BIOESTRATIGRAFIA

23/02/2022
DRA GREEN
Bioestratigrafía

"la parte de la Estratigrafía que trata de los restos o evidencias de vida

pasada en los estratos y de la organización de estos estratos en unidades
basadas en su contenido fósil" (GEI, 1980).

Bioestratigrafía - ciencia intermedia entre la propia Estratigrafía y la

Paleontología que se ocupa de la distribución de los fósiles en el registro
estratigráfico y de la subdivisión de los materiales estratificados en
unidades bioes-tratigráficas.

El objetivo básico de la Bioestratigrafía es recopilar y usar la información

acerca de la evolución morfológica de especies concretas para de este
modo determinar su distribución paleobiogeográfica y estratigráfica.
CONCEPTO DE ESPECIE

The concept of species, originally defined as groups of

interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated from
other such groups, is fundamental to the classification of
organisms.

Modern biological analyses provide additional information that

also allows the genetic characteristics of organisms to be
considered when defining a species: similarities or differences in
genetic make-up make it possible to rigorously define species and
determine the relationships between them.
Hierarchical system of classification
Linnaean System
In the Linnaean scheme, closely related species belong to the same
genus, similar genera belong to a family, and so on up to the largest
unit of classification, the Kingdom. The general term for any one of the
ranks defined by the Linnaean System is a taxon (plural taxa) and the
fundamental taxon rank is the species.

En biología, un taxón o taxon (del griego τάξις, transliterado como táxis,

«ordenamiento»)​ es un grupo de organismos emparentados, que en
una clasificación dada han sido agrupados, asignándole al grupo un
nombre en latín, una descripción si es una especie, y un tipo.

En latín el plural de taxón es taxa, y es como suele usarse en inglés,

pero en español el plural adecuado es «taxones» o «táxones».
In the definition of a fossil species it has been the practice to
establish a holotype, that is, a single representative specimen
against which other potential representatives of the species
can be compared. Digamos ejemplar modelo

Additional information that is used to define a species may

now include statistics about the shape and size of the
organism, the morphometrics, along with information about
associated fauna and the palaeoenvironmental habitat.
Other ranks in taxonomy

Subspecies and races are distinct sets which show common

characteristics that set them apart from others, but which can
still be considered to be part of the same species. The
variations are often due to geographical separation of the sets
leading to the development of different characteristics.

The concept of subspecies is used in palaeontology, although

the genetic basis for this cannot usually be established.
GÉNERO
A genus (plural genera) is a group of species that are closely related, and
when an organism is named it is given a genus as well as a species: for
example Homo sapiens is the Linnaean classification name for the human
species.

In palaeontology species level identification is normally only required for

biostratigraphic purposes, otherwise it is common to identify and classify
a fossil only to generic level. For example, if fossil oysters are found in a
limestone, they may be simply referred to as Ostraea as identification to
this level provides sufficient palaeoenvironmental information without the
need to identify the particular species of Ostraea.

(Note the conventions used in referring to species and genera: the first letter of the
genus name is always capitalised, while the species is always in lower case, and italics
are used in printed text.)
Fósiles y equivalents modernos

The higher ranks in the hierarchy are family, order, class, phylum and kingdom

The major phyla (Mollusca, Arthropoda, etc.: Fig.) have existed through the
Phanerozoic and it is possible to compare fossils to modern representatives
of these subsets of the main kingdoms (animal and plant). However, some
classes, many orders and a large number of families have been identified as
fossils but have no modern equivalents.

The ammonites, for example, formed a very large and diverse order from
Ordovician to Cretaceous times, but there are no modern equivalents, only
organisms such as nautiloids that belong to the same class, the Cephalopoda,
in the phylum Mollusca. The graptolites, which are commonly found in
Palaeozoic rocks, form a class of which there are no modern representatives.
La utilización de los fósiles para determinar la edad se basa en el
hecho constatado de que los organismos que han poblado la
superficie de la Tierra a través del tiempo, tanto en relieves
emergidos como en los mares y lagos, han ido cambiando de
manera permanente.

El tiempo geológico puede ser dividido en intervalos sucesivos

caracterizados por la presencia de unos organismos concretos, los
cuales de acuerdo con la Teoría de la Evolución, vivieron en un
tiempo concreto y ya no vuelven a aparecer, ya que la evolución
orgánica es un proceso progresivo e irreversible.
FÓSIL ÍNDICE O GUÍA

Con el nombre de fósiles característicos (o fósiles índice, o fósiles guía) se denominan

a los fósiles que pueden ser utilizados para delimitar intervalos de tiempo geológico
relativamente cortos y que, por tanto, pueden usarse como criterio de correlación
estratigráfica precisa. Fósil idea cumple tres condiciones:

a.- Que se trate de especies de evolución relativamente rápida con lo que cada
especie sobrevive un intervalo de tiempo corto.

b.- Que tenga una distribución geográfica muy amplia, si fuese posible ocupando toda
la superficie de la Tierra. Limitaciones, no existen organismos simultáneamente en
materiales de medios marinos y continentales.

c- Que tenga una abundancia suficiente en el seno de las rocas sedimentarias, lo que
refleja una frecuencia inicial y unas condiciones propicias para la fosilización. De este
modo la posibilidad de encontrarse es mayor.
BIOHORIZONTES

En una sección estratigráfica cada fósil concreto aparece en un conjunto de estratos

determinado, sin que esté presente por debajo de ellos ni vuelva a aparecer por
encima.

Las superficies estratigráficas que limitan la presencia de un fósil determinado en la

sección estratigráfica se llaman biohorizontes (abreviatura de horizontes
bioestratigráficos).

Para cada fósil se delimita un biohorizonte de primera aparición (BPA) que es la

superficie de estratificación a partir de la cual aparece dicho fósil, y un biohorizonte de
última presencia (BUP) que será la superficie de estratificación a partir de la cual (hacia
términos más modernos) ya no está presente dicho fósil.
BIOHORIZONTES

La distancia entre los dos biohorizontes en una misma sección estratigráfica

varía muy considerablemente de unos fósiles a otros, ya que depende de la
tasa de cambio evolutivo y de la tasa de sedimentación de los materiales
que los contengan.

Transformando esta distancia en tiempo geológico será, lógicamente, más

corta en los fósiles característicos.
 Distribución de diferentes fósiles
(M,N,O.P.G) en una sección estratigráfica.

BPA.- Biohorizonte de primera aparición.

BUP.- Biohorizonte de última presencia.

Vera(1994)
Mayor grupo de organismos preservados
como fósiles en el registro estratigráfico
y sus rangos de edades
As the similarities to modern organisms become fewer,
the problems of classification become greater as the
significance of morphological differences is less well
understood.

The classification of fossils in Linnaean hierarchy is

therefore in a constant state of flux as new fossil
discoveries are made that shed light on the probable
relationships between fossil organisms.
Biozona (acrónimo de «zona bioestratigráfica»)

Conjunto de rocas sedimentarias que se caracteriza por la presencia de

fósiles no retrabajados de determinado taxón o taxones. La biozona es
la unidad básica en bioestratigrafía, pueden agruparse en
superbiozonas y dividirse en subzonas.

Una biozona puede definirse sobre la base de la presencia de un solo

taxón o la combinación de varios, en la abundancia relativa o
variaciones en las características relacionadas con la distribución de los
fósiles (primera o última aparición).
Una sucesión estratigráfica puede ser dividida en distintas
escalas bioestratigráficas según diferentes grupo de fósiles
(ammonites, foraminíferos, etc.), así pues, pueden
identificarse varias unidades bioestratigráficas superpuestas
para el mismo intervalo rocoso.

El período de tiempo representado por una biozona se llama

biocrón, excepto para las biozonas de apogeo, que se
denomina hémera.
Tipos de biozonas

Los diferentes tipos de biozonas se establecen en función del número

de taxones contemplados, de su concurrencia, abundancia o de las
primeras o últimas apariciones de los mismos en las sucesiones
estratigráficas.

Los límites de una biozona se denominan biohorizontes (superficies

estratigráficas que limitan la primera o última presencia de fósiles de
determinado taxón o taxones o algún cambio significativo de carácter
bioestratigráfico).
En los siguientes dibujos de los Tipos de biozonas
cada rectángulo representa cuerpos de rocas
sedimentarias y cada línea el registro de un taxón
diferente.

Las flechas indican primera o última aparición de

un taxón.
Biozonas de conjunto

Las biozonas de conjunto o cenozonas, son las definidas por la

asociación concurrente de fósiles de varios taxones determinados
que forman una asociación tal que los diferencia de los estratos
adyacentes. Sin embargo, la distribución de los taxones
individuales puede ser mayor que la de la biozona.
Biozonas de extensión

Se refieren a la distribución de un taxón o conjunto de taxones, cuyos límites

viene marcados por los biohorizontes de primera o última presencia. Se
distinguen diferentes tipos de biozonas de extensión:

Biozona de extensión de un taxón: se define por los biohorizontes de primera y

última presencia de un taxón.

Biozona de extensión coincidente: se define por la parte concurrente de las

biozonas de extensión de dos taxones. La distribución, por tanto, será menor (más
precisa) que las extensiones de cualquiera de los dos taxones usados para
definirla.
Biozonas de extension…

Oppelzona: similar a la anterior pero usando varios taxones que aporten precisión
geocronológia. Se procura que los límites de las oppelzonas sean coincidentes con
las inmediatamente superiores e inferiores y no se solapen en el espacio, de forma
que se pueda alcanzar la subdivisión completa del registro geológico con biozonas
de este tipo. El nombre deriva del paleontólogo alemán Albert Oppel (1831–1865).

Filozona: se definen sobre la base de líneas evolutivas. Los límites inferior y

superior se establecen por la primera presencia de fósiles de diferentes especies
de una misma línea evolutiva.
Biozonas de apogee

Las biozonas de apogeo, epíboles o zonas de culminación, se definen por el

acmé o máxima abundancia relativa de determinado taxón, no por la
extensión total del mismo. El equivalente temporal de esta biozona se
denomina hémera.
Biozonas de intervalo

Las biozonas de intervalo se caracterizan por la ausencia de alguno o todos

los taxones que la definen. Es decir, se define el intervalo en el que ya ha
desaparecido un taxón y aún no ha aparecido otro o hay presencia de un
taxón pero ya ha desapareció o no ha aparecido aún otro distinto.
Esquemas de zonación usados en correlación estratigráfica
(Adaptada de la Comisión NA de Nomenclatura Estratigráfica, 1983)
Denominación formal de las biozonas

Los nombres de las biozonas se forman con el tipo de biozona (biozona

de extensión, de apogeo, etc.) y el nombre completo, según las reglas
de la nomenclatura binomial, de uno o no más de dos taxones
representativos de la misma (p. ej. «Biozona de extensión Exus albus»),
aunque puede abreviarse en citas sucesivas («zona de E. albus»).

Asimismo, es frecuente el uso de letras, alfabéticamente correlativas,

para nombrar biozonas sucesivas (biozona A, B, C, etc.), aunque no se
consideran nombres formales.
?
A CONSIDERAR

 Rate of speciation

 Depositional environment controls

 Mobility of organisms

 Geographical distribution of organisms

 Abundance and size of fossils

 Preservation potential
Nichols, 2009
Rate of speciation

The frequency with which new species evolve and replace former
species in the same lineage determines the resolution that can be
applied in biostratigraphy. Some organisms seem to have hardly
evolved at all:

The groups that appear to display the highest rates of speciation are
vertebrates, with mammals, reptiles and fish developing new species
every 1 to 3 million years on average (Stanley 1985).

However, the stratigraphic record of vertebrates is poor compared

with marine molluscs, which are much more abundant as fossils, but
have slower average speciation rates (around 10 million years).
Rate of speciation…

There are some groups that appear to have developed new forms
regularly and at frequent intervals: new species of ammonites appear to
have evolved every million years or so during the Jurassic and
Cretaceous and in parts of the Cambrian some trilobite lineages appear
to have developed new species at intervals of about a million years
(Stanley 1985).

By using more than one species to define them, biozones can commonly
be established for time periods of about a million years, with higher
resolution possible in certain parts of the stratigraphic record, especially
in younger strata.
Depositional environment controls

The conditions vary so much between different depositional

environments that no single species, genus or family can be expected to
live in all of them.

The adaptations required to live in a desert compared with a swamp, or a

sandy coastline compared with a deep ocean, demand that the
organisms that live in these environments are different.

There is a strong environmental control on the distribution of taxa

today and it is reasonable to assume that the nature of the
environment strongly influenced the distribution of fossil groups as
well.
Depositional environment controls…

Some environments are more favourable to the preservation of body

fossils than others: for example, preservation potential is lower on a
high-energy beach than in a low-energy lagoon.

There is a fundamental problem with correlation between continental

and marine environments because very few animals or plants are
found in both settings.

In the marine environment the most widespread organisms are those

that are planktonic (free floating) or animals that are nektonic (free-
swimming lifestyle). Those that live on the sea bed, the benthonic or
benthic creatures and plants, are normally found only in a certain
water depth range and are hence not quite so useful.
Depositional environment controls…

The rates of sedimentation in different depositional environments are

also a factor in the preservation and distribution of stratigraphically
useful fossils.

Slow sedimentation rates result in poor preservation because organism are

left exposed -subject to biogenic degradation.

On the other hand, slower rate of accumulation in an anoxic environment,

the higher concentration of fossils.
Mobility of organisms

The lifestyle of an organism not only determines its distribution in depositional

environments, it also affects the rate at which an organism migrates from one area
to another.

If a new species evolves in one geographical location its value as a zone fossil in a
regional or worldwide sense will depend on how quickly it migrates to occupy
ecological niches elsewhere.

Again, planktonic and nektonic organisms tend to be most useful in biostratigraphy

because they move around relatively quickly. Some benthic organisms have a larval
stage that is free-swimming and may therefore be spread around oceans relatively
quickly. Organisms that do not move much (a sessile lifestyle) generally make poor
fossils for biostratigraphic purposes.
Geographical distribution of organisms

Two environments may be almost identical in terms of physical conditions but if

they are on opposite sides of the world they may be inhabited by quite different
sets of animals and plants.

The contrasts are greatest in continental environments where geographical

isolation of communities due to tectonic plate movements has resulted in quite
different families and orders. The mammal fauna of Australia are a striking
example of geographical isolation resulting in the evolution of a group of
animals that are quite distinct from animals living in similar environments in
Europe or Asia.
Geographical distribution of organisms…

This geographical isolation of groups of organisms is called

provincialism and it also occurs in marine organisms, particularly
benthic forms, which cannot easily travel across oceans. Present or
past oceans have been sufficiently separate to develop localised
communities even though the depositional environments may have
been similar. This faunal provincialism makes it necessary to develop
different biostratigraphic schemes in different parts of the world.
Abundance and size of fossils

To be useful as a zone fossil a species must be sufficiently abundant to be

found readily in sedimentary rocks.

It must be possible for the geologist to be able to find representatives of the

appropriate taxon without having to spend an undue amount of time looking.

There is also a play-off between size and abundance. In general, smaller

organisms are more numerous and hence the fossils of small organisms tend
to be the most abundant. The problem with very small fossils is that they may
be difficult to find and identify.
Abundance and size of fossils…

The need for biostratigraphic schemes to be applicable to subsurface data

from boreholes has led to an increased use of microfossils, fossils that are
too small to be recognised in hand specimen, but which may be abundant
and readily identified under the microscope (or electron microscope in some
cases).

Schemes based on microfossils have been developed in parallel to

macrofossil schemes. Although a scheme based on ammonites may work
very well in the field, the chances of finding a whole ammonite in the core of
a borehole are remote.

Microfossils are the only viable material for use in biostratigraphy where
drilling does not recover core but only brings up pieces of the lithologies in
the drilling mud.
Preservation potential

It is impossible to determine how many species or individuals have

lived on Earth through geological time because very few are ever
preserved as fossils. The fossil record represents a very small fraction
of the biological history of the planet for a variety of reasons.

First, some organisms do not possess the hard parts that can survive
burial in sediments: we therefore have no idea how many types of
worm may have existed in the past.

Sites where there is exceptional preservation of the soft parts of

fossils (lagersta¨tten) provide tantalising clues to the diversity of
lifeforms that we know next to nothing about.
Preservation potential…

Second, the depositional environment may not be favourable to the preservation

of remains: only the most resistant pieces of bone survive in the dry, oxidising
setting of deserts and almost all other material is destroyed. All organisms are part
of a food chain and this means that their bodies are normally consumed, either by
a predator or a scavenger. Preservation is therefore the exception for most
animals and plants.

Finally, the stratigraphic record is very incomplete, with only a fraction of the
environmental niches that have existed preserved in sedimentary rocks. The low
preservation potential severely limits the material available for biostratigraphic
purposes, restricting it to those taxa that had hard parts and existed in appropriate
depositional environments.
 HOMEWORK DUE MONDAY MARCH 7 2022

WHAT ARE THE TAXA USED IN BIOSTRATIGRAPHY ???

Referencia: Cap. 20.5, Nichols (2009)*

* Means that homework MUST BE absolutely grabbed off from my friend Nichols