Lecture 1

MR Active Nucleus Mass number is odd (number of protons and neutrons that exist
Nuclei in the atom) = a charged particle
-Hydrogen
e.g. lproton, 2 proton & Ineutron, 3 proton & 2 neutrons
Protons are targeted- (tiny magnets) are attracted to the main
magnetic field when entered into the MRI environment - causing
them to align with it

Hydrogen Protons= most commonly used/most abundant proton in

the human body (83% water = H,0)
Mass Number =1(1 proton)
Magnetic Carrespondin
raonetic moment Spinning MR active nuclei - aligning their axis of rotation to
moment the applied magnetic field (Bo)
Described as linear.

Bo Main Magnetic field

Always on (superconductor)
Influences low energy protons to align with magnetic field
Unit = Tesla / Gauss (1 T= 10,000 G)
Protons ln the Body

No Magnetic field = randomly orientated

magnetic moments

NO magnettc helel

Protons ln the MR scanner

Strong magnetic field (B0) = magnetic moments

align parallel (spin up) or antiparallel (spin
D0 magnetic fhetd
down) to B0 =2 energy states

** if the proton has a higher energy than Bo It will align against the main
magnetic field Antiparallel magnetic moment
Tesla (T) T= the strength of Bo
1 tesla = 2 million proton (roughly)
6 more protons will be aligned with the field (spin up) than against (spin
down) when exposed to Bo

Increase Tesla= more protons align with the field greater range of
proton energies can be influenced
 Stronger the magnetic field the more 1milion
1 mibon/

protons are pointing in the direction of the

1 million

millian
field. lliono
16T
GT
BatTeel

Clinical scanners=3T
Research= 7T
Earth magnetic field =0.5G /0.00005T
Refrigerator magnet= 10G/ 0.0001T
Net The Direction that the protons move to when aligned
Magnetisation the main magnetic field
Vector (NMV)
Net sum of protons pointing in the direction of the
magnetic field
Spin up- Spin down = NMV
NMV= (Number of nuclei parallel to Bo)- (Number of nuclei anti-parallel to Bo)

Increase B= Increase NMV most commonly used

Decrease Temp (thermal energy of the nuclei)= Increase NMV -- Not
typically used as you patient temp limits this
BË Radiofrequency (RF) magnetic field
Turned on and off = acquires the image
Frequency is matched (resonated) with a particular
proton
Creates an activation of the protons (more protons
activated =a brighter signal) Duecuua

Moves the NMV out of alignment with the main

magnetic field
Advantages/ high contrast sensitivity high equipment cost & set up
disadvantages to soft tissue (increasing Bo Increasing fringe
differences (can tell field = Greater shielding required)
apart tissues with very Scan acquisition complexity (lots
similar densities) of variables that can be changed)
Safer than other Long scan times - 20 40 minuets
imaging modalities Significant image artifacts
(non-ionizing radiation) Claustrophobia -60cm bore = a lot
smaller than CT
Biomedical implant magnetisation
rotation or heating
Energy States Spin Up nuclei Spin Down Nuclei
(2) Low energy Nuclei High energy Nuclei
Always more spin up Align their magnetic moments
than spin down antiparallel to the external field
--.-.ONLY when in the Create the image
main magnetic field. **Increase B0 = Increase Spin Down =
(the RF pulse will Increase SNR (Greater protons there to
 change that) produce a more detailed image)
Align magnetic
Moments parallel to
the external fields
large BO filed - WII
give a higher signal to
noise ration more
signal =a better
image
Increase B0 =
Decrease Spin up
Longitudinal Component of theNMV parallel to B Longitudinal Magnetization
Axis NMV will be parallel to the longitudinal axis when a patient is in a
Mz magnetic field but there are no RF frequencies present
Transverse axis Component of NMV 90o (perpendicular) to Bo = Transverse
Mxy Magnetization
When the RF fields are activated - NMV moves from the
longitudinal to the transverse field
giving energy to the protons -moving from the spin up to the spin
down
Precession The spin/ rotation of a hydrogen nucleus on its
axis. A secondary spin to Bo

Precession The frequency = how many times (how fast) the nucleus rotates per
Frequency second around Bo
Unit = Megahertz (MHz)
= Lamour
IMHz = 1million cycles/ 360 rotations per second
Equation
calculates how O = precessional (Larmor) frequency
fast the B, =magnetic field strength of the magnet
Y= gyro-magnetic ratio
nucleus
precesses Increase B0 = Increase Lamour Frequency
Increase the filed strength = increase rotation - increase Lamour frequency

** The Lamour Frequency must be matched to the FR pulse Frequency

this causes Resonance =the absorption of energy
Gyro-magnetic Constant - for each nuclei
ratio (y) Unit = MHz/T

Hydrogen y = 42.58MHZ/T

1T=42.58 MHz
2T= 85.16 MHz (42.48 x 2)
3T= 127.74 MHz (42.58 x 3)
Ect....
 ** at | tesla, the hydrogen proton will rotate at 42.58 million times per
SCcond

Increase magnetic field strength =incrcase the gyromagnetic ration -

rotate faster
Need to match the RF magnetic field to the same frequency at which a
particular body part willabsorb enengy (resonance) -
to get a maximum amount of signal - if you put a 127.74 frequency
into the body - only hydrogen protons will absorb the energy and
onment as no other atom has the same gvro-mnagnetie
move out of alignment:
ratio =Active selection of the hydrogen protons
Resonance the absorption or emission of energy
only occurs at matching frequencies
RF frequency much match with Lamour
Irequency/
Excitation The application of RF pulse causes resonance
absorption of cnergy = the nucleus has gaincd
encrgy, so it becomes cxcited = Increases Spin
down Nuclei
add RF pulse NMV move out of alignment
with B0
RF influence Simultaneous actions when RF is turned ON:
|Absorption Flipping Spln in phase
RF energy is The excited protons At any spccific time,
absorbed by the move they are pointing int
protons when the Net magnetisation eh same direction
frequencies are away from the main
matched magnetic field individual
moving away from magnetic
the longitudinal axis moments are
to the transverse in the same
plane plane on the
processional
path

Simutneous actions when RF is truncd OFF:

Re-transmittion Realign dephase
Release of energy Spin back to their Move away from the
from the protons at original orientation - transverse plane back
the resonance realign with the into the longitudinal
frequency main/external plane = a loss of
magnetic field (B) signal -nced to
acquire the signal
before this hapens
|FlipAngle The angle at which the NMV moves out of alignment
with B0
 Dependant on amplitude &duration of the RF pulse
Controlled by the pulse sequence - MRÌ radiographer
The amount of magnetisation in the transverse plane is responsible
for the MRI signal
90 degrees 180 degrees
same number of spin all of the NMV in the longitudinal
up and spin down plane
protons No signal
no NMV in Pointing against the main magnetic
longitudinal plane - all field (180)
in transverse plane when the RF frequency is left on
NMV rotates at the for too long- many many protons
Lamour frequency have been given a large amount of
Maximum possible energy - much much more spin
signal can be acquired down protons
when NMV is in the
transverse plane and
there is phase
coherence

MRI signal Phase coherence + NMV rotating at Larmnor frequency = the receiver coil
receives the signal
If the NMV is not processing cntircly within the transverse plane =the
signal magnitude is reduccd
If the NMV is processing in the longitudinal plane (0 or 180 degrees) there
will be no signal in the coil
Horizontal Ohorizontal component = 100% in y axis= no -A

componcnt signal
You want to push the NMV into the transverse
plane

Relaxation Occurs when the RF switches off

Process T) and T2 Vaues for Various Organs at 1T Magnetic Field Strangit return to original state
12(ns NMV returns to the
F
longitudinal plane = an
increase in the amount of the
tksce
dIratter
spin up protons.

181
 TI water= T2 water = 2500ms -Used as a reference point

*** T1 (longitudinal) and T2 (transverse) occur at the same time

*** TI is always bigger/faster than T2 (except water)
*** Water has the longest decay/recovery rate - emission of energy

TI Recovery = movement of the net magnetisation vector back to the

longitudinal plane
Cutofftime =when 63% of thewould
longitudinal magnetisation has
take too long to fully
been reeovered -(otherwise it
recover)

*** 63% of the signal is

recovered- the recovery times are recorded
Small molecules =Long TI
E.g. waer
Large molecules = Short T1
E.g. proteins, fats
Different recovery rates form the TI weighted
image
T1 welghted images SHORT TR- so
that neither fat nor water has time to return to B
" if the TR is too long the contrast is produced by thec difference in spin
density
" TR controls the amount ofTI weighting
contrast dependant on differences in the TI times of fat and water
Fat recovers quicker than water (the time it takes for the NVM to move
back to the longitudinal axis)
TI fat = 220ms
TI water = 2500ms

There is more longitudinal magnetisation (recovery to B.) in fat than water

before the 2nd RF pulse
After the 2nd RF pulse (-- after saturation) The fat and water are saturated
to different angles
" Fat = high signal =bright
Water =Low signal =Dark
 T2 decay (transverse relaxation) = Dephasing of the protons (decrease
in the amount of magnetisation)
Time it takes for 63% of the transverse
magnetization to be lost =TIME
CONSTANT
*37% of the signal
FID free induction decay scnalh is
produced through the release of energy
as the protons revert to their original
states

T2 weighted images (contrast) *LONGTE

-so that fat decays more and allows the water to
start to decay-putting off abrighter signal
differences in dephasing decay between
tissues
controls the amount of de-phasing occurs
before the signal is acquired
T2 fat
T2 water
-90EOoms
Fat = low signal = dark
Water =high signal =bright
Magnetic Ficld Protons in diferent locations processat different frequencies duc to their
Inhomogeneityspins being exposed to slightly different magnetic field strength =
different spin dephasing
Slower magnetic field (B0 -ab) =
slower procession /rotation

Faster magnctic ficld (B0 +ab) =faster

procession/rotation

Inhomogeneities =T2* decay

T2*
Occurs in the presence of =T2 decay + Dephasing due tothe external B0
magnetic inhomogeneities
Always faster than T2- faster
dephasing occurring
change in the magnetic field
strength / processional frequency
within a scan

protons in a higher magnetic ficld will spin/precess faster=

shim coils are used to try and create uniformity - within I0 parts per
million
MRI Pulse Spin Echo: used to maximise the signal
|Sequences Gradient Echo: shortens the scan time
Repetition Time from onc repetition to the next =Uhit (ms)
Time (TR) Determines amount or TI relaxation alowed to occur at the end of
one RF pulse sequence
Incrcase TR=the more
time for the net
9T magnetization vector to
recover (Tl recovery)
Time to Echo The time from the application of the RF pulse to the peak of the signal
(TE) induced in the coil
Unit (ms)
- Determines the amount of T2
Decay that has occurred TE
detemined how much decay is
allowed before the image Is
read

Long phase = both water and fat will dephase = a small signal
Short phase =water will still be dephasing (bright signal) and fat will
have fully de-phased(weak signal)
Lecture 2
Image contrast High signal Low signal
Large Transverse small transverse co
component - most of the Most of the NVM i
NMV is still in the longitudinal component (closer
transverse plane (sending to O)
out a signal) Dark
Bright
Proton/ spin Number of protons per unit of volume - how many protons arce there in
density (PD) that section?

Contrast = dependant on the difference in proton densities between tissues

&the arear being examined
" Tissucs with high proton density =bright
E.g. Brain
" Tissues with low proton density =dark
E.g. Cortical Bone
Long TR =counteracts Tl weighting
Short TE = counteracts T2 weighting
Saturation When the NMV is pushed past 90
degrees
partial saturation-TI
complete saturation=180
degrees
 TI = dark fluid
T2= bright fluid
Fat will recover quicker that water
Short TR =Tl= Fat projects most ofthe signal - fat has recovered more
than water
TR-400-500ms

Long TE =T2= Water projects

start to decay while fat
most of the signal- water is allowed to
salmost fully
decayed
TE-80- 120ms

"For Tl weighting
to hT2 IKis SHORT
TE is SHOKT.
For T2 weiahting:
to exaggerate T2 TE s LONG
to diminish T1 TR is LONG
"For proton density wegng
to dminish T2 TE is SI ORT
o dminsh T1 TR «1ONG
Instrumentation| Process to produce an image
I. nuclear alignment (main magnet - aligning the magnetic moment)
2. Radiofrequency excitation (RF coils)
3. Spatial encoding-gradient coils (localisation ofthe signal to a
positioning the body) = in the X,Y &Z planes
4. Image formation -Using FID signals
** the patient is not moved during the scan
Hardware 1. A magnet
2. RF coil
3. Gradient coil
4. Image processor
5. computer system

Patient Table Criterja:

support the patient
Allow the paticnt to be moved into the bore
 comfortable
attachment locations for coils
immobilisation devices
accept up to 130kg
capable of moving to the
imaging position within Imm
(create a high image accuracy)
Safety:
mechanism to evacuate the patient rapidly -couch can be undocked
from the magnet
Couches constructed of non-magnetic material
Main Magnet Generates the static magnetic ficld
Propertles:
Magnetic field strength (B0)
High field strength = increase SNR (signal to noise ratio)
however this increases costs, biocffects and the fringe field
Between 1.5T - 3T

Homogencity (unifornmity of ficld)- to reduce artefacts

- =less that 10ppm (parts per million)-Achieved using shimming
proce
Greater that 10 ppm = inhomogeneity = artefacts
Temporal stability (uniformity over time)
constant field strength over time
Bore size
Im bore size
add gradient and RF coils - reduces the size to 60cm
Magncts Permanent:
Ficld strength = 0.25 -0.5T = Smaller RF signal & longer scan times with
low SNR
Ferromagnetic substances used- alloy, nickel, cobalt (alnico)

Advantages:
no power supply required
required little maintenance
large bore
Resistive:
Field strength =0.1T- 3T
Current is passed through a solenoid to produce a magnetic field
produces a significant amount of heat

increase loops = increase field strength

Incrcase curent flow = increase field strength
Decrease radius of loops = increase field
 strength - require a small bore
advantages:
Considerably uniform
- lighter weight than permanent
- low capital cost
can turn off the magnetic field
Superconducting:
Field strength =1.5T-7T
Allows current flow without high temperatures
NO clectronic power is required if kept at liquid helium temperatures
Magnetic field is Never turned off (except in cmergencies) - as this
willheat up the liquid helium =quenching
Advantages:
- High field strength = high resolution studies
- high ficld uniformity - Ippm in a 40cm volume
Disadvantages:
High initial capital and siting costs
cryogen costs (liquid helium needing to be replaced)
difficult to turn off in an emergency
extensive fringe field
Quenching Loss of superconductivity and resistance due to an increase in temperature
if uncontrolled- will cause explosive boiling of the liquid helium
|Radiofrequency RF pulse transmitted at:
coils - the resonant frequency for resonance to occur
perpendicular to the main ficld
Recelver coils:
receive the RF emitted (FID signal)
- receiver loops in transverse plane to get the signal
volume coil:
transmits and received the MR signal (transceiver)
pretty much the entire MR machine
coil size chosen to match anatomy = maximises SNR
can isolate body parts e.g. head imaging, extremity imaging - or do
a whole body image
Surface colls:
- placed close to the anatomy being imaged
Improves SNR = increase spatial resolution
Phased Array colls:
- Multiple coils and receives combincd to
create improved SNR+ coverage
not commonly used clinically
 Shim colls:
Used to correct for field inhomogencities =
shimming
additional solenojds outside the main
magnet

Passive shimming:
when the magnet is shimmed with the metal
Active shimming:
shimming performed with loops of current carrying wire
cxtra loop of wire = shim coil
used more than passive
Gradient
coils:

Produce a
lincar slope of magnetic ficld strength to define the spatial coordinates of a
sample
Adjusted using varying distances between the loops
Loops closer together at one end = stronger and gradually move apart -
weakening the Magnetic field strength
- Gradient is altered by changing the current producing different
Lamour frequencies at different sections of the body =localisation
of individual slices
- switched on (expansion) and off (contraction) rapidly
causes the thumping' nojse
Y-coil Z-coil X-coil
Varying magnetic ficld: Varying Varying magnetic
Front to back magnetic ficld:
field: Left to right
Head to toe
Electronic Indexing of slice locations means that the patient is not nccded to be
indexing
MRI computer
moved during the scan
Controls all aspects of imaging process:
1. enter patient demographics
2. timing of RF excitation (TR & TE)
3. Gradient application
 4. Data acquisition
5. Image reconstruction --- Fourier transformation on FID
6. image display
Requirements:
High capacity
fast & handle high rate of data acquisition
Transmission, storage anddisplay of images
Lecture 3
MRI essentials 1. Signal as high as possible
2. Contrast as high as possible
3. Examination time as short as possible
Manipulative parameters =
TR
Flip angle
Spin echo pulse*** MOST COMMON-Maximumsignal
sequence Protons must be processing in phase when the signal is collected
Minimises the T2* effects

1. 90-degree pulse is applicd

NVM moves into transverse
plane
Protons spin in phase
2. 90-degrce pulse is removed
- FID signal - dephasing of
protons
T2 decay
Tissues with different T2 relaxation times dephase at different rates
Fast = the leading cdge
Slow =trailing cdge
3. 180-degrce pulse is applied
when the spins are in phase (the leading and the trailing edge
become superimposed over one the signal is acquired

rephanirg

90 degree= moving away from cach other

180 = flip over so now they are rephasing towards cach other = they will
come together to go become in phase
Gradient echo *LESS COMMON Shorter exam time
pulse sequcnceVariable excitatlon pulse /flip angle
 Reduce fip angle= shorter exam time
Reduce flip angle = less spin echo =weaker signal

RF excitation pulse applicd

-
transverse component created
2. RF pulse is removed
FID signal and T2 dephasing
3. Gradient field is applied
rephases the magnetic moments
- a signal is collected from the coils
Gradient field An increasingor decreasing range of frequencies
along a plane to create a gradient through the
patient
- used for slice selection
- used in X, Y andZ axis
E.g. the head has a high frequency and the fect
have a low frequency causing a slope gradien

Speed u
alow dow

TR/TE |TR =Time between2 difference TE =Time betweenthe initialisation

scquences (time between 2 of the sequence and the acquisition of
different 90-degree excitation the signal (i.e. spin echo)
pulses)
Controls T2 weighting (dephasing)
Controls TI weighting (mvt. of" LongTE
T = Maximises T2
NVM) weighting- allows water todecay
Short TR = maximising TI and for a signal to be produccd off
weighting -Fat recovers faster it
than water - if left too long the Short TE=Maximising PD
fat will retun to the B0.
Long TR = Maximising PD
TAU The time It takes for the NMV to dephase after the 90-degree
cxcitation is removed
Or
the time taken to rephase after a l80-degree excitation is applied

TE =2x TAU
 TE =90-degree excitation + 180 degree excitation
180-degree RF pulse TAU = TE/2
Wait the same amount of time between the 90 and the 180 pulse
Spatial Knowing where the signal have come from within the body
encoding - a gradient magnetic field superimposed over the B0 filed = a
change in resonance frequency with position
Field gradicnts
*** resonant frequency of spinstheaially
become dependant
Stro thinner
net gradientdient= strength =
Upper biological side cffects such as
peripheral nerve stimulation
Excitation of a specific slice within the body
generates by a set of coils perpendicular to one another
Slice selection
Gradient
Axial -ZL
Head to toe

Precessional frequency of nuclei located along the axis are altered in a

linear fashion
Only turned on during the RF pulse
-or- the gradient strength to the BO to get the different Precessional
frequencies (the nuclei are spinning at different speeds along the gradient)
BO = small at the feet
B0 = unchanged in iso
0socentre (centre of FOV)
B0 = greater at head
Phase Gradient switched on inY axis =signal recorded after the PEG has
Encoding been switched off
|Gradient (PEG) Nuclei in the higher frequency = Precession specds up
Coronal-Y
Nuclei in the lower frequency Precession Slows down
Front to back
Protons precessing at the same frequency but in different phases
When the gradient coil is turned off = protons in the same row will have
the same same phase

Fast at the top

differentiate between the front, middle
and back of the patient

Slow at the bottom

Kspace lines & Number of Kspace lines = the number of pixels in the y direction
PE - the slope of the phase encoding gradient will determine which
space is filled ==within the scan to fill the K space the gradient
must be altered
Epey Modificationof the Larmor FEG
frequencics
0s on
along the x-axis
Signal recorded while the
Gradient (FEG)
Saglttal -X
Left to right Slow moving on the left

differentiate between the right.

Gz middle and left of the patient
Gx
Fast moving on the right

FOV &FEG The gradient of the frequency encoding gradient is determined by the FOV
*** DecreaseEOV
the 'remains
FOV =a the
stronger gradient
same only one FEG can be used in the scan
- If the
If you decrease the FOV but have the same pixel size = an increase
in the spacing betwccen the Kspace data
Dependant on how rapidly the FID signal is samples
Slicethickness Allocation changing
When aslice is alocated - the specific bandwidth of RF frequencies on
resonatecwith the corresponding Precessional frequencies - meaning only
resonating nuclei will emit a signal
|Different excitation of RD Change the slope/gradient:
bandwidth: " increase the gradient = thinner
" decrees range of RF's = thinner slices
slice upper limit - causcs biological
decrease range of RF's = eflects
decrease bandwidth= improved
SNR Same
the more frequencies chosen along
the axis the thicker the slice will be

Narror mda
ntwt

K space Storage of the information from the coils

ALL selected lines of theK space must be filled out to complete a scan &
receive an image
temporary holding space before the Fourier transformation (which
provides anatomical detail)
holds the spatial frequency and phase
 information
Centre cfk for cach pixel
TE provide
contrnt
in the image
- Phase axis
horizontal
Pipbery olk Frequency
axis = vertical

Centre=
low spatial frequency
determining overall image contrast
brightness
general shapes
Periphery=
- High spatial frequency information (edges, detail, transitions)
Matrix
Frequency samples (FEG) x
phase encodings (PEG)

8frequency samples =8 pixels

- Increase samples = increase phase encodings =more pixcls
Increasing sampling rate =no dditional time
8 phase encoding gradients = 8 lines(pixels)
- Increases
Inercase phase steps =increase phase encoding gradients
the scan time
Scan Time 30-40 minuets
TRx Number of Phase encodings x NEX
Factors:
Repetition time
Spin echo
- Increased scan time
Gradient ccho
- Decreased scan time
Flip angle
 Increase flip angle = increase scan time (e.g. in spin ccho)
2. Matrix size
Number of phase encodings
Increase phase encodings = increase scan time

3. Number of excitations (NEX)

- Increase number of NEX = double the scan time
NEX Number of excitations - controls the amount of data that is stored in cach
line of K space
- The more cxcitations =the more data stored int ch Kspace
The K space can be filled multiple times to increase the SNR
however -- increasing the NEX will incrcase BOTH the signal and
the NOISE - not an efficient way of increasing the SNR

Lecture 4
Image quality Signal to noise ratio (SNR)
Contrast to noise ratio (CNR)
Spatial resolution
Scan time
SNR Signal = voltage received in the receiver coil
Noise =patient (build &body location) &Electronics (size of RF coils
and RF bandwidth)
Factors:
Magnetic field strength (B0)
Increase BO (t strength)= increase SNR
this increases the longitudinal magnetisation (strength of NMV)
which will give off more signal
Proton density of the arca under examination
increase PD = increase SNR
the number of protons determine the amplitude of the signal
E.g. Lungs (mostly air and few protons around) have low SNR
Voxel volume --- FOV is most important factor
- increase voxel volume = increase SNR
double slice thickness = double voxel volume = doubles SNR
increase FOV= Increase SNR4fold
- Large voxels have more nuclei in them to contribute towards the
signal - as they contain larger volumes of tissue (more protons
available)
TR
Long TR =Increase SNR
Short TR= Decrcases SNR
 TR controls the amount of longitudinal magnetisation that is
allowed to recover before the next excitation pulse fuller recovery
-greater magnetisation available when flipped
TE
Short TE= increases SNR
- Long TE = Decreases SNR
TE controls the decay in the longitudinal magnetisation - ifit is left
to decay for longer --- moving further towards the transverse line -
less signal will be collected
" Flip aangle
0-90 degrees = increase SNR
90- 180 degrees = decrease eSNR
- Flip angle =controls the amount of transverse magnetisation
which induces a signal in the coil, more transverse magnetisation
(closer to 90 degrees) =greater signal created
. NEX
- Double NEX = Increase SNR by v2
increases the Noise in the image as well

Coil type
- Surface coil = increase SNR
- Array coil = increase SNR
Bandwidth
- Increase bandwidth = increase SNR

CNR Controlled by the same factorsthat control the SNR-distinguishing

between arcars of low and high signal
** difference in the SNR between two adjacent arears.

Contrast agents ---- Increases the CRN between pathology and normal
anatomy
Gadolinium is typically used
- Pronounced TI shortening
Spatial Pixel size
resolution small pixels = increased resolution
Slice thickness
Thinner slices = increased resolution - able to resolve smaller
structures
Matrix size
Phase encodings (gradients)
Frequency encodings (samples taken)
 Increase both factors (increasing the matrix size) = increased spatial
resolution
FOV
- Increase FOV = increase pixel size = decreases resolution
To optimise image Adjusted parameter Conscquence
Trade offs Spatial resolution
4 Matrix Size
Scan tne

t Sice thicdknes 4 Spatial resolution

t Pield of vicw (POV) Spatial esohution
Maximise Signal Noise
f TR TI weighting
Scan time
TE T2 weighting
T Pip angle towards 90 t Scan time
tIncrease NEX f Scan time
4 Slice thickness Signal Noise Ratio
Masimise spatial resolution tmai 4Signal Naise Ratio
(assuminga square FOV)
4POV 4 Signal Noise Ratio
Artefact An unwanted pattern or structure that does not represent the actual
anatomy
Image Processing artefacts
Patient-related artefact
Radio frequency related artefacts
External magnetic field artefacts
Magnetic susceptibility artefacts
Gradient artefacts
Errors in the data
Flow related artefacts
Chemical shift Protons in different molecules have different gyromagnctic rations - they
precess at slightly diflerent frequencies (speeds)
" Frequency differences can be misinterpreted as
positional differences
" Arcars with closely aligning fat and water regions
are most susceptible - have larger differences in
Precessional frequency
Water protons precess slightly faster than Fat
Resuting image
High frequcncies = shifted down Signal Ivoid- Higher frequency =dark
An overlap - Lower frequency light
" Fat protons =Shifted up
Locations:
Orbits
- Vertebral endplates
Abdomen - organ/fat interface
Factors:
Higher ficld strength =greater artefact
Thicker slices = Greater artefact
 Lower gradients = Greater artefacts
Greater RF band widths Greater artefact

Remedy:
Fat suppression techniques (sequence)
Long TE - more dephasing of the Fat = less signal
Lower Magnctic ficld strength (slower prccession =less signal)
Reduces slice thickness (do
(decreases SNR =less signal all round)
Partial Volume OverlapD==== More than one tissue type occurs in a voxel= ifferent tissue
Averaging properties within the one voxel blurs image
Remedy:
Thin slices (however to keep the SNR- more slices are required)

Thick slice Thin ice

Magnetic Local magnctic ficld inhomogencities
susceptibility metallic objects
artefact microscopic gradient changes - e.g. in air or blood
can aid diagnosis when there is a haemorrhage
Cause dephasing of spins and frequency shifts in surrounding tissue = a
signal loss &spatial distortion

Remedy:
Patient has removes all metal item when possible
 Use spin echo (not gradient echo)
Short TE's (don't want long echo times)
|Zipper artefact RF cntering the scanning room during acquisition - interfere with the
signal coming from the patient
dense line at a specific point in the image
a scan
room door may be left slightly open During acquisition

Remedy:
call the engineer to come and fix it
Cross Loss of ice due to the
fsignal within a slice Stice Petting
excitation overlap of excitation into the next slice
artefact ldeat Slice Profle
causes horizontal bands in the
image Slce Frufile

True Slice Proliie

Sliee Ortag

Remedy:
Leave a minimum 1/3 gap of slice thickness when imaging
contiguously
interleaving between slices
optimized pulse sequences that have higher TE's

Contiguous

Interfeaing

Cross talk Cross excitation produces from amulti-angle, multi-slice acquisition

E.g. lumbar spine - at different disc spaces
if not parallel then the slices may overlap
If2 levels are done at the same time - sccond level will have spins
that have already been saturates