operates on the maxims of the moral agent; that
Of course, Kant does not say that we should is, the principle is formal because it demands
maximize this value, but he does say that we should that our maxims be universal; and the content of
act according to it. Acting out of duty is to act in moral reasoning is given in the maxims that are
such a way that the actions express the value of the starting point. I will illustrate this point with a
humanity, that the actions speak for themselves variation of one of the examples that Kant himself
and justify themselves. A moral action is, according offers in the second section of the Groundwork.
to Kant, unconditionally good. Moral action or
action out of duty is distinguished from actions of According to Kant, the agent who has doubts
another type not because it is not guided by values about the moral character of a maxim of action
or goods, but by the type of value or good that should subject it to the following two-step test
guides it, namely, an unconditional value, that is, a of universalization. In the first step, one must
value that does not depend on any condition. universalize the maxim, and in the second, check if
there is a contradiction between the initial maxim
In the first section of the Groundwork, Kant begins and its universalization. If there is a contradiction,
by describing the good will, and throughout the the maxim is not permissible, and the opposite is a
work, it is clear that we must aspire to have a good moral duty; if there is no contradiction, the maxim
will and that a good will is guided by the value of is at least permissible. Let’s suppose now that I am
humanity. Where, then, is the requirement to act in a financial bind and am thinking of borrowing
according to maxims that we can want as universal money from my friend Efraín, although I know I will
laws? In the Groundwork, Kant offers three not be able to repay him; I also know that, if I do
formulations or ways of stating the categorical not promise him that I will repay him, Efraín will not
imperative and claims that they are equivalent. The lend me the money; so I think of promising him that
first is the formulation of the universal law, and it is I will repay him, even though I know I will not be
the best known. able to do it. Let’s also suppose that I am not sure
whether this type of action is moral or immoral.
The second is the formulation of humanity,
according to which we must always treat humanity The maxim of the action would be something like
as an end and never as a mere means. “borrowing money to get out of a tight spot by
promising to pay it back, even though I know I will
The third is the formulation of autonomy, according never be able to do it.” The procedure for applying
to which we must act according to maxims that the formula of the universal law establishes that I
we choose autonomously. Kant holds that all three must first universalize the maxim. This means,
are formulations of the same principle. Acting according to Kant, imagining that the maxim is
according to maxims that we can want as universal a universal law in the world we live in, that is, a
laws is the same as always treating humanity as principle according to which everyone acts. In other
an end and never as a mere means, which in turn words, I must imagine that it is a universal practice
is the same as acting autonomously. The well- to borrow money by promising to pay it back even
known objection that the categorical imperative is when it is known that this will not be possible, that
a merely formal principle lacking content is, then, is, that it is universal and desirable for everyone to
false: the content of this principle is the value borrow money through a false promise.
of humanity. But even if we focus exclusively on
the first formulation of the principle, the formula The next step in the procedure is to check if there
of the universal law, the objection does not hold. is a contradiction between the universalization of
The formula of the universal law is not a principle the maxim and the initial maxim; that is, we must
from which we can derive moral duties, but rather check if there is a contradiction between wanting
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to act according to the initial maxim and its The formulation of the end in
universalization. There will be a contradiction if it itself
is impossible for me to act according to my initial
maxim in a world in which this maxim operates To conclude, I will explain how the second formula
as a universal law. According to Kant, there would of the categorical imperative works in the example
indeed be a contradiction in this particular case above. The formula of humanity says that we
because in the world of the maxim universalized must always treat humanity as an end and never
everyone knows that everyone promises falsely as a mere means. By “humanity,” Kant means the
that they will pay in order to borrow money and, rational capacity that we human beings have to
therefore, no one believes in this type of promises; propose ends. In the maxim of the example above,
so it would be impossible for me to act according to I am treating the person to whom I make the false
my initial maxim of borrowing money by promising promise, in this case my friend Efraín, as a mere
to pay it back even though I know I will not be able means to obtain my end (to get money to get out
to do it. Therefore, the maxim is not permissible and of the financial bind). Why? Part of what it means
the opposite is a moral duty, namely, never to act to treat someone as an end is that that person
according to this attempted maxim. It is important can consent to my actions. In this case, however,
to note that Kant is not saying that the initial Efraín could not consent because he simply does
maxim is in itself contradictory; the contradiction not know what I am up to, and at the same time,
arises between wanting to act according to the I treat him as someone irrational. The problem
initial maxim and its universalization. According is not that if he found out the truth he would not
to him, we cannot conceive of acting according to agree to lend me the money, since it may be that
the initial maxim in a world in which this maxim Efraín knows perfectly well that I will not be able to
has become a universal law. This universalization repay the money and that he lends it to me anyway
procedure has been the object of multiple attacks because he feels sorry to see me in such a bind
because it does not always give us the result we and pretends not to know so that I do not feel even
expect. For example, suppose my maxim is to worse.
play tennis early in the morning because that is
when the courts are empty; if this maxim were a The problem is that acting according to this
universal law, everyone would act the same way maxim implies that I deceive Efraín about my
and the courts would not be empty; therefore, is it true intentions and, therefore, that I do not even
immoral to play tennis early in the morning for the allow him the opportunity to consent or disagree
reason that that is when the courts are empty? It with my end. In this case, what I am doing is
is possible to amend this difficulty, but, in the end, manipulating him to act in the way I want; that is,
the universalization procedure is not completely I am treating him as a mere means to achieve my
reliable. purposes instead of an end that he himself has
proposed. This second formula of the imperative
Therefore, it may be better to pay more attention allows us to see more clearly why Kant thought
to the second formulation of the categorical that morality prohibits deception and coercion.
imperative, namely, the formula of humanity. According to his theory, this type of conduct is
There are several considerations in favor of this absolutely or unconditionally prohibited, which
alternative. First, it seems to be more reliable; is why it is always immoral. However, it is worth
second, Kant says it is more intuitive; and third, it is asking whether there are cases in which deception
the formula that he himself uses in the Metaphysics and coercion may be justified from a moral point
of Morals to derive his system of ethical duties. of view. Kant thought that, at least in the context of
interpersonal relationships, the answer is negative
and categorical.
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Questions
1
How does Kant define the categorical imperative, and how does he
differentiate it from the hypothetical imperative in terms of their
demands and applications in everyday moral life?
2
Within the framework of the categorical imperative, how does Kant
explain the importance of maxims as guides for moral action, and what
role does universalization play in determining the morality of a maxim?
3
What is Kant’s central argument for considering the categorical
imperative as the supreme principle of morality, and how does this
principle relate to the notion of free will and practical rationality?
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