1

LO BUENO....
2
LO MALO....
3
Y LO FEO.
4
CONCEPTOS
GEOMECNICOS
FUNDAMENTALES
5
MODELOS
CONCEPTUALES
BSICOS
6
R(u)
u
MATERIAL ISOTROPO
( ) u u =
o
R R
7
u
MATERIAL ANISOTROPO
R(u)
R
1
R
2
( ) u u
1 2
s s R R R
8
u
MATERIAL DIRECCIONAL
R(u)
R
1
R
2
( ) u u
1 2
s s R R R
9
MATERIAL HOMOGENEO
10
MATERIAL HETEROGENEO
11
MATERIAL CONTINUO
12
MATERIAL DISCONTINUO
13
MATERIAL REAL
6 1.5 m
14
COMPORTAMIENTO
CARGA-DEFORMACION-RESISTENCIA
C
a
r
g
a

Deformacin
ELASTICO
C
a
r
g
a

Deformacin
ELASTO-PLASTICO
C
a
r
g
a

Deformacin
RIGIDO-PLASTICO
C
a
r
g
a

Deformacin
C
a
r
g
a

Deformacin
15
GRANITO MASIVO
UNDERGROUND RESEARCH LABORATORY
PINAWA, MANITOBA
CANADA
ISRM News Journal (1992,93)

Ejemplo Prctico 01.1
CONTINUO
HOMOGENEO
ISOTROPO
LINEALMENTE
ELASTICO
16
GRANITO MASIVO
UNDERGROUND RESEARCH LABORATORY
PINAWA, MANITOBA
CANADA
ISRM News Journal (1992,93)

Ejemplo Prctico 01.2
CONTINUO
HOMOGENEO
ISOTROPO
LINEALMENTE
ELASTICO
17
CALIZAS PLEGADAS
MINA A RAJO ABIERTO
LATINOAMERICA
(1999)

Ejemplo Prctico 01.3
DIscontinuo
ANISOTROPO
NO
ELASTICO
18
CONCEPTOS DE
MACIZO ROCOSO
Y
EFECTOS DE ESCALA
19
250 200 150 100 50 300 0
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
R
E
S
I
S
T
E
N
C
I
A

U
N
I
A
X
I
A
L

D
E
L

T
E
S
T
I
G
O

R
E
S
I
S
T
E
N
C
I
A

U
N
I
A
X
I
A
L

D
E

U
N

T
E
S
T
I
G
O

D
E

D
I
A
M
E
T
R
O

5
0

m
m

DIAMETRO DEL TESTIGO (mm)
Mrmol
Caliza
Granito
Basalto
Lava Basaltica-Andestica
Gabro
Norita
Diorita cuarcfera
2 . 0
50

50

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
d UCS
UCS
d
o
20
(a)
(b)
EJEMPLO DE RUPTURA CON CONTROL ESTRUCTURAL QUE IMPIDE CONSIDE-
RAR EL RESULTADO OBTENIDO COMO VALIDO O REPRESENTATIVO DE LA
RESISTENCIA DE LA ROCA INTACTA.
21
TIPOS DE ROCA
Y SUS
PROPIEDADES
22
CLASIFICACION GEOLOGICA:

INTRUSIVAS (Granito / Diorita / Monzonita / Gabro / Diabasa)
Rx IGNEAS
EXTRUSIVAS (Riolita / Dacita / Andesita / Latita / Basalto)



CLASTICAS (Brecha / Conglomerado / Arenisca / Lutitas)
Rx SEDIMENTARIAS
NO CLASTICAS (Caliza / Dolomita / Yeso / Carbn / Coquina)



NO FOLIADAS (Cornalina / Cuarcita / Mrmol / Antracita)

Rx METAMORFICAS ALGO FOLIADAS (Gneiss / Migmatita / Anfibolita / Milonita)

FOLIADAS (Pizarra / Filita / Esquistos)
23
CLASIFICACION GEOTECNICA:

Carbonatos y Sales Solubles Halita / Yeso / Calizas
Micas y Minerales Planos Esquistos
Rx Textura Cristalina Minerales Bandeados Gneiss
Minerales Duros Tamao Uniforme Granito / Diorita / Gabro / Sienita
en una Matriz Fina Basalto / Rioliota
Rocas Muy Cizalladas Milonita / Serpentinita


Cementante Estable Areniscas Siliceas / Limonitas
Cementante algo Soluble Conglomerados & Areniscas Calcticas
Rx Textura Clstica Cementante Soluble Conglomerados & Areniscas Yesferas
Cementante Dbil o Cementacin Incompleta Areniscas Dbiles / Tobas
No Cementadas Areniscas Arcillosas


Duras e Isotrpicas Basaltos
Rx de Grano Duras e Isotropicas (Micro) Anisotrpicas (Macro) Lutitas Cementadas
Muy Fino Duras Anisotrpicas Esquistos / Filitas
Blandas o Tipo Suelo Esquistos / Lutitas / Creta


Rocas Orgnicas Carbn / Esquistos Bituminosos / Coquinas / Turbas
24
PROPIEDADES DE LA ROCA INTACTA:

Porosidad, n (%)
Propiedades Peso Unitario, (ton/m
3
) o (kN/m
3
)
Indice Relaciones de Fase
Degradabilidad

Traccin, TS o o
ci
(MPa)
Resistencia Compresin Uniaxial, UCS o o
ci
(MPa)
Compresin Triaxial, c (MPa) y | (grados)
Propiedades Deformabilidad Velocidad Prop. Ondas, V
P
y V
S
(m/s)
de Ingeniera Mdulos Elsticos, E (GPa) y v
Conductividad Hidrulica
Otras Propiedades
25
RELACIONES DE FASE

Hunt (1984)
26
Pesos Unitarios Tpicos de Algunas Rocas

Roca (ton/m
3
) Roca (ton/m
3
)

Andesitas 2.5 a 2.8 Anfibolitas 2.7 a 3.1
Areniscas 2.0 a 2.8 Basaltos 2.8 a 3.0
Brechas Igneas 2.7 a 2.9 Calizas 1.8 a 2.9
Carbn 0.7 a 2.0 Creta 1.9 a 2.3
Cuarcitas 2.5 a 2.9 Dacitas 2.5 a 2.8
Diabasas 2.6 a 3.0 Dioritas 2.7 a 3.0
Dolomitas 2.7 a 2.9 Esquistos 2.0 a 2.7
Gabros 2.8 a 3.1 Gneiss 2.6 a 2.9
Granitos 2.5 a 2.9 Granodioritas 2.6 a 2.9
Gravas Cementadas 1.9 a 2.1 Hematitas 4.5 a 5.3
Ignimbrita Cinertica 1.4 a 1.8 Ignimbrita Cristalina 2.0 a 2.3
Lutitas 2.0 a 2.8 Mrmol 2.1 a 2.9
Mica-Esquistos 2.5 a 2.9 Mineral de Hierro 4.0 a 5.5
Pizarras 2.5 a 2.8 Prfidos 2.4 a 2.8
Riolitas 2.2 a 2.7 Sal 2.0 a 2.0
Tobas 1.5 a 2.0 Yeso 2.2 a 2.4
27
ENSAYOS TIPICOS PARA DETERMINAR
LA RESISTENCIA DE LA ROCA INTACTA
Compresin Triaxial

- Resistencia al corte
Compresin Uniaxial

- Resistencia uniaxial
- Mdulos elsticos
Traccin Indirecta

- Resistencia en traccin
28
Goodman (1989)
29
Quartz -sericite alteration
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

u
n
i
a
x
i
a
l

c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
0
20
40
60
80
100
Porphyry
Andesite
Quartz-monzonite porhpyry
Andesite
Light Moderate Intense Very Intense
30
Table 1:
FIELD ESTIMATES OF UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Grade

Term


(MPa)
Point Load
Index
(MPa)
Field Estimate of Strength Examples
R6
Extremely
Strong
> 250 > 10
Specimen can only be chipped with a geological
hammer.
Fresh basalt, chert, diabase, gneiss,
granite, quartzite
R5
Very
Strong
100 - 250 4 - 10
Specimen requires many blows of a geological
hammer to fracture it
Amphibolite, sandstone, basalt, gabbro,
gneiss, granodiorite, peridotite , rhyolite,
tuff
R4 Strong 50 - 100 2 - 4
Specimen requires more than one blow of a
geological hammer to fracture it
Limestone, marble, sandstone, schist
R3
Medium
Strong
25 - 50 1 - 2
Cannot be scraped or peeled with a pocket knife,
specimen can be fractured with a single blow
from a geological hammer
Concete, phyllite, schist, siltstone
R2 Weak 5 - 25
Can be peeled with a pocket knife with difficulty,
shallow indentation made by firm blow with point
of a geological hammer
Chalk, claystone, potash, marl, siltstone,
shale, rocksalt
R1
Very
Weak
1 - 5
Crumbles under firm blows with point of a geo-
logical hammer, can be peeled by a pocket knife
Highly weathered or altered rock, shale
R0
Extremely
Weak
0.25 - 1 Indented by thumbnail Stiff fault gouge
ci
o
Grade according to Brown (1981)

Point load tests on rocks with a uniaxial compressive strength below 25 MPa are likely to yield highly ambiguous results.
31
USO DEL ENSAYO DE CARGA
PUNTUAL PARA ESTIMAR LA
RESISTENCIA EN COMPRESIN
UNIAXIAL DE LA ROCA.

Bieniawski (1984)
32
RESISTENCIA EN COMPRESION TRIAXIAL

Hoek & Brown (1980) Method to estimate the strength
of rock masses

Hoek (1983) Modified the method

Hoek & Brown (1988) Updated the method

Hoek et al. (1992) Modified the method to be applied
to very poor quality rock

Hoek et al. (1995-1998) Developed the GSI index

This paper presents the Hoek-Brown criterion in a form that has been
found practical for surface mines, where rock mass properties are
particularly sensitive to stress relief and blast damage.
33
GENERALIZED HOEK-BROWN CRITERION






, are the maximum and minimum efective stresses at
failure

is the value of the Hoek-Brown parameter m for the
rock mass

, are constants which depend upon the rock mass cha-
racteristics

is the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock
pieces
a
ci
b ci
s m
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
o
o
o o o
'
' '
3
3 1
'
1
o
'
3
o
ci
o
b
m
a s
(1)
34
Eq. (1) can be used to generate a series of triaxial test values,
simulating full-scale field tests, and a curve fitting process can be used
to derive an equivalent Mohr envelope given by:







, are material constants


is the normal effective stress


is the tensile strength of the rock mass
'
n
o
tm
o
A B
B
ci
tm n
ci
A
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
o
o o
o t
'
(2)
35
In order to use the Hoek-Brown criterion for estimating the strength of
jointed rock masses, three properties of the rock mass have to be
estimated:


(1) The uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock
pieces


(2) The value of the Hoek-Brown constant for these intact
rock pieces


(3) The value of the Geological Strength Index GSI for the
rock mass
ci
o
i
m
36
INTACT ROCK PROPERTIES

For the intact rock pieces that make up the rock mass eq. (1) simplifies
to:






The relationship between the principal stresses at failure for a given
rock is defined by two constants, the uniaxial compressive strength
and a constant .

Wherever possible the values of these constants should be determined
by statistical analysis of the results of a set of triaxial tests.
5 0
3
3 1
1
.
'
' '
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
ci
i ci
m
o
o
o o o
(3)
ci
o
i
m
37
Table 2:
VALUES OF THE CONSTANT m
i
FOR INTACT ROCK
NOTE THAT VALUES IN PARENTHESIS ARE ESTIMATES
Rock
Type
Class Group
Texture
Coarse Medium Fine Very Fine
Clastic
Conglomerates (21 3)
Breccias (19 5)
Sandstones 17 4
Siltstones 7 2
Greywackes (18 3)
Claystones 4 2
Shales (6 2)
Marls (7 2)
Non-Clastic
Carbonates Crystalline Limestones (12 3) Sparitic Limestones (10 2) Micritic Limestones (9 2) Dolomites (9 3)
Evaporites Gypsum 8 2 Anhydrite 12 2
Organic Chalk 7 2
Non Foliated Marble 9 3
Hornfels (19 4)
Metasandstone (19 3)
Quartzites 20 3
Slightly Foliated Migmatite (29 3) Amphibolites 26 6
Foliated * Gneiss 28 5 Schists 12 3 Phyllites (7 3) Slates 7 4
Plutonic
Light
Granite 32 3 Diorite 25 5
Granodiorite (29 3)
Dark
Gabbro 27 3
Dolerite (16 5)
Norite 20 5
Hypabyssal Porphyries (20 5) Diabase (15 5) Peridotite (25 5)
Volcanic
Lava
Rhyolite (25 5)
Andesite 25 5
Dacite (25 3)
Basalt (25 5)
Obsidian (19 3)
Pyroclastic Agglomerate (19 3) Breccia (19 5) Tuff (13 5)
I
G
N
E
O
U
S

S
E
D
I
M
E
N
T
A
R
Y

M
E
T
A
M
O
R
P
H
I
C

* For specimens tested normal to bedding or foliation. The value of m
i
will be significantly different if failure occurs along a weakness plane.
38
DETERMINACION DE LOS
MODULOS ELASTICOS.

Lambe & Whitman (1969)
39
RELACIONES ENTRE LOS
MODULOS ELASTICOS.

Hunt (1984)
40
MODULOS DINAMICOS

Hunt (1984)
41
Goodman (1989)
Lambe & Whitman (1969)
42
43
Dowding (1985)
44
Calculo de las Propiedades de la Roca Intacta:

(1) Realizar ensayos de compresinm uniaxial (5 a 10) para
determinar UCS y los mdulos elsticos E y v.

(2) Realizar ensayos triaxiales para un mnimo de 5 presiones de
confinamiento, y de modo que se alcance ewl 40% al 50% de
UCS. Se recomienda repetir a lo menos una vez cada ensayo
(o sea 2 ensayos x cada presin de confinamiento).

(3) Utilizar estos resultados para determinar los parmetros del
criterio de Hoek-Bown. Se recomienda emplear el software
ROCDATA y usar el mtodo simplex. Deber verificarse que
los resultados son razonables (e.g. m
i
< 36).
Ejemplo Prctico 03.1
45
Ejemplo Prctico 03.2
46
ESTRUCTURAS
Y SUS
PROPIEDADES
47
PARAMETROS GEOMETRICOS

MANTEO
DIRECCION DE MANTEO
TRAZA O EXTENSIN
ESPACIAMIENTO
GAP
48
Mquina de corte directo fija en laboratorio (tomada
de Franklin & Dusseault (1989)).
Mquina de corte directo porttil (tipo Hoek, tomada de
Franklin & Dusseault (1989)).
Ensayo de corte directo in situ sobre planos de
estratificacin, en un talud de reservorio en Grecia
(tomada de Franklin & Dusseault 1989)). Esquema del montaje tpico de un ensayo de corte
directo in situ (tomada de Franklin & Dusseault (1989)).
49
Montaje para la ejecucin
de ensayos de corte
directo sobre estructuras
con un rea expuesta de
unos 400 cm
2
.
50
Estructura despus del ensayo. Estructura antes del ensayo.
51
R
E
S
I
S
T
E
N
C
I
A


R
E
S
I
D
U
A
L
R
E
S
I
S
T
E
N
C
I
A


P
E
A
K
c
p
e
a
k
|
peak
|
res
t
o
n
CONDICION PEAK
CONDICION RESIDUAL
Curva carga-deformacin
para un valor dado del es-
fuerzo normal efectivo.
u
t
c
res
R
E
S
I
S
T
E
N
C
I
A


R
E
S
I
D
U
A
L
R
E
S
I
S
T
E
N
C
I
A


P
E
A
K
c
p
e
a
k
|
peak
|
res
t
o
n
CONDICION PEAK
CONDICION RESIDUAL
Curva carga-deformacin
para un valor dado del es-
fuerzo normal efectivo.
u
t
c
res
RESISTENCIA
52
METODO DE BARTON-BANDIS:

t
MAX
= o tan( |
b
+ JRClog(JCS/o))

t
MAX
= o tan( |
equiv
)

t
MAX
RESISTENCIA AL CORTE
o ESFUERZO NORMAL EFECTIVO
|
b
ANGULO BASICO DE FRICCION (|
b
~ |
r
)

JRC COEFICIENTE DE RUGOSIDAD

JCS RESISTENCIA EN COMPRESION UNIAXIAL
DE LA PARED DE LA ESTRUCTURA
53
54
METODO DE BARTON-BANDIS:

|
equiv
s 70

0.01 s o/JCS s 0.30

ESTRUCTURAS SIN RELLENO

ESTRUCTURAS SIN DESPLAZAMIENTO PREVIO
55
EFECTO DE ESCALA EN LA RESISTENCIA AL
CORTE DE LAS ESTRUCTURAS.

56
EL AUMENTO DE LA EXTENSION DE LA ESTRUCTURA PRODU-
CE TRES EFECTOS PRINCIPALES: REDUCE LA RUGOSIDAD, RE-
DUCE LA DILATANCIA, E INCREMENTA EL DESPLAZAMIENTO
NECESARIO PARA MOVILIZAR LA RESISTENCIA PEAK.

57
EFECTO DE ESCALA EN EL PARAMETRO JRC

58
EFECTO DE ESCALA EN EL PARAMETRO JCS

59
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
EXTENSION DE LA DISCONTINUIDAD, L (m)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
A
N
G
U
L
O

D
E

F
R
I
C
C
I
O
N


(
g
r
a
d
o
s
)
LA SALBANDA ARCILLOSA
SE HACE MUY IMPORTANTE
LA SALBANDA ARCILLOSA
SE HACE MUY IMPORTANTE
Efecto de escala en el valor peak del ngulo de friccin de estructuras de
distinta extensin, conforme con lo valores reseados por Pusch (1997).
60
PROPIEDADES TIPICAS
Joints c = 75 a 150 kPa | = 30
o
a 35
Joints en Roca Argilizada c = 25 a 100 kPa | = 22
o
a 30

Fallas con Salbanda Arcillosa c = 0 a 50 kPa | = 18
o
a 25

Zonas de Falla con Salbanda c = 25 a 75 kPa | = 20
o
a 30
y Roca Brechizada
61
Interpretacin Prctica de la Informacin Geolgica:

(1) Obtener la definicin de dominios estructurales y el patrn
caracterstico de cada dominio: Sets, Orientacin, Trazas,
Espaciamientos, Rellenos, Competencia.

(2) Obtener mapa de estructuras mayores.

(3) Obtener caractersticas de infiltracin de aguas subterrneas.
Ejemplo Prctico 04.1
62
Ejemplo Prctico 04.2: RAJO SUR SUR de DIVISION ANDINA (cortesa Suptcia. Geologa Mina)
63
Ejemplo Prctico 04.3: RAJO SUR SUR de DIVISION ANDINA (cortesa Suptcia. Geologa Mina)
Modos de Falla con Control Estructural
(Hoek & Bray (1981))
64
MACIZOS ROCOSOS
Y SU
CARACTERIZACIN
65
EL PROBLEMA ES DEFINIR UNA CALIFICACION
DE LA COMPETENCIA DEL MACIZO ROCOSO QUE
PERMITA EL ESCALAMIENTO:

Prop. Macizo Rocoso = Fact. Escala Prop. R. I.

RQD
FF
RMR (Bieniawski)
Factor de Escala
RMR (Laubscher)
Q
GSI
66
Ejemplo Prctico 05.1
Modo de Clculo del RQD
(Deere (1989))
67
Indice RMR
Bieniawski (1989)
68
Indice RMR
Laubscher (1996)
69
Rock Mechanics Notes
(Hoek (2000))
70
Rock Mechanics Notes
(Hoek (2000))
71
Rock Mechanics Notes
(Hoek (2000))
72
73
Rock Mechanics Notes
(Hoek (2000))
74
GEOLOGICAL STRENGTH INDEX

The strength of a jointed rock mass depends on the properties of the
intact rock pieces and also upon the freedom of these pieces to slide
and rotate under different stress conditions. This freedom is controlled
by the geometrical shape of the intact rock pieces as well as the
condition of the surfaces separating the pieces. Angular rock pieces
with clean, rough discontinuity surfaces will result in a much stronger
rock mass than one which contains rounded particles surrounded by
weathered and altered material.

The Geological Strength Index (GSI), introduced by Hoek (1994) and
Hoek et al. (1995) provides a system for estimating the reduction in
rock mass strength for different geological conditions.

This system is presented in Table 3, for blocky rock masses, and Table
4 for schistose metamorphic rocks.
75
Table 3:
Characterisation of a blocky rock masses
on the basis of particle interlocking and
discontinuity condition.
After Hoek, Marinos and Benissi (1998).
76
Table 4:
Characterisation of a schistose metamorphic
rock masses on the basis of foliation and
discontinuity condition.
(After M. Truzman, 1999).
77
AL CALIFICAR LA COMPE-
TENCIA DEL MACIZO ROCO-
SO ES PRECISO CONSIDE-
RAR UN RANGO DE VALO-
RES, YA QUE DIFICILMENTE
ESTA CORRESPONDERA A
UN SOLO VALOR.
78
CALIFICACION GEOMECANICA DE MACIZOS ROCOSOS:
- Roca grantica relativamente competente
- Presenta una resistencia en compresin uniaxial de 80 a 120 MPa.
- El ndice RQD se ubica en el rango de 50% a 75%.
- Presenta de 4 a 8 fract./m, las que se observan planas o poco
ondulosas (escala mtrica), y de poca rugosidad (escala
centimtrica).
- Los sistemas estructurales definen bloques de roca con un tamao
tpico del orden de 0.5 m, mayoritariamente con forma cbica.
- El macizo rocoso se encuentre seco.
Ejemplo Prctico 06.1
79
GENERALIZED HOEK-BROWN CRITERION






, are the maximum and minimum efective stresses at
failure

is the value of the Hoek-Brown parameter m for the
rock mass

, are constants which depend upon the rock mass cha-
racteristics

is the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock
pieces
a
ci
b ci
s m
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
o
o
o o o
'
' '
3
3 1
'
1
o
'
3
o
ci
o
b
m
a s
(1)
80
Eq. (1) can be used to generate a series of triaxial test values,
simulating full-scale field tests, and a curve fitting process can be used
to derive an equivalent Mohr envelope given by:







, are material constants


is the normal effective stress


is the tensile strength of the rock mass
'
n
o
tm
o
A B
B
ci
tm n
ci
A
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
o
o o
o t
'
(2)
81
In order to use the Hoek-Brown criterion for estimating the strength of
jointed rock masses, three properties of the rock mass have to be
estimated:


(1) The uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock
pieces


(2) The value of the Hoek-Brown constant for these intact
rock pieces


(3) The value of the Geological Strength Index GSI for the
rock mass
ci
o
i
m
82
The Hoek-Brown failure criterion, which assumes isotropic rock and
rock mass behaviour, should only be applied to those rock masses in
which there are a sufficient number of closely spaced discontinuities,
with similar surface characteristics, that isotropic behaviour involving
failure on multiple discontinuities can be assumed. When the structure
being analysed is large and the block size small in comparison, the
rock mass can be treated as a Hoek-Brown material.

Where the block size is of the same order as that of the structure being
analysed or when one of the discontinuity sets is significantly weaker
than the others, the Hoek-Brown criterion should not be used.

In these cases, the stability of the structure should be analysed by
considering failure mechanisms involving the sliding or rotation of
blocks and wedges defined by intersecting structural features. Figure
2 summarises these statements in a graphical form.
83

Intact Rock
Specimens
USE EQ. 3
One Joint Set
DO NOT USE
HB CRITERION
Many Joints
USE EQ. 1
WITH CAUTION
Heavily Jointed Rock Mass
USE EQ. 1
Two Joint Sets
DO NOT USE
HB CRITERION
Figure 2: Idealised diagram showing the transition from intact to a
heavily jointed rock mass with increasing sample size.
84
Once the Geological Strength Index has been estimated, the
parameters that describe the rock mass strength characteristics, are
calculated as follows:
|
.
|

\
|
=
28 14
100
exp
a
GSI
m m
i b
|
.
|

\
|
=
9 6
100
exp o 0
a
GSI
s
200

65 . 0 o 0.5
GSI
a =
85
For better quality rock masses (GSI > 25), the value of GSI can be
estimated directly from the 1976 version of Bieniawskis RMR, with the
groundwater rating set to 10 (dry) and the adjustment for joint orientation
set to 0 (very favourable). If the 1989 version of Bieniawskis classification
is used, then GSI = RMR
89
- 5 where RMR
89
has the groundwater rating set
to 15 and the adjustment for joint orientation set to zero.


For very poor quality rock masses the value of RMR is very difficult to
estimate and the balance between the ratings no longer gives a reliable
basis for estimating rock mass strength. Consequently, Bieniawskis RMR
classification should not be used for estimating the GSI values for poor
quality rock masses (RMR < 25) and the GSI charts should be used
directly.
86
DEFORMATION MODULUS

Serafim and Pereira (1983) proposed a relationship between the in situ
modulus of deformation and Bieniawskis RMR. This relationship is based
upon back analysis of dam foundation deformations and it has been found
to work well for better quality rocks. However, for many of the poor quality
rocks it appears to predict deformation modulus values that are too high.

Based upon practical observations and back analysis of excavation
behaviour in poor quality rock masses, the following modification to
Serafim and Pereiras equation is proposed for:
|
.
|

\
|

=
40
10
10
100




GSI
ci
m
E
o
(12)
87
Figure 5: Deformation modulus versus Geological Strength Index GSI.
Geological Strength Index GSI
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
D
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E

-

G
P
a
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180 o
ci
= 100 MPa
o
ci
= 50 MPa
o
ci
= 30MPa
o
ci
= 15 MPa
o
ci
= 10 MPa
o
ci
= 5 MPa
o
ci
= 1MPa
88
Note that GSI has been substituted for RMR in this equation and that the
modulus E
m
is reduced progressively as the value of falls below 100.

This reduction is based upon the reasoning that the deformation of better
quality rock masses is controlled by the discontinuities while, for poorer
quality rock masses, the deformation of the intact rock pieces contributes
to the overall deformation process.

Based upon measured deformations, eq. 12 appears to work reasonably
well in those cases where it has been applied. However, as more field
evidence is gathered it may be necessary to modify this relationship.
89
MODULO DE DEFORMABILIDAD:

E = |E
SEISMIC
(Deere et al. (1967)).

E = 2RMR - 100 (RMR > 50, Bieniawski (1978)

E = 10
((RMR 10)/40)
(Serafim & Pereira (1983))

E
MIN
= 10log(Q)

E
MEAN
= 25log(Q) (Barton (1983))

E
MAX
= 40log(Q)

90
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
|
V
FIELD
/ V
LAB
, RQD
91
STRESS RELAXATION

When the rock mass adjacent to a tunnel wall or a slope is excavated, a
relaxation of the confining stresses occurs and the remaining material
is allowed to expand in volume or to dilate.

This has a profound influence on the strength of the rock mass since,
in jointed rocks, this strength is strongly dependent upon the
interlocking between the intact rock particles that make up the rock
mass.

As far as the authors are aware, there is very little research evidence
relating the amount of dilation to the strength of a rock mass. One set
of observations that gives an indication of the loss of strength
associated with dilation is derived from the support required to
stabilize tunnels. Sakurai (1983) suggested that tunnels in which the
strain, defined as the ratio of tunnel closure to tunnel diameter,
exceeds 1% are likely to suffer significant instability unless adequately
supported.
92
This suggestion was confirmed in observations by Chern et al. (1998)
who recorded the behavior of a number of tunnels excavated in Taiwan.

They found that all of those tunnels that exhibited strains of greater
than 1 to 2% required significant support. Tunnels exhibiting strains as
high as 10% were successfully stabilized but the amount of effort
required to achieve this stability increased in proportion to the amount
of strain.

While it is not possible to derive a direct relationship between rock
mass strength and dilation from these observations, it is possible to
conclude that the strength loss is significant.
93
An unconfined surface that has deformed more than 1 or 2% (based
upon Sakurais definition of strain) has probably reached residual
strength in which all of the effective cohesive strength of the rock
mass has been lost.

While there are no similar observations for rock slopes, it is reasonable
to assume that a similar loss of strength occurs as a result of dilation.

Hence, a 100 m high slope which has suffered a total crest displace-
ment of more than 1 m (i.e. more than 1% strain) may start to exhibit
significant signs of instability as a result of loss of strength of the rock
mass.
94
BLAST DAMAGE

Blast damage results in a loss of rock mass strength due to the
creation of new fractures and the wedging open of existing fractures by
the penetration of explosive gasses.

In the case of very large open pit mine blasts, this damage can extend
as much as 100 m behind the final row of blast holes.

In contrast to the strength loss due to stress relaxation or dilation,
discussed in the previous section, it is possible to arrive at an
approximate quantification of the strength loss due to blast damage.

This is because the blast is designed to achieve a specific purpose
which is generally to produce a fractured rock mass that can be
excavated by means of a given piece of equipment.
95
Figure 6 presents a plot of 23 case histories of excavation by digging,
ripping and blasting published by Abdullatif and Cruden (1983). These
case histories are summarised in Table 5. The values of GSI are
estimated from the data contained in the paper by Abdullatif and
Cruden while the rock mass strength values were calculated assuming
an average slope height of 15 m.

These examples shows that rock masses can be dug, obviously with
increasing difficulty, up to GSI values of about 40 and rock mass
strength values of about 1 MPa.

Ripping can be used up to GSI values of about 60 and rock mass
strength values of about 10 MPa, with two exceptions where heavy
equipment was used to rip strong rock masses.

Blasting was used for GSI values of more than 60 and rock mass
strengths of more than about 15 MPa.
96
Table 5:
Summary of methods used to excavate rock masses with a range of uniaxial compressive strength values,
based on data published by Abdullatif and Cruden (1983).
GSI
Rock Mass Strength, o
CM
( MPa )
Excavation Method
85 86 Blasting
85 117 Blasting
77 64 Blasting
77 135 Blasting
77 84 Blasting
76 54 Blasting
71 35 Blasting
69 15 Blasting
68 17 Blasting
68 30 Blasting
67 42 Ripping by D9L bulldozer
67 33 Ripping by D9L bulldozer
58 2.4 Ripping by track loader
57 9.5 Ripping by 977L track loader
51 0.8 Ripping by track loader
42 1.2 Digging by 977L track loader
40 0.5 Digging by wheel loader
34 0.5 Digging by hydraulic face shovel
25 0.3 Digging by 977L track loader
25 0.2 Digging by wheel loader
24 0.2 Digging by hydraulic backhoe
19 0.1 Digging by D9 bulldozer
19 0.1 Digging by 977L track loader
97
Figure 6: Plot of rock mass strength versus GSI for different excavation methods, after
Abdullatif and Cruden (1983).
Geological Strength Index GSI
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
R
o
c
k

m
a
s
s

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

o
c
i

-

M
P
a
0.1
1
10
100
Excavation method
Dig
Rip
Blast
98
Consider the case of an open pit slope excavated in granodiorite. The
uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock is o
ci
= 60 MPa and the
Geological Strength Index is GSI = 55. For granodiorite, Table 2 gives
the value of m
i
= 30. Substitution of these values into the spreadsheet
given in the appendix, for a single 18 m high bench, gives a rock mass
strength o
cm
= 5.7 MPa. In order to create conditions for easy digging,
the blast is designed to reduce the GSI value to below 40 and/or the
rock mass strength to less than 1 MPa. In this case the controlling
parameter is the rock mass strength and the spreadsheet given in the
appendix shows that the GSI value has to be reduced to about 22 on
order to achieve this rock mass strength.

In another example of a 15 m high slope in weak sandstone, the
compressive strength of the intact rock is o
ci
= 10 MPa, m
i
= 17 and
GSI = 60. These values give a rock mass strength o
cm
= 1.4 MPa and
this is reduced to 0.7 by reducing the GSI to 40. Hence, in this case,
both the conditions for efficient digging in this soft rock are satisfied
by designing the blast to give a GSI value of 40.
99
Figure 7 summarizes the conditions for a muckpile that can be dug
efficiently and the blast damaged rock mass that lies between the
digging limit and the in situ rock mass. The properties of this blast
damaged rock mass will control the stability of the slope that remains
after digging of the muckpile has been completed.
Figure 7: Diagrammatic representation of the transition between the in situ
rock mass and blasted rock that is suitable for digging.
100
The thickness D of the blast damaged zone will depend upon the design
of the blast. Based upon experience, the authors suggest that the
following approximate relationships can be used as a starting point in
judging the extent of the blast damaged zone resulting from open pit
mine production blasting:
Large production blast, confined and with litle or no control D = 2.0 to 2.5 H
Production blast with control but blasting to a free face D = 1.0 to 1.5 H
Production blast, confined but with some control, e.g. one or more
buffer rows
D = 1.0 to 1.2 H
Production blast with some control, e.g. one or more buffer rows,
and blasting to a free face
D = 0.5 to 1.0 H
Carefully controlled poduction blast with a free face D = 0.3 to 0.5 H
101
EN LA PRACTICA SE ESTA UTILIZANDO CADA VEZ MAS EL METODO DE
HOEK & BROWN, CON LAS CONSIDERACIONES SIGUIENTES:

SE DETERMINAN LOS PARAMETROS m
i
Y o
ci
EN BASE A UNA
CUIDADOSA INTERPRETACION DE LOS RESULTADOS DE ENSAYOS
TRIAXIALES SOBRE TESTIGOS DE ROCA INTACTA (USUALMENTE
UTILIZANDO ROCKDATA).

SE DETERMINA EL RANGO DE VALORES PROBABLES PARA EL INDICE GSI
(USUALMENTE 15 A 20 PUNTOS).

SE DETERMINA EL RANGO DE PRESIONES DE CONFINAMIENTO Y SI SE
TRATA DE UN MACIZO BIEN TRABADO O NO.

SE ESTIMA LA INCERTEZA ASOCIADA A CADA PARAMETRO Y SU POSIBLE
FUNCION DE DISTRIBUCION.

SE EVALUAN LAS PROPIEDADES DEL MACIZO ROCOSO UTI-LIZANDO LA
METODOLOGIA PROPUESTA POR HOEK (1998,99).
102
PROBLEMAS :

EL METODO NO SIEMPRE ES APLICABLE.

SE DEFINE UNA RESISTENCIA ISOTROPICA.

PARA MACIZOS MASIVOS Y COMPETENTES EL METODO
DEBE APLICARSE EN FORMA FLEXIBLE.

PARA MACIZOS DE MALA CALIDAD GEOTECNICA, POBRE-
MENTE TRABADOS Y POCO CONFINADOS EL METODO
PUEDE SOBREVALUAR LA RESISTENCIA.

EN EL CASO DE ROCAS ESQUISTOSAS O FOLIADAS EL
METODO DEBE APLICARSE MUY CUIDADOSAMENTE.
103
ZONIFICACIN
GEOTECNICA
104
Ejemplo Prctico 07.1: ZONIFICACIN GEOTECNICA
DE MINA CHUQUICAMATA EN
TERMINOS DEL INDICE GSI


(cortesa Suptcia. Ingeniera Geotcnica)
BLOCKY ROCK MASS + FAIR TO GOOD JOINT CONDITION
BLOCKY ROCK MASS + FOOR JOINT CONDITION
VERY BLOCKY ROCK MASS + GOOD JOINT CONDITION
VERY BLOCKY ROCK MASS + FAIR TO POOR JOINT CONDITION
BLOCKY AND SEAMY ROCK MASS + FAIR TO GOOD JOINT CONDITION
BLOCKY AND SEAMY ROCK MASS + POOR TO VERY POOR JOINT CONDITION
CRUSHED ROCKS MASS + FAIR JOINT CONDITION
CRUSHED ROCKS MASS + POOR TO VERY POOR JOINT CONDITION
105
Ejemplo Prctico 07.2: ZONIFICACIN GEOTECNICA RAJO SUR SUR de DIVISION ANDINA EN TERMINOS DEL
INDICE GSI (cortesa Suptcia. Geologa Mina)
106
Ejemplo Prctico 07.3: ZONIFICACION GEOTECNICA DEL II PANEL DE LA MINA
RIO BLANCO EN TERMINOS DEL INDICE RMR
(cortesa Suptcia. Geologa Mina, Divisin Andina)
107
Ejemplo Prctico 07.4: ZONIFICACION GEOTECNICA DEL SECTOR DON LUIS EN TERMINOS DEL INDICE RMR
(cortesa Suptcia. Geologa Mina, Divisin Andina)
108
RUPTURA DE LA ROCA
Y DEL MACIZO ROCOSO
109
Esquema que ilustra la trituracin de la roca y la generacin de nuevas fracturas
debido a una tronadura (tomada de Hagan et al. (1978)).
110
111
MANUAL DE PERFORACION Y VOLADURA DE ROCAS, Lpez et al. (1994), IGME
112
MANUAL DE PERFORACION Y VOLADURA DE ROCAS, Lpez et al. (1994), IGME
Mecanismo de Ruptura por Flexin
113
EFECTO DE LAS PROPIEDADES
DE LA ROCA INTACTA
114
Peso Unitario Energa Requerida


Atenuacin
Porosidad Trituracin
% Finos


Friccin Interna Atenuacin


Resistencia Energa Requerida
115
EFECTO DE LAS
CARACTERISTICAS DEL
MACIZO ROCOSO
116
MANUAL DE PERFORACION Y VOLADURA DE ROCAS, Lpez et al. (1994), IGME
PRECAUCION !
BLOCOSIDAD Y RESISTENCIA DEL BLOQUE TIPICO
117
MANUAL DE PERFORACION Y VOLADURA DE ROCAS, Lpez et al. (1994), IGME
HETEROGENEIDADES
118
BLASTING TECHNOLOGY, Sen (1995), UNSW Press
HETEROGENEIDADES
119
MANUAL DE PERFORACION Y VOLADURA DE ROCAS, Lpez et al. (1994), IGME
HETEROGENEIDADES
120
EFECTO DE LAS
ESTRUCTURAS
121
BLASTING PRINCIPLES FOR OPEN PIT MINING, Hustrulid, W. (1999), A. A. Balkema
122
BLASTING PRINCIPLES FOR OPEN PIT MINING, Hustrulid, W. (1999), A. A. Balkema
123
BLASTING PRINCIPLES FOR OPEN PIT MINING
Hustrulid, W. (1999)
A. A. Balkema
MANUAL DE PERFORACION Y VOLADURA DE ROCAS
Lpez et al. (1994)
IGME
124
125
126
TRONADURABILIDAD
DEL MACIZO ROCOSO

(ROCK MASS BLASTABILITY)
127
( ) H SGI JPO JPS RMD BI
2
1
+ + + + =
Indice de Tronadurabilidad de Lylli (1986):
BI Indice de tronadurabilidad
RMD Descripcin del macizo rocoso
JPS Espaciamiento de las estructuras
JPO Orientacin de las estructuras
SGI Influencia del peso especfico
H Dureza de la roca
128
129
Prediccin de la Fragmentacin Cunningham (1983,87):
X Tamao medio de los fragmentos (cm)
A Factor que depende el tipo de roca
8 para rocas de resistencia media
10 para rocas duras algo fisuradas
13 para rocas duras muy fisuradas
Q
e
Masa de explosivo (kg)
S
ANFO
Potencia del explosivo respecto al ANFO
30 / 19
6 / 1 8 . 0
_

115

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

ANFO
e
S
Q K A X
130
( ) HF RDI JF RMD A 06 . 0 + + + =
RMD Descripcin del macizo rocoso
JPS Espaciamiento de las estructuras verticales
JPA Angulo de inclinacin de las estructuras
RDI Influencia de la densidad de la roca
HF Factor asociado a la dureza de la roca
JPA JPS + = JF
131
132
DAOS INDUCIDOS
EN EL
MACIZO ROCOSO
133
134
135
RMR
DAO
= C
B
RMR
136
137
138
139
140
141
EFECTOS
DINAMICOS
142
143
144
BLAST VIBRATION MONITORING AND CONTROL, Dowding, C. (1985), Prentice-Hall
145
BLAST VIBRATION MONITORING AND CONTROL, Dowding, C. (1985), Prentice-Hall
146
147
BLAST VIBRATION MONITORING AND CONTROL
Dowding, C. (1985)
Prentice-Hall
148
P
V
PPV
= c
P
V
E PPV

= o
149
RMR
DAO
= C
B
RMR
150
BLASTING PRINCIPLES FOR OPEN PIT MINING, Hustrulid, W. (1999), A. A. Balkema
151
MANUAL DE PERFORACION Y VOLADURA DE ROCAS, Lpez et al. (1994), IGME
152
Hendron (1977)
153
BLASTING PRINCIPLES FOR OPEN PIT MINING, Hustrulid, W. (1999), A. A. Balkema
154
BLASTING PRINCIPLES FOR OPEN PIT MINING, Hustrulid, W. (1999), A. A. Balkema
155
Cortesa Grupo Geotcnico DMDIC
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distancia desde la carga, (m)
K
g

d
e

A
n
f
o

o

E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
e

p
o
r

R
e
t
a
r
d
o
Vp = 127 mm/seg
Vp = 381 mm/seg
Vp = 635 mm/seg
Collahuasi
Ext. Collahuasi
156
Cortesa Grupo Geotcnico DMDIC
157
CONSTRUCTION VIBRATIONS
Dowding, C. (1996), Prentice-Hall
158
CONSTRUCTION VIBRATIONS
Dowding, C. (1996), Prentice-Hall
159
TRONADURAS
CONTROLADAS
160
MANUAL DE PERFORACION Y VOLADURA DE ROCAS, Lpez et al. (1994), IGME
161
BLASTING PRINCIPLES FOR OPEN PIT MINING, Hustrulid, W. (1999), A. A. Balkema
162
BLASTING PRINCIPLES FOR OPEN PIT MINING, Hustrulid, W. (1999), A. A. Balkema
163
Cortesa Grupo Geotcnico DMDIC
RESULTADOS DE PRE-CORTE EN IGNIMBRITA
164
Cortesa Grupo Geotcnico DMDIC
DISEO DE LA TRONADURA DE PRE-CORTE EN IGNIMBRITA
Banco Doble de 30 m, Tiros de 61/2
165
Cortesa Sr. Luis Olivares, Suptcia. Ingeniera Geotcnica Divisin Chuquicamata
Tronaduras Controladas en Roca Cuarzo-Serictica
TRONADURA : 127 A N1 + Precorte
EXPANSION : 28 N
FECHA TRONADURA : 21 de Septiembre de 2000
FECHA PRECORTE : 21 de Septiembre de 2000
PALA : 093
NUMERO DE TIROS : 70 (6 1/2 produccin)
61 (6 1/2 precorte)
ALTURA BANCO : 26 m
MALLA PERFORACION : 6 x 6 m (produccin en 6 1/2)
6 x 3 (buffer en 6 1/2)
2,0 m (Espaciamiento Precorte)
SECUENCIA DE SALIDA : Hacia el Rajo
RETARDOS : Entre filas 130 ms
Entre tiros produccin 35 ms
Entre tiros buffer 17 ms
TONELAJE A REMOVER : 124.000 Ton (c/q)
EXPLOSIVO : 27.300 Kg
FACTOR DE CARGA : 220 (gr/Ton)
DENSIDAD DE CARGA : 0,58 (Kg/m^2)
DISEO PERFIL
26 m
1 m(p)
0 m(p)
80
1 m
6 m
6 m
3 m
2 m (espaciamiento precorte)
LP
DISEO PLANTA
PERFORACION EN 6-1/2 PRECORTE EN 6-1/2
TRONADURA : 127 A N1 + Precorte
EXPANSION : 28 N
FECHA TRONADURA : 21 de Septiembre de 2000
FECHA PRECORTE : 21 de Septiembre de 2000
PALA : 093
NUMERO DE TIROS : 70 (6 1/2 produccin)
61 (6 1/2 precorte)
ALTURA BANCO : 26 m
MALLA PERFORACION : 6 x 6 m (produccin en 6 1/2)
6 x 3 (buffer en 6 1/2)
2,0 m (Espaciamiento Precorte)
SECUENCIA DE SALIDA : Hacia el Rajo
RETARDOS : Entre filas 130 ms
Entre tiros produccin 35 ms
Entre tiros buffer 17 ms
TONELAJE A REMOVER : 124.000 Ton (c/q)
EXPLOSIVO : 27.300 Kg
FACTOR DE CARGA : 220 (gr/Ton)
DENSIDAD DE CARGA : 0,58 (Kg/m^2)
DISEO PERFIL
26 m
1 m(p)
0 m(p)
80
1 m
DISEO PERFIL
26 m
1 m(p)
0 m(p)
80
1 m
6 m
6 m
3 m
2 m (espaciamiento precorte)
LP
DISEO PLANTA
PERFORACION EN 6-1/2 PRECORTE EN 6-1/2
6 m
6 m
3 m
2 m (espaciamiento precorte)
LP
DISEO PLANTA
PERFORACION EN 6-1/2 PRECORTE EN 6-1/2
166
Cortesa Sr. Luis Olivares, Suptcia. Ingeniera Geotcnica Divisin Chuquicamata
TRONADURA : 114 A N3 + Precorte
EXPANSION : 28 N
FECHA TRONADURA : 13 de Octubre de 2000
PALA : 093
NUMERO DE TIROS : 98 (6 1/2 produccin)
56 (6 1/2 A 75 Precorte)
ALTURA BANCO : 26 - 27 m
MALLA PERFORACION : 6,0 x 6,0 m (produccin en 6 1/2)
6,0 x 3,0 (buffer en 6 1/2)
1,5 m (Espaciamiento Precorte)
SECUENCIA DE SALIDA : Hacia el Rajo
RETARDOS : Entre filas 42 ms
Entre tiros produccin 0 - 17 ms
Entre tiros buffer 17 ms
TONELAJE A REMOVER : 178.000 Ton (c/q)
EXPLOSIVO : 35.100 Kg
FACTOR DE CARGA : 197 (gr/Ton)
DENSIDAD DE CARGA : 0.74 (Kg/m^2)
6 m
6 m
3 m
1,5 m
LP
DISEO PLANTA
DISEO PERFIL
26 m
1 m (p)
0 m (p)
75
1 m
TRONADURA : 114 A N3 + Precorte
EXPANSION : 28 N
FECHA TRONADURA : 13 de Octubre de 2000
PALA : 093
NUMERO DE TIROS : 98 (6 1/2 produccin)
56 (6 1/2 A 75 Precorte)
ALTURA BANCO : 26 - 27 m
MALLA PERFORACION : 6,0 x 6,0 m (produccin en 6 1/2)
6,0 x 3,0 (buffer en 6 1/2)
1,5 m (Espaciamiento Precorte)
SECUENCIA DE SALIDA : Hacia el Rajo
RETARDOS : Entre filas 42 ms
Entre tiros produccin 0 - 17 ms
Entre tiros buffer 17 ms
TONELAJE A REMOVER : 178.000 Ton (c/q)
EXPLOSIVO : 35.100 Kg
FACTOR DE CARGA : 197 (gr/Ton)
DENSIDAD DE CARGA : 0.74 (Kg/m^2)
6 m
6 m
3 m
1,5 m
LP
DISEO PLANTA
6 m
6 m
3 m
1,5 m
LP
DISEO PLANTA
DISEO PERFIL
26 m
1 m (p)
0 m (p)
75
1 m
DISEO PERFIL
26 m
1 m (p)
0 m (p)
75
1 m
Tronaduras Controladas en Roca Cuarzo-Serictica
167
CONCLUSIONES

Basados en la caracterizacin geotcnica y estructural de esta unidad geotcnica, la cual presenta una
competencia media y considerando que corresponde a un material de carcter masivo, la condicin estructural
NO afecta en forma importante el resultado de la tronadura en la Orientacin Norte-Sur del rajo, es que podemos
efectuar pre-cortes con alta inclinacin, incluso alcanzando valores de 80. Para el caso de la orientacin Este-
Oeste (Sector Norte), la inclinacin del pre-corte debe ser 70, dada la condicin de Falla Plana.

El especiamiento del pre-corte utilizado corresponde a 2 metros para una inclinacin de 80 y dimetro 6-1/2, y
la densidad de carga para ste corresponde a 0.58 Kg/m
2
. Para el caso de espaciamientos de 1.5 metros e
inclinado a 75 la densidad de carga corresponde a 0.78 Kg/m
2
. Por lo tanto, la densidad de carga para un diseo
de pre-corte debe considerar estos rangos utilizados.

De las 2 tronaduras analizadas, las cuales corresponden a las mejores resultados obtenidos en esta unidad
geotcnica, se utilizaron valores de Factores de Carga que variaron entre 180 a 220 gramos por tonelada.

Respecto de la secuencia de salida de las tronaduras, el resultado en cuanto a desplazamiento de la pila y dao
indica que debe iniciarse hacia el rajo utilizando 130 ms entre filas, 35 ms entre los tiros de produccin y 17 ms
entre los tiros buffer.

El diseo de la perforacin consider 3 filas de 6-1/2 para ambas tronaduras y se obtuvieron muy buenos
resultados tanto en los parmetros geotnicos, de planificacin y operacionales, como pudimos observar en las
grficas presentadas. Por otro lado el resultado visual es claro, el cual propone que la utilizacin de este tipo de
tronaduras es la que se debe emplear para lograr cumplir con el diseo geotcnico de taludes y adems ver
oportunidades de mejoras en el negocio minero de Chuquicamata.
Cortesa Sr. Luis Olivares, Suptcia. Ingeniera Geotcnica Divisin Chuquicamata
Tronaduras Controladas en Roca Cuarzo-Serictica
168
Mount Rushmore Memorial, South Dakota, USA. Esculpido por G. Borglum
entre 1927 y 1941 (6.5 aos de trabajo efectivo). Cada cabeza tiene unos 18 m.

National Geographic, Oct. 1956 / Encyclopaedia Britannica
169
Goodman, R. (1989):
INTRODUCTION TO ROCK MECHANICS
2
nd
ed., J. Wiley & Sons
La cubierta de roca degradada
por intemperizacin se removi
mediante tronaduras controla-
das (dinamita).

A medida que se obtena la for-
ma deseada se disminua el es-
paciamiento entre tiros y el fac-
tor de carga.

Las ltimas pulgadas se remo-
vieron me-diante perforacin y
cincelado.
170
ASPECTOS GEOMECNICOS
DE LA TRONADURA EN
MINAS SUBTERRNEAS
171
1918, Minas de carbn en USA,
preparando una tronadura.

National Geographic, Nov. 1918
172
Cavidad generada en sal por una explosin nuclear de 3.1 KT, a una
profundidad de unos 360 m, en Nuevo Mexico, USA.
Judd (1964)
173
Tronaduras controladas de excelente calidad en el desarrollo del Nivel 240 del
Underground Research Laboratory, en granito masivo (Manitoba, CANADA).

Martin & Simmons (1992)
174
Holmberg et al. (2001)
175
Holmberg et al. (2001)
176
Holmberg et al. (2001)
177
Holmberg et al. (2001)
178
Holmberg et al. (2001)
179
Holmberg et al. (2001)
180
Holmberg et al. (2001)
181
Holmberg et al. (2001)
182
Holmberg et al. (2001)
183
Holmberg et al. (2001)
184
Punto de apoyo
A
1
A
2
Avance de la socavacin
Transmisin de carga
(concentracin de esfuerzos)
Zona de daos y fracturas
(produce dilatancia, lo que carga la caja)
Galera del Nivel de Produccin
Material
quebrado