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U L
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P
O
La teoría especial
de la relatividad
PREGUNTA DE INICIO DE CAPÍTULO: ¡Adivine ahora!
Un cohete se aleja de la Tierra con una rapidez de 0.80c. El cohete dispara un misil con
una rapidez de 0.70c (el misil se apunta lejos de la Tierra y abandona el cohete a 0.70c en
36
C A
CONTENIDO
36–1 Relatividad galileana-
newtoniana
relación con este último). ¿Con qué rapidez se desplaza el misil en relación con la Tierra?
a) 1.50c; *36–2 El experimento de Michelson y
Morley
b) un poco menos que 1.50c; 36–3 Postulados de la teoría especial
c) un poco más que c; de la relatividad
d) un poco abajo de c; 36–4 Simultaneidad
e) 0.75c. 36–5 Dilatación del tiempo y la
paradoja de los gemelos
L
a física de finales del siglo XIX volvió la vista a un periodo de grandes progre-
36–6 Contracción de la longitud
sos. Las teorías desarrolladas durante los tres siglos precedentes tuvieron mu-
36–7 Espacio-tiempo
cho éxito para explicar una amplia gama de fenómenos naturales. La mecánica tetradimensional
newtoniana explicaba hermosamente el movimiento de los objetos sobre la Tie-
36–8 Transformaciones galileanas y
rra y en los cielos. Más aún, formó la base para tener éxito en los tratamientos de flui- de Lorentz
dos, el movimiento ondulatorio y el sonido. La teoría cinética explicaba el comporta- 36–9 Cantidad de movimiento
miento de los gases y otros materiales. La teoría de Maxwell del electromagnetismo no relativista
sólo conjuntó y explicó los fenómenos eléctricos y magnéticos, sino que también predi- 36–10 La rapidez última
jo la existencia de ondas electromagnéticas que se comportarían como la luz, de mane- 36–11 E 5 mc2; masa y energía
ra que la luz llegó a considerarse como una onda electromagnética. De hecho, parecía 36–12 Corrimiento Doppler para la luz
que el mundo natural, visto a través de los ojos de los físicos, estaba muy bien explica- 36–13 El impacto de la relatividad
do. Todavía quedaban algunos enigmas, pero se creía que éstos se explicarían pronto especial
mediante los principios ya conocidos.
951
Pero esto no resultó tan sencillo. En vez de ello, estos enigmas sólo se resolverían
con la introducción, en la primera parte del siglo XX, de dos nuevas teorías revolucio-
narias que cambiarían toda la concepción de la naturaleza: la teoría de la relatividad y
la teoría cuántica.
A la física, tal como se conocía a finales del siglo XIX (lo que se ha estudiado hasta
ahora en este libro), se le llama física clásica. La nueva física que se desarrolló a partir
de la gran revolución a la vuelta del siglo XX ahora se conoce como física moderna. En
este capítulo se presenta la teoría especial de la relatividad, que propuso Albert Eins-
tein (1879-1955; figura 36-1) en 1905. En el capítulo 37 se presenta la igualmente tras-
cendental teoría cuántica.
a) b)
Marco de referencia 5 automóvil Marco de referencia 5 Tierra
†
Ignore la rotación y curvatura de la Tierra. SECCIÓN 36–1 953
En los capítulos 15 y 16 se estudió que las ondas pueden viajar en agua y a lo lar-
go de sogas o cuerdas, y que las ondas sonoras viajan en el aire y otros materiales. Los
físicos del siglo XIX visualizaron el mundo material en términos de las leyes de la mecá-
nica, de manera que para ellos era natural suponer que la luz también debía viajar en
algún medio. A este medio transparente lo llamaron éter y supusieron que permeaba
todo el espacio.† En consecuencia, se supuso que la velocidad de la luz dada por las
ecuaciones de Maxwell debía darse con respecto al éter.
Al principio parecía que las ecuaciones de Maxwell no satisfacían el principio de re-
latividad. Eran más simples en el marco donde c 5 3.00 3 108 mys; esto es, en un marco
de referencia en reposo en el éter. En cualquier otro marco de referencia tendrían que
agregarse términos para explicar la velocidad relativa. Por ende, aunque la mayoría
de las leyes de la física obedecían el principio de relatividad, las leyes de la electricidad
y el magnetismo aparentemente no lo hacían. El segundo postulado de Einstein (sec-
ción 36-3) resolvió este problema: las ecuaciones de Maxwell sí satisfacen la relatividad.
Los científicos pronto se dieron a la tarea de determinar la rapidez de la Tierra en
relación con este marco absoluto, cualquiera que pudiera ser. Se diseñaron varios expe-
rimentos ingeniosos. El más directo lo realizaron A. A. Michelson y E. W. Morley en la
década de 1880. Ellos midieron la diferencia en la rapidez de la luz en distintas direc-
ciones con el interferómetro de Michelson (sección 34-6). Esperaban encontrar una di-
ferencia que dependiera de la orientación de sus aparatos con respecto al éter. Así, tal
como un bote tiene diferentes rapideces relativas con respecto a la Tierra cuando se
mueve corriente arriba, corriente abajo o a través de la corriente, del mismo modo
se esperaría que la luz tuviera diferentes rapideces dependiendo de la velocidad del
éter que pase por la Tierra.
Por extraño que parezca, no detectaron diferencia en absoluto. Éste fue un gran
enigma. Durante varios años se esgrimieron varias explicaciones, pero conducían a con-
tradicciones o, por alguna razón, no tenían aceptación generalizada. Este resultado nu-
lo fue uno de los grandes enigmas a finales del siglo XIX.
Entonces, en 1905, Albert Einstein propuso una nueva teoría radical que reconci-
liaba estos múltiples problemas en una forma sencilla. Pero, al mismo tiempo, como se
verá, cambió por completo las ideas del espacio y el tiempo.
B
Viento
v
de éter
Haz 1
l1
Espejo
semi-plateado 1
MS
Fuente Haz 2
M2 v (de corriente)
l2 1
2 Rapidez = 2
Rapidez =
c+v c -v
Rápido Lento
A (corriente abajo) (corriente arriba)
b)
a)
v
gura 36-3b. En agua tranquila, el bote puede viajar con rapidez c (no la rapidez de la
luz, en este caso).
Considere primero el haz 2 en la figura 36-3a, que viaja paralelo al “viento de
éter”. En su trayecto de MS a M2, la luz viajaría con rapidez c 1 v, de acuerdo con la fí-
sica clásica; tal como en el caso de un bote que viaja corriente abajo (véase la figura
36-3b), se agrega la rapidez del agua del río a la rapidez del bote (en relación con el
agua) para obtener la rapidez del bote en relación con la orilla. Como el haz recorre
una distancia l2, el tiempo que tarda en ir de MS a M2 sería t = l2兾(c + v). Para ha-
cer el viaje de regreso de M2 a MS, la luz se desplaza contra el viento de éter (como el
bote que va corriente arriba), de manera que se espera que su rapidez relativa sea c 2 v.
El tiempo para el viaje de regreso sería l2兾(c - v). El tiempo total para que el haz 2
vaya de MS a M2 y de regreso a MS es
l2 l2 2l2
t2 = + = .
c + v c - v c A1 - v2兾c2 B
Ahora considere el haz 1, que viaja a través del viento de éter. Aquí la analogía del
bote (figura 36-3b) es especialmente útil. El bote va del embarcadero A al embarcade-
ro B directamente a través de la corriente. Si va directamente, el flujo de la corriente lo
arrastrará corriente abajo. Para llegar al embarcadero B, el bote debe dirigirse en un
ángulo corriente arriba. El ángulo preciso depende de las magnitudes de c y v, pero no
es de interés para este análisis por sí mismo. El inciso c) de la figura 36-3 indica cómo
calcular la velocidad v9 del bote en relación con la Tierra conforme cruza la corriente.
Como c, v y v9 forman un triángulo recto, se tiene que v¿ = 2c2 - v2 . El bote tiene
la misma rapidez cuando regresa. Si ahora se aplican estos principios al haz de luz 1 en la
figura 36-3a, se espera que el haz viaje con rapidez 2c2 - v2 para ir de MS a M1 y de
regreso. La distancia total recorrida es 2l1, así que el tiempo requerido para que el haz 1
haga el viaje redondo sería 2l1兾 2c2 - v2 , o
2l1
t1 = .
c 31 - v2兾c2
Note que el denominador en esta ecuación para t1 implica una raíz cuadrada, mientras
que para t2 no la implica.
Cuando se realiza la rotación, las franjas del patrón de interferencia (sección 34-6) se
correrían una cantidad determinada por la diferencia:
2 1 1
¢t - ¢t¿ = Al + l2 B ¢ - ≤.
c 1 1 - v2兾c2 31 - v 兾c
2 2
956 CAPÍTULO 36
Intentaron en diferentes estaciones del año (la Tierra en diferentes posiciones por
su órbita alrededor del Sol). Nunca observaron un corrimiento significativo de franjas.
Este resultado nulo fue uno de los grandes enigmas de la física a finales del siglo
XIX. Explicarlo era un reto difícil. Una posibilidad para explicar el resultado nulo la
plantearon de manera independiente G. F. Fitzgerald y H. A. Lorentz (en la década de
1890), y propusieron que cualquier longitud (incluido el brazo de un interferómetro) se
contrae en un factor de 21 - v2兾c2 en la dirección de movimiento a través del éter.
De acuerdo con Lorentz, esto se podría deber al éter que afecta las fuerzas entre las
moléculas de una sustancia, que se suponía tenían naturaleza eléctrica. Con el tiempo,
esta teoría fue sustituida por la teoría más extensa propuesta por Albert Einstein en
1905: la teoría especial de la relatividad.
†
El experimento de Michelson y Morley también se puede considerar como evidencia del primer pos-
tulado, pues tenía la intención de medir el movimiento relativo de la Tierra en un marco de referencia
absoluto. Su fracaso para hacerlo implica la ausencia de cualquiera de tales marcos preferidos. SECCIÓN 36–3 957
La propuesta de Einstein tiene cierta belleza. Al desechar la idea de un marco de
referencia absoluto, fue posible reconciliar la mecánica clásica con la teoría electro-
magnética de Maxwell. La rapidez de la luz predicha por las ecuaciones de Maxwell es
la rapidez de la luz en el vacío en cualquier marco de referencia.
La teoría de Einstein requiere que uno deseche nociones de sentido común acerca
del espacio y el tiempo, y en las siguientes secciones se examinarán algunas extrañas,
pero interesantes, consecuencias de la relatividad especial. Los argumentos para la ma-
yor parte serán sencillos. Se usará una técnica que el mismo Einstein utilizó: imaginar
situaciones experimentales muy sencillas en las que se necesiten pocas matemáticas.
De esta forma, se pueden ver muchas de las consecuencias de la teoría de la relatividad
sin necesidad de hacer cálculos detallados. Einstein llamó a estos experimentos “men-
tales”.
36–4 Simultaneidad
Una consecuencia importante de la teoría de la relatividad es que uno ya no puede
considerar al tiempo como una cantidad absoluta. Nadie duda que el tiempo fluye ha-
cia delante y nunca regresa. Pero el intervalo de tiempo entre dos eventos, e incluso si
dos eventos son o no simultáneos, depende del marco de referencia del observador. Por
evento, que se usa mucho en el texto, se quiere dar a entender algo que ocurre en un
lugar y en un tiempo particulares.
Se dice que dos eventos ocurren simultáneamente si ocurren exactamente al mis-
mo tiempo. Pero, ¿cómo se sabe si dos eventos ocurren precisamente al mismo tiempo? Si
ocurren en el mismo punto en el espacio, como dos manzanas que caen sobre su cabe-
za al mismo tiempo, es fácil. Pero si los dos eventos ocurren en lugares muy separados,
es más difícil saber si son simultáneos, pues se debe considerar el tiempo que la luz
proveniente de ellos tarda en llegar a donde uno está. Puesto que la luz viaja con rapi-
dez finita, una persona que ve dos eventos debe calcular de nuevo para descubrir cuán-
do ocurrieron en realidad. Por ejemplo, si se observa que dos eventos ocurren al mismo
tiempo, pero en realidad uno tuvo lugar más lejos del observador que el otro, entonces
el más distante pudo ocurrir antes, y los dos eventos no fueron simultáneos.
Ahora imagine un sencillo experimento mental. Suponga que un observador, lla-
mado O, se ubica exactamente a la mitad entre los puntos A y B, donde ocurren dos
eventos, figura 36-4. Suponga que los dos eventos son relámpagos que caen en los pun-
tos A y B, como se muestra. Para eventos breves como los relámpagos, sólo cortos pul-
sos de luz (representados por curvas en la figura 36-4) viajarán hacia fuera desde A y
B, y llegarán a O. El observador O “ve” los eventos cuando los pulsos de luz llegan al
punto O. Si los dos pulsos llegan a O al mismo tiempo, entonces los dos eventos tuvie-
ron que ser simultáneos. Esto se debe a que los dos pulsos de luz viajaron con la mis-
ma rapidez (postulado 2) y, puesto que la distancia OA es igual a OB, el tiempo para
que la luz viaje de A a O y de B a O debe ser el mismo. Entonces el observador O pue-
de afirmar definitivamente que los dos eventos ocurrieron de manera simultánea. Por
otra parte, si O ve la luz de un evento antes que la del otro, entonces el primer evento
ocurrió primero.
D
Fuente
de luz
a) Receptor Reloj
D2
l2
2 D
2 l
D
Puesto que 31 - v2兾c2 siempre es menor que 1, se ve que Dt . Dt0. Esto es, el inter-
960 CAPÍTULO 36 valo de tiempo entre los dos eventos (el envío de la luz y su recepción en la nave espa-
cial) es mayor para el observador en la Tierra que para el observador en la nave espacial.
Éste es un resultado general de la teoría de la relatividad, y se conoce como dilatación
del tiempo. Enunciado de manera sencilla, el efecto de dilatación del tiempo dice que
los relojes en movimiento relativo a un observador corren más lentamente (en
comparación con los relojes en reposo relativo a ese observador).
Sin embargo, no se debe pensar que los relojes de alguna forma tienen fallas. En reali-
dad, se mide que el tiempo pasa más lentamente en cualquier marco de referencia en
movimiento, comparado con el propio. Este resultado notable es un resultado inevita-
ble de los dos postulados de la teoría de la relatividad.
El factor 1兾31 - v2兾c2 ocurre con tanta frecuencia en relatividad que general-
mente se le da el símbolo abreviado g (letra griega “gamma”), y la ecuación 36-1a se
escribe como
¢ t = g ¢ t0 (36–1b)
donde
g = 1 . (36–2)
31 - v 兾c
2 2
b) La relatividad predice que un muón con una rapidez de 1.80 3 108 mys recorrería
una distancia media d = v ¢t = A1.80 * 108 m兾sB A2.8 * 10 –6 sB = 500 m, y ésta es
la distancia que se mide experimentalmente en el laboratorio.
NOTA A una rapidez de 1.8 3 108 mys, la física clásica diría que, con una vida media de
2.2 ms, un muón promedio recorrería d 5 vt 5 (1.8 3 108 mys)(2.2 3 1026 s) 5 400 m.
Esto es menos que la distancia medida.
EJERCICIO B ¿Cuál es la vida media del muón (ejemplo 36-1) si viaja a v 5 0.90c? a) 0.42
ms; b) 2.3 ms; c) 5.0 ms; d) 5.3 ms; e) 12.0 ms.
De manera que la diferencia entre Dt y Dt0 se predice como 4 3 10214 s, una cantidad
extremadamente pequeña.
EJERCICIO C Cierto reloj atómico mantiene tiempo perfecto sobre la Tierra. Si el reloj se
lleva en una nave espacial que viaja con una rapidez v 5 0.60c, ¿este reloj ahora corre más
lentamente de acuerdo con las personas en a) la nave espacial, b) la Tierra?
v2
200 m = 500 m 1 - ;
C c2
v2
(0.40)2 = 1 -
c2
v
= 31 - (0.40)2
c
v = 0.92c.
NOTA Ningún tren real podría ir tan rápido. Pero es divertido pensar en ello.
NOTA Un observador en el tren no vería los dos extremos del tren dentro del túnel al
mismo tiempo. Recuerde que los observadores que se mueven unos en relación con
otros no concuerdan acerca de la simultaneidad.
EJERCICIO D ¿Cuál es la longitud del túnel, según miden los observadores a bordo del
tren en el ejemplo 36-6?
966 CAPÍTULO 36
7 7
y y¢
S S¢
vB
FIGURA 36–11 El marco de
referencia inercial S9 se mueve hacia la
derecha con rapidez constante v con P
respecto al marco S. yt x¢
x
0 x 0¢ x¢
Ahora considere un evento que ocurre en algún punto P (figura 36-11) representa-
do por las coordenadas x9, y9, z9 en el marco de referencia S9 en el tiempo t9. ¿Cuáles
serán las coordenadas de P en S? Como S y S9 inicialmente se traslapan con precisión,
después de un tiempo t9, S9 se moverá una distancia vt9. Por lo tanto, en el tiempo t9,
x 5 x9 1 vt9. Por otra parte, las coordenadas y y z, no se alteran por el movimiento a lo
largo del eje x; por lo tanto, y 5 y9 y z 5 z9. Finalmente, puesto que el tiempo se supo-
ne absoluto en la física galileana-newtoniana, los relojes en los dos marcos concorda-
rán entre sí; de manera que t 5 t9. Esto se resume en las siguientes ecuaciones de
transformación galileana:
x = x¿ + vt ¿
y = y¿
z = z¿ [galileana] (36–4)
t = t ¿.
Estas ecuaciones dan las coordenadas de un evento en el marco S cuando se conocen
las coordenadas en el marco S9. Si se conocen las del marco S, entonces las coordena-
das S9 se obtienen a partir de
x¿ = x - vt, y¿ = y, z¿ = z, t ¿ = t. [galileana]
Estas cuatro ecuaciones son la transformación “inversa” y se obtienen muy fácilmente
de las ecuaciones 36-4. Advierta que el efecto es simplemente intercambiar cantidades
primas y no primas, y sustituir v por –v. Esto tiene sentido pues, desde el marco S9, S se
mueve hacia la izquierda (dirección x negativa) con rapidez v.
Ahora suponga que el punto P en la figura 36-11 representa una partícula que se
mueve. Sean uxœ , uyœ , uzœ las componentes de su vector velocidad en S9. (Se usa u para
distinguirla de la velocidad relativa de los dos marcos, v). Ahora uxœ = dx¿兾dt ¿,
uyœ = dy¿兾d t ¿ y uzœ = dz¿兾d t ¿. La velocidad de P vista desde S tendrá componentes ux,
uy y uz. Se puede demostrar cómo se relacionan éstas con las componentes de veloci-
dad en S9 al diferenciar las ecuaciones 36-4. Para ux se obtiene
dx d(x¿ + vt ¿)
ux = = = uxœ + v
dt dt ¿
pues v se supuso constante. Para las otras componentes, uyœ = uy y uzœ = uz , de mane-
ra que se tiene
Aquí la constante g tiene el mismo valor que la g que se usó antes, ecuación 36-2. Aho-
ra que se encontró g, sólo se necesita encontrar la relación entre t y t9. Para ello, com-
bine x¿ = g(x - vt) con x = g(x¿ + vt ¿):
x¿ = g(x - vt) = g(g[x¿ + vt ¿] - vt).
Despeje t para obtener t = g A t ¿ + vx¿兾c2 B. En resumen,
x = g(x¿ + vt ¿)
y = y¿
TRANSFORMACIONES
z = z¿ (36–6)
DE LORENTZ
vx¿
t = g ¢ t¿ + 2 ≤
c
Estas ecuaciones se conocen como la transformación de Lorentz. Lorentz las propuso
por primera vez en 1904, en una forma ligeramente diferente, para explicar el resulta-
do nulo del experimento de Michelson y Morley y para hacer que las ecuaciones de
Maxwell tomaran la misma forma en todos los marcos de referencia inerciales. Un año
después Einstein las dedujo de manera independiente con base en su teoría de la rela-
tividad. Observe que no sólo se modificó la ecuación x en comparación con la transfor-
mación galileana, sino también la ecuación t; de hecho, en esta última ecuación se ve
directamente cómo se mezclan las coordenadas espacio y tiempo.
†
Aquí no se supuso que g está dada por la ecuación 36-2.
o
l = l031 - v2兾c2 ,
que es la ecuación 36-3.
que es la ecuación 36-1a. Note que se elige S9 como el marco donde ocurren los dos eventos
en el mismo lugar, de manera que se cancelan x 1œ = x 2œ y los términos que contienen x 1œ y x 2œ .
Suma relativista de velocidades
Las ecuaciones de velocidad relativísticamente correctas se obtienen con facilidad al
derivar las ecuaciones 36-6 con respecto al tiempo. Por ejemplo (con g = 1兾31 - v2兾c2
y la regla de la cadena para derivadas):
C g Ax¿ + vt ¿ B D
dx d
ux = =
dt dt
dt ¿ dt ¿ .
C Ax¿ + vt ¿ B D = gc + vd
d g dx¿
=
dt ¿ dt dt ¿ dt
Pero dx¿兾dt ¿ = ux y dt ¿兾dt = 1兾(dt兾dt ¿) = 1兾C A1 + vux兾c2 B D donde se derivó la
œ g œ
Advierta que las ecuaciones 36-7 se reducen a las formas clásicas (galileanas) para
velocidades pequeñas comparadas con la rapidez de la luz, pues 1 + vu¿兾c2 L 1 para v
y u9 V c. En el otro extremo, suponga que el cohete 1 en la figura 36-12 envía un haz
de luz, de manera que u9 5 c. Entonces la ecuación 36-7 dice que la rapidez de la luz en
relación con la Tierra es
0.60c + c
u = = c,
(0.60c)(c)
1 +
c2
que es congruente con el segundo postulado de la relatividad.
Aquí g es abreviatura para 1兾31 - v2兾c2, como antes (ecuación 36-2). Para casos en
que la rapidez es mucho menor que la rapidez de la luz, la ecuación 36-8 da la cantidad
de movimiento clásica, p 5 mv.
La cantidad de movimiento relativista se ha puesto a prueba muchas veces en pe-
queñas partículas elementales (como los muones) y se encontró que se comporta en
concordancia con la ecuación 36-8. La ecuación 36-8 se deduce en el subapartado de la
siguiente página.
x¢
S
u
y A
a) x
S¢
B
-u
y¢
x¢
S
FIGURA 36–13 Deducción de la
Punto
de colisión fórmula de cantidad de movimiento.
- vB
u 1 - v 2/c 2 Colisión según la ven observadores
y
-v A a) en el marco de referencia S, b) en el
b) x marco de referencia S9.
de referencia S (figura 36-13a). Para hacer la labor más sencilla, suponga que u V v, de
manera que la rapidez de la pelota B, vista en el marco de referencia S, en esencia es v.
Entonces la componente y de la cantidad de movimiento de B en S antes de la colisión
es –f(v)mu 21 - v2兾c2 y después de la colisión es ±f(v)mu 21 - v2兾c2 . La pelota
A en S tiene componente y f(u)mu antes y 2f(u)mu después de la colisión. (Se usa
f(u) para A porque su rapidez en S sólo es u). La conservación de la cantidad de mo-
vimiento en S para la componente y es
(pA + pB)antes = (pA + pB)después
Para simplificar esta relación, de manera que se pueda despejar f, permita que u
se vuelva muy pequeña, de manera que tienda a cero (esto corresponde a una colisión
oblicua con una de las pelotas esencialmente en reposo y la otra en movimiento con ra-
pidez v). Entonces los términos f(u)mu de la cantidad de movimiento están en el ám-
bito no relativista y toman la forma clásica, simplemente mu, lo cual significa que f(u)
5 1. De esta manera, la ecuación anterior se convierte en
1 .
f(v) =
3 1 - v 2
兾c 2
Vemos que f(v) resulta ser el factor que se empleó antes como g, y aquí se demostró
que es válido para la pelota A. Al usar la figura 36-13b se puede deducir la misma rela-
ción para la pelota B. Por ende, se concluye que es necesario definir la cantidad de mo-
B
vimiento relativista de una partícula que se mueve con velocidad v como
B
mv
p =
B
= gmv. B
3 - v 兾c
2 2
1
Con esta definición, la ley de conservación de la cantidad de movimiento seguirá sien-
do válida incluso en el reino relativista. Esta fórmula de cantidad de movimiento rela-
tivista (ecuación 36-8) se probó incontables veces en pequeñas partículas elementales y
resultó ser válida.
En esta fórmula de “aumento de masa”, m se conoce como la masa en reposo del obje-
to. Con esta interpretación, la masa de un objeto parece aumentar conforme su rapidez
aumenta. Pero debemos tener cuidado al emplear la masa relativista. No se puede tan
sólo ponerla en fórmulas como F 5 ma o K = 12 mv2. Por ejemplo, si la sustituimos en
F 5 ma, se obtiene una fórmula que no concuerda con los experimentos.
B
Sin embargo,
si la segunda ley de Newton se escribe en su forma más general, F = dp兾dt, se obtiene
B
Luego
EJERCICIO G Un protón viaja en un acelerador con una rapidez de 1.0 3 108 mys. ¿En
qué factor aumenta la energía cinética del protón si su rapidez se duplica? a) 1.3, b) 2.0
c) 4.0 d) 5.6.
de manera que
1 v2
K L mc2 ¢ 1 + + p - 1≤
2 c2
L 1 2
2 mv .
La energía total es
E = K + mc2
o
mc2 .
E = gmc2 =
31 - v 兾c
2 2
Al elevar al cuadrado esta ecuación (e insertar “v2 2 v2” que es cero, pero que ayudará):
m2c2 Av2 - v2 + c2 B
E2 =
1 - v2兾c2
m2c4 A1 - v2兾c2 B
= p 2c 2 +
1 - v2兾c2
o
E 2 = p2c2 + m2c4. (36–13)
Por ende, la energía total se puede escribir en términos de la cantidad de movimiento
p, o en términos de la energía cinética (ecuación 36-11), donde se supuso que no hay
energía potencial.
La ecuación 36-13 se rescribe como E2 2 p2c2 5 m2c4. Puesto que la masa m de
una partícula dada es la misma en cualquier marco de referencia, se ve que la cantidad
E2 2 p2c2 también debe ser la misma en cualquier marco de referencia. Por lo tanto, en
cualquier momento dado, la energía total E y la cantidad de movimiento p de una par-
tícula serán diferentes en distintos marcos de referencia, pero la cantidad E2 2 p2c2
tendrá el mismo valor en todos los marcos de referencia inerciales. Se dice que la can-
tidad E2 2 p2c2 es invariante ante transformaciones de Lorentz.
1%. Para una rapidez menor que 0.10c, o a menos que masa y energía se intercambien,
generalmente no se necesita usar las fórmulas relativistas más complicadas, y se pue-
den usar las fórmulas clásicas más sencillas.
Si se conoce la masa m de una partícula y su energía cinética K, se hace un cálculo
rápido para determinar si es necesario usar fórmulas relativistas o si las clásicas son su-
ficientemente buenas. Simplemente calcule la razón Kymc2 porque (ecuación 36-10b)
K 1
= g - 1 = - 1.
mc2 31 - v 兾c
2 2
Si esta razón resulta ser menor que 0.01, por ejemplo, entonces g # 1.01 y las ecuacio-
nes relativistas corregirán a las clásicas por más o menos 1%. Si la precisión esperada
no es mejor que el 1%, las fórmulas clásicas son suficientemente buenas. Pero si se re-
quiere una precisión de 1 parte en 1000 (0.1%), entonces es conveniente usar las
fórmulas relativistas. Si la precisión esperada sólo es del 10%, necesita relatividad si
AK兾mc2 B g 0.1.
EJERCICIO H Para 1% de exactitud, ¿un electrón con K 5 100 eV necesita tratarse de ma-
nera relativista? [Sugerencia: Considere que la masa de un electrón es de 0.511 MeV].
SECCIÓN 36–11 977
* Deducción de la energía relativista
Para encontrar la relación matemática entre masa y energía, suponga que el teorema
trabajo-energía todavía es válido en la relatividad para una partícula, y considere que
el movimiento de la partícula es a lo largo del eje x. El trabajo realizado para aumen-
tar la rapidez de una partícula desde cero hasta v es
f f f f
冮 冮 冮 冮 v dp
dp dp
W = F dx = dx = v dt =
i i dt i dt i
donde i y f se refieren a los estados inicial (v 5 0) y final (v 5 v). Puesto que d(pv) 5
p dv 1 v dp, se puede escribir
v dp = d(pv) - p dv
de manera que
f f
W = 冮 d(pv) - 冮 p dv.
i i
冮 冮 31 - v 兾c
mv
– p dv = – dv = mc2 31 - v2兾c2 2
2 2
i 0 0
Por el teorema trabajo-energía, el trabajo realizado sobre la partícula debe ser igual a
su energía cinética final K, pues la partícula partió desde el reposo. En consecuencia,
mc2
K = - mc2
31 - v 兾c
2 2
o
c - v. fuente y observador
l = l0 £ se acercan § (36–14a)
Bc + v entre sí
La frecuencia f es (recuerde que l0 5 cyf0)
c + v. fuente y observador
£ § (36–14b)
c
f = = f0 se elejan
l Bc - v entre sí
Aquí, f0 es la frecuencia de la luz vista en el marco de referencia de la fuente, y f es la
frecuencia medida por un observador que se mueve hacia la fuente o hacia quien
la fuente se mueve. Las ecuaciones 36-14 sólo dependen de la velocidad relativa v. Para
movimiento relativo en el que hay alejamiento entre fuente y observador se establece
que v , 0 en las ecuaciones 36-14 y se obtiene
c + v
l = l0 (36–15a)
B - v
c
fuente y observador
c - v. £ se alejan §
f = f0 entre sí (36–15b)
Bc + v
A partir de las ecuaciones 36-14 y 36-15 se ve que la luz proveniente de una fuen-
te que se mueve hacia uno tendrá una frecuencia mayor y una longitud de onda más
corta, mientras que si una fuente de luz se aleja de uno, se verá una frecuencia menor
y una longitud de onda mayor. En el último caso, la luz visible tendrá su longitud de
onda prolongada hacia el extremo rojo del espectro visible (figura 32-26), un efecto
que se llama corrimiento hacia el rojo. Como se verá en el siguiente capítulo, todos los
átomos tienen su propia firma distintiva en términos de las frecuencias de la luz que
emiten. En 1929 el astrónomo estadounidense Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) descubrió
que la radiación de los átomos en muchas galaxias se recorre hacia el rojo. Esto es, las
frecuencias de la luz que emiten son menores que las que emiten átomos estacionarios
en la Tierra, lo que sugiere que las galaxias se alejan de la Tierra. Éste es el origen de
la idea de que el Universo se expande.
*SECCIÓN 36–12 979
EJEMPLO 36–13 Pasarse un alto a gran velocidad. Un conductor afirma que
él en realidad no se pasó el alto porque la luz tenía corrimiento Doppler y parecía
verde. Calcule la rapidez que debe llevar un conductor para que la luz roja parezca verde.
PLANTEAMIENTO Aplique la ecuación de corrimiento Doppler para luz roja (l0 L
650 nm) y luz verde (l L 500 nm).
SOLUCIÓN La ecuación 36-14a se sostiene para la fuente y el objeto que se acercan
entre sí:
c - v.
l = l0
Bc + v
c - v l 2
= ¢ ≤
c + v l0
v = cc d = 0.26c.
1 - (l兾l0)2
1 + (l兾l0)2
Con esta defensa, el conductor no sería culpable de pasarse un alto, pero sin duda se-
ría culpable de rebasar el límite de rapidez.
Preguntas
1. Usted está en un vagón sin ventanas en un tren excepcional- 7. ¿La dilatación del tiempo significa que el tiempo en realidad
mente suave que viaja con velocidad constante. ¿Existe algún transcurre más lentamente en los marcos de referencia en mo-
experimento físico que pueda realizar en el vagón para deter- vimiento o que sólo parece transcurrir más lentamente?
minar si está en movimiento? Explique. 8. Una joven mujer astronauta acaba de llegar a casa de un largo
2. Es posible que usted haya tenido la experiencia de estar detenido viaje. Corre hacia un hombre de cabellos grises y, mientras en-
ante un semáforo en alto cuando, por el rabillo del ojo, ve que el tablan conversación, se refiere a él como su hijo. ¿Cómo es po-
auto en el carril de junto se arrastra hacia delante. De manera ins- sible esto?
tintiva, pisa el pedal del freno y piensa que usted es quien rueda ha-
cia atrás. ¿Qué dice esto acerca del movimiento absoluto y relativo? 9. Si usted viaja alejándose de la Tierra con rapidez 0.5c, ¿notaría
3. Un trabajador está de pie en lo alto de un vagón de ferrocarril un cambio en su ritmo cardiaco? ¿Su masa, peso o cintura se
en movimiento, y lanza una pesada bola en línea recta hacia modificarían? ¿Qué dirían de usted los observadores en la Tie-
arriba (desde su punto de vista). Ignorando la resistencia del ai- rra que usen telescopios?
re, ¿la bola regresará directo a su mano o caerá detrás de él? 10. ¿La dilatación del tiempo y la contracción de la longitud ocu-
4. ¿La Tierra realmente gira alrededor del Sol? ¿O también es vá- rren a rapidez ordinaria, por ejemplo, a 90 kmyh?
lido decir que el Sol gira alrededor de la Tierra? Discuta, en tér- 11. Suponga que la rapidez de la luz fuera infinita. ¿Qué ocurriría a
minos del principio de relatividad (que no hay un mejor marco las predicciones relativistas de contracción de la longitud y dila-
de referencia). Explique. tación del tiempo?
5. Si usted va en una nave espacial que viaja a 0.5c alejándose de
una estrella, ¿a qué rapidez lo pasaría la luz de la estrella? 12. Discuta cómo la vida cotidiana sería diferente si la rapidez de la
6. El efecto de dilatación del tiempo a veces se expresa como “los luz fuera de sólo 25 mys.
relojes en movimiento corren más lentamente”. En realidad, es- 13. Explique cómo se pueden usar las fórmulas de contracción de
te efecto no tiene nada que ver con el movimiento que afecte el la longitud y de dilatación del tiempo para indicar que c es la
funcionamiento de los relojes. Entonces, ¿a qué se refiere? rapidez límite del Universo.
Preguntas 981
14. El dibujo al principio del capítulo presenta la calle como la ve 15. Un electrón está limitado a viajar a rapideces menores que c.
el señor Tompkins, donde la rapidez de la luz es c 5 20 miyh. ¿Esto pone un límite superior a la cantidad de movimiento de un
¿Cómo ven al señor Tomp- electrón? Si es así, ¿cuál es este límite superior? Si no, explique.
kins las personas que es-
16. ¿Una partícula con masa distinta de cero puede lograr la rapi-
tán de pie en la calle (fi-
dez de la luz?
gura 36-15)? Explique.
17. ¿La ecuación E 5 mc2 está en conflicto con el principio de con-
servación de la energía? Explique.
18. Si la masa es una forma de energía, ¿significa esto que un resorte
FIGURA 36–15 tiene más masa cuando se comprime que cuando está relajado?
Pregunta 14. El señor 19. No es correcto decir que “la materia no se crea ni se destruye”.
Tompkins visto por la ¿Qué se debe decir en vez de ello?
gente en la acera. Vea
también la figura al 20. ¿La noción intuitiva de que las velocidades simplemente se su-
inicio del capítulo, en la man, como se hizo en la sección 3-9, es completamente errónea?
página 951.
Problemas
36–5 y 36–6 Dilatación del tiempo, contracción 1.00%? (Ésta es una forma razonable de estimar cuándo hacer
de la longitud cálculos relativistas en lugar de clásicos).
12. (II) Cierta estrella se localiza a 18.6 años luz de distancia.
1. (I) Una nave espacial pasa junto a usted con una rapidez de ¿Cuánto le tomaría a una nave espacial viajar a 0.950c para lle-
0.850c. Usted mide su longitud en 38.2 m. ¿Cuál será su longi- gar a esa estrella desde la Tierra, según las mediciones de obser-
tud cuando esté en reposo? vadores: a) en la Tierra, b) en la nave espacial? c) ¿Cuál es la
2. (I) Cierto tipo de partícula elemental viaja con una rapidez de distancia recorrida de acuerdo con observadores en la nave es-
2.70 3 108 mys. A esta rapidez, la vida promedio se mide en 4.76 pacial? d) ¿Qué rapidez calcularán los ocupantes de la nave
3 1026 s. ¿Cuál es el tiempo de vida de la partícula en reposo? espacial a partir de los resultados de b) y c)?
3. (II) De acuerdo con la teoría especial de la relatividad, el factor 13. (II) Suponga que un reporte noticioso afirma que la nave espa-
g que determina la contracción de la longitud y la dilatación del cial Enterprise acaba de regresar de un viaje de 5 años en el que
tiempo está dado por g = 1兾31 - v2兾c2 . Determine los va- registró una rapidez de 0.74c. a) Si el reporte quiere dar a en-
lores numéricos de g para un objeto que se mueve con rapidez tender 5.0 años de tiempo en la Tierra, ¿cuánto tiempo transcu-
v = 0.01c, 0.05c, 0.10c, 0.20c, 0.30c, 0.40c, 0.50c, 0.60c, 0.70c, rrió en la nave? b) Si el reporte significa 5.0 años de tiempo en
0.80c, 0.90c y 0.99c. Elabore una gráfica de g contra v. la nave, ¿cuánto tiempo transcurrió en la Tierra?
14. (II) Una partícula inestable producida en un experimento con ace-
4. (II) Si viajara a una estrella a 135 años luz de la Tierra, con una
8 lerador, viaja con velocidad constante, y recorre 1.00 m en 3.40 ns
rapidez de 2.80 3 10 mys, ¿cuánto mediría esta distancia?
en el marco del laboratorio, antes de “decaer” (convertirse) en
5. (II) ¿Cuál es la rapidez de un pión si su vida media se mide en otras partículas. En el marco en reposo de la partícula, determine
4.40 3 1028 s? En reposo, su vida media es de 2.60 3 1028 s. a) cuánto vivió antes de decaer, b) cuánto recorrió antes de decaer.
6. (II) En un marco de referencia terrestre, una estrella está a 56 15. (II) Cuando cierta partícula subatómica se encuentra estaciona-
años luz de distancia. ¿Con qué rapidez tendría que viajar una ria, su vida media es T0. Esto es, si en cierto momento hay N de
persona de manera que para ella la distancia sólo sea de 35 estas partículas, entonces un tiempo T0 después sólo habrá Ny2
años luz? partículas, suponiendo que las partículas están en reposo. En la
7. (II) Suponga que decide viajar a una estrella a 65 años luz de posición x 5 0 en un laboratorio de física de alta energía se crea
distancia con una rapidez que le indica que la distancia sólo es un haz que porta N de tales partículas por segundo. Este haz via-
de 25 años luz. ¿Cuántos años tardaría en realizar el viaje? ja a lo largo del eje x con rapidez v en el marco de referencia del
laboratorio, y se descubre que sólo Ny2 partículas por segundo
8. (II) ¿A qué rapidez v la longitud de una barra de 1.00 m pare- viajan en el haz en x 5 2cT0, donde c es la rapidez de la luz. En-
cería un 10.0% más corta (es decir, de 90.0 cm)?
cuentre la rapidez v de las partículas dentro del haz.
9. (II) La velocidad de escape de la Tierra es de 11.2 kmys. ¿Cuál 16. (II) En su propio marco de referencia, una caja tiene la forma
sería la disminución porcentual en longitud de una nave espa- de un cubo de 2.0 m de lado. Esta caja se carga sobre el piso
cial de 65.2 m de largo que viaja a esa rapidez, vista desde la plano de una nave espacial y entonces la nave espacial vuela y
Tierra? pasa junto a usted con una rapidez horizontal de 0.80c. ¿Cuál es
10. (II) Un amigo pasa rápidamente junto a usted en su nave espa- el volumen de la caja según la observa usted?
cial, con una rapidez de 0.760c. En el marco de referencia de us- 17. (II) Cuando está en reposo, una nave espacial tiene la forma de
ted, la nave mide 4.80 m de largo por 1.35 m de alto. a) ¿Cuáles un triángulo isósceles cuyos dos lados iguales tienen longitud 2l
serán su longitud y altura en reposo? b) ¿Cuántos segundos y cuya base tiene longitud l. Si esta nave vuela y pasa junto a un
transcurren en el reloj de su amigo cuando para usted pasaron observador con una velocidad relativa de v 5 0.95c dirigida a lo
20.0 s? c) ¿Con qué rapidez parece viajar usted de acuerdo con largo de su base, ¿cuáles son las longitudes de los tres lados de
su amigo? d) ¿Cuántos segundos transcurrieron en el reloj de la nave, de acuerdo con el observador?
usted cuando su amigo vio en su reloj que pasaron 20.0 s? 18. (II) ¿Con qué rapidez debe moverse un pión, en promedio, para
11. (II) ¿A qué rapidez las fórmulas relativistas para a) longitud y recorrer 25 m antes de decaer? La vida media, en reposo, es de
b) intervalos de tiempo difieren de los valores clásicos en 2.6 3 1028 s.
Problemas 983
45. (II) ¿Cuánta energía se puede obtener de la conversión de 1.0 63. (III) a) En el marco de referencia S, una partícula tiene canti-
dad de movimiento p = pxî a lo largo del eje positivo x. De-
B
gramo de masa? ¿Cuánta masa podría elevar esta energía a una
altura de 1.0 km sobre la superficie de la Tierra? muestre que, en el marco S9, que se mueve con rapidez v, como
46. (II) Para acelerar una partícula de masa m desde el reposo has- en la figura 36-11, la cantidad de movimiento tiene componentes
ta una rapidez de 0.90c se requiere trabajo W1. Para acelerar la px - vE兾c2
partícula desde la rapidez 0.90c hasta 0.99c se requiere trabajo pxœ =
31 - v 兾c
2 2
W2. Determine la razón W2yW1.
47. (II) ¿Cuál es la rapidez de una partícula cuando su energía ci- pyœ = py
nética es igual a su energía en reposo? pzœ = pz
48. (II) ¿Cuál es la cantidad de movimiento de un protón de 950 E - px v
E¿ = .
MeV (esto es, su energía cinética es de 950 MeV)?
31 - v 兾c
2 2
49. (II) Calcule la energía cinética y la cantidad de movimiento de
un protón que viaja a 2.80 3 108 mys. (Estas ecuaciones de transformación se sostienen, en realidad,
B
para cualquier dirección de p, en tanto el movimiento de S9 sea
50. (II) ¿Cuál es la rapidez de un electrón cuya energía cinética es
a lo largo del eje x). b) Demuestre que px, py, pz, Eyc se trans-
de 1.25 MeV?
forman de acuerdo con la transformación de Lorentz al igual
51. (II) ¿Cuál es la rapidez de un protón acelerado por una dife- que x, y, z, ct.
rencia de potencial de 1.25 MeV?
52. (II) Dos partículas idénticas de masa m se aproximan una a otra 36–12 Corrimiento Doppler para la luz
con igual velocidad v, pero en sentido opuesto. La colisión es 64. (II) Cierta galaxia tiene un corrimiento Doppler dado por
completamente inelástica y da por resultado una sola partícula f0 - f = 0.0987f0. Estime con qué rapidez se aleja de la Tierra.
en reposo. ¿Cuál es la masa de la nueva partícula? ¿Cuánta 65. (II) Una nave espacial que se dirige hacia la Tierra a 0.70c
energía se perdió en la colisión? ¿Cuánta energía cinética se transmite señales de radio a 95.0 MHz. ¿A qué frecuencia se
perdió en esta colisión? deben sintonizar los receptores en la Tierra?
53. (II) ¿Cuál es la rapidez de un electrón justo antes de que incida 66. (II) A partir de la ecuación 36-15a, demuestre que el corrimien-
sobre una pantalla de televisión luego de acelerarse desde el re- to Doppler en longitud de onda es
poso mediante los 28,000 V del cinescopio?
54. (II) La energía cinética de una partícula es de 45 MeV. Si la ¢l v
=
cantidad de movimiento es de 121 MeVyc, ¿cuál es la masa de l c
la partícula? si v V c.
55. (II) Calcule la rapidez de un protón (m 5 1.67 3 10227 kg) cu- 67. (III) Una “pistola” de radar emite microondas de frecuencia f0
ya energía cinética es exactamente la mitad a) de su energía to- 5 36.0 GHz. Cuando la pistola se apunta a un objeto que se di-
tal, b) de su energía en reposo. rige hacia ella con rapidez v, el objeto recibe las microondas en
56. (II) Calcule la energía cinética y la cantidad de movimiento de la frecuencia con corrimiento Doppler f. El objeto en movi-
un protón (m 5 1.67 3 10227 kg) que viaja a 8.15 3 107 mys. miento refleja estas microondas con esta misma frecuencia f. El
¿Cuáles serían los errores porcentuales si se emplearan las aparato de radar estacionario detecta estas ondas reflejadas co-
fórmulas clásicas? mo una frecuencia con corrimiento Doppler f9. La pistola com-
57. (II) Suponga que una nave espacial de 17,000 kg de masa se acele- bina su onda emitida a f0 y su onda detectada en f9. Estas
ra a 0.18c. a) ¿Cuánta energía cinética tendría? b) Si usó la fórmu- ondas interfieren, lo que crea un patrón de pulsos cuya frecuen-
la clásica para energía cinética, ¿cuál sería el error porcentual? cia de pulso es fpulso 5 f9 _ f0. a) Demuestre que
* 58. (II) ¿Qué campo magnético B se necesita para mantener a cfpulso
protones de 998 GeV dando vueltas en un círculo de 1.0 km de v L ,
radio (en el sincrotrón del Fermilab, por ejemplo)? Use la ma- 2f0
sa relativista. La masa en reposo del protón es 0.938 GeVyc2. si fpulso V f0. Si fpulso 5 6670 Hz, ¿cuál es v (en kmyh)? b) Si la
(1 GeV 5 109 eV.) [Sugerencia: En relatividad, mrel v2兾r = qvB rapidez del objeto es diferente por Dv, demuestre que la dife-
todavía es válida en un campo magnético, donde mrel 5 gm]. rencia en frecuencia de pulsos Dfpulso está dada por
59. (II) El núcleo de americio, 24195Am, decae a un núcleo de neptu- 2f0 ¢v
nio, 237
93Np, al emitir una partícula alfa de 4.00260 u de masa y ¢fpulso = .
energía cinética de 5.5 MeV. Estime la masa del núcleo de nep-
c
tunio e ignore su retroceso, dado que la masa del americio es de Si la precisión de la pistola es de 1 kmyh, ¿a que precisión se
241.05682 u. debe medir la frecuencia de pulso?
60. (II) Elabore una gráfica de la energía cinética frente a cantidad 68. (III) Cierto átomo emite luz de frecuencia f0 cuando está en re-
de movimiento para a) una partícula de masa distinta de cero y poso. Un gas monoatómico compuesto de estos átomos se en-
b) una partícula con masa cero. cuentra a la temperatura T. Algunos de los átomos del gas se
acercan a un observador y otros se alejan de él en virtud de su
61. (II) Un muón negativo, que viaja al 43% de la rapidez de la luz,
movimiento térmico aleatorio. Con la rapidez rms del movi-
choca de manera frontal con un muón positivo que viaja al 55%
miento térmico, demuestre que la diferencia fraccional entre las
de la rapidez de la luz. Los dos muones (cada uno con masa de
frecuencias con corrimiento Doppler para átomos que se acer-
105.7 MeVyc2) se aniquilan; ¿cuánta energía electromagnética
can directamente hacia el observador y los que se alejan direc-
producen?
tamente del observador es ¢f兾f0 L 223kT兾mc2; suponga
62. (II) Demuestre que la energía cinética K de una partícula de
masa m se relaciona con su cantidad de movimiento p median- que mc2 W 3kT. Evalúe Dfyf0 para un gas de átomos de hi-
te la ecuación drógeno a 550 K. [Este efecto de “ensanchamiento Doppler”
comúnmente se usa para medir la temperatura de los gases, co-
p = 3K2 + 2Kmc2兾c. mo en astronomía].
Responses to Questions
1. No. The train is an inertial reference frame, and the laws of physics are the same in all inertial
reference frames, so there is no experiment you can perform inside the train car to determine if you
are moving.
2. The fact that you instinctively think you are moving is consistent with the relativity principle applied
to mechanics. Even though you are at rest relative to the ground, when the car next to you creeps
forward, you are moving backward relative to that car.
3. As long as the railroad car is traveling with a constant velocity, the ball will land back in his hand.
4. The relativity principle refers only to inertial reference frames. Neither the reference frame of the
Earth nor the reference frame of the Sun is inertial. Either reference frame is valid, but the laws of
physics will not be the same in each of the frames.
5. The starlight would pass at c, regardless of your spaceship’s speed. This is consistent with the
second postulate of relativity which states that the speed of light through empty space is independent
of the speed of the source or the observer.
6. It deals with space-time (sometimes called “the fabric of space-time”) and the actual passage of time
in the reference frame, not with the mechanical workings of clocks. Any measurement of time
(heartbeats or decay rates, for instance) would be measured as slower than normal when viewed by
an observer outside the moving reference frame.
7. Time actually passes more slowly in the moving reference frames, according to observers outside
the moving frames.
8. This situation is an example of the “twin paradox” applied to parent-child instead of to twins. This
might be possible if the woman was traveling at high enough speeds during her trip. Time would
have passed more slowly for her and she could have aged less than her son, who stayed on Earth.
(Note that the situations of the woman and son are not symmetric; she must undergo acceleration
during her journey.)
9. No, you would not notice any change in your heartbeat, mass, height, or waistline, because you are
in the inertial frame of the spaceship. Observers on Earth, however, would report that your heartbeat
is slower and your mass greater than if you were at rest with respect to them. Your height and
waistline will depend on your orientation with respect to the motion. If you are “standing up” in the
spaceship such that your height is perpendicular to the direction of travel, then your height would not
change but your waistline would shrink. If you happened to be “lying down” so that your body is
parallel to the direction of motion when the Earth observers peer through the telescope, then you
would appear shorter but your waistline would not change.
10. Yes. However, at a speed of only 90 km/hr, v/c is very small, and therefore γ is very close to one, so
the effects would not be noticeable.
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Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
11. Length contraction and time dilation would not occur. If the speed of light were infinite, v/c would
be zero for all finite values of v, and therefore γ would always be one, resulting in t t0 and
l l0 .
12. The effects of special relativity, such as time dilation and length contraction, would be noticeable in
our everyday activities because everyday speeds would no longer be so small compared to the speed
of light. There would be no “absolute time” on which we would all agree, so it would be more
difficult, for instance, to plan to meet friends for lunch at a certain time! In addition, 25 m/s would
be the limiting speed and nothing in the universe would move faster than that.
13. Both the length contraction and time dilation formulas include the term 1 v 2 c 2 . If c were not
the limiting speed in the universe, then it would be possible to have a situation with v > c. However,
this would result in a negative number under the square root, which gives an imaginary number as a
result, indicating that c must be the limiting speed.
14. Mr. Tompkins appears shrunk in the horizontal direction, since that is the direction of his motion,
and normal size in the vertical direction, perpendicular to his direction of motion. This length
contraction is a result of the fact that, to the people on the sidewalk, Mr. Tompkins is in a moving
frame of reference. If the speed of light were only 20 mi/h, then the amount of contraction, which
depends on γ, would be enough to be noticeable. Therefore, Mr. Tompkins and his bicycle appear
very skinny. (Compare to the chapter-opening figure, which is shown from Mr. Tompkin’s
viewpoint. In this case, Mr. Tompkins sees himself as “normal” but all the objects moving with
respect to him are contracted.)
mv
15. No. The relativistic momentum of the electron is given by p mv . At low speeds
1 v2 c2
(compared to c) this reduces to the classical momentum, p = mv. As v approaches c, γ approaches
infinity so there is no upper limit to the electron’s momentum.
16. No. To accelerate a particle with nonzero rest mass up to the speed of light would require an infinite
amount of energy, and so is not possible.
17. No. E = mc² does not conflict with the principle of conservation of energy as long as it is understood
that mass is a form of energy.
18. Yes, mass is a form of energy so technically it is correct to say that a spring has more mass when
compressed. However, the change in mass of the spring is very small and essentially negligible.
19. “Energy can be neither created nor destroyed.” Mass is a form of energy, and mass can be
“destroyed” when it is converted to other forms of energy. The total amount of energy remains
constant.
20. Technically yes, the notion that velocities simply add is wrong. However, at everyday speeds, the
relativistic equations reduce to classical ones, so our ideas about velocity addition are essentially
true for velocities that are low compared to the speed of light.
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428
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
Solutions to Problems
1. You measure the contracted length. Find the rest length from Eq. 36-3a.
l 38.2 m
l0 72.5m
1 v c 1 0.850
2 2 2
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
v /c
5. The speed is determined from the time dilation relationship, Eq. 36-1a.
t0 t 1 v 2 c 2
2 2
t 2.60 108 s
v c 1 0 c 1 8
0.807c 2.42 108 m s
t 4.40 10 s
6. The speed is determined from the length contraction relationship, Eq. 36-3a.
2 2
l 35ly
l l0 1 v 2 c2 v c 1 c 1 0.78c 2.3 10 m s
8
l0 56ly
7. The speed is determined from the length contraction relationship, Eq. 36-3a. Then the time is found
from the speed and the contracted distance.
l l0 1 v 2 c2
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Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
25y c
2
l l l 25ly
v c 1 ; t 27 y
l0 v l
2
25ly
2 c 0.923
c 1 c 1
l0 65ly
8. The speed is determined from the length contraction relationship, Eq. 36-3a.
2
l
l l 0 1 v 2 c 2 v c 1 c 1 0.900 0.436 c
2
l
0
9. The change in length is determined from the length contraction relationship, Eq. 36-3a. The speed is
very small compared to the speed of light.
l l0 1 v 2 c2
1/ 2 2
l v2 v2 11.2 103 m s 10
1 v 2 c2 1 2 1 2 1 12
1
2 1 6.97 10
3.00 10 m
8
l0 c c s
So the percent decrease is 6.97 10 % .
8
10. (a) The measured length is the contracted length. We find the rest length from Eq. 36-3a.
l 4.80 m
l0 7.39 m
1 v c 1 0.760
2 2 2
Distances perpendicular to the motion do not change, so the rest height is 1.35m .
(b) The time in the spacecraft is the rest time, found from Eq. 36-1a.
t0 t 1 v 2 c 2 20.0s 1 0.760 13.0s
2
(c) To your friend, you moved at the same relative speed: 0.760 c .
(d) She would measure the same time dilation: 13.0s .
11. (a) We use Eq. 36-3a for length contraction with the contracted length 99.0% of the rest length.
2
l
l l 0 1 v c v c 1 c 1 0.990 0.141 c
2 2 2
l0
(b) We use Eq. 36-1a for time dilation with the time as measured from a relative moving frame
1.00% greater than the rest time.
2 2
t 1
t0 t 1 v c v c 1 0 c 1
2 2
0.140 c
t 1.0100
We see that a speed of 0.14 c results in about a 1% relativistic effect.
12. (a) To an observer on Earth, 18.6 ly is the rest length, so the time will be the distance divided by
the speed.
l
tEarth 0
18.6 ly 19.58 yr 19.6 yr
v 0.950 c
(b) The time as observed on the spacecraft is shorter. Use Eq. 36-1a.
t0 t 1 v 2 c 2 19.58 yr 1 0.950 6.114 yr 6.11yr
2
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430
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
(c) To the spacecraft observer, the distance to the star is contracted. Use Eq. 36-3a.
l l 0 1 v 2 c 2 18.6 ly 1 0.950 5.808 ly 5.81 ly
2
(d) To the spacecraft observer, the speed of the spacecraft is their observed distance divided by
their observed time.
v
l
5.808 ly 0.950 c
t0 6.114 yr
13. (a) In the Earth frame, the clock on the Enterprise will run slower. Use Eq. 36-1a.
t0 t 1 v 2 c 2 5.0 yr 1 0.74 3.4 yr
2
(b) Now we assume the 5.0 years is the time as measured on the Enterprise. Again use Eq. 36-1a.
t0 t 1 v 2 c 2 t
t 0
5.0 yr 7.4 yr
1 v2 c2 1 0.74
2
14. We find the speed of the particle in the lab frame, and use that to find the rest frame lifetime and
distance.
x 1.00 m
v lab 2.941 108 m s 0.9803 c
tlab 3.40 109 s
(a) Find the rest frame lifetime from Eq. 36-1a.
t0 tlab 1 v 2 c 2 3.40 109 s 1 0.9803 6.72 1010 s
2
(b) In its rest frame, the particle will travel the distance given by its speed and the rest lifetime.
x0 vt0 2.941 108 m s 6.72 1010 s 0.198m
xlab
This could also be found from the length contraction relationship: x0 .
1 v 2 c2
15. Since the number of particles passing per second is reduced from N to N / 2, a time T0 must have
elapsed in the particles’ rest frame. The time T elapsed in the lab frame will be greater, according to
Eq. 36-1a. The particles moved a distance of 2cT0 in the lab frame during that time.
T0 x 2cT0
T0 T 1 v 2 c 2 T ; v v 45 c 0.894 c
1 v c
2 2 T T0
1 v 2 c2
16. The dimension along the direction of motion is contracted, and the other two dimensions are
unchanged. Use Eq. 36-3a to find the contracted length.
l l0 1 v 2 c2 ; V l l0 l0 1 v 2 c 2 2.0 m 1 0.80 4.8m 3
2 3 3 2
17. The vertical dimensions of the ship will not change, but the horizontal dimensions will be contracted
according to Eq. 36-3a. The base will be contracted as follows.
l base l 1 v 2 c 2 l 1 0.95 0.31l
2
0.50 l
When at rest, the angle of the sides with respect to the base is given by cos 1 75.52.
2.0l
The vertical component of l vert 2 l sin 2 l sin 75.52 1.936l is unchanged. The horizontal
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Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
component, which is 2 l cos 2 l 14 0.50l at rest, will be contracted in the same way as the base.
l horizontal 0.50l 1 v 2 c 2 0.50l 1 0.95 0.156l
2
18. In the Earth frame, the average lifetime of the pion will be dilated according to Eq. 36-1a. The speed
of the pion will be the distance moved in the Earth frame times the dilated time.
d d
v 1 v2 c2
t t0
1 1
vc c 0.95 c
3.00 10 m s 2.6 108 s
2 2
ct0 8
1 1
d 25m
19. We take the positive direction in the direction of the Enterprise. Consider the alien vessel as
reference frame S, and the Earth as reference frame S. The velocity of the Earth relative to the alien
vessel is v 0.60 c. The velocity of the Enterprise relative to the Earth is ux 0.90 c. Solve for
the velocity of the Enterprise relative to the alien vessel, ux , using Eq. 36-7a.
ux
ux v 0.90c 0.60c 0.65c
vux 1 0.60 0.90
1 2
c
We could also have made the Enterprise as reference frame S, with v 0.90 c, and the velocity of
the alien vessel relative to the Earth as ux 0.60 c. The same answer would result.
Choosing the two spacecraft as the two reference frames would also work. Let the alien vessel be
reference frame S, and the Enterprise be reference frame S. Then we have the velocity of the Earth
relative to the alien vessel as ux 0.60 c, and the velocity of the Earth relative to the Enterprise as
ux 0.90 c. We solve for v, the velocity of the Enterprise relative to the alien vessel.
ux
ux v v ux ux .60c 0.90c 0.65c
vux ux u x 0.90c .60c
1 2 1 2 1
c c c2
21. (a) The person’s coordinates in S are found using Eq. 36-6, with x 25 m , y 20 m , z 0 , and
t 3.5 s. We set v 1.80 108 m/s.
x vt 25m 1.8 108 m/s 3.5 s
x 820 m
1 v 2 c2 1 1.8 10 m/s 3.0 10 m/s
8 2 8 2
y y 20 m ; z z 0
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432
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
y y 20 m ; z z 0
22. We determine the components of her velocity in the S frame using Eq. 36-7, where
ux u y 1.10 108 m/s and v 1.80 108 m/s . Then using trigonometry we combine the
components to determine the magnitude and direction.
ux v 1.10 108 m/s 1.80 108 m/s
ux 2.38 108 m/s
1 vux / c 2 1 1.80 108 m/s 1.10 108 m/s / 3.00 108 m/s 2
23. (a) We take the positive direction to be the direction of motion of spaceship 1. Consider spaceship
2 as reference frame S, and the Earth reference frame S. The velocity of the Earth relative to
spaceship 2 is v 0.60 c. The velocity of spaceship 1 relative to the Earth is ux 0.60 c. Solve
for the velocity of spaceship 1 relative to spaceship 2, u x , using Eq. 36-7a.
ux
ux v 0.60 c 0.60 c 0.88 c
vux 1 0.60 0.60
1 2
c
(b) Now consider spaceship 1 as reference frame S. The velocity of the Earth relative to spaceship
1 is v 0.60 c. The velocity of spaceship 2 relative to the Earth is ux 0.60 c. Solve for the
velocity of spaceship 2 relative to spaceship 1, u x , using Eq. 36-7a.
ux
ux v 0.60 c 0.60 c 0.88 c
vux 1 0.60 0.60
1 2
c
As expected, the two relative velocities are the opposite of each other.
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Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
1 100 m 0.92
1 0.92 2 1 0.922 3.00 108 m s 1.00 106 s 0.92 100 m
316 m
25. (a) We take the positive direction in the direction of the first spaceship. We choose reference frame
S as the Earth, and reference frame S as the first spaceship. So v 0.61 c. The speed of the
second spaceship relative to the first spaceship is ux 0.87 c. We use Eq. 36-7a to solve for the
speed of the second spaceship relative to the Earth, u.
ux
ux v 0.87c 0.61c 0.97 c
vux 1 0.61 0.87
1 2
c
(b) The only difference is now that ux 0.87 c.
ux
ux v 0.87c 0.61c 0.55 c
vux 1 0.61 0.87
1 2
c
The problem asks for the speed, which would be 0.55 c
26. We assume that the given speed of 0.90c is relative to the planet that you are approaching. We take
the positive direction in the direction that you are traveling. Consider your spaceship as reference
frame S, and the planet as reference frame S. The velocity of the planet relative to you is
v 0.90 c. The velocity of the probe relative to the planet is ux 0.95 c. Solve for the velocity of
the probe relative to your spaceship, ux , using Eq. 36-7a.
ux
ux v 0.95c 0.90c 0.34c
vux 1 0.90 0.95
1 2
c
27. We set frame S as the frame at rest with the spaceship. In this frame the module has speed
u uy 0.82c. Frame S is the frame that is stationary with respect to the Earth. The spaceship, and
therefore frame S moves in the x-direction with speed 0.76c in this frame, or v 0.76c. We use
Eq. 36-7a and 36-7b to determine the components of the module velocity in frame S. Then using
trigonometry we combine the components to determine the speed and direction of travel.
ux v 0 0.76c uy 1 v 2 c 2 0.82c 1 0.762
ux 0.76 c ; u 0.533c
1 vux / c 2 1 vux / c 2
y
1 0 1 0
u 0.533c
u ux2 u 2y 0.76c 0.533c 0.93c ; tan 1 y tan 1
2 2
35
ux 0.76c
28. The velocity components of the particle in the S frame are ux u cos and u y u sin . We find the
components of the particle in the S frame from the velocity transformations given in Eqs. 36-7a and
36-7b. Those transformations are for the S frame moving with speed v relative to the S frame. We
can find the transformations from the S frame to the S frame by simply changing v to –v and primed
to unprimed variables.
ux
ux v ux
ux v ; uy
uy 1 v 2 c 2
uy
u y 1 v 2 c2
1 vu c
x
2
1 vu x c2 1 vu x c2 1 vu x c2
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434
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
u y 1 v 2 c2
tan
uy
1 vu x c 2 u y 1 v 2 c 2 u sin 1 v 2 c 2
sin 1 v 2 c 2
ux ux v ux v u cos v cos v u
1 vux c 2
29. (a) In frame S the horizontal component of the stick length will be contracted, while the vertical
component remains the same. We use the trigonometric relations to determine the x- and y-
components of the length of the stick. Then using Eq. 36-3a we determine the contracted length
of the x-component. Finally, we use the Pythagorean theorem to determine stick length in
frame S.
l x l 0 cos ; l y l 0 sin ly ; lx l x 1 v 2 c 2 l 0 cos 1 v 2 c 2
(b) We calculate the angle from the length components in the moving frame.
l l 0 sin tan
tan 1 y tan 1 tan 1 tan 1 tan
l 0 cos 1 v c
lx
1 v c
2 2 2 2
30. (a) We choose the train as frame S and the Earth as frame S. Since the guns fire simultaneously in
S , we set these times equal to zero, that is tA tB 0. To simplify the problem we also set the
location of gunman A equal to zero in frame S when the guns were fired, xA 0. This places
gunman B at xB 55.0 m. Use Eq. 36-6 to determine the time that each gunman fired his
weapon in frame S.
vx v 0
tA tA 2A 0 2 0
c c
vx
tB tB 2B
1 0 35m/s 55.0 m 2.14 1014 s
1 35.0 m/s 3.00 108 m/s
3.00 108 m/s
2
c 2
Therefore, in Frame S, A fired first.
(b) As found in part (a), the difference in time is 2.14 1014 s .
(c) In the Earth frame of reference, since A fired first, B was struck first. In the train frame, A is
moving away from the bullet fired toward him, and B is moving toward the bullet fired toward
him. Thus B will be struck first in this frame as well.
31. We set frame S as the frame moving with the observer. Frame S is the frame in which the two light
bulbs are at rest. Frame S is moving with velocity v with respect to frame S. We solve Eq. 36-6 for
the time t in terms of t, x, and v. Using the resulting equation we determine the time in frame S that
each bulb is turned on, given that in frame S the bulbs are turned on simultaneously at tA tB 0.
Taking the difference in these times gives the time interval as measured by the observing moving
with velocity v.
x
x x vt x vt
vx v x v 2 vx t vx vx
t t 2 = t 2 vt t 1 2 2 2 t t 2
c c c c c c
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Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
vx v 0 vx vl vl
t A t A 2A 0 2 0 ; tB tB 2B 0 c 2 c 2
c c c
vl
t tB t A
c2
According to the observer, bulb B turned on first.
32. We set up the two frames such that in frame S, the first object is located at the origin and the second
object is located 220 meters from the origin, so xA 0 and xB 220 m. We set the time when event
A occurred equal to zero, so tA 0 and tB 0.80 s. We then set the location of the two events in
frame S equal, and using Eq. 36-6 we solve for the velocity.
x xB 0 220 m
xA xB xA vt A xB vtB ; v A 2.5 108 m/s
tA tB 0 0.88 s
33. From the boy’s frame of reference, the pole remains at rest with respect to him. As such, the pole
will always remain 12.0 m long. As the boy runs toward the barn, relativity requires that the
(relatively moving) barn contract in size, making the barn even shorter than its rest length of 10.0 m.
Thus it is impossible, in the boy’s frame of reference, for the barn to be longer than the pole. So
according to the boy, the pole will never completely fit within the barn.
In the frame of reference at rest with respect to the barn, it is possible for the pole to be shorter than
the barn. We use Eq. 36-3a to calculate the speed that the boy would have to run for the contracted
length of the pole, l, to equal the length of the barn.
l l 0 1 v 2 c 2 v c 1 l 2 l 02 c 1 10.0 m 12.0 m
2 2
0.5528c
If persons standing at the front and back door of the barn were to close both doors exactly when the
pole was completely inside the barn, we would have two simultaneous events in the barn’s rest frame
S with the pole completely inside the barn. Let us set the time for these two events as tA tB 0. In
frame S these two events occur at the front and far side of the barn, or at xA 0 and xB 10.0m.
Using Eq. 36-6, we calculate the times at which the barn doors close in the boy’s frame of reference.
vx v 0
t A t A 2A 0 2 0
c c
vx 1 0.5528 10.0 m
tB tB 2B 0
8
2.211 10 s
c 1 0.5528
2 3.00 10 8
m/s
Therefore, in the boy’s frame of reference the far door of the barn closed 22.1 ns before the front
door. If we multiply the speed of the boy by this time difference, we calculate the distance the boy
traveled between the closing of the two doors.
x vt 0.5528 3.00 108 m/s 2.211 108 s 3.67 m.
We use Eq. 36-3a to determine the length of the barn in the boy’s frame of reference.
l l 0 1 v 2 c 2 10.0 m 1 0.55282 8.33 m
Subtracting the distance traveled between closing the doors from the length of the pole, we find the
length of the barn in the boy’s frame of reference.
l 0,pole x 12.0 m 3.67 m 8.33 m l barn
Therefore, in the boy’s frame of reference, when the front of the pole reached the far door it was
closed. Then 22.1 ns later, when the back of the pole reached the front door, that door was closed.
In the boy’s frame of reference these two events are not simultaneous.
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436
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
p mv
mv
1.67 1027 kg 0.75 3.00 108 m s 5.7 1019 kg m s
1 v2 c2 1 0.75
2
36. The momentum at the higher speed is to be twice the initial momentum. We designate the initial
state with a subscript “0”, and the final state with a subscript “f”.
mvf vf2
pf 1 vf c
2 2
1 vf2 c 2 vf2 0.26 c 2
2 4 2
4 2
0.29c 2
mv0 v02 1 0.26
2
p0 1 v f c
1 v02 c 2 1 v02 c 2
0.29 2
vf2 c vf 0.47 c
1.29
37. The two momenta, as measured in the frame in which the particle was initially at rest, will be equal
to each other in magnitude. The lighter particle is designated with a subscript “1”, and the heavier
particle with a subscript “2”.
m1v1 m2 v2
p1 p2
1 v1 c
2 2
1 v22 c 2
v12 m2
2
v22 6.68 1027 kg
2
0.60 c 2
2
9.0c 2
1 v12 c2 m1 1 v22 c2 1.67 1027 kg
1 0.60
v1 0.90 c 0.95 c
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Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
p p1 1.3333mp c 0.5039mp c
(a) 2 100 100 164.6 160%
p1 0.5039mp c
p p1 4.9247mp c 1.3333mp c
(b) 2 100 100 269.4 270%
p1 1.3333mp c
8.20 10 14
J
0.511MeV
1.60 10 13
J MeV
44. (a) The work is the change in kinetic energy. Use Eq. 36-10b. The initial kinetic energy is 0.
1
W K K final 1 mc 2 1 938.3MeV 1.39 104 MeV
1 0.998
2
13.9GeV
(b) The momentum of the proton is given by Eq. 36-8.
1
p mv 938.3MeV c2 0.998 c 1.48 104 MeV c 14.8GeV c
1 0.998 2
45. We find the energy equivalent of the mass from Eq. 36-12.
E mc 2 1.0 103 kg 3.00 108 m s 9.0 1013 J
2
We assume that this energy is used to increase the gravitational potential energy.
E 9.0 1013 J
E mgh m 9.2 109 kg
hg 1.0 103 m 9.80 m s2
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438
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
46. The work is the change in kinetic energy. Use Eq. 36-10b. The initial kinetic energy is 0.
W1 0.90 1 mc 2 ; W2 K 0.99 c K 0.90c 0.99 1 mc 2 0.90 1 mc 2
1 1
W2 0.99 1 mc 0.90 1 mc 0.99 0.90
2 2
1 0.99 1 0.902 3.7
2
W1 0.90 1 mc 2 0.90 1 1
1
1 0.902
48. The total energy of the proton is the kinetic energy plus the mass energy. Use Eq. 36-13 to find the
momentum.
E K mc 2 ;
pc E 2 mc 2 K mc 2 mc 2 K 2 2 K mc 2
2 2 2 2
mc 2 938.3MeV
pc K 2 2 K mc 2 K 1 2 950 MeV 1 2 1638 MeV
K 950 MeV
p 1638 MeV c 1.6GeV c
49. We find the speed in terms of c. The kinetic energy is given by Eq. 36-10 and the momentum by Eq.
36-8.
v
2.80 108 m s
0.9333 c
3.00 108 m s
1
K 1 mc 2 1 938.3MeV 1674.6 MeV 1.67GeV
1 0.9333
2
1
p mv 938.3MeV c2 0.9333 c 2439 MeV c 2.44GeV c
1 0.93332
50. We use Eq. 36-10 to find the speed from the kinetic energy.
1
K 1 mc 2 1 mc 2
1 v2 c2
1 1
v c 1 2
c 1 2
0.957 c
K 1.25MeV
2 1 0.511MeV 1
mc
51. Since the proton was accelerated by a potential difference of 125 MV, its potential energy decreased
by 125 MeV, and so its kinetic energy increased from 0 to 125 MeV. Use Eq. 36-10 to find the
speed from the kinetic energy.
1
K 1 mc 2 1 mc 2
1 v2 c2
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Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
1 1
v c 1 2
c 1 2
0.470 c
K 125MeV
2 1 938.3MeV 1
mc
52. We let M represent the rest mass of the new particle. The initial energy is due to both incoming
particles, and the final energy is the rest energy of the new particle. Use Eq. 36-11 for the initial
energies.
2m
E 2 mc 2 Mc 2 M 2 m
1 v 2 c2
We assumed that energy is conserved, and so there was no loss of energy in the collision.
The final kinetic energy is 0, so all of the kinetic energy was lost.
1
K lost K initial 2 1 mc 2 1 2mc 2
1 v 2 c2
53. Since the electron was accelerated by a potential difference of 28 kV, its potential energy decreased
by 28 keV, and so its kinetic energy increased from 0 to 28 MeV. Use Eq. 36-10 to find the speed
from the kinetic energy.
1
K 1 mc 2 1 mc 2
1 v 2 c2
1 1
v c 1 2
c 1 2
0.32 c
K 0.028 MeV
2 1 0.511MeV 1
mc
54. We use Eqs. 36-11 and 36-13 in order to find the mass.
E 2 p 2 c 2 m 2 c 4 K mc 2 K 2 2 Kmc 2 m 2c 4
2
p 2 c 2 K 2 121MeV c c 45MeV
2 2 2
55. (a) Since the kinetic energy is half the total energy, and the total energy is the kinetic energy plus
the rest energy, the kinetic energy must be equal to the rest energy. We also use Eq. 36-10.
K 12 E 12 K mc 2 K mc 2
1
K 1 mc 2 mc 2 2 v 43 c 0.866 c
1 v2 c2
(b) In this case, the kinetic energy is half the rest energy.
1
K 1 mc 2 12 mc 2 23 v 95 c 0.745 c
1 v 2 c2
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440
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
56. We use Eq. 36-10 for the kinetic energy and Eq. 36-8 for the momentum.
1 1
K 1 mc 2 1 mc 2 1 938.3MeV
1 v c
2 2
2
8.15 107 m s
1
3.00 10 m s
8
36.7 MeV
8.15 107 m s
938.3MeV
1 mc v c 1 3.00 10 m s 265MeV c
2 8
mv
p mv
1 v c2 2 c 1 v 2 c2 c 8.15 107 m s
2
1
3.00 10 m s
8
% error
2.479 10 J 2.541 10 J 100 2.4%
19 19
2.541 10 J 19
58. The kinetic energy of 998 GeV is used to find the speed of the protons. Since the energy is 1000
times the rest mass, we expect the speed to be very close to c. Use Eq. 36-10.
1
K 1 mc 2 1 mc 2
1 v2 c2
1 1
v c 1 2
c 1 2
c to 7 sig. fig.
K 998GeV
2 1 0.938GeV 1
mc
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441
Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
998GeV
K
1 mc 1 1.673 1027 kg 3.00 108 m s
mv mv mc
2 2
0.938GeV
B 3.3T
rqv rq rq 1.0 103 m 1.60 1019 C
59. By conservation of energy, the rest energy of the americium nucleus is equal to the rest energies of
the other particles plus the kinetic energy of the alpha particle.
mAm c 2 mNp m c 2 K
K 5.5MeV 1u
mNp mAm m 2
241.05682 u 4.00260 u 2 2
237.04832 u
c c 931.49 MeV c
60. (a) For a particle of non-zero mass, we derive the following relationship between kinetic energy
and momentum.
pc E 2 mc 2 K mc 2 mc 2 K 2 2 K mc 2
2 2 2 2
E K mc 2 ;
2mc 2 4 mc 2 4 pc
2 2
K 2 K mc pc 2
2 2
0 K
2
For the kinetic energy to be positive, we take the positive root.
2mc 2 4 mc 2 4 pc
2 2
K
2
mc 2 mc pc
2 2 2
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442
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
61. All of the energy, both rest energy and kinetic energy, becomes electromagnetic energy. We use Eq.
36-11. Both masses are the same.
1 1
Etotal E1 E2 1mc 2 2 mc 2 1 2 mc 2 105.7 MeV
1 0.43 1 0.552
2
K 2 2 K mc 2
p
c
63. (a) We assume the mass of the particle is m, and we are given that the velocity only has an x-
component, u x . We write the momentum in each frame using Eq. 36-8, and we use the velocity
transformation given in Eq. 36-7. Note that there are three relevant velocities: ux , the velocity
in reference frame S; ux , the velocity in reference frame S; and v, the velocity of one frame
relative to the other frame. There is no velocity in the y or z directions, in either frame. We
1
reserve the symbol for , and also use Eq. 36-11 for energy.
1 v 2 c2
mu x
px ; p y 0 ; pz 0
1 ux2 c 2
ux v ux v 1 vux c 2 1 vux c 2
ux ux ; u u 0 ; u u 0
1 vux c 2
y y z z
1 vu x c 2 1 v 2 c2 1 v 2 c2
mux
px ; py 0 since uy 0 ; pz 0 since uz 0
1 ux2 c 2
Substitute the expression for ux into the expression for px .
m
ux v
px
mux
1 vux c 2
m
ux v 1
1 ux c
2 2
1 ux v
2
1 vux c2 ux v
2
1 2
c 1 vu c 2 2 1 vu x c
2 2
c 2
1 vu 1 vu c2
x
2 2 2
x c x
m
ux v 1
m ux v
1 vu c 2
1 u v
2
u v
2
1 vu
2 2
1 vu
2 2
x
c x c x
1 vux c2 x
c2
x
c2
m ux v m ux v
2 2
vu vu u 2 2u v v 2 vu u
2
v2
1 2 2x 2x 2x 2x 2 1 2x 2x 2
c c c c c c c c
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Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
mu x mv
m ux v
1 u 2
x c2 1 u 2
x c2
1 v 2
c 2 1 ux2 c 2 1 v 2
c
2
mux mc 2 v mc 2 v
px
1 u 2
x c2 1 u 2
x c2 c2
1 u 2
x c2 c2
p x vE c 2
1 v c 2 2
1 v 2
c2 1 v 2
c2
It is obvious from the first few equations of the problem that py p y 0 and pz pz 0 .
mc 2 mc 2 mc 2
E
1 ux2 c 2 1 ux v ux v
2 2
1
c 2 1 vu c 2 2 1 vu x c
2 2
c 2
1 vu 1 vu c2
x
2 2 2
x c x
mc 2 mvux
mc 1 vux c
2 2
mc 2
mvu x
1 u 2
x c 2
1 u 2
x c2
1 vu c
2 2 u v
x
2
1 v 2
c 2 1 ux2 c 2 1 v 2
c
2
x
c2
E px v
1 v 2
c2
(b) We summarize these results, and write the Lorentz transformation from Eq. 36-6, but solved in
terms of the primed variables. That can be easily done by interchanged primed and unprimed
quantities, and changing v to v.
p vE c 2 E px v
px x ; py p y ; py p y ; E
1 v c
2 2
1 v 2 c2
x vt t vx c 2
x ; y y ; z z ; t
1 v 2
c2 1 v 2
c2
These transformations are identical if we exchange px with x, p y with y, pz with z, and E c 2
with t (or E c with ct).
64. The galaxy is moving away from the Earth, and so we use Eq. 36-15b.
f 0 f 0.0987 f 0 f 0.9013 f 0
1 f f 0 2
cv c 1 0.9013 c 0.1035 c
2
f f0 v 2
cv 1+ f f 0 2 1 0.9013
65. For source and observer moving towards each other, use Eq. 36-14b.
cv 1 v c 1 0.70
f f0 f0 95.0 MHz 226 MHz 230 MHz
cv 1 v c 1 0.70
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444
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
67. (a) We apply Eq. 36-14b to determine the received/reflected frequency f. Then we apply this same
equation a second time using the frequency f as the source frequency to determine the Doppler-
shifted frequency f . We subtract the initial frequency from this Doppler-shifted frequency to
obtain the beat frequency. The beat frequency will be much smaller than the emitted frequency
when the speed is much smaller than the speed of light. We then set c v c and solve for v.
cv cv cv cv cv
f f0 f f f0 f0
cv cv cv cv cv
cv cv 2v 2v cf beat
f beat f f 0 f 0 f0 f0 f0 v
cv cv cv c 2 f0
v
3.00 10 m/s 6670 Hz 27.8m/s
8
2 36.0 10 Hz
9
(b) We find the change in velocity and solve for the resulting change in beat frequency. Setting
the change in the velocity equal to 1 km/h we solve for the change in beat frequency.
cf cf beat 2 f v
v beat v f beat 0
2 f0 2 f0 c
2 36.0 109 Hz 1km/h 1m/s
f beat 70 Hz
3.00 108 m/s 3.600 km/h
68. We consider the difference between Doppler-shifted frequencies for atoms moving directly towards
the observer and atoms moving directly away. Use Eqs. 36-14b and 36-15b.
cv cv cv cv 2v 2v c
f f 0 f0 f0 f0 2 f0
cv cv cv cv c v
2 1 v2 c2
We take the speed to be the rms speed of thermal motion, given by Eq. 18-5. We also assume that
the thermal energy is much less than the rest energy, and so 3kT mc 2 .
1/ 2
3kT v 3kT 3kT f 3kT
3kT
v vrms
1 2 2
2
m c mc 2 mc f0 mc 2
mc 2
We evaluate for a gas of H atoms (not H 2 molecules) at 550 K. Use Appendix F to find the mass.
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445
Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
69. At the North Pole the clock is at rest, while the clock on the equator travels the circumference of the
Earth each day. We divide the circumference of the Earth by the length of the day to determine the
speed of the equatorial clock. We set the dilated time equal to 2.0 years and solve for the change in
rest times for the two clocks.
2 R 2 6.38 10 m
6
v 464 m/s
T 24 hr 3600s/hr
t0,eq v2
t t0,eq t 1 v 2 / c 2 t 1 2
1 v 2 / c2 2c
t
t 0,pole t0,pole t
1 0
v2
t0,eq t0,pole t 1 2 t
2c
2.0 yr 464 m/s 3.156 107 s/yr
2
v2
t 2 75 s
2 3.00 108 m/s
2
2c
70. We take the positive direction in the direction of the motion of the second pod. Consider the first
pod as reference frame S, and the spacecraft as reference frame S. The velocity of the spacecraft
relative to the first pod is v 0.60 c. The velocity of the first pod relative to the spacecraft is
ux 0.50 c. Solve for the velocity of the second pod relative to the first pod, ux , using Eq. 36-7a.
ux
ux v 0.50c 0.60c 0.846 c
vux 1 0.60 0.50
1 2
c
71. We treat the Earth as the stationary frame, and the airplane as the moving frame. The elapsed time in
the airplane will be dilated to the observers on the Earth. Use Eq. 36-1a.
2 rEarth 2 rEarth
tEarth ; tplane tEarth 1 v 2 c 2 1 v 2 c2
v v
t tEarth tplane
2 rEarth
v
1 1 v2 c2
2 rEarth 1 v 2 rEarth v
1 1 2 2
v c c2
1m s
6.38 106 m 1300 km h
3.6 km h
8.0 108 s
3.00 108 m s
2
72. (a) To travelers on the spacecraft, the distance to the star is contracted, according to Eq. 36-3a.
This contracted distance is to be traveled in 4.6 years. Use that time with the contracted
distance to find the speed of the spacecraft.
xspacecraft xEarth 1 v 2 c 2
v
tspacecraft tspacecraft
1 1
vc c 0.6829 c 0.68 c
2 2
ctspacecraft 4.6ly
1 1
xEarth 4.3ly
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446
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
(b) Find the elapsed time according to observers on Earth, using Eq. 36-1a.
tspaceship 4.6 y
tEarth 6.3y
1 v c
2 2
1 0.68292
Note that this agrees with the time found from distance and speed.
x 4.3ly
tEarth Earth 6.3yr
v 0.6829 c
73. (a) We use Eq. 36-15a. To get a longer wavelength than usual means that the object is moving
away from the Earth.
0
cv
1.0700
1.0702 1 c v 0.067c
cv 1.0702 1
(b) We assume that the quasar is moving and the Earth is stationary. Then we use Eq. 16-9b.
f0 c c 1
f 0 1 v c 1.0700 v 0.070 c
1 v c 0 1 v c
74. We assume that some kind of a light signal is being transmitted from the astronaut to Earth, with a
frequency of the heartbeat. That frequency will then be Doppler shifted, according to Eq. 36-15b.
We express the frequencies in beats per minute.
f f0
cv
vc 2
f 02 f 2 c 602 302 0.60 c
cv f f 02 602 302
75. (a) The velocity components of the light in the S frame are ux 0 and uy c. We transform those
velocities to the S frame according to Eq. 36-7.
ux v 0v uy 1 v 2 c 2 c 1 v 2 c 2
ux v ; u c 1 v2 c2
1 vux c 2 1 0 1 vux c 2
y
1 0
uy c 1 v 2 c2 c2
tan 1 tan 1 tan 1 2 1
ux v v
(b) u ux2 u 2y v 2 c 2 1 v 2 c 2 v 2 c 2 v 2 c
(c) In a Galilean transformation, we would have the following.
c
ux ux v v ; u y uy c ; u v 2 c 2 c ; tan 1
v
76. We take the positive direction as the direction of motion of rocket A. Consider rocket A as reference
frame S, and the Earth as reference frame S. The velocity of the Earth relative to rocket A is
v 0.65 c. The velocity of rocket B relative to the Earth is ux 0.85 c. Solve for the velocity of
rocket B relative to rocket A, ux , using Eq. 36-7a.
ux
ux v 0.85c 0.65c 0.45c
vux 1 0.65 0.85
1 2
c
Note that a Galilean analysis would have resulted in ux 0.20c.
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447
Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
cv
c 1
2
3.00 108 m s 1 2 0.77 m s
2 14,001 2 14,001
(b) The tube will be contracted in the rest frame of the electron, according to Eq. 36-3a.
1 2
l 0 l 1 v 2 c 2 3.0 103 m 1 1 0.21m
14,001
78. The electrostatic force provides the radial acceleration. We solve that relationship for the speed of
the electron.
1 e 2 melectron v 2
Felectrostatic Fcentripetal
4 0 r 2 r
8.99 10 1.60 10 C
19 2
1 e2
9
N m 2 C2
v 2.18 106 m s 0.0073 c
4 0 melectron r 9.11 1031 kg 0.53 1010 m
Because this is much less than 0.1c, the electron is not relativistic.
79. The minimum energy required would be the energy to produce the pair with no kinetic energy, so the
total energy is their rest energy. They both have the same mass. Use Eq. 36-12.
E 2mc 2 2 0.511MeV 1.022 MeV 1.64 1013 J
80. The wattage times the time is the energy required. We use Eq. 36-12 to calculate the mass.
Pt 75W 3.16 10 s 1000g
7
5
E Pt mc m 2
2
2.6 10 g
3.00 10 m s
2
c 8 1kg
82. The kinetic energy available comes from the decrease in rest energy.
K mn c 2 mp c 2 me c 2 mv c 2 939.57 MeV 938.27 MeV 0.511MeV 0 0.79 MeV
83. (a) We find the rate of mass loss from Eq. 36-12.
E mc 2 E m c 2
m 1 E 4 1026 J s
2 4.44 109 kg s 4 109 kg s
t c t 3.00 108 m s 2
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448
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
(b) Find the time from the mass of the Sun and the rate determined in part (a).
m
t Earth
5.98 1024 kg 4.27 107 y 4 107 y
m t 4.44 109 kg s 3.156 107 s y
(c) We find the time for the Sun to lose all of its mass at this same rate.
m
t Sun
1.99 1030 kg 1.42 1013 y 1 1013 y
m t 4.44 109 kg s 3.156 107 s y
84. Use Eq. 36-8 for the momentum to find the mass.
mv
p mv
1 v2 c2
2
2.24 108 m s
p 1 v2 c2
3.07 10 kg m s
22
1 3.00 108 m s
m 9.12 1031 kg
v 2.24 10 m s
8
This particle has the mass of an electron, and a negative charge, so it must be an electron.
85. The total binding energy is the energy required to provide the increase in rest energy.
E 2mp+e 2mn mHe c 2
931.5MeV c 2
2 1.00783u 2 1.00867 u 4.00260 u c 2 28.32 MeV
u
86. The momentum is given by Eq. 36-8, and the energy is given by Eq. 36-11 and Eq. 36-13.
mc 2 v Ev pc 2 pc 2 pc
P mv 2
v
c c2 E m2c4 p 2c2 m 2c 2 p 2
87. (a) The magnitudes of the momenta are equal. We use Eq. 36-8.
1 mc v c 1 938.3MeV 0.985
2
mv
p mv 5356 MeV c
1 v2 c2 c 1 v2 c2 c 1 0.9852
1c 1.602 1010 J GeV
5.36GeV c 5.36GeV c
3.00 10 m s
8
1GeV
2.86 1018 kg m s
(b) Because the protons are moving in opposite directions, the vector sum of the momenta is 0.
(c) In the reference frame of one proton, the laboratory is moving at 0.985c. The other
proton is moving at 0.985c relative to the laboratory. We find the speed of one proton
relative to the other, and then find the momentum of the moving proton in the rest frame of the
other proton by using that relative velocity.
ux
v ux 0.985 c 0.985 c 0.9999 c
vux 1 0.985 0.985
1 2
c
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449
Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
2 0.985
938.3MeV 2
1 mc ux c 1 1 0.985
2
mu x
p mux 62081MeV c
1 u c2
x
2 c 1 u x2 c 2 c 2 0.985
2
1 2
1 0.985
1c 1.602 1010 J GeV
62.1GeV c 62.1GeV c
3.00 10 m
8
s 1GeV
3.31 1017 kg m s
Two moles of water has a mass of 36 103 kg. Find the percentage of mass lost.
5.38 1012 kg
1.49 1010 1.5 10 8 %
36 103 kg
89. Use Eq. 36-10 for kinetic energy, and Eq. 36-12 for rest energy.
K 1 mEnterprise c 2 mconverted c 2
1 1
mconverted 1 mEnterprise 1 6 109 kg 3 107 kg
1 v 2 c2 1 0.10
2
90. We set the kinetic energy of the spacecraft equal to the rest energy of an unknown mass. Use Eqs.
36-10 and 36-12.
K 1 mship c 2 mc 2
1 1
m 1 mship 1 mship 1 1.8 105 kg 7.2 104 kg
1 v2 c2 1 0.70
2
From the Earth’s point of view, the distance is 35 ly and the speed is 0.70c. That data is used to
calculate the time from the Earth frame, and then Eq. 36-1a is used to calculate the time in the
spaceship frame.
d 35y c
t 50 y ; t0 t 1 v 2 c 2 50 y 1 0.702 36 y
v 0.70c
91. We assume one particle is moving in the negative direction in the laboratory frame, and the other
particle is moving in the positive direction. We consider the particle moving in the negative
direction as reference frame S, and the laboratory as reference frame S. The velocity of the
laboratory relative to the negative-moving particle is v 0.85 c, and the velocity of the positive-
moving particle relative to the laboratory frame is ux 0.85 c. Solve for the velocity of the positive-
moving particle relative to the negative-moving particle, u x .
ux
ux v 0.85c 0.85c 0.987 c
vux 1 0.85 0.85
1 2
c
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450
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
92. We consider the motion from the reference frame of the spaceship. The passengers will see the trip
distance contracted, as given by Eq. 36-3a. They will measure their speed to be that contracted
distance divided by the year of travel time (as measured on the ship). Use that speed to find the work
done (the kinetic energy of the ship).
l l 1 v 2 c2 v 1 1
v 0 0.9887 c
t0 t0 c 2 2
1 c t 1.0ly
1 6.6ly
0
l
0
1
W K 1 mc 2 1 mc 2
1 v 2 c2
1
1 3.2 104 kg 3.00 108 m s 1.6 1022 J
2
1 0.9887 2
1 v2 c2 1 0.98 2
5.3 1021 J
5.3 1021 J
We compare this with annual U.S. energy consumption: 53.
1020 J
The spaceship’s kinetic energy is over 50 times as great.
94. The pi meson decays at rest, and so the momentum of the muon and the neutrino must each have the
same magnitude (and opposite directions). The neutrino has no rest mass, and the total energy must
be conserved. We combine these relationships using Eq. 36-13.
Ev pv 2 c 2 mv 2 c 4
1/ 2
pv c ; p pv p
E E Ev m c 2 p 2 c 2 m 2 c 4 pv c p 2 c 2 m 2 c 4
1/ 2 1/ 2
pc
m c 2 pc p 2 c 2 m 2 c 4 m c pc p 2 c 2 m 2 c 4
1/ 2 2
2
K m c 2 pc m c 2 m c 2 m c 2
m
2 2
c m 2 c 2
2m
2m m c 2 m c 2 m c m 2 c 2
2 2
2m 2m
2m 2m m m 2 m 2 c 2 m 2m m m 2 c 2 m m c 2
2 2 2
2m 2m 2m
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Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
95. (a) The relative speed can be calculated in either frame, and will be the same value in both frames.
The time as measured on the Earth will be longer than the time measured on the spaceship, as
given by Eq. 36-1a.
x tspaceship tspaceship
v Earth ; tEarth
tEarth 1 v c2 2
xEarth
2
1
ctEarth
2 2
x x
tEarth Earth tspaceship tEarth Earth tspaceship
2 2 2 2
c c
2
x
tEarth Earth tspaceship 6.0 y 2.50 y 6.5y
2 2 2
c
(b) The distance as measured by the spaceship will be contracted.
x x t 2.50 y
v Earth spaceship xspaceship spaceship xEarth 6.0ly 2.3ly
tEarth tspaceship tEarth 6.5y
This is the same distance as found using the length contraction relationship.
96. (a) To observers on the ship, the period is non-relativistic. Use Eq. 14-7b.
T 2
m
2
1.88 kg 0.939s
k 84.2 N m
(b) The oscillating mass is a clock. According to observers on Earth, clocks on the spacecraft run
slow.
TEarth
T
0.939s 2.15s
1 v c 1 0.900
2 2 2
1
1 v 2 c2
c 2 1 v 2 c 2 t 1 v 2 c 2 x
2 2
1 v 2
c2
1 v 2
c 2 ct 2
x
2
ct 2
x
2
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452
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
98. We assume that the left edge of the glass is even with point A when the flash of light is emitted.
There is no loss of generality with that assumption. We do the calculations in the frame of reference
in which points A and B are at rest, and the glass is then moving to the right with speed v.
If the glass is not moving, we would have this “no motion” result.
distance in glass distance in vacuum d ld
tv 0 tglass tvacuum
speed in glass speed in vacuum vglass c
d l d nd l d nd l d l n 1 d
cn c c c c c
If the index of refraction is n 1, then the glass will have no effect on the light, and the time would
simply be the distance divided by the speed of light.
distance in glass distance in vacuum d l d d l d l
tn 1 tglass tvacuum
speed in glass speed in vacuum c c c c
Now, let us consider the problem from a relativistic point of view. The speed of light in the glass
will be the relativistic sum of the speed of light in stationary glass, c n , and the speed of the glass, v,
by Eq. 36-7a. We define to simplify further expressions.
c c vn vn
v v
c 1 c 1
c
c
vlight n n
cv v n v n v
in glass
1 2 1 1 1
nc nc nc nc
The contracted width of the glass, from the Earth frame of reference, is given by Eq. 36-3a.
d
d moving d 1 v 2 c 2
glass
We assume the light enters the block when the left edge of the block is at point A, and write simple
equations for the displacement of the leading edge of the light, and the leading edge of the block. Set
them equal and solve for the time when the light exits the right edge of the block.
c d
xlight vlight t t ; xright vt ;
in glass n edge
c d d n
xlight xright tglass vtglass tglass
edge n c nv
d n
Where is the front edge of the block when the light emerges? Use tglass with either
c nv
expression – for the leading edge of the light, or the leading edge of the block.
cd n cd
xlight vlight tglass
in glass n c nv c nv
d d d n d c nv vdn cd
xright vtglass v
edge c nv c nv c nv
cd
The part of the path that is left, l , will be traveled at speed c by the light. We express
c nv
that time, and then find the total time.
cd
l
c nv
tvacuum
c
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453
Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics, 4th Edition Instructor Solutions Manual
cd
l
d n c nv l d n
ttotal tglass tvacuum tglass
c nv c c c nv
l n 1 d c v
c c cv
We check this for the appropriate limiting cases.
l n 1 d c v l n 1 d c c l
Case 1: ttotal
v c c c cv c c cc c
This result was expected, because the speed of the light would always be c.
l n 1 d c v l n 1 d l n 1 d
Case 2: ttotal 1
v 0 c c cv c c c
This result was obtained earlier in the solution.
l n 1 d c v l
Case 3: ttotal
n 1 c c cv c
This result was expected, because then there is no speed change in the glass.
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
v /c
1
100. (a) We use Eq. 36-98. Since there is motion in two dimensions, we have .
2
v x2 v y
1 2 2
c c
dp dp x dp y
F Fˆj ; 0 px mv x p0 ; F p y Ft mv y
dt dt dt
Use the component equations to obtain expressions for v x2 and v 2y .
mv x p0 v x
p0 p2 p2 v2 v
2
c2 v 2y
v x2 2 0 2 02 1 x2 2y v x2 p02 2 2
m m m c c m c p02
F 2t 2 F 2t 2 v 2 v
2
Ft
mv y Ft v y v 2y 2 2 2 1 x2 2y
m m m c c
v F t
2 2 2 c 2
v x2
y
m c
2 2
F 2t 2
Substitute the expression for v 2y into the expression for v x2 .
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454
Chapter 36 The Special Theory of Relativity
2 c2 vx2
c F 2t 2 2 2
v p
2 2 c 2
v 2y
2
p0
m c F 2t 2
p0 2 2
2 m 2 c 4 F 2t 2 v x2
x 0
m c2 2
p02 m2c2 p02 m c p02 m2c2 F 2t 2
v x2 m 2 c 2 p02 m 2 c 2 F 2t 2 p02 m 2 c 4 F 2t 2 v x2
v x2 m 4 c 4 v x2 m 2 c 2 p02 v x2 F 2t 2 m 2 c 2 v x2 F 2t 2 p02 p02 m 2 c 4 p02 F 2t 2 v x2
p0 c
v x2 m 2 c 2 v x2 p02 v x2 F 2t 2 p02 c 2 vx
m c p02 F 2t 2
2 2 1/ 2
The negative sign comes from taking the negative square root of the previous equation. We
know that the particle is moving down.
(b) See the graph. We are
plotting v x c and v y c . 1.0
“PSE4_ISM_CH36.XLS,” on 0.4
tab “Problem 36.100.”
0.2
0.0
0 1 2 t ( s) 3 4 5
(c) The path is not parabolic, because the v x is not constant. Even though there is no force in the x-
direction, as the net speed of the particle increases, increases. Thus v x must decrease as time
elapses in order for px to stay constant.
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455
A science fantasy book called Mr Tompkins in Wonderland (1940), by physicist George Gamow,
imagined a world in which the speed of light was only 10 m兾s (20 mi兾h). Mr Tompkins had
studied relativity and when he began “speeding” on a bicycle, he “expected that he would be
immediately shortened, and was very happy about it as his increasing figure had lately caused him
some anxiety. To his great surprise, however, nothing happened to him or to his cycle. On the
other hand, the picture around him completely changed. The streets grew shorter, the windows
of the shops began to look like narrow slits, and the policeman on the corner became the thinnest
man he had ever seen. ‘By Jove!’
exclaimed Mr Tompkins excitedly,
‘I see the trick now. This is where
the word relativity comes in.’”
Relativity does indeed predict
that objects moving relative to us
at high speed, close to the speed
of light c, are shortened in
length. We don’t notice it as
Mr Tompkins did, because
c = 3 * 108 m兾s is incredibly
fast. We will study length
contraction, time dilation,
simultaneity non-agreement, and
how energy and mass are
equivalent AE = mc2 B.
A P T E
H
of Relativity
CONTENTS CHAPTER-OPENING QUESTION—Guess now!
26–1 Galilean–Newtonian A rocket is headed away from Earth at a speed of 0.80c. The rocket fires a small
Relativity payload at a speed of 0.70c (relative to the rocket) aimed away from Earth. How
26–2 Postulates of the Special fast is the payload moving relative to Earth?
Theory of Relativity (a) 1.50c;
26–3 Simultaneity (b) a little less than 1.50c;
26–4 Time Dilation and the Twin (c) a little over c;
Paradox
(d) a little under c;
26–5 Length Contraction (e) 0.75c.
26–6 Four-Dimensional
Space–Time
P
26–7 Relativistic Momentum hysics at the end of the nineteenth century looked back on a period of
26–8 The Ultimate Speed great progress. The theories developed over the preceding three centuries
26–9 E = mc2; Mass and Energy
had been very successful in explaining a wide range of natural phenomena.
Newtonian mechanics beautifully explained the motion of objects on Earth and
26–10 Relativistic Addition of
Velocities in the heavens. Furthermore, it formed the basis for successful treatments of
26–11 The Impact of Special fluids, wave motion, and sound. Kinetic theory explained the behavior of gases
Relativity and other materials. Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism embodied all of electric
and magnetic phenomena, and it predicted the existence of electromagnetic
waves that would behave just like light—so light came to be thought of as an
electromagnetic wave. Indeed, it seemed that the natural world, as seen through
the eyes of physicists, was very well explained. A few puzzles remained, but it
was felt that these would soon be explained using already known principles.
744
It did not turn out so simply. Instead, these puzzles were to be solved only by
the introduction, in the early part of the twentieth century, of two revolutionary
new theories that changed our whole conception of nature: the theory of relativity
and quantum theory.
Physics as it was known at the end of the nineteenth century (what we’ve
covered up to now in this book) is referred to as classical physics. The new
physics that grew out of the great revolution at the turn of the twentieth century
is now called modern physics. In this Chapter, we present the special theory of
relativity, which was first proposed by Albert Einstein (1879–1955; Fig. 26–1) in
1905. In Chapter 27, we introduce the equally momentous quantum theory.
†
A reference frame is a set of coordinate axes fixed to some object such as the Earth, a train, or the
Moon. See Section 2–1.
‡
On a rotating platform (say a merry-go-round), for example, a ball at rest starts moving outward
even though no object exerts a force on it. This is therefore not an inertial frame. See Appendix C,
Fig. C–1.
26–3 Simultaneity
An important consequence of the theory of relativity is that we can no longer
regard time as an absolute quantity. No one doubts that time flows onward and
never turns back. But according to relativity, the time interval between two
events, and even whether or not two events are simultaneous, depends on the
observer’s reference frame. By an event, which we use a lot here, we mean some-
thing that happens at a particular place and at a particular time.
Two events are said to occur simultaneously if they occur at exactly the same
time. But how do we know if two events occur precisely at the same time? If they
occur at the same point in space—such as two apples falling on your head at the
same time—it is easy. But if the two events occur at widely separated places, it is
more difficult to know whether the events are simultaneous since we have to take
into account the time it takes for the light from them to reach us. Because light
travels at finite speed, a person who sees two events must calculate back to find
out when they actually occurred. For example, if two events are observed to
occur at the same time, but one actually took place farther from the observer
than the other, then the more distant one must have occurred earlier, and the two
events were not simultaneous.
D
Light
source
(a) Receiver Clock timer FIGURE 26–6 Time dilation can be
shown by a thought experiment: the
time it takes for light to travel across
D2 a spaceship and back is longer for the
⫹l2 observer on Earth (b) than for the
2 D
2 ⫹l observer on the spaceship (a).
D
l l
(b) Earth
light travels a distance 2D at speed c, Fig. 26–6a; so the time required to go across
and back, ¢ t0 , is
2D .
¢ t0 =
c
The observer on Earth, Fig. 26–6b, observes the same process. But to this
observer, the spaceship is moving. So the light travels the diagonal path shown
going across the spaceship, reflecting off the mirror, and returning to the sender.
Although the light travels at the same speed to this observer (the second postulate),
it travels a greater distance. Hence the time required, as measured by the observer
on Earth, will be greater than that measured by the observer on the spaceship.
Let us determine the time interval ¢ t measured by the observer on Earth
between sending and receiving the light. In time ¢ t, the spaceship travels
a distance 2l = v ¢ t where v is the speed of the spaceship (Fig. 26–6b). The
light travels a total distance on its diagonal path (Pythagorean theorem) of
2 2D2 + l2 = c ¢ t, where l = v ¢ t兾2. Therefore
c ¢ t = 2 3D2 + l2 = 2 3D2 + v2(¢ t)2兾4 .
We square both sides to find c2(¢ t)2 = 4D2 + v2(¢ t)2, and solve for (¢ t)2 :
(¢t)2 = 4D2兾 Ac2 - v2 B
so
2D
¢t = .
c 31 - v2兾c2
We combine this equation for ¢ t with the formula for ¢ t0 above, ¢ t0 = 2D兾c :
¢ t0
¢t = . (26–1a) TIME DILATION
31 - v 兾c
2 2
Since 31 - v2兾c2 is always less than 1, we see that ¢ t 7 ¢ t0 . That is, the time
interval between the two events (the sending of the light, and its reception on the
spaceship) is greater for the observer on Earth than for the observer on the space-
ship. This is a general result of the theory of relativity, and is known as time dilation.
The time dilation effect can be stated as
clocks moving relative to an observer are measured to run more slowly, as
compared to clocks at rest.
However, we should not think that the clocks are somehow at fault.
Time is actually measured to pass more slowly in any moving reference frame
as compared to your own.
This remarkable result is an inevitable outcome of the two postulates of the special
theory of relativity.
Note that g is never less than one, and has no units. At normal speeds, g = 1 to
many decimal places. In general, g ⱖ 1.
TABLE 26–1 Values of G Values for g = 1兾 21 - v2兾c2 at a few speeds v are given in Table 26–1.
g is never less than 1.00 and exceeds 1.00 significantly only at very high speeds,
£ G
much above let’s say 106 m兾s (for which g = 1.000006 ).
0 1.00000 p The concept of time dilation may be hard to accept, for it contradicts our
0.01c 1.00005 experience. We can see from Eq. 26–1 that the time dilation effect is indeed negli-
0.10c 1.005 gible unless v is reasonably close to c. If v is much less than c, then the term v2兾c2
0.50c 1.15 is much smaller than the 1 in the denominator of Eq. 26–1, and then ¢ t L ¢ t0
0.90c 2.3 (see Example 26–2). The speeds we experience in everyday life are much smaller
0.99c 7.1 than c, so it is little wonder we don’t ordinarily notice time dilation. But experiments
that have tested the time dilation effect have confirmed Einstein’s predictions.
In 1971, for example, extremely precise atomic clocks were flown around the Earth
in jet planes. The speed of the planes A103 km兾hB was much less than c, so the clocks
had to be accurate to nanoseconds A10 –9 sB in order to detect any time dilation.
They were this accurate, and they confirmed Eqs. 26–1 to within experimental error.
Time dilation had been confirmed decades earlier, however, by observations on
“elementary particles” which have very small masses (typically 10–30 to 10 –27 kg) and
so require little energy to be accelerated to speeds close to the speed of light, c.
Many of these elementary particles are not stable and decay after a time into
lighter particles. One example is the muon, whose mean lifetime is 2.2 ms when at
rest. Careful experiments showed that when a muon is traveling at high speeds,
its lifetime is measured to be longer than when it is at rest, just as predicted by the
time dilation formula.
EXAMPLE 26;1 Lifetime of a moving muon. (a) What will be the mean
lifetime of a muon as measured in the laboratory if it is traveling at
v = 0.60c = 1.80 * 108 m兾s with respect to the laboratory? A muon’s mean
lifetime at rest is 2.20 ms = 2.20 * 10 –6 s. (b) How far does a muon travel in the
laboratory, on average, before decaying?
APPROACH If an observer were to move along with the muon (the muon would
be at rest to this observer), the muon would have a mean life of 2.20 * 10 –6 s. To
an observer in the lab, the muon lives longer because of time dilation. We find the
mean lifetime using Eq. 26–1 and the average distance using d = v ¢ t.
SOLUTION (a) From Eq. 26–1 with v = 0.60c, we have
¢ t0
¢t =
31 - v2兾c2
2.20 * 10 –6 s 2.20 * 10 –6 s
= = = 2.8 * 10–6 s.
31 - 0.36c 兾c 2 2 20.64
(b) Relativity predicts that a muon with speed 1.80 * 108 m兾s would travel an
average distance d = v ¢t = A1.80 * 108 m兾sBA2.8 * 10 –6 sB = 500 m, and this
is the distance that is measured experimentally in the laboratory.
NOTE At a speed of 1.8 * 108 m兾s, classical physics would tell us that
with a mean life of 2.2 ms, an average muon would travel d = vt =
A1.8 * 108 m兾sBA2.2 * 10–6 sB = 400 m. This is shorter than the distance measured.
EXAMPLE 26;2 Time dilation at 100 km/h. Let us check time dilation for
everyday speeds. A car traveling 100 km兾h covers a certain distance in 10.00 s
according to the driver’s watch. What does an observer at rest on Earth measure
for the time interval?
APPROACH The car’s speed relative to Earth, written in meters per second,
is 100 km兾h = A1.00 * 105 mB兾A3600 sB = 27.8 m兾s. The driver is at rest in the
reference frame of the car, so we set ¢ t0 = 10.00 s in the time dilation
formula.
SOLUTION We use Eq. 26–1a:
¢ t0 10.00 s
¢t = =
v2 27.8 m兾s 2
1 - 1 - ¢ ≤
C c2 C 3.00 * 10 m兾s
8
10.00 s .
=
–15
31 - A8.59 * 10 B
If you put these numbers into a calculator, you will obtain ¢ t = 10.00 s, because
the denominator differs from 1 by such a tiny amount. The time measured by an
observer fixed on Earth would show no difference from that measured by the
driver, even with the best instruments. A computer that could calculate to a large
number of decimal places would reveal a slight difference between ¢ t and ¢ t0 .
NOTE We can estimate the difference using the binomial expansion (Appendix A–5), P R O B L E M S O LV I N G
Use of the binomial expansion
(16x)n L 16nx. [for x V 1]
1
In our time dilation formula, we have the factor g = A1 - v2兾c2 B – 2. Thus†
1
v2 – 2 1 v2
¢ t = g ¢ t0 = ¢ t0 ¢ 1 - 2 ≤ L ¢ t0 ¢ 1 + ≤
c 2 c2
2
1 27.8 m兾s
L 10.00 s c1 + ¢ ≤ d
2 3.00 * 10 m兾s
8
L 10.00 s + 4 * 10 –14 s.
EXERCISE B A certain atomic clock keeps precise time on Earth. If the clock is taken
on a spaceship traveling at a speed v = 0.60c, does this clock now run slow according to
the people (a) on the spaceship, (b) on Earth?
†
Recall that 1兾xn is written as x –n, such as 1兾x2 = x –2, Appendix A–2.
Space Travel?
Time dilation has aroused interesting speculation about space travel. According
to classical (Newtonian) physics, to reach a star 100 light-years away would not
be possible for ordinary mortals (1 light-year is the distance light can travel
in 1 year = 3.0 * 108 m兾s * 3.16 * 107 s = 9.5 * 1015 m ). Even if a spaceship
could travel at close to the speed of light, it would take over 100 years to reach
such a star. But time dilation tells us that the time involved could be less. In
a spaceship traveling at v = 0.999c, the time for such a trip would be only about
¢ t0 = ¢ t 21 - v2兾c2 = (100 yr) 21 - (0.999)2 = 4.5 yr. Thus time dilation
allows such a trip, but the enormous practical problems of achieving such speeds
may not be possible to overcome, certainly not in the near future.
When we talk in this Chapter and in the Problems about spaceships moving
at speeds close to c, it is for understanding and for fun, but not realistic, although
for tiny elementary particles such high speeds are realistic.
In this example, 100 years would pass on Earth, whereas only 4.5 years would
pass for the astronaut on the trip. Is it just the clocks that would slow down for the
astronaut? No.
All processes, including aging and other life processes, run more slowly for
the astronaut as measured by an Earth observer. But to the astronaut, time
would pass in a normal way.
The astronaut would experience 4.5 years of normal sleeping, eating, reading,
and so on. And people on Earth would experience 100 years of ordinary activity.
Twin Paradox
Not long after Einstein proposed the special theory of relativity, an apparent
paradox was pointed out. According to this twin paradox, suppose one of a pair
of 20-year-old twins takes off in a spaceship traveling at very high speed to a
distant star and back again, while the other twin remains on Earth. According to
the Earth twin, the astronaut twin will age less. Whereas 20 years might pass for
the Earth twin, perhaps only 1 year (depending on the spacecraft’s speed) would
pass for the traveler. Thus, when the traveler returns, the earthbound twin could
expect to be 40 years old whereas the traveling twin would be only 21.
This is a general result of the special theory of relativity and applies to lengths of
objects as well as to distance between objects. The result can be stated most
simply in words as:
the length of an object moving relative to an observer is measured to be
shorter along its direction of motion than when it is at rest.
CAUTION This is called length contraction. The length l0 in Eqs. 26–3 is called the
Proper length is measured proper length. It is the length of the object (or distance between two points whose
in reference frame where the positions are measured at the same time) as determined by observers at rest with
two positions are at rest respect to the object. Equations 26–3 give the length l that will be measured by
observers when the object travels past them at speed v.
†
We assume v is much greater than the relative speed of Neptune and Earth (which we thus ignore).
EXERCISE C What is the length of the tunnel as measured by observers on the train in
Example 26–6?
7 7
(a) (b)
In a sense the two effects, time dilation and length contraction, balance each
other. When viewed from the Earth, what an object seems to lose in size it gains
in length of time it lasts. Space, or length, is exchanged for time.
Considerations like this led to the idea of four-dimensional space–time:
space takes up three dimensions and time is a fourth dimension. Space and time
are intimately connected. Just as when we squeeze a balloon we make one
dimension larger and another smaller, so when we examine objects and events
from different reference frames, a certain amount of space is exchanged for time,
or vice versa.
Here g is shorthand for 1兾31 - v2兾c2 as before (Eq. 26–2). For speeds much
less than the speed of light, Eq. 26–4 gives the classical momentum, p = mv.
Relativistic momentum has been tested many times on tiny elementary particles
(such as muons), and it has been found to behave in accord with Eq. 26–4.
An electron traveling at 98% the speed of light has g = 5.0 and a momentum
5.0 times its classical value.
that would get a correct result.) Also, be careful not to think a mass acquires
more particles or more molecules as its speed becomes very large. It doesn’t.
Today, most physicists prefer not to use relativistic mass, so an object has only
one mass (its rest mass), and it is only the momentum that increases with speed.
Whenever we talk about the mass of an object, we will always mean its rest
mass (a fixed value). [But see Problem 46.]
Equation 26–5a requires some interpretation. The first term increases with the
speed v of the particle. The second term, mc2, is constant; it is called the rest energy
of the particle, and represents a form of energy that a particle has even when at rest.
Note that if a particle is at rest (v = 0) the first term in Eq. 26–5a becomes mc2,
so ke = 0 as it should.
†
This is for a “free particle,” without forces and potential energy. Potential energy terms can be added.
Since 1 MeV = 1.60 * 10 –13 J (Section 17–4), the energy released is 5.4 MeV.
v2 mc2
1 - = ;
C c2 ke
v2 mc2 2
1 - = ¢ ≤ ;
c2 ke
v2 mc2 2 9.38 * 108 eV 2
= 1 - ¢ ≤ = 1 - ¢ ≤ ;
c 2 ke 1.0 * 1012 eV
v = 31 - A9.38 * 10–4 B 2 c
= 0.99999956 c.
so that
1 v2
ke L mc2 ¢ 1 + + p - 1≤ L 2 mv .
1 2
2 c2
The dots in the first expression represent very small terms in the expansion which
we neglect since we assumed that v V c. Thus at low speeds, the relativistic
form for kinetic energy reduces to the classical form, ke = 12 mv2. This makes
relativity a viable theory in that it can predict accurate results at low speed as well
as at high. Indeed, the other equations of special relativity also reduce to their
classical equivalents at ordinary speeds: length contraction, time dilation, and
modifications to momentum as well as kinetic energy, all disappear for v V c
since 31 - v2兾c2 L 1.
A useful relation between the total energy E of a particle and its momentum p
can also be derived. The momentum of a particle of mass m and speed v is given
by Eq. 26–4
mv
p = gmv = .
31 - v 兾c
2 2
We square this equation (and we insert “v2 - v2” which is zero, but will help us):
m2c2c2 m2c2 Ac2 - v2 + v2 B m2c2v2 m2c2 Ac2 - v2 B
E2 = = = +
1 - v2兾c2 1 - v2兾c2 1 - v2兾c2 1 - v2兾c2
m2c4 A1 - v2兾c2 B
= p2c2 +
1 - v2兾c2
or
E 2 = p2c2 + m2c4. (26–9)
Thus, the total energy can be written in terms of the momentum p, or in terms of
the kinetic energy (Eq. 26–6a), where we have assumed there is no potential energy.
* Invariant Energy–Momentum
We can rewrite Eq. 26–9 as E 2 - p2c2 = m2c4. Since the mass m of a given
particle is the same in any reference frame, we see that the quantity E 2 - p2c2
must also be the same in any reference frame. Thus, at any given moment the
total energy E and momentum p of a particle will be different in different
reference frames, but the quantity E 2 - p2c2 will have the same value in all
inertial reference frames. We say that the quantity E 2 - p2c2 is invariant.
If this ratio comes out to be less than, say, 0.01, then g ⱕ 1.01 and relativistic
equations will correct the classical ones by about 1%. If your expected precision
is no better than 1%, classical formulas are good enough. But if your precision is
1 part in 1000 (0.1%) then you would want to use relativistic formulas. If your
expected precision is only 10%, you need relativity if A ke兾mc2 B g 0.1.
EXERCISE D For 1% accuracy, does an electron with ke = 100 eV need to be treated
relativistically? [Hint: The mass of an electron is 0.511 MeV.]
Summary
An inertial reference frame is one in which Newton’s law of are seen to be intimately connected, with time being the fourth
inertia holds. Inertial reference frames move at constant veloc- dimension in addition to the three dimensions of space.
ity relative to one another. Accelerating reference frames are The momentum of an object is given by
noninertial. mv
The special theory of relativity is based on two principles: p = gmv = . (26–4)
31 - v 兾c
2 2
the relativity principle, which states that the laws of physics
are the same in all inertial reference frames, and the principle Mass and energy are interconvertible. The equation
of the constancy of the speed of light, which states that the
E = mc2 (26–7)
speed of light in empty space has the same value in all inertial
reference frames. tells how much energy E is needed to create a mass m, or vice
One consequence of relativity theory is that two events versa. Said another way, E = mc2 is the amount of energy an
that are simultaneous in one reference frame may not be simul- object has because of its mass m. The law of conservation of
taneous in another. Other effects are time dilation: moving energy must include mass as a form of energy.
clocks are measured to run slow; and length contraction: The kinetic energy ke of an object moving at speed v is
the length of a moving object is measured to be shorter (in its given by
direction of motion) than when it is at rest. Quantitatively, mc2
ke = - mc2 = (g - 1)mc2 (26–5)
¢ t0
31 - v 兾c
2 2
¢t = = g ¢ t0 (26–1)
31 - v 兾c
2 2
where m is the mass of the object. The total energy E, if there
l0
l = l0 31 - v2兾c2 = g (26–3) is no potential energy, is
E = ke + mc2
where l and ¢ t are the length and time interval of objects (or (26–6)
events) observed as they move by at the speed v; l0 and ¢ t0 are = gmc2.
the proper length and proper time—that is, the same quantities The momentum p of an object is related to its total
as measured in the rest frame of the objects or events. The energy E (assuming no potential energy) by
quantity g is shorthand for
E 2 = p2c2 + m2c4. (26–9)
1
g = . (26–2) Velocity addition also must be done in a special way. All
31 - v 兾c
2 2
these relativistic effects are significant only at high speeds,
The theory of relativity has changed our notions of space close to the speed of light, which itself is the ultimate speed in
and time, and of momentum, energy, and mass. Space and time the universe.
Summary 765
Questions
1. You are in a windowless car in an exceptionally smooth 12. Explain how the length contraction and time dilation for-
train moving at constant velocity. Is there any physical experi- mulas might be used to indicate that c is the limiting speed
ment you can do in the train car to determine whether in the universe.
you are moving? Explain. 13. Discuss how our everyday lives would be different if the
2. You might have had the experience of being at a red light speed of light were only 25 m兾s.
when, out of the corner of your eye, you see the car beside 14. The drawing at the start of this Chapter shows the street as
you creep forward. Instinctively you stomp on the brake seen by Mr Tompkins, for whom the speed of light is
pedal, thinking that you are rolling backward. What does c = 20 mi兾h. What does Mr Tompkins look like to the
this say about absolute and relative motion? people standing on the street (Fig. 26–12)? Explain.
3. A worker stands on top of a railroad car moving at constant
velocity and throws a heavy ball straight up (from his point
of view). Ignoring air resistance, explain whether the ball
will land back in his hand or behind him.
4. Does the Earth really go around the Sun? Or is it also valid FIGURE 26–12
to say that the Sun goes around the Earth? Discuss in view Question 14.
of the relativity principle (that there is no best reference Mr Tompkins as
frame). Explain. See Section 5–8. seen by people on
5. If you were on a spaceship traveling at 0.6c away from a the sidewalk. See
star, at what speed would the starlight pass you? also Chapter-
6. The time dilation effect is sometimes expressed as “moving Opening Figure on
clocks run slowly.” Actually, this effect has nothing to do page 744.
with motion affecting the functioning of clocks. What then
does it deal with?
7. Does time dilation mean that time actually passes more
slowly in moving reference frames or that it only seems to
pass more slowly?
8. A young-looking woman astronaut has just arrived home 15. An electron is limited to travel at speeds less than c. Does
from a long trip. She rushes up to an old gray-haired man this put an upper limit on the momentum of an electron?
and in the ensuing conversation refers to him as her son. If so, what is this upper limit? If not, explain.
How might this be possible? 16. Can a particle of nonzero mass attain the speed of light?
9. If you were traveling away from Earth at speed 0.6c, would Explain.
you notice a change in your heartbeat? Would your mass, 17. Does the equation E = mc 2 conflict with the conservation
height, or waistline change? What would observers on of energy principle? Explain.
Earth using telescopes say about you? 18. If mass is a form of energy, does this mean that a spring has
10. Do time dilation and length contraction occur at ordinary more mass when compressed than when relaxed? Explain.
speeds, say 90 km兾h? 19. It is not correct to say that “matter can neither be created
11. Suppose the speed of light were infinite. What would nor destroyed.” What must we say instead?
happen to the relativistic predictions of length contraction 20. Is our intuitive notion that velocities simply add, as in
and time dilation? Section 3–8, completely wrong?
MisConceptual Questions
1. The fictional rocket ship Adventure is measured to be 50 m 4. The rocket ship of MisConceptual Question 1 travels to a star
long by the ship’s captain inside the rocket. When the rocket many light-years away, then turns around and returns at the
moves past a space dock at 0.5c, space-dock personnel same speed. When it returns to the space dock, who would
measure the rocket ship to be 43.3 m long. What is its have aged less: the space-dock personnel or ship’s captain?
proper length? (a) The space-dock personnel.
(a) 50 m. (b) 43.3 m. (c) 93.3 m. (d) 13.3 m. (b) The ship’s captain.
(c) Both the same amount, because both sets of people
2. As rocket ship Adventure (MisConceptual Question 1) were moving relative to each other.
passes by the space dock, the ship’s captain flashes a flash- (d) We need to know how far away the star is.
light at 1.00-s intervals as measured by space-dock personnel. 5. An Earth observer notes that clocks on a passing space-
How often does the flashlight flash relative to the captain? craft run slowly. The person on the spacecraft
(a) Every 1.15 s. (b) Every 1.00 s. (c) Every 0.87 s. (a) agrees her clocks move slower than those on Earth.
(d) We need to know the distance between the ship and (b) feels normal, and her heartbeat and eating habits are
the space dock. normal.
(c) observes that Earth clocks are moving slowly.
3. For the flashing of the flashlight in MisConceptual Ques- (d) The real time is in between the times measured by the
tion 2, what time interval is the proper time interval? two observers.
(a) 1.15 s. (b) 1.00 s. (c) 0.87 s. (d) 0.13 s. (e) Both (a) and (b).
(f) Both (b) and (c).
766 CHAPTER 26 The Special Theory of Relativity
6. Spaceships A and B are traveling directly toward each 10. You are in a rocket ship going faster and faster. As your
other at a speed 0.5c relative to the Earth, and each has speed increases and your velocity gets closer to the speed of
a headlight aimed toward the other ship. What value do light, which of the following do you observe in your frame
technicians on ship B get by measuring the speed of the of reference?
light emitted by ship A’s headlight? (a) Your mass increases.
(a) 0.5c. (b) 0.75c. (c) 1.0c. (d) 1.5c. (b) Your length shortens in the direction of motion.
7. Relativistic formulas for time dilation, length contraction, (c) Your wristwatch slows down.
and mass are valid (d) All of the above.
(a) only for speeds less than 0.10c. (e) None of the above.
(b) only for speeds greater than 0.10c. 11. You are in a spaceship with no windows, radios, or other
(c) only for speeds very close to c. means to check outside. How could you determine whether
(d) for all speeds. your spaceship is at rest or moving at constant velocity?
8. Which of the following will two observers in inertial refer- (a) By determining the apparent velocity of light in the
ence frames always agree on? (Choose all that apply.) spaceship.
(a) The time an event occurred. (b) By checking your precision watch. If it’s running slow,
(b) The distance between two events. then the ship is moving.
(c) The time interval between the occurence of two events. (c) By measuring the lengths of objects in the spaceship. If
(d) The speed of light. they are shortened, then the ship is moving.
(e) The validity of the laws of physics. (d) Give up, because you can’t tell.
(f) The simultaneity of two events. 12. The period of a pendulum attached in a spaceship is 2 s
9. Two observers in different inertial reference frames moving while the spaceship is parked on Earth. What is the period
relative to each other at nearly the speed of light see to an observer on Earth when the spaceship moves at 0.6c
the same two events but, using precise equipment, record with respect to the Earth?
different time intervals between the two events. Which of (a) Less than 2 s.
the following is true of their measurements? (b) More than 2 s.
(a) One observer is incorrect, but it is impossible to tell (c) 2 s.
which one.
13. Two spaceships, each moving at a speed 0.75c relative to
(b) One observer is incorrect, and it is possible to tell
the Earth, are headed directly toward each other. What do
which one.
occupants of one ship measure the speed of other ship to be?
(c) Both observers are incorrect.
(a) 0.96c. (b) 1.0c. (c) 1.5c. (d) 1.75c. (e) 0.75c.
(d) Both observers are correct.
For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to the MasteringPhysics website.
Problems
26–4 and 26–5 Time Dilation, Length Contraction 9. (II) A friend speeds by you in her spacecraft at a speed of
0.720c. It is measured in your frame to be 4.80 m long and
1. (I) A spaceship passes you at a speed of 0.850c. You measure
1.35 m high. (a) What will be its length and height at rest?
its length to be 44.2 m. How long would it be when at rest?
(b) How many seconds elapsed on your friend’s watch when
2. (I) A certain type of elementary particle travels at a speed 20.0 s passed on yours? (c) How fast did you appear to be
of 2.70 * 108 m兾s. At this speed, the average lifetime is traveling according to your friend? (d) How many seconds
measured to be 4.76 * 10 –6 s. What is the particle’s lifetime elapsed on your watch when she saw 20.0 s pass on hers?
at rest?
10. (II) A star is 21.6 light-years from Earth. How long would
3. (II) You travel to a star 135 light-years from Earth at a speed it take a spacecraft traveling 0.950c to reach that star as
of 2.90 * 108 m兾s. What do you measure this distance to be? measured by observers: (a) on Earth, (b) on the spacecraft?
4. (II) What is the speed of a pion if its average lifetime is (c) What is the distance traveled according to observers
measured to be 4.40 * 10 –8 s? At rest, its average lifetime on the spacecraft? (d) What will the spacecraft occupants
is 2.60 * 10 –8 s. compute their speed to be from the results of (b) and (c)?
5. (II) In an Earth reference frame, a star is 49 light-years 11. (II) A fictional news report stated that starship Enterprise
away. How fast would you have to travel so that to you the had just returned from a 5-year voyage while traveling at
distance would be only 35 light-years? 0.70c. (a) If the report meant 5.0 years of Earth time, how
6. (II) At what speed v will the length of a 1.00-m stick look much time elapsed on the ship? (b) If the report meant
10.0% shorter (90.0 cm)? 5.0 years of ship time, how much time passed on Earth?
7. (II) At what speed do the relativistic formulas for (a) length 12. (II) A box at rest has the shape of a cube 2.6 m on a side.
and (b) time intervals differ from classical values by 1.00%? This box is loaded onto the flat floor of a spaceship and
(This is a reasonable way to estimate when to use relativistic the spaceship then flies past us with a horizontal speed of
calculations rather than classical.) 0.80c. What is the volume of the box as we observe it?
8. (II) You decide to travel to a star 62 light-years from Earth 13. (III) Escape velocity from the Earth is 11.2 km兾s. What
at a speed that tells you the distance is only 25 light- would be the percent decrease in length of a 68.2-m-long
years. How many years would it take you to make the trip? spacecraft traveling at that speed as seen from Earth?
Problems 767
14. (III) An unstable particle produced in an accelerator 33. (II) How much energy can be obtained from conversion of
experiment travels at constant velocity, covering 1.00 m in 1.0 gram of mass? How much mass could this energy raise
3.40 ns in the lab frame before changing (“decaying”) into to a height of 1.0 km above the Earth’s surface?
other particles. In the rest frame of the particle, determine 34. (II) To accelerate a particle of mass m from rest to speed
(a) how long it lived before decaying, (b) how far it moved 0.90c requires work W1 . To accelerate the particle from
before decaying. speed 0.90c to 0.99c requires work W2 . Determine the
15. (III) How fast must a pion be moving on average to travel ratio W2兾W1 .
32 m before it decays? The average lifetime, at rest, is 35. (II) Suppose there was a process by which two photons,
2.6 * 10–8 s. each with momentum 0.65 MeV兾c, could collide and make
a single particle. What is the maximum mass that the parti-
26–7 Relativistic Momentum cle could possess?
16. (I) What is the momentum of a proton traveling at 36. (II) What is the speed of a proton accelerated by a poten-
v = 0.68c? tial difference of 165 MV?
17. (II) (a) A particle travels at v = 0.15c. By what percentage 37. (II) What is the speed of an electron after being accelerated
will a calculation of its momentum be wrong if you use the from rest by 31,000 V?
classical formula? (b) Repeat for v = 0.75c. 38. (II) The kinetic energy of a particle is 45 MeV. If the
momentum is 121 MeV兾c, what is the particle’s mass?
18. (II) A particle of mass m travels at a speed v = 0.22c. At
what speed will its momentum be doubled? 39. (II) Calculate the speed of a proton Am = 1.67 * 10–27 kgB
whose kinetic energy is exactly half (a) its total energy,
19. (II) An unstable particle is at rest and suddenly decays into (b) its rest energy.
two fragments. No external forces act on the particle or its
40. (II) Calculate the kinetic energy and momentum of a
fragments. One of the fragments has a speed of 0.60c and
proton Am = 1.67 * 10 –27 kgB traveling 8.65 * 107 m兾s.
a mass of 6.68 * 10–27 kg, while the other has a mass of
By what percentages would your calculations have been in
1.67 * 10 –27 kg. What is the speed of the less massive
error if you had used classical formulas?
fragment?
41. (II) Suppose a spacecraft of mass 17,000 kg is accelerated
20. (II) What is the percent change in momentum of a proton to 0.15c. (a) How much kinetic energy would it have?
that accelerates from (a) 0.45c to 0.85c, (b) 0.85c to 0.98c? (b) If you used the classical formula for kinetic energy, by
what percentage would you be in error?
26–9 E=mc 2; Mass and Energy
42. (II) A negative muon traveling at 53% the speed of light
21. (I) Calculate the rest energy of an electron in joules and in collides head on with a positive muon traveling at 65% the
MeV A1 MeV = 1.60 * 10–13 JB. speed of light. The two muons (each of mass 105.7 MeV兾c2)
22. (I) When a uranium nucleus at rest breaks apart in the annihilate, and produce how much electromagnetic energy?
process known as fission in a nuclear reactor, the resulting 43. (II) Two identical particles of mass m approach each other
fragments have a total kinetic energy of about 200 MeV. at equal and opposite speeds, v. The collision is completely
How much mass was lost in the process? inelastic and results in a single particle at rest. What is the
23. (I) The total annual energy consumption in the United mass of the new particle? How much energy was lost in the
States is about 1 * 1020 J. How much mass would have to collision? How much kinetic energy was lost in this collision?
be converted to energy to fuel this need? 44. (III) The americium nucleus, 24195 Am, decays to a neptunium
24. (I) Calculate the mass of a proton (1.67 * 10–27 kg) in nucleus, 23793 Np, by emitting an alpha particle of mass
MeV兾c2. 4.00260 u and kinetic energy 5.5 MeV. Estimate the mass
of the neptunium nucleus, ignoring its recoil, given that the
25. (I) A certain chemical reaction requires 4.82 * 104 J of americium mass is 241.05682 u.
energy input for it to go. What is the increase in mass of
45. (III) Show that the kinetic energy ke of a particle of mass m
the products over the reactants?
is related to its momentum p by the equation
26. (II) Calculate the kinetic energy and momentum of a
p = 3ke2 + 2ke mc2兾c.
proton traveling 2.90 * 108 m兾s.
27. (II) What is the momentum of a 950-MeV proton (that is, *46. (III) What magnetic field B is needed to keep 998-GeV
its kinetic energy is 950 MeV)? protons revolving in a circle of radius 1.0 km? Use the
relativistic mass. The proton’s “rest mass” is 0.938 GeV兾c2.
28. (II) What is the speed of an electron whose kinetic energy A1 GeV = 109 eV.B [Hint: In relativity, mrel v2兾r = qvB is
is 1.12 MeV? still valid in a magnetic field, where mrel = gm. ]
29. (II) (a) How much work is required to accelerate a proton
from rest up to a speed of 0.985c? (b) What would be the 26–10 Relativistic Addition of Velocities
momentum of this proton?
47. (I) A person on a rocket traveling at 0.40c (with respect to
30. (II) At what speed will an object’s kinetic energy be 33% of
the Earth) observes a meteor come from behind and pass
its rest energy?
her at a speed she measures as 0.40c. How fast is the
31. (II) Determine the speed and the momentum of an electron meteor moving with respect to the Earth?
Am = 9.11 * 10–31 kgB whose ke equals its rest energy. 48. (II) Two spaceships leave Earth in opposite directions, each
32. (II) A proton is traveling in an accelerator with a speed of with a speed of 0.60c with respect to Earth. (a) What is the
1.0 * 108 m兾s. By what factor does the proton’s kinetic velocity of spaceship 1 relative to spaceship 2? (b) What
energy increase if its speed is doubled? is the velocity of spaceship 2 relative to spaceship 1?
General Problems
54. What is the speed of a particle when its kinetic energy 62. An electron Am = 9.11 * 10–31 kgB is accelerated from
equals its rest energy? Does the mass of the particle affect rest to speed v by a conservative force. In this process, its
the result? potential energy decreases by 6.20 * 10–14 J. Determine
55. The nearest star to Earth is Proxima Centauri, 4.3 light- the electron’s speed, v.
years away. (a) At what constant velocity must a spacecraft 63. The Sun radiates energy at a rate of about 4 * 1026 W.
travel from Earth if it is to reach the star in 4.9 years, as (a) At what rate is the Sun’s mass decreasing? (b) How
measured by travelers on the spacecraft? (b) How long does long does it take for the Sun to lose a mass equal to that
the trip take according to Earth observers? of Earth? (c) Estimate how long the Sun could last if it
56. According to the special theory of relativity, the factor g radiated constantly at this rate.
that determines the length contraction and the time 64. How much energy would be required to break a helium
dilation is given by g = 1兾31 - v2兾c2 . Determine the nucleus into its constituents, two protons and two
numerical values of g for an object moving at speed neutrons? The masses of a proton (including an electron),
v = 0.01c, 0.05c, 0.10c, 0.20c, 0.30c, 0.40c, 0.50c, 0.60c, a neutron, and neutral helium are, respectively, 1.00783 u,
0.70c, 0.80c, 0.90c, 0.95c, and 0.99c. Make a graph of 1.00867 u, and 4.00260 u. (This energy difference is called
g versus v. the total binding energy of the 42He nucleus.)
57. A healthy astronaut’s heart rate is 60 beats兾min. Flight 65. Show analytically that a particle with momentum p and
doctors on Earth can monitor an astronaut’s vital signs energy E has a speed given by
remotely while in flight. How fast would an astronaut be pc2 pc
flying away from Earth if the doctor measured her having v = = .
E 3m c + p
2 2 2
a heart rate of 25 beats兾min?
58. (a) What is the speed v of an electron whose kinetic energy 66. Two protons, each having a speed of 0.990c in the labora-
is 14,000 times its rest energy? You can state the answer as tory, are moving toward each other. Determine (a) the
the difference c - v. Such speeds are reached in the Stan- momentum of each proton in the laboratory, (b) the total
ford Linear Accelerator, SLAC. (b) If the electrons travel momentum of the two protons in the laboratory, and
in the lab through a tube 3.0 km long (as at SLAC), how (c) the momentum of one proton as seen by the other proton.
long is this tube in the electrons’ reference frame? [Hint: 67. When two moles of hydrogen molecules (H 2) and one mole
Use the binomial expansion.] of oxygen molecules (O2) react to form two moles of water
59. What minimum amount of electromagnetic energy is (H 2O), the energy released is 484 kJ. How much does the
needed to produce an electron and a positron together? mass decrease in this reaction? What % of the total original
A positron is a particle with the same mass as an electron, mass is this?
but has the opposite charge. (Note that electric charge is 68. The fictional starship Enterprise obtains its power by
conserved in this process. See Section 27–6.) combining matter and antimatter, achieving complete
60. How many grams of matter would have to be totally conversion of mass into energy. If the mass of the
destroyed to run a 75-W lightbulb for 1.0 year? Enterprise is approximately 6 * 109 kg, how much mass
61. A free neutron can decay into a proton, an electron, and a must be converted into kinetic energy to accelerate it from
neutrino. Assume the neutrino’s mass is zero; the other rest to one-tenth the speed of light?
masses can be found in the Table inside the front cover. 69. Make a graph of the kinetic energy versus momentum for
Determine the total kinetic energy shared among the three (a) a particle of nonzero mass, and (b) a particle with zero
particles when a neutron decays at rest. mass.
General Problems 769
70. A spaceship and its occupants have a total mass of 76. Astronomers measure the distance to a particular star to
160,000 kg. The occupants would like to travel to a star be 6.0 light-years (1 ly = distance light travels in 1 year).
that is 35 light-years away at a speed of 0.70c. To accelerate, A spaceship travels from Earth to the vicinity of this star at
the engine of the spaceship changes mass directly to energy. steady speed, arriving in 3.50 years as measured by clocks
(a) Estimate how much mass will be converted to energy on the spaceship. (a) How long does the trip take as
to accelerate the spaceship to this speed. (b) Assuming the measured by clocks in Earth’s reference frame? (b) What
acceleration is rapid, so the speed for the entire trip can be distance does the spaceship travel as measured in its own
taken to be 0.70c, determine how long the trip will take reference frame?
according to the astronauts on board. 77. An electron is accelerated so that its kinetic energy is
71. In a nuclear reaction two identical particles are created, greater than its rest energy mc2 by a factor of (a) 5.00,
traveling in opposite directions. If the speed of each particle (b) 999. What is the speed of the electron in each case?
is 0.82c, relative to the laboratory frame of reference, what 78. You are traveling in a spaceship at a speed of 0.70c away
is one particle’s speed relative to the other particle? from Earth. You send a laser beam toward the Earth
traveling at velocity c relative to you. What do observers
72. A 36,000-kg spaceship is to travel to the vicinity of a star
6.6 light-years from Earth. Passengers on the ship want the on the Earth measure for the speed of the laser beam?
(one-way) trip to take no more than 1.0 year. How much 79. A farm boy studying physics believes that he can fit a
work must be done on the spaceship to bring it to the 13.0-m-long pole into a 10.0-m-long barn if he runs fast
speed necessary for this trip? enough, carrying the pole. Can he do it? Explain in detail.
How does this fit with the idea that when he is running the
73. Suppose a 14,500-kg spaceship left Earth at a speed of 0.90c. barn looks even shorter than 10.0 m?
What is the spaceship’s kinetic energy? Compare with the
80. An atomic clock is taken to the North Pole, while another
total U.S. annual energy consumption (about 1020 J).
stays at the Equator. How far will they be out of synchroni-
74. A pi meson of mass mp decays at rest into a muon (mass mm) zation after 2.0 years has elapsed? [Hint: Use the binomial
and a neutrino of negligible or zero mass. Show that the expansion, Appendix A.]
kinetic energy of the muon is kem = Amp - mm B 2c2兾 A2mp B . 81. An airplane travels 1300 km兾h around the Earth in a circle
75. An astronaut on a spaceship traveling at 0.75c relative to of radius essentially equal to that of the Earth, returning
Earth measures his ship to be 23 m long. On the ship, he to the same place. Using special relativity, estimate the
eats his lunch in 28 min. (a) What length is the spaceship difference in time to make the trip as seen by Earth and
according to observers on Earth? (b) How long does the by airplane observers. [Hint: Use the binomial expansion,
astronaut’s lunch take to eat according to observers on Earth? Appendix A.]
A N S W E R S TO E X E R C I S E S
A: (c). E: 0.030c, same as classical, to an accuracy of better than
B: (a) No; (b) yes. 0.1%.
C: 80 m. F: (d).
D: No: ke兾mc2 L 2 * 10–4.