Prkpcebhbes feièmcihs y eaãitrcihs be aks fhterchaes

Hivcbhb 2

Prkjeskr7 Geerskm \ulchmk

Yhfuea Ges÷s \kbræouez Ycavh.

CB M° 8000:900?
Fhyk <0<0

Ikrpkrhicùm Umcverscthrch CLE\KHFE\CIHMH.

CLE\KHFE\CIHMH.
Cmoemceræh Cmbustrcha.
Cmoemceræh be Fhterchaes
 

Prkpcebhbes Feièmcih y Eaãitrcihs be aks fhterchaes

H. Pr
Prkp
kpcceb
ebhb
hbe
es f
fe
eiè
ièm
mcihs
hs..

8. »I
»Iùf
ùfk
k se jhlr
jhlrci
cihm
hm ah
ahss ha
haeh
ehic
ickm
kmes
es fe
fetè
tèac
acih
ihss fe
febc
bchm
hmte
te aks
aks prk
prkie
iesk
skss be

jumbcicùm;
Beshrrkaak.

Excstem bks fãtkbks cmbustrchaes em ah prèiih fkbermh phrh ah kltemicùm be

haehickmes> ãstks skm7

  Umcùm bcreith pkr juscùm be sus ikmstuyemtes7

Em
be ea
jusfãtkbk
juscùm pkr
cùm,, ushmbkjuscùm,
ushmbk be hmtseefhmk
hmtefhefpcezh
mk um pkr jumbcr
fhter
fhtercha ea mkic
cha ik ikmstuyemte
ikmk icbk
bk ikfk be bemte
ikfk jum fhykr
jumbem pumtk
te ea iuha
iuha
jumbe prcferk que ea fetha, be fkbk que iuhmbk ãste jumbe, ea jumbemte yh se
emiuemtrh berrebk y eme pkr klgetk iulrcr pkr ikfpaetk ha fetha iuhmbk
jumbe, temcembk em iuemth su femkr bemscbhb ikfphrhbh ikm ah bea fetha> be
este fkbk ea fetha scefpre quebh prkteocbk be ah hiicùm htfksjãrcih burhmte
su juscùm. Em seoucbh, se horeohm em krbem beireicemte be pumtks be juscùm, aks
befès ikfpkmemtes, prevck ihaemthfcemtk be ãstks, phrh evcthr shapcihburhs k
pequeøhs expaksckmes. Umh vez que se dh jumbcbk tkbk, se eaevh acoerhfemte ah

tefperhturh (90 k 50 °I be fès) y hmtes be vhichr se høhbem icerths sulsthmichs

ikmkicbhs ikfk beskxcbhmtes k bes ohscihmtes, hocthmbk ea lhøk> emseoucbh se
prkiesh ea vhichbk em acmokterhs k fkabes prevchfemte ihacemtes.

 Pkr scmterczhicùm k scmterczhicùm be aks ikmstuyemtes be ah haehicùm, em

pkavk (Fethauroch be aks pkavks)7 Em este prkiesk, aks ikmstuyemtes be ah
haehicùm
haehicùm pkr sephr
sephrhbk
hbk se rerebui
buiem
em h pka
pkavk,
vk, dhsth um æmb
æmbcie
cie be mu
murhrh que
bepe
be pembe
mbe be ah mhtu
mhturh
rhae
aezh
zh y pupumt
mtk
k be jujusc
scùm
ùm be ih
ihbh
bh ikms
ikmst
tuy
uyem
emte
te,, estk
estkss
ikfpkmemtes se cmikrpkrhm emtre sæ ushmbk feziahbkres feièmciks hbeiuhbks
em ih
ihbh
bh ih
ihsk
sk.. H ik
ikm
mmuh
muhic
icùm
ùm,, aks
aks pk
pkav
avks
ks se cfcfpr
preo
eomh
mhmm ikm
ikm hi
hiec
ecte
te u ktktrk
rk
hoaumhmte ikmvemcemte y se premshm em ah jkrfh besehbh usèmbkse fhtrcies be
 

hierk, umcãmbkse pkr scmterczhicùm, h prescùm eaevhbh y tefperhturh hprkxcfhbh

h ah be relahmbeicfcemtk be umk be aks ikmstuyemtes be ah haehicùm burhmte ea
efpk requercbk. Ah haehicùm hsæ kltemcbh hbqucere umh estruiturh umcjkrfe y
ikfphith, tkthafemte exemth be cfperjeiickmes y ah pcezh kltemcbh, h ah jkrfh
requercbh, be deidk, yh mk reiahfh mcmoumh kperhicùm be hihlhbk.

Em esth jkrfh, puebem jhlrcihrse haehickmes iuyks ikmstuyemtes

ikmstuyemtes mumih puebem
cmikrpkrhrse pkr juscùm, pkr egefpak7 ea orhtk ikm ea iklre phrh bhr iklre
orhthbk. Hscfcsfk, se jhlrcihm fuidhs haehickmes h lhse be ihrlurks, mctrurks
y lkrurks be fethaes bea orupk be trhmscicùm bea dcerrk.

Ikmscstemte em jumbcr um fhtercha e cmtrkbuicrak em umh ihvcbhb (vhichbk,

fkabehbk), aahfhbh fkabe, bkmbe se skacbcih.

<. »X
»Xuã
uã b
bcj
cjer
erem
emic
ichs
hs d
dhy
hy e
emt
mtre
re u
um
mpprk
rkbu
buit
itk
k be jumb
jumbci
cicù
cùm
myu
umk
mk be jjkr
krgh
gh;
;

Beshrrkaak.

 Prkbuitk jumbcbk7 Ye rehaczh pkr febck bea prkiesk be ihsmo bkmbe ea fetha
se ihacemth dhsth que se jumbe, hscfcsfk se prkbuiem phsèmbkaks be um esthbk
aæqucbk phrh verterak h um fkabe y oemerhr ea esthbk be skacbcihicùm, pkr ak
thmtk, ea prkbuitk tkfh ah jkrfh bea fkabe h febcbh que lhgh su tefperhturh y
bespuãs se rerh bea fkabe phrh kltemer ea prkbuitk
p rkbuitk terfcmhbk.
 Prkbuitk be jkrgh7 Ye hpacih emeroæh tãrfcih y feièmcih ha fetha yh que sueaem
emikmtrhrse em jkrfh be dkgh k acmoktes, emtkmies se ush hath prescùm pkr febck
be okapes ikm um fhraak k presckmèmbkak ikm um trkquea dhsth bhrae ah jkrfh
besehbh ha fhtercha y lusihmbk ah jkrfh besehbh dhsth kltemer ea prkbuitk
terfcmhbk, es be hiahrhr que ea fhtercha scefpre estè em esthbk sùacbk burhmte
ea prkiesk.

9. Umh idh
idhph
ph be haeh
haehicùm
icùm be hau
haufcm
fcmck
ck se ahfc
ahfcmh
mh em jræk 90 pk
pkrr icemtk
icemtk dhsth um
espeskr be 0.040 puaohbhs. Yc se ahfcmh be muevk em jræk dhsth um espeskr mha
be 0.0:2 puaohbhs. »Iuèa serè ea trhlhgk em jræk tktha hpacihbk;
 

Beshrrkaak.

t c∜t j 
% Rrhlhgk em jrck6
rhlhgk
t c
Espeskr cmcicha

90 %

0 .040
.040 ∄»

Ye bespegh 

0.9 t c 6t c ∜t j 

t c∜0.9 t c6t j 

  t j 
R c6
(8∜ 0.9)

R c60.040 ∄   » »
8 ∜0.9

R c60.040 ∄   » »
0.?

R c60.882< ∄»

% Rrhlhgk
rhlhgk em jrcktktha

R c60.882<

 E j 60.0:2 ∄ »

t c∜t j 
% Rrhlhgk em jrck6
rhlhgk ∟800%
t c

% R j  60.882<∄∜0.0:2 ∄   » »
0.882<∄ »∟800% »

% R j 60.050< ∄   » »
0.882< ∄»∟800% »
 

% R j 60.2935∟800%

% R   629.
29.35
35 %

% R   622 % hprkxcfhbk

2. Umh idh
idhph
ph be ahtùm ikm :0% IuIu-20%
-20% Wm be 0.0
0.0355
355 if be espeskr
espeskr se ahfcmh
ahfcmh
em jræk dhsth rebuicr 20 % su espeskr. »Iuèa serè ea espeskr mha be ah idhph;

Beshrrkaak

Bhtks7
R c60.0355 if

% \ebuiicùm em Jrck 7 20%

Èreh Cmcicha7
h∟R c

Èreh Jcmha7
h∟R j 

  H c∜ H j 
% \ebuiicùm em jrck 6 ∟800
 Èreh emah seiicùm trhmsversha

6 ∟ c ∜ ∟ j j  ∟800
θ  t  θ  t 
% \ebuiic
 \ebuiicùm
ùm em jrck
θ ∟t c
Ihmieahmbk ah 
 

t c∜t j 
% \ebuiicùm em jrck 6 ∟800
t c

0.0355 if ∜t j 
20 %6 0.0355 if   ∟800
Espeskr Jcmha

20 %∟0.0355 if
60.0355 if∜t j 
800%

20∟0.0355 if
R j 60.0355 if∜
800

9.4< if
R  60.0355 if∜
j 
800

R j 60.0355 if∜0.094< if

R j 60.05?9 f

5.
5.Besirclh
Besirclh e caustre aks scoucemtes prkiesks be extruscùm7

h) extruscùm bcreith

l) extruscùm cmbcreith.

- »Iuèa es ah vemthgh be ihbh prkiesk;

Beshrrkaak.

- Extruscùm bcreith7
 

Ye ikmkie thflcãm ikfk extruscùm beahmterh, es ea prkiesk em que se hafhiemh

umh lhrrh be fetha em um reicpcemte juertefemte rejkrzhbk em ea que uye em ah

fcsfh bcreiicùm bea pcstùm, emtkmies ah lhrrh be fetha se bespahzh h ah ièfhrh
be ikfpremscùm burhmte ea prkiesk.

Ah fhykr juerzh be ah extruscùm es requercbh ha ikfcemzk bea prkiesk y beireie

seo÷m
eo÷m ah lh lhrr
rrhh se vh hok
okth
thmb
mbk
k. Ha mha
mha be ah lhlhrr
rrhh ah jue
uerz
rzhh huf
hufemth
emth
orhmbefemte pkrque ah lhrrh es beaohbh y ea fhtercha bele ucr mk rhbchafemte
phrh shacr bea trkquea.

- Zemthghs

- Ye puebem dhier seiickmes dueihs.

-
Ye puebem rehaczhr orhm vhrcebhb be jkrfhs em ah seiicùm trhmsversha.

- Extruscùm cmbcreith7

Ah phrte extrucbh es jkrzhbh h trhvãs bea vèsthok hpcskmhbkr. Ye requcere femks

juerzh pkr este fãtkbk, belcbk h que mk excste juerzh be rkzhfcemtk emtre ea
tkidk y ah phreb ikmmemte. Ha pemetrhr ea pcsùm em ea trhlhgk juerzh ha fetha h
ucr h trhvãs bea iahrk em umh bcreiicùm kpuesth h ah bea pcsùm. Ikfk ea tkidk se
fueve ikm respeitk ha reicpcemte, mk dhy jrciicùm em ahs phrebes
p hrebes bea reicpcemte.

- Zemthghs
- Perfcte umh rebuiicùm be ah juerzh be jrciicùm, hscfcsfk perfcte ah
extruscùm be ahrohs lhrrhs.
 

- Presemth um femkr pkriemthge phrh quelrhrse ea fhtercha yh que mk

presemth ihakr pkr ah jrciicùm.

:.»Xuã bcjeremich dhy emtre7

h) jkrgh fhraak y jkrgh h premsh

l) jkrgh ikm fhtrcz hlcerth y jkrgh ikm fhtrcz ierrhbh

Bã um egefpak be prkbuitk fetèacik prkbuicbk pkr ihbh prkiesk.

Beshrrkaak.

Bcjeremichs

• Jkrgh f
fh
hraak7

- Perfcte ah hpacihicùm be cfphitks ikmsthmtes sklre ea fhtercha.

- Oemerhm umh bejkrfhicùm fès supericha.

- Ykm fès eikmùfciks em ea ferihbk y perfcte umh exclcacbhb be este.
-Yu ihphicbhb ikfcemzh bemcbh pkr ah emeroæh bcspkmclae em ea fkfemtk
bea cfphitk sklre ea fhtercha.
-\eghs phrh tkbk pk be vcvcembh, feshs phrh ea ikfebkr, resphabks be ihfh,
lhrhmbhs be esihaerhs, aèfphrhs, jhrkahs y hrhøhs em aæmehs fkbermhs

• Jkrgh h premsh7

- Oemerh umh hpacihicùm be prescùm sklre ea fhtercha.

- Yu ihphicbhb vceme bemcbh pkr ah juerzh bcspkmclae em ah ihrrerh be lhghbh be ah
esthfph.
- Prkpkrickmh umh bejkrfhicùm dkfkoãmeh bea fhtercha y ikm fegkr tkaerhmich.
- Femkr rcesok be hiicbemtes.
- Ah prkjumbcbhb be cfprescùm es exhith.
- Fhykr preicscùm be ahs pcezhs jkrghbhs.

Bcjeremichs
 

- Jkrgh ikm fhtrcz hlcerth7

- Yueae ser fès lhrhth scm eflhrok skak eme umh acfcthbh ihmbhb be jkrfhs h
jkrghr.

- Ykm deidks sklre bhbks pahmks.

- Ye hskich ikm ah rehaczhicùm be pcezhs scfpaes pkr aks fkabes rebkmbehbks k
fkabes em Z.
- Ye oemerh femkr besperbcick be fhtercha.
- Ye rehaczhm pcezhs ikfk lhrrhs, hmcaaks, superices y lrkides.

- Jkrgh ikm fhtrcz ierrhbh7

-
Ireh umh cmmcbhb y be jkrfhs, estk orhichs h que uaczh fkabes.
- Ye emiuemtrh premshmbk emtre um phr be bhbks.
- Presemth umh luemh preicscùm bcfemsckmha em ea fhtercha.
- Lceahs, icoñeøhaes, eges, reghs, lhrhmbcaahs, ihlezhs be tkrmcaaks, be permks,
refhides, iahvks, eti.

?. Bes
Besircl
irclhh ea prkiesk be tre
treahbk
ahbk.. »Pkr quã es meieshrc
meieshrck
k hseour
hseourhr
hr ah
acfpcezh y aulrcihicùm hbeiuhbhs bea hahflre burhmte este prkiesk;

Beshrrkaak.

Este prkiesk ikmscste em bcsfcmucr ea bcèfetrk be um hahflre be iklre k

haufcmck h trhvãs be um gueok be bhbks que pkseem jkrfh iùmcih (umh emtrhbh
orhmbe y shacbh fès pequeøh).

em su cmterckr, pkr ak thmtk, se phrte be umh lhrrh, hahflrùm k hahflre, y se

ikmscoue hahflre be femkr bcèfetrk (perk fhykr akmoctub).

Es meieshrck hseourhr ah acfpcezh y aulrcihicùm bea hahflre temcembk em iuemth

que ea hahflre phsh pkr umh serce be fkabes phrh bcsfcmucr su bcèfetrk ha
 

fkfemtk que mk se emiuemtre acfpck vh h aaevhrse ikmscok ah suicebhb que

presemte ea fcsfk, hscfcsfk sc mk se emiuemtrh ikm ah aulrcihicùm hbeiuhbh ea
fcsfk mk vh h phshr pkr ea prkiesk y vh h oemerhr befkrhs.

4. Um hahf
hahflre
lre be 30.5 % be Iu y 0,<5 pua
puaohbhs
ohbhs be bcè
bcèfetr
fetrk
k se treah em jræ
jræk
k
ikm 25% be rebuiicùm. »Iuèa serè ea bcèfetrk mha bea hahflre;
Beshrrkaak.

  H c∜ H j 
% \ebuiicùm em jrck 6
 Èreh emah seiicùm trhmsversha

π  bc ∜ π  bj 
< <

2 2
% \ebuiicùm em jrck 6 ∟800%
π 
bc
<

bc <∜ bj <
25 %6   ∟800%
bc <

<
25 bc
6bc <∜bj <
800

bj  6bc ∜0.25 bc

< < <

< <
bj  60.55 bc

bj 6∗ 0.55
0.55 bc
<

bj 6∗ 0.55
0.55 b

bj 6∗ 0.55 »»
 

bj 60.8452 ∄»

Bcèfetrk Jcmha bea hahflre 6 0.84: puaohbhs

3. »Xu
»Xuã
ã bcj
bcjere
eremic
mich
h dhy emtr
emtre
e bej
bejkrf
krfhic
hicùm
ùm eaè
eaès
sih
ih y

paèsih; Beshrrkaak.

Bcjeremichs

- Bejkrfhicùm paèsih7
- Es crreversclae
- Ea fhtercha expercfemth ihflcks terfkbcmèfciks.
- Es hqueaah em ah que ea iuerpk mk reiuperh ah jkrfh krcocmha ha rerhr ah juerzh
que ae prkvkih ah bejkrfhicùm.
- Em aks fhterchaes fetèaciks esth bejkrfhicùm kiurre pkr febck be ah jkrfhicùm y
fkvcfcemtk be bcsakihickmes.
bcsakihickmes.

- Bejkrfhicùm eaèsih7
- \eversclae
- Es hqueaah em ah que ea iuerpk reiuperh su jkrfh krcocmha ha rerhr ah juerzh que
ae prkvkih ah bejkrfhicùm.
- Em este ihsk ea sùacbk vhrck su esthbk temsckmha y hufemth sc emeroæh cmtermh em
jkrfh be emeroæh pktemicha eaèsih.
- Ye evcbemichm ihflcks terfkbcmèfciks reversclaes.

80..
80 Iha
Ihaiu
iuae
ae ah ttems
emscùm
cùm iikm
kmvem
vemic
ickmh
kmhaa em ea Y
YCC be um
umcbh
cbhbe
bess que h
hit÷
it÷h
h skl
sklre
re um
umh
h
lhrrh rebkmbh be 50 if be akmoctub y umh seiicùm trhmsver
trhmsversha
sha be 8<.00 ff x ?
ff que skpkrth umh ihroh be ?500 no.

Beshrrkaak7
 

Ikmverr be Noj ’ M

 noj ∟ 3.48 M 
?500
8 Noj 

?9.5?5 M 
 J 6
8

 J 6?9.5?5 M 

Ikmverr be ff ’ f
8<.00 ff ↜ 0.08< f

? ff ↜ 0.00? f

 J 
ω 6
 H k

  ?9.5?5 M 
ω 6
(0.08< f)( 0.00? f)

  ?9.5?5 M 
ω 6
0.000042 f

:
ω 64?5.43∟80  Pθ 

ω 64?5.43 F Pθ 

88. Um
88. Umh
h pr
prkl
klet
eth
h be um fht
fhtererch
chaa be bc
bcfe
fems
msck
ckme
mess 80 x 80 x 80 if ik
ikm
m um
ikfpkrthfcemtk eaèsik acmeha rkfpe iuhmbk ah ihroh dh haihmzhbk um vhakr

be 85.000 no, reocstrèmbkse em ese fkfemtk um hikrthfcemtk be 0,9 ff.

Ye pcbe7 Beshrrkaak7

h) \epresemthicùm orèih bea ikfpkrthfcemtk feièmcik bea fhtercha y pk be

jrhiturh que expercfemth.
 No
ω ( <
)
if
 

- Ye evcbemich um pk be jrhiturh jrèoca temcembk em iuemth que ea fhtercha

rkfpe s÷lcthfemte trhs reocstrhr pequeøhs bejkrfhickmes.

l) Ihaiuahr ah temscùm be ik
ikfprescùm
fprescùm em rkturh.
Remscùm es ihroh pkr umcbhb be superice.

 P
ω 6
 H

  85000 No
ω 6 <
80∟80 if

  No
ω 6850 <
if

  M 
ω 685 <
ff

ω 685 F Pθ 

i) Ihaiuahr ah bejk
bejkrfhicùm
rfhicùm umc
umcthrch
thrch em rkturh.

Bejkrf
Bejkrfhi
hicù
cùmm umc
umcth
thrc
rchh es ah re
reah
ahic
icùm
ùm emtr
emtree ea cm
cmir
iref
efem
emtk
tk bc
bcfe
fems
msck
ckmh
mhaa y ah
bcfemscùm.
 

∊a
ε6
a

ε6
∜0.9 ff
800 ff

ε 6∜9.80∜
ε 6∜9.0% (hbcfemsckmha )

b) Ihaiuahr ea fùbua
fùbuak
k be eahsicbhb bea fhtercha
fhtercha..

ω 
ω 6 E∟ε ↜ E 6
ε

  850
» ∜9
9.80

  nf
» 5000 <
if

  M 
» 5000 <
ff

» 5000 FPθ 

» 5000 OPθ 

Ha ser um fhtercha ikm um ikfpkrthfcemtk eaèsik acmeha es pksclae hpacihr ah aey

be Dkkne.

e) Yhlc
Yhlcembk
embk q que
ue ea ik
ikei
eicemt
cemte
e be Pkcs skm ( ) bea fhtercha es 0,9,
Pkcsskm
ihaiuahr ah bejkrfhicùm trhmsversha
trhmsversha be ah prkleth em rkturh.

- Ea ike
ikeic
icem
emte
te be Pk
Pkcs
cssk
skmm pe
perfrfct
ctee be
bete
terf
rfcm
cmhr
hr ah re
reah
ahic
icùm
ùm emtr
emtree ah
bejkrfhicùm trhmsversha y ah hxcha.
 

ε R 
Z 6 ↜ ε R 6∜Z ∟ε a
εa

» ∜0.9∟(∜0.009 )

» 0.0003

» 0.00
0.0003
03 %

89. Umh lhrrh be 0.:0

0.:055 puaohbh
puaohbhss be bcèf
bcèfetrk
etrk be umh haehic
haehicùm
ùm be hauf
haufcmck
cmck
se skfete h ihroh be <4000 al. Yc ea bcèfetrk be ah lhrrh es be 0.230
puaohbhs h esth ihroh, beterfcme7

Beshrrkaak.

h) Ah temscùm y ah bejkrfhic
bejkrfhicùm
ùm ikmvemickmhaes
ikmvemickmhaes..
  J 
ω 6
 H K

<4000 al
ω 6
π » »

<4000 al
ω 6
π » »

<4000 al
ω 6
π » »

  <4000 al
ω 6
0.<4?2? ∄ »»

ω 63?.208 psc
 

a ∜a k
ε6
ak

ε 60.:05 ∄∜0.230 ∄   » »
0.230 ∄» »

ε 60.885∄   » »
0.230 ∄ » »

ε 60.<2 ∄ »

l) Ah temscùm y bejk
bejkrfhicùm
rfhicùm rehaes.

 J 
ω 6
 H c
<4000 al
ω 6
π » »

<4000 al
ω 6
π » »

<4000 al
ω 6
π » »

  <4000 al
ω 6 0.8445 ∄» »

ω 6824,<2 ps

ac  H
)6 » ( k )
ε 6» ( )6»
ak  H c

ε 6» »

ε 68.5<50 ∄ »

82..
82 »Xu
»Xuã
ã skm ahs lhm
lhmbhs
bhs y aaæme
æmehs
hs be b
besa
esaczh
czhfc
fcemt
emtk;
k; »X
»Xuã
uã ih
ihus
ush
h ah jk
jkrf
rfhic
hicùm
ùm
 

be ahs lhmbh
lhmbhss be bes
besacz
aczhf
hfcem
cemtk
tk em ah sup
super
erice
ice be um fe
fetha
tha;; Bes
Besirc
irclh
lh ea
feih
fe ihmc
mcsf
sfkk be be besp
spah
ahzh
zhfc
fcem
emtk
tk qu
quee pe
perf
rfct
cte
e quque
e um fe
feth
thaa se be
bejk
jkrf
rfhh
paèsihfemte
paèsihfe mte scm aaeohr h ah jrhiturh.

Beshrrkaak.

Lhmbhs be besaczhfcemtk7 hphreiem ikfk umh serce be aæmehs phrhaeahs h trhvãs

be um scstefh ircsthacmk ikrrespkmbcemtes h aks pahmks be besaczhfcemtk. Ye
prkbuiem ha bejkrfhrse ea iuerpk.
Ykm klservhlaes iuhmbk ah superice sklre ah que se klservhm dh scbk puacbh
hmtes be ah bejkrfhicùm.
Aæmehs
Aæmehs be besaczhf
besaczhfcemtk7 ikrreahickmh ah bemscbhb be aæmehs be besaczhfcemtk,
cemtk7
febcbhs h trhvãs be ah ruokscbhb, ikm ea orhbk be bejkrfhicùm paèsih. Ah
klse
kl serv
rvhi
hicù
cùm
m ki
kiua
uahr
hr be ahahss aæaæme
mehs
hs be besa
besacz
czhf
hfce
cemt
mtk,
k, be ah haeh
haehic
icùm
ùm ikm
ikm
bejkrfhicùm paèsih cmcicha, perfcte ikrreahickmhr ah bemscbhb be ahs aæmehs be
besaczhfcemtk ikm ah ruokscbhb supericha be ahs prkleths.
Eaak, perfcte dcpktezhr que ahs aæmehs be besaczhfcemtk ikrrespkmbem h um
verbhberk ugk paèsik ikm bejkrfhicùm be ahs zkmhs extermhs, dhich ahs que
dhm hiubcbk ètkfks cmtermks.

 
»Xuã ihush ah jkrfhicùm be ahs lhmbhs be besaczhfcemtk em ah superice be um
fetha;

Yuroem yh em aks prcferks iciaks be ihroh y ikm ah ikmmucbhb be skacictub,

muev
mu evks
ks pa
pahm
hmks
ks vh
vhm
m h jkrf
jkrfhr
hrse
se,, ph
phrh
rh hikf
hikfkb
kbhr
hr ah
ahss mue
muevh
vhss be
bejk
jkrf
rfhi
hick
ckme
mess
paèsihs, pues
belcbk ha hikrthfcemtk bea fhtercha, ihbh pahmk hit÷h umh ÷mcih vez burhmte
febck iciak.

Be esth jkrfh ea ikmgumtk be pahmks be besaczhfcemtk jkrfh umh lhmbh be

besaczhfcemtk, iuyh bemscbhb be pahmks vh orhbuhafemte hufemthmbk. Aueok be
 

um m÷ferk be iciaks bea krbem bea 8% be ah vcbh be jhoh, ahs lhmbhs be

besaczhfcemtk yh estèm paemhfemte jkrfhbhs em ah superice bea fhtercha.
Aks besaczhfcemtks iæiaciks que jkrfhm ahs lhmbhs be besaczhfcemtk kihsckmhm
em ah su
supe
per
ric
icee be ah pcez
pcezhh emtr
emtrhb
hbhs
hs em ah jkrf
jkrfhh be pequ
pequeøeøhs
hs rh
rhgh
ghbu
burh
rhss
super
sup erich
ichaes
aes y rel
relhrl
hrles
es crr
crreou
eouahr
ahres
es ik
ikfk
fk fcm
fcm÷si
÷siuah
uahss ihb
ihbemh
emhss be fkmth
fkmthøhs
øhs
aahfhbhs extrusckmes. Ea fkbeak presemthbk em ah ourh fuestrh ah seiuemich be
fkvcfcemtks be besaczhfcemtk respkmshlaes pkr ah jkrfhicùm be umh cmtruscùm y
umh extruscùm.

Ah hphrcicùm be esth tkpkorhh em ah superice bea fhtercha puebe ser vcsuhaczhbh

sc dcicãrhfks umh hmhakoæh be aks pahmks ircsthacmks ikm ahs ihrths be umh lhghrh,
bkmbe aks fkvcfcemtks hatermhbks be ikrte em umk y ktrk sembk dhiem ikm que
ahs ihrths cmcichafemte phreghs, quebem tkthafemte juerh be pkscicùm.

Feihmc
Feih mcsf
sfk
k be be bespspah
ahzh
zhfc
fcememtk
tk qu
quee pe
perf
rfct
cte
e qu
que
e um fe
feth
thaa se be
bejk
jkrf
rfh
h
paèsihfemte
paèsihfe mte scm aaeohr h ah jrhiturh.

• Ah pa
pahs
hsi
icb
cbhb
hb se ih
ihrh
rhit
iter
ercz
czhh pk
pkrr ah hphr
hphrci
cicù
cùm
m be bejk
bejkrf
rfhi
hick
ckme
mess
perfhmemtes (k bejkrfhickmes paèsihs)7 mk se reiuperhm iuhmbk iesh ah
ihroh.
• Esths bejkrfhickmes ikrrespkmbem h bespahzhfcemtks reahvks emtre ètkfks,
bespahzhfcemtkss que skm esthlaes ha ieshr ah skacicthicù
bespahzhfcemtk skacicthicùm.
m.

• Ea krcoem be ahs bejkrfhickmes paèsihs es ah presemich y, phriuahrfemte, ea

fkvcfcemtk be bcsakihickmes em ah reb ircsthacmh.

• Ah presemich be bcsakihickmes rebuie ah esthlcacbhb be ah reb ircsthacmh.

• Ah fkvcacbhb be ahs bcsakihickmes es ah ihush prcmicpha be ahs bejkrfhickmes

perfhmemtes.

• Ah bej
bejkr
krfhi
fhicùm
cùm paèsi
paèsihh ikrres
ikrrespkm
pkmbe
be ha fkvcfc
fkvcfcemt
emtk
k be um orhm
orhm m÷ferk
m÷ferk be
bcsakihickmes.
• Belcbk h estk, ah bejkrfhicùm paèsih, klservhbh besbe um pumtk be vcsth
fhirksiùpcik,, es d
fhirksiùpcik dkfkoãmeh.
kfkoãmeh.
 

• Ea prkiesk pkr ea iuha se prkbuie ah bejkrfhicùm paèsih pkr ea fkvcfcemtk be

bcsakihickmes se bemkfcmh ‑besaczhfcemtk‖
‑besaczhfcemtk‖
• Estè hskichbk esemichafemte h esjuerzks ikrthmtes (em oemerha, h temsckmes
besvchbkrhs)
• Hbefès bea fe
Hbefès feihm
ihmcsf
csfk
k be bes
besacz
aczhf
hfcem
cemtk
tk be bcs
bcsaki
akihic
hickme
kmes,
s, ah bej
bejkrf
krfhic
hicùm
ùm
paèsi
paèsihh pue
puebe
be prkbui
prkbuicrs
crse,
e, em haoumk
haoumkss fh
fhter
tercha
chaes
es irc
ircsth
sthacm
acmks,
ks, pkr fh
fhiah
iahbk
bk
(jkrfhicùm be fhiahs)
• Umh jue
juerzh
rzh be iczhaa
iczhaahbu
hburh
rh pue
puebe
be prkbui
prkbuicrcr bes
bespah
pahzhf
zhfcem
cemtks
tks htùfci
htùfciks
ks be tha
fhmerh que h um ahbk be um pahmk aks ètkfks se ikakquem ikfk sc juerhm
cfèoemes espeiuahres be aks ètkfks bea ktrk ahbk.
 

8:. »Xuã jumicùm besefpeøh ea fhiahbk em ah bejkrfhicùm paèsih be aks

fetha
fe thaes
es ikm res
respei
peitk
tk h ah be
bejkr
jkrfhi
fhicù
cùm
m pk
pkrr bes
bespah
pahzhf
zhfce
cemtk
mtk;
; »Pk
»Pkrr qu
quã
ã ah
bejkrfhicùm pkr fhiahbk es thm cfpkrthmte em aks fethaes DIP;

Beshrrkaak.

»Xuã jumicùm besefpeøh ea fhiahbk em ah bejkrfhic

bejkrfhicùm
ùm paèsih be aks fethaes
ikm respeitk h ah bejkrfhicùm pkr bespahzhfcemtk;

Ea fhiahge es um fkvcfcemtk be pahmks be ètkfks em ah reb, phrhaeak h um pahmk

espeiæik, be fhiahge, be fhmerh que ah reb se bcvcbe em bks phrtes scfãtrcihs
bc
bcje
jere
remt
mtef
efem
emte
te kr
krce
cemt
mthb
hbhs
hs.. Ah ih
ihm
mbh
bhb
b be fkfkvcvcfc
fcem
emtk
tk be ihihbh
bh pa
pahm
hmk
k be
ètkfks em ah reocùm fhiahbh es prkpkrickmha h su bcsthmich bea pahmk be fhiahge,
be fhmerh que se jkrfh umh cfhoem espeiuahr h trhvãs bea pahmk be fhiahge.

Ye bcie que um iuerpk estè bejk

bejkrfhb
rfhbkk iuhmbk ahs pkscickmes reahvhs be sus
pumtks dhm ihflchbk> fcemtrhs que se trhth be um iuerpk bespahzhbk iuhmbk
ahs
ahs pk
pksc
scic
ickm
kmes
es be aks
aks pu
pumtk
mtkss re
resp
spei
eitk
tk h um pumt
pumtkk exte
exterm
rmk
k ha iu
iuer
erpk
pk dh
dhmm
ihflchbk, perk perfhmeiem esthlaes emtre sæ.
Es beicr, excste ah bejkrfhicùm y ea bespahzhfcemtk, fhs mk, ah bejkrfhicùm pkr
bespahzhfcemtk, mk skm tãrfcmks que temohm ikmexckmes ikm respeitk h sus
jumickmes.

»Pkr quã ah bejkrfhicù

bejkrfhicùm
m pkr fhiahbk es thm cfpkrthmte em aks fethaes DIP;

• Umh pkricùm be ircstha ihflch krcemthicùm

 

• Xuebh cfhoem h espegk

• Ea pahmk be scfetræh se aahfh pahmk be fhiah

• Fkvcfcemtks htùfciks femkres que bcsthmich cmterhtùfcih
• Ihbh pahmk phricph
• Ye pr
prkb
kbui
uiem
em em di dip
p pk
pkrq
rque
ue e
eme
mem
m pk
pkik
ikss pah
pahmk
mkss be besa
besacz
czhf
hfce
cemt
mtk
k (h
(hat
aths
hs
veakicbhbes, lhghs tefperhturhs)
• Ye rehacz
rehaczhh em fci
fcirks
rkseo
eoumbk
umbkss (be
(besac
saczhf
zhfcem
cemtk
tk fcacse
fcacseoum
oumbks
bks)) H veies
veies se kye
(Esthøk)
• Rcemem pahmk y bcreiicùm bemcbks
• Pkme ktrks scstefhs bcspkmclaes h besaczhfcemtk
•
Lhgh ikmtrcluicùm h bejkrfhicùm. (pkr esk dip pkik b÷iaes)
• Fhiahs be reikicbk y be skacbcihicùm.

84. Yc tuv
84. tuvcer
cerh
h que eaeoc
eaeocrr um fhter
fhterch
chaa ikm ah fe
femkr
mkr bejk
bejkrfh
rfhic
icùm
ùm eaè
eaèsi
sih
h
pkscl
pksclae
ae phr
phrh
h ah ik
ikms
mstru
truii
iicùm
cùm be um lrhlrhzk
zk be rkl
rklkt
kt (cf
(cfpk
pkrth
rthmte
mte phr
phrhh ea
ikrreitk pkscickmhfcemtk bea lrhzk) y ea pesk mk juerh um ircterck iræik,
»quã fhtercha be emtre aks que se fuestrhm em ah scoucemte ourh eaeocræh;
»Pkr quã;
 

Beshrrkaak.

Ea haufcmck es um fhtercha ùpfk phrh ah ikmstruiicùm bea lrhzk bea rklkt, yh

que pkr egefpak em ea ihsk be ah lhse dexhokmha cmjerckr be haufcmck, ah iuha
bele

rescsr scm bejkrfhrse prèiihfemte

prèiihfemte tkbk ea pesk em sc bea rklkt, puebe aaeohr h
skpkrthr dhsth :<000M.

L. Prk
Prkpc
pcebh
ebhbes
bes eaã
eaãitr
itrcih
cihs.
s.

83. Besirclh ea fkbeak iaèiaèscik

scik be ikm
ikmbuiicùm
buiicùm ea
eaãitrcih
ãitrcih em fetha
fethaes.
es. Bcsmoh
emtre h) m÷iaeks be ckmes pkscvks y l) eaeitrkmes be vhaemich em umh reb
ircsthacmh fetèacih tha ikfk ea skbck.

Beshrrkaak.

Em sùacbks fetèaciks aks ètkfks estèm bcstrclucbks em umh estruiturh ircsthacmh

y estèm acohbks febchmte sus eaeitrkmes be vhaemich exterckres pkr febck be
emahie fetèacik.
Bcsmoh emtre h) m÷iaeks be ckmes pkscvks y l) eaeitrkmes be vhaemich
em umh reb ircsthacmh fetèacih tha ikfk ea skbck.

Em ea fkbeak iaèscik be ah ikmbuiicùm eaãitrcih em sùacbks fetèaciks, aks

eaeitr
eaeitrkme
kmess be vha
vhaemi
emich
ch ext
exterc
erckre
kress se supkme
supkmem
m ikfpae
ikfpaethf
thfemt
emtee aclres
aclres be
fkversee emt
fkvers emtrere aks m÷iaek
m÷iaekss be ckmes
ckmes pks
pkscv
cvks
ks em ah reiua
reiuahh fetèac
fetèacih
ih.. H
tefperhturh hflcemte aks m÷iaeks be ckmes pkscvks emem emeroæh icmãih
y vclr
vclrhm
hm hare
harebe
bebk
bkrr be su
suss pksc
pkscic
ickm
kmes
es be rerei
iua
uah.
h. Ikm
Ikm ea huhufe
femtmtk
k be
tefper
tef perht
hturh
urh,, estks
estks ckm
ckmes
es vclrhm
vclrhm ikm hf hfpac
pactub
tubes
es ir
ireic
eicemt
emtes
es y exc
excste
ste um
ikm
ikmmuk
muk cm
cmte
teri
rihf
hflc
lckk be em
emer
eroæ
oæhh emtr
emtree aks
aks m÷i
m÷iae
aeks
ks be aks
aks ckme
ckmess y sususs
eaeitrkmes be vhaemich.

<<. »Iùf
»Iùfk k expaci
expacihh ea fkbe
fkbeak
ak be lhmbhs be emeroæh ah pklre ikmbu
ikmbuivc
ivcbhb
bhb
eaãitrcih be um hcsahbkr ikfk ea bchfhmte purk;

Beshrrkaak.
Ea bchfhmte eme umh pklre ikmbuivcbhb, belcbk h que eme umh hath
 

rescstemich, ak que ak ikmvcerte em um hcsahbkr. Estk suiebe pkrque ea bchfhmte

eme umh lhrrerh be emeroæh fuy hath emtre um krlctha <p aaemk y aks resthmtes
vhiæks.

Em ea bchfhmte, belcbk h su phriuahr estruiturh ircsthacmh, excste umh lhrrerh

be emeroæh be : eZ emtre ah lhmbh be emeroæh fès lhgh <p (aaemh ikm <M
eaeitrkmes) y aks resthmtes esthbks bcspkmclaes <p (2M esthbks pksclaes), pkr ak
iuha mk se puebe prkfkver eaeitrkmes be ah lhmbh be vhaemich dhich ah lhmbh
be ikmbuiicùm. Phrh este hcsahmte mk es pksclae ohmhr emeroæh pkr hlskricùm
be jktkmes (ikm emeroæhs femkres h : eZ). Pkr ea ikmtrhrck, em aks fhterchaes
ikmbuitkres, aks eaeitrkmes be vhaemich puebem ser prkfkvcbks jèicafemte
dhic
dh ichh ah lhlhmb
mbhh be ikmb
ikmbuiuiic
icùm
ùm pk
pkrr cmi
micb
cbem
emic
ichh jktù
jktùmc
mcih
ih (t
(thf
hflc
lcãm
ãm pkr
pkr
tefperhturh), yh que dhy um ikmmuk be esthbks bcspkmclaes cmfebchthfemte
hrrclh be ah lhmbh be vhaemich. Pkr esth rhzùm, aks fhterchaes ikmbuitkres skm
kphiks h ah auz vcsclae> ea bchfhmte es, em espeicha, tkthafemte trhmsphremte h
ah auz vcsclae.

<9. »Pkr quã se bci bcie

e que um dueik es umh phri
phriuah
uah cfh
cfhocmh
ocmhrch;
rch; Uac
Uacie
ie um
bclugk phrh fkstrhr iùfk aks dueiks be eaeitrkmes puebem fkverse em umh
reb irc
ircsth
sthac
acmh
mh be sca
scaci
cick.
ck. Ex
Expa
pacqu
cque,
e, ua
uaczh
czhmbk
mbk um bchor
bchorhf
hfh h be lhm
lhmbhs
bhs be
emeroæh, iùfk aks eaeitrkmes
eaeitrkmes y aks dueiks be eaeitrkmes se irehm em phres em
scacick cmtræmseik.

Beshrrkaak.

»Pkr quã se bcie que um dueik es umh phriuah cfhocmhrch;

Ea dueik represemth ah husemich be um eaeitrùm. Belcbk h sus prkpcebhbes y

ikfebk sueaeestrcithfemte
dueik mk eme esthlaeierse suumh
esthlaeierse equcvhaemich
mhturhaezhikm
reha.umh ihroh pkscvh, sc lcem, ea
 

Pkr ejeitk be aks dueiks, ea prkiesk be aclerhicùm be um eaeitrùm bh auohr h ah

excstemich be bks pks be trhmspkrte be ihrohs, kpuestks em sembk be
bespahzhfcemtk y hbcvks em iuhmtk h ejeitk.

Lèscihfemte, se ikmscberh ikfk umh phriuah cfhocmhrch, belcbk h que es

haaæ, bkmbe se bepkscthrh um muevk eaeitrùm, k es bkmbe se qucere, pkr ak
que se jkrfh cfhocmhrch se vcsuhaczh su pkscickmhfcemtk em ea phrh rehaczhr
ea respeivk bkphbk.
Ea ircstha be scacick es bcjeremte be um hcsahmte pkrque h iuhaqucer tefperhturh
pkr emicfh bea ierk hlskautk, excste umh prklhlcacbhb mcth be que um
eaeitrùm em ah reb seh okapehbk y shihbk be su pkscicùm, beghmbk trhs be sæ 
umh beicemich be eaeitrkmes aahfhbh "dueik".
Yc se hpacih um vkathge, emtkmies thmtk ea eaeitrùm ikfk ea dueik puebem
ikmtrclucr h um pequeøk ugk be ikrrcemte.
Ah ikmbuivcbhb be um sefcikmbuitkr puebe ser fkbeahbh em tãrfcmks be ah
tekræh be ahs lhmbhs be aks sùacbks. Ea fkbeak be lhmbh be um sefcikmbuitkr
suocere que, h tefperhturhs krbcmhrchs dhy umh pksclcacbhb mcth be que aks
ea
eaei
eitr
trkm
kmes
es pueb
puebem
em hahaih
ihmz
mzhr
hr ah
ahss lh
lhmb
mbhs
hs be ikmb
ikmbui
uiic
icùm
ùm,, y ikmt
ikmtrc
rclu
lucr
cr h ah
ikmbuiicùm eaãitrcih.
Ea tãrfcmk cmtræmseik hquæ, bcsmoue emtre ahs prkpcebhbes bea scacick purk
"cmtræmseik", y ahs prkpcebhbes rhbcihafemte bcjeremtes bea sefcikmbuitkr
bkphbk pk m k pk p.
 

<2. »Xuã skm aks cfpurc

cfpurcih
ih bkres em aks sefc
sefcikmb
ikmbuitk
uitkres;
res; Expa
Expacqu
cque
e ea
prkiesk be cfpurcihicùm febchmte bcjuscùm.

Beshrrkaak.

Cfpurcih bkres em aks sefcikmbuitkres.

Cfpurcihicùm k bkphbk, es ea prkiesk febchmte ea iuha se ae cmtrkbuiem

ètkfks be cfpurezh h aks sefcikmbuitkres, ikm ea m be vkaveraks cfpurks,
estk se dhie phrh ktkrohraes fhykres y fegkres ihphicbhbes be ikmbuiicùm,
que esthmbk em jkrfhs purhs, mk pkbræhm akorhr.

Prkiesk be cfpurcihicùm febchmte bcjuscùm.

Ea prkiesk be cfpurcihicùm k bkphge se akorh febchmte ah hpacihicùm ha scacick be

pequeøhs
pequeø hs ihmbh
ihmbhbes
bes be ètkfk
ètkfkss cfp
cfpure
urezhs
zhs sustu
sustuick
ickmha
mhaes
es phr
phrhh prkbui
prkbuicr
cr um
fhtercha sefcikmbuitkr fcemtrhs que aks ètkfks uaczhbks ikfk cfpurezhs se
bemkfcmhm bkphmtes.

Pkr egefpak, sc ha scacick sùacbk se ae hbcickmh umh pequeøh ihmbhb be um

eaefemtk bea orupk CCCH ikfk lkrk que emem tres eaeitrkmes be vhaemich
resuath que, ikfk ea scacick eme iuhtrk, estk dhie que hphrezih um dueik
pkscvk pkr ihbh ètkfk høhbcbk. Es beicr, aks ètkfks que sustuyem ha scacick

em
pkreathmtk
emahie
ah ikm
ihphiuhtrk ètkfksmk
be vhaemich besescacick
aaemhveicmks emem umEmeaeitrùm
pkr ikfpaetk. femks
este ihsk, sc sey
 

hpacih um ihfpk eaãitrcik, aks eaeitrkmes veicmks puebem kiuphr dueiks y

ikmbuicr ah eaeitrcicbhb.

Fcemtrhs que aks sefcikmbuitkres cmtræmseiks skm sefcikmbuitkres purks

iuyh
iuyh ik
ikmb
mbui
uiv
vcb
cbhb
hb eaeaãi
ãitr
trci
cihh vc
vcem
emee bete
beterf
rfcm
cmhb
hbhh pkr
pkr sus
sus pr
prkp
kpce
cebh
bhbe
bess
cmderemtes (ikfk ea scacick y ea oerfhmck) aks sefcikmbuitkres extræmseiks es
um sefcikmbuitkr bkphbk.
Aks sefcikmbuitkres extræmseiks skm skauickmes sùacbhs sustuickmes fuy
bcaucbhs em ahs que aks ètkfks be ahs cfpurezhs, skautk, pkseem ihrhiteræsihs
be vhaemich bcjeremtes be ahs que ea bcskavemte que ikmstuyem ah reb htùfcih.
Ah ik
ikmie
miemtr
mtrhic
hicùm
ùm be cfp
cfpure
urezhs
zhs høhbcb
høhbcbks
ks h estks
estks sef
sefcik
cikmbui
mbuitkr
tkres
es estè
estè
mkrfhafemte em ea rhmok be 800 h 8000 phrtes pkr fcaaùm.

<3. »X
<3. »Xuã
uã sk
skmm aks
aks fh
fhte
terc
rcha
haes
es pcez
pcezke
keaã
aãit
itrc
rcik
ikss PW
PWR;
R; »B
»Be
e qu
quã
ã fh
fhme
merh
rh sk
skm
m
superckres h aks fhterchaes pcezkeaãitrciks be LhRcK9;

Beshrrkaak.

Fhterchaes pcezkeaãitrciks PWR.

Ye bcvcbem em bks pks, fhterchaes pcezkeaãitrciks cmkroèmciks y pcezkeaãitrciks

kroèmciks.

Pcezkeaãitrciks cmkroèmciks.

Bcvcbcbk em ircsthaes y ierèfcihs pcezkeaãitrciks, aks ircsthaes pcezkeaãitrciks

oeme
oemerh
rhaf
afem
emte
te se re ree
ere
rem
m h fkfkmk
mkir
ircs
csth
thae
aess pcez
pcezke
keaã
aãit
itrc
rcik
iks>
s> ierè
ierèfc
fcih
ihss
 

pcezkeaã
pcezke aãitr
itrcih
cihss se reere
reere h pka pkacc irc
ircsth
sthae
aess pcezke
pcezkeaãi
aãitrc
trciks
iks.. Ahs ier
ierèfc
èfcihs
ihs
pcezke
pcezkeaã
aãitr
itrcih
cihss skm
skm pka
pkacc irc
ircsth
sthae
aess em aks que aks orh
orhmks
mks be ircsth
ircsthaes
aes mk
mkss
kltemcbks febchmte ah rehiicùm em jhse sùacbh y aks prkiesks be scmterczhicùm
emtre pkavks y phriuahs se feziahm haehtkrchfemte feziahmbk, fkabehmbk y
scmterczhmbk h hath tefperhturh ikm ahs fhterchs prcfhs be aks cmorebcemtes
meieshrcks.
Ahs ierèfc
ierèfcihs
ihs pcezke
pcezkeaãi
aãitrc
trcihs
ihs se aah
aahfh
fhmm ier
ierèfc
èfcihs
ihs pcezke
pcezkeaãi
aãitrc
trcih
ihs,
s, y em
rehacbhb skm ierèfcihs jerrkeaãitrcihs. Dhy bkfcmcks jerrkeaãitrciks em aks
or
orhm
hmks
ks be esesth
th ie
ierè
rèfc
fcih
ih.. Ak
Akss bk
bkfc
fcmc
mcks
ks jerr
jerrke
keaã
aãit
itrc
rcik
ikss ik
ikms
msth
thmm be 84
840
0
bkfcmc
bkf cmcks
ks ikm bcreii
bcreiickm
ckmes
es be pkapkahrc
hrczhi
zhicùm
cùm espkmt
espkmtème
èmehh hmphr
hmphrhae
haeah
ah y 30
bkfcmcks ikm bcreiickmes be pkahrczhicùm espkmtèmeh perpembciuahres emtre
sæ.
Estks bkfcmcks estèm pkahrczhbks hrichafemte (hpacihbks juertefemte. Lhgk
ikmb
ikmbci
cick
ckme
mess be ihihfp
fpkk ea
eaãi
ãitr
trci
cik
k be IIII,, ah pk
pkah
ahrc
rczh
zhic
icùm
ùm espk
espkmtmtèm
èmeh
eh estè
estè
ikfp
ikfpaeaeth
thfe
femtmtee ha
hacm
cmeh
ehbh
bh em ah bcre
bcreii
iicù
cùm
m be
beaa ih
ihfp
fpkk eaãi
eaãitr
trci
cik
k exte
exterm
rmk
k y
fhmeme ah pkahrczhicùm rescbuha bespuãs be ah extrhiicùm bea ihfpk eaãitrcik
extermk, y pkr ak thmtk eme pcezkeaeitrcicbhb fhirksiùpcih.
fhirksiùpcih. ikfk thmhtk be
lhrck LR, thmhtk be zcrikmhtk be pakfk PWR, thmhtk be zcrikmhtk be pakfk
fkbci
fkb cihbk
hbk,, fe
fethm
thmck
cklht
lhtk
k be pakfk,
pakfk, mck
mcklht
lhtk
k be mcklht
mcklhtkk be pakfk
pakfk PLA
PLAM,
M,
thmhtk be pakfk thmhtk fkbcihbk. Ea beshrrkaak exctksk be este pk be
fhtercha prkfkvcù trhmsbuitkres hi÷siks y trhmsfcscùm pcezkeaãitrcih
pcezkeaãitrcih..
Pcezkeaãitrciks
Pcezkeaãitrciks kroèmciks.

Rhflcãm ikmkicbks ikfk pkaæferks pcezkeaãitrciks, ikfk ea ukrurk be

pkacacvc
pk vcmc
mcacacbe
bemk
mk (PZB
(PZBJ)
J) (pea
(peaæi
æiua
uahh beao
beaohb
hbh)
h) y kt ktrk
rkss fh
fhte
terc
rcha
haes
es kr
kroè
oèmci
mciks
ks
pcezkeaãitrciks (peaæiuah) represemthbks pkr este. Este pk be fhtercha y su
exclcacbhb fhtercha, lhgh bemscbhb, lhgh cfpebhmich y hath ikmsthmte be
vkathge (o) y ktrhs vemthghs phrh ah htemicùm fumbcha y ea beshrrkaak skm fuy
rèpcbhs, febcicùm uatrhsùmcih hi÷sih sulhiuèih, beteiicùm be prescùm,
cmcichicùm be comcicùm y ktrks hspeitks be ah skacictub. Ah besvemthgh es que ah
ikmsthmte be bejkrfhicùm pcezkeaãitrcih (b) es lhgh, ak que ah dhie fuy
acfcthbh ikfk trhmsbuitkr be efcscùm hivk.

Ah terierh ihteokræh es ikfpuesth be fhterchaes pcezkeaãi

pcezkeaãitrciks
trciks jkrfhbks pkr
fhterchae
fhterc haess lhs
lhsee be pka
pkaæfe
æferks
rks kro
kroèmc
èmcik
ikss cmi
cmirus
rusthb
thbks
ks em aèf
aèfcmh
cmhs,
s, vhrcaa
vhrcaahs,
hs,
 

vhrcaaaahs
vhrc hs k fhfhte
terc
rcha
haes
es pc
pcez
ezke
keaã
aãit
itrc
rcik
ikss em pkpkav
avk.
k. Dhst
Dhsthh hdkr
hdkrh,
h, dh scbk
scbk
hfpachfemt
hfpac hfemtee uaczhbk
uaczhbk em hi÷s
hi÷sih
ih sulfh
sulfhrcmh,
rcmh, eaeitrkhi
eaeitrkhi÷si
÷sih,
h, uatrhskmcb
uatrhskmcbk,
k,
febcicmh y ktrks ihfpks. Yc se ikmvcerte em um trhmsbuitkr dcbrkhi÷sik, mk
skak
skak e eme
me umh hahath
th thsh
thsh be reresp
spue
uest
sthh be pr
pres
escù
cùmm dc
dcbr
brks
kstè
tèi
ih,
h, scmk
scmk qu
quee
thflcãm eme rescstemich ha cfphitk, mk se bhøh jèicafemte y se puebe uaczhr
ikm bcjeremtes prkjumbcbhbes.
»Be quã fhmerh skm superckres h aks fhterchaes pcezkeaãitrciks be LhRcK9;

Ykm superckres h estks, belcbk h que, ikm estks, se puebe trhlhghr em hatk
rhmok
rhmokss be tef
tefper
perhtu
hturh
rh y presem
presemth
th jue
juerte
rte ejeit
ejeitk
k pce
pcezke
zkeaãi
aãitrc
trcik>
ik> hphrte
hphrte
iuemthm ikm um fegkr hikpahfcemtk y lhgh htemuhicùm hi÷sih, uaczhbk
phrh prkphohicùm be kmbhs hi÷sihs be superice.

98. h) »Xuã skm aks pkaæferks ikmbuitkres;

l) »Iùf
»Iùfk
k ju
jumi
mick
ckmh
mhm;
m;
i) Femi
Femickme
ckme umh hp
hpac
acihi
ihicù
cùm
m Beshr
Beshrrkaa
rkaak.
k.

»Xuã skm aks pkaæferks ikmbuitkres;

Aks pka
pkaæfe
æferks
rks ikmbui
ikmbuitkr
tkres
es skm
skm fh
fhter
tercha
chaes
es jkrfh
jkrfhbks
bks pkr ahrohs
ahrohs ih
ihbem
bemhs
hs
dc
dcbr
brki
kihr
hrlk
lkmh
mhbh
bhss ik
ikm
m bk
bklae
laess em
emah
ahie
iess hate
hatermk
rmks,
s, k ikmg
ikmguo
uohb
hbks
ks.. Iuhm
Iuhmbk
bk
extrhefks um eaeitrùm be umk be estks bklaes emahies se oemerh um rhbciha
ihùm, thflcãm aahfhbk pkahrùm, y ha seoucr kxcbhmbk se puebe hrrhmihr um
seoumbk eaeitrùm phrh jkrfhr um bcihùm, k lcpkahrùm, que es fuy esthlae.

Esth ihroh pkscvh puebe bespahzhrse pkr ah ihbemh phshmbk be um bklae

emahie h ktrk ikmbuicembk be este fkbk ah eaeitrcicbhb. Ah extrhiicùm be
 

eaeitrkmes, u kxcbhicùm, puebe ser ikmmuhbh jkrfèmbkse fès be um ihùm

pkrr ih
pk ihbe
bemh
mh.. Ah
Ahss jhfc
jhfcacachs
hs fè
fèss ik
ikfu
fume
mess be pkpkaæaæfe
ferk
rkss ik
ikmbu
mbuit
itkr
kres
es sk
skm
m
bercvhbks be7 pkachieaemk, pkachmcacmh, pkacpcrrka y pkackjemk.

»Iùfk jumickmhm;
Aks pkaæferks ikmbuitkres, ikmbuiem ah eaeitrcicbhb belcbk prcmicphafemte h
ah presemich be icerths ihmbhbes be ktrks prkbuitks quæfciks (bkphbk),
perk thflcãm h ah presemich be bklaes emahies ikmguohbks que perfctem ea
phsk be um ugk be eaeitrkmes.
Em aks pkaæferks ikmbuitkres ah ikmbuivcbhb es ikfpaegh y bepembe be su
prephrhicùm y bkphbk. Es lhsthmte ikmkicbk que em umh ihbemh pkacfãrcih aks
eaeitrkmes se bcstrcluyhm em esthbks bcsiretks be emeroæh aahfhbks lhmbhs. Ah
lhmbh kiuphbh be eaeitrkmes be fès hath emeroæh se aahfh lhmbh be vhaemich, y
ah vhiæh sctuhbh gustk emicfh be ãsth es ah aahfhbh lhmbh be ikmbuiicùm.

Em oemerha aks pkaæferks emem ah lhmbh be vhaemich aaemh y ah be ikmbuiicùm

vhiæh, ak que dhie que temohm luemhs prkpcebhbes hcsahmtes yh que es fuy
ikfpacihbk que se iree fkvcacbhb be eaeitrkmes. Estk se bele ha orhm shatk be
emeroæh (Eo) que dhy que superhr phrh que ea eaeitrùm que se emiuemtrh em
um mcvea be emeroæh fès hatk be ah lhmbh be vhaemich (ikm umh emeroæh Ej)
haihmie ah lhmbh be ikmbuiicùm.
Ah hmidurh be ah lhmbh be vhaemich (HL) estè reahickmhbh ikm ea fhykr k ea
 

femkr orhbk be ikmguohicùm be aks eaeitrkmes p. Ikfk yh se dh vcstk, em aks

pkaæferks ikmbuitkres excste umh eaevhbh ikmguohicùm, ak iuha cfpacih umh
besakihaczhicùm
besakihaczhicùm be eaeitrkmes, y pkr thmtk umh
u mh icerth fkvcacbhb be estks.
Hpacihicùm.

-
Ihphs phrh icriuctks eaeitrkfhomãiks
eaeitrkfhomãiks..
- Peaæiuahs hmestèihs.
hmestèihs.
- Hphrhtks be cbemihicùm be rhbckjreiuemichs
rhbckjreiuemichs..
 

Lclackorhh

Okmzèaez-Zcøhs, _. y Fhmicmc, D. A. (<005). Ihpætuak 9. Prkpcebhbes eaãitrcihs.

eaãitrcihs. Em
Okmzèaez-Zcøhs, _. y Fhmicmc, D. A., Icemich be aks fhterchaes.
\eiuperhbk be7
dps7//elkkniemtrha.prkquest.ikf/acl/lclack
dps7//elkkniemtrha.prkquest.ikf/acl/lclackclerkhfercihmhs
clerkhfercihmhsp/rehber.hikm;
p/rehber.hikm;
bkiCB698533:  ?&query6icemich+be+aks+fhterchaes
bkiCB698533:

Lhrrksk Derrerk, Y. e Clèøez Uahrouc, G. (<082). Refh 5. Prkpcebhbes feièmcihs.

Em Lhrrksk Derrerk, Y. e Clèøez Uahrouc, G., Cmtrkbuiicùm ha ikmkicfcemtk be
fhterchaes.

\eiuperhbk be7
dps7//elkkniemtrha.prkquest.ikf/acl/lclack
dps7//elkkniemtrha.prkquest.ikf/acl/lclackclerkhfercihmhs
clerkhfercihmhsp/rehber.hikm;
p/rehber.hikm;
bkiCB698345<  2&query6cmtrkbuiick
bkiCB698345< 2&query6cmtrkbuiickm+ha+ikmkicfce
m+ha+ikmkicfcemtk+be+aks+f
mtk+be+aks+fhterchaes
hterchaes