Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
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UNIDAD 1
Categorías Gramaticales
Las palabras son unidades lexicales que permiten organizar el pensamiento, manifestar los
sentimientos y expresar el discurso con contenido, coherencia y cohesión, por medio de
distintas estructuras que generan e integran. Existen distintas clases de palabras. Algunas son
importantes por el contenido (significado) que expresan y porque generan las principales
estructuras sintáctico-semánticas del discurso. Son los Términos Conceptuales. Otras son
importantes por las funciones que desempeñan en el discurso, otorgan coherencia (hilación de
las ideas) y cohesión (unidad discursiva). Son los Términos Estructurales.
Clases Sustantivo
Conceptuales Adjetivo
Adverbio
de Verbo
Artículo
Palabras Estructurales Preposición
Conjunción
Pronombre
art sust verb art adj sust prep sust conj adj sust
The skin protects the underlying tissue from injury and harmful bacteria.
From: Anatomy of the Human Body. Henry Gray. The Bartleby.com. Edition of Grey’s Anatomy of the Human Body.
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El Sustantivo
Definición y clasificación
Se lo puede encontrar solo, o como núcleo de frases y cláusulas nominales que pueden
cumplir diferentes funciones dentro de la oración: objeto directo, indirecto, aposición, sujeto y
término de complemento.
Puede ser modificado por el artículo, pronombres reflexivos, adjetivos y por otro sustantivo
en función adjetiva. Esta última función se verifica sólo en la lengua inglesa. El adverbio
modifica al sustantivo en forma indirecta, a través de un adjetivo.
Las conjunciones unen sustantivos, y las preposiciones los articulan en forma indirecta. En
inglés suele omitirse el artículo mientras que en castellano, el artículo no se omite. Si la
modificación precede al sustantivo, se denomina “premodificación”; si se ubica
inmediatamente a continuación, se denomina “postmodificación”.
¡IMPORTANTE!
Cuando se busca un sustantivo en el diccionario, se lo debe buscar por su forma
base en singular, de allí la importancia de reconocer sus formas singular y plural.
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1) Sustantivo + S
address addresses; gas gases; fox foxes; match matches; hero heroes
man men; woman women; tooth teeth; foot feet; child children;
person people
8) Los Sustantivos de origen griego terminados en ON, cambian por A y los que
terminan en IS cambian por ES
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Formación de sustantivos – (sufijos)
Las terminaciones “er”, “ment” y “ation” se pueden agregar a muchos verbos para formar un
sustantivo. Ej:
Verbo + er = sustantivo
Use user
Read reader
Las terminaciones “ity” y “ness” se pueden agregar a muchos adjetivos para formar
sustantivos Ej.
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Ejercicio n° 1: Terminología Médica de Origen Griego y Latino
Busque los Plurales en inglés de los siguientes términos y escriba sus equivalentes en
español.
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Ejercicio n° 2: Formación de palabras
Digest digestion
Circulate circulation
Fail failure
Remove removal
Store storage
Synthesize synthesis
Know knowledge
Inhale inhaler
Donate donor
Link linkage
Assign assignment
Injure injury
Possible possibility
Inheritable inheritability
Sick sickness
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El Pronombre
I ................................ Yo
You ............................ Tú/Vos/Ud.
He …….... …………. Él
She …......… ……… . Ella
It ………..........…Él/Ella/Ello (objetos inanimados o animales)
We .............................. Nosotros
You ............................. Ustedes/Vosotros
They .............................Ellos/Ellas
Me Us
You You
Her/ him/ it Them
Ej: The doctor gave me this medicine = El doctor me dio este medicamento.
Talk to me! = Hablame.
Come with me! = Vení conmigo.
This book is for me/him. = Este libro es para mí/él.
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Pronombres reflexivos
Tienen función reflexiva (me, te, se, nos, os, se) o enfática.
Myself
Yourself
Himself
Herself
Itself
Ourselves
Yourselves
Themselves
¡Importante!
El grupo “by+pronombre reflexivo” se traduce por “solo” o
“por sí mismo”.
Pronombres posesivos
Dan información de pertenencia y reemplazan a un sustantivo
HIS: suyo /a/s (masc.) This is my office. His (=his office) is next to it. = Éste es mi
consultorio. El suyo está al lado.
HERS: suyo/a/s (fem.) These are my books. Hers (=her books) are on the desk. = Éstos
son mis libros. Los suyos están sobre el escritorio.
OURS: nuestro/a/os/as. This is their house, it isn’t ours (=our house). = Ésta es su casa,
no es la nuestra.
YOURS: suyo/a/s (pron. posesivo de “ustedes”) These are our books. Yours (=your books)
are over there. = Estos son nuestros libros. Los suyos están allí.
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THEIRS: suyo/a/s (pron. posesivo de “ellos/as”) Those are my neighbours and that car is
theirs (=their car). = Aquellos son mis vecinos y aquel auto es el suyo.
Pronombres demostrativos
Los demostrativos pueden desempeñarse como adjetivos, es decir, acompañando a un
sustantivo; o como pronombres, es decir, reemplazando a un sustantivo o a una frase nominal.
Ej:
(como adjetivo)
This patient is having a stroke. (Este paciente está sufriendo un ACV.)
Try these treatments for pain relief. (Pruebe con estos tratamientos para aliviar el dolor.)
What is that condition called? (¿Cómo se llama ese trastorno?)
Doctors should know about the cost of those tests they are ordering. (Los doctores deberían
conocer los costos de esos estudios que piden.)
(como pronombre)
She will stay in the hospital for a week. This is the best. (Permanecerá internada por una
semana. (Esto) es lo mejor.)
The doctor prescribed pills. These are quite expensive. (El médico recetó comprimidos.
(Estos) son bastante caros.)
Pronombres indefinidos
a- One/Ones
Cuando se utilizan luego de adjetivos, generalmente no se traducen. Si el sustantivo
que se reemplaza es singular, se utiliza “one”. Si se reemplaza un sustantivo plural, se utiliza
“ones”.
These books are about anatomy. The small one is from the library, the other one is
mine
Estos libros son de anatomía. El pequeño es de la biblioteca, el otro es mío.
She is the one suffering from MS. = Ella es la que padece de EM.
There are several pacemakers. Give me the ones that are in the box.
Hay varios marcapasos. Dame los que están en la caja.
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There are some patients in the room but there are not any doctors. (Hay algunos
pacientes en la sala pero no hay ningún doctor.)
There is some blood in the wound. (Hay un poco de sangre en la herida.)
También son formantes de los compuestos: someone; somebody; anyone; anybody; etc.
Dentro de este grupo de pronombres compuestos aparecen las formas con “no” (adverbio) en
oraciones con significado negativo pero con la frase verbal afirmativa y “every” (adjetivo;
pronombre). Las formas combinadas con “one” y “body” se refieren a personas, con “thing” a
cosas y con “where” a lugares.
Ej:
There is someone/ somebody waiting for you. (Hay alguien esperándolo/te.)
He did not eat anything before the blood test. (No comió nada antes del análisis de sangre.)
We have everything prepared. (Tenemos todo preparado.)
She said nothing about the symptoms. (No dijo nada acerca de los síntomas.)
Cuando any se usa en oraciones afirmativas significa cualquiera. De igual modo los
compuestos anything, anybody y anywhere equivalen a cualquier cosa/persona/lugar.
Ej: I’ll take a painkiller, any that I can find. (Tomaré un calmante, cualquiera que encuentre.)
Pronombres relativos
Se los encuentra encabezando una cláusula finita (con verbo conjugado) que modifica
a un frase nominal precedente, denominado “antecedente”.
Ej:
Patients who received the new drug recovered immediately, (Los pacientes que recibieron el
medicamento nuevo se recuperaron inmediatamente.)
The award will be used in a project that investigates the role of dental radiographs in
identifying patients who are at risk of having osteoporosis. (El premio se utilizará en un
proyecto que investiga el rol de las radiografías dentales en la identificación de los pacientes
que se encuentran en riesgo de tener osteosporosis.)
From: PAVITT S. et al.: “Looking into osteoporosis” NEWS British Dental Journal, 2003. 195: 68. Nº 2.
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Pronombres interrogativos o enfáticos
Se emplean para formular preguntas que exigen a) una especificación en la respuesta
(wh- questions) o b) en expresiones admirativas. Los más comunes son: which, what, who,
where, when, how.
Ej:
a) Where is the doctor? (¿Dónde está el medico?)
b) What a beautiful day! (¡Qué día hermoso!)
Cuadro: pronombres.
Whatever What
Whoever Who
Wherever No matter where
Whenever when
Whichever which
However How
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Ejercicio n° 3: Sustituya nombres propios, sustantivos comunes y frases nominales por el pronombre
personal correspondiente: I , you ,he, she , it, we ,you, they
a) a patient …………………………………….
b) Mr. and Mrs. Curtis ………………………...
c) the spleen ……………………………………
d) bacteria …………………………………..….
e) U.N.R. …………………………………..…..
f) My partners and I ……………………………
g) WHO …………………………………..……
h) Dr. Jack Brown ………………………………
i) infected tonsils ………………………………..
j) your colleague ………………………………..
This humanitarian organization envisions a future for Africa, free from the burden of
preventable and treatable diseases and conditions, in which its people can prosper.
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demostrativos y posesivos en función adjetiva, los artículos, los cuantificadores (much, many,
each, some, etc) y los numerales cardinales y ordinales.
Los artículos, posesivos y demostrativos ya han sido tratados, de modo que analizaremos
cuantificadores indicando cuando tienen, también, función pronominal. .
All, both and each se pueden usar como cuantificadores, seguidos de un sustantivo; como
pronombres, seguidos de”of” (each/ both/ all of us/ you/ them) y en aposición.
BOTH: hace referencia a dos y solo se usa con sustantivos contables.
ALL: hace referencia a más de dos y se usa con sustantivos contables e incontables.
Ambos se usan principalmente en oraciones con verbos en afirmativo.
Ej:
There were trees on both sides of the road.
(Había árboles a ambos lados de la ruta).
There were trees on all sides of the road.
(Había árboles por todas partes en la ruta).
All/both (of) the students could do this.
EACH: hace referencia a cada uno de modo individual. Va seguido de un sustantivo contable
singular. Enfatiza la idea de “uno por uno.”
EVERY: si bien tiene referencia singular, las cosas o personas son consideradas como parte
de un grupo o de modo más general. Every se usa en expresiones de tiempo como: every day,
every year.
Ej:
Every soldier saluted as the President arrived. (Todos los soldados saludaron cuando llegó el
presidente.)
The President gave each soldier a medal. (El presidente le entregó una medalla a cada
soldado.)
Each child in the class has different abilities and interests. (Cada niño de la clase tiene
habilidades e intereses diferentes.)
Every child in the class is required to bring a pencil and paper to school. (Se les solicita a
todos los niños de la clase que traigan un lápiz y papel a la escuela.)
Either, any, neither pueden usarse como determinantes (seguidos de sustantivos) y como
pronombres (seguidos de of). None solo puede ser usado como pronombre.
EITHER: Se refiere a uno de dos sin especificar cuál. Se usa con sustantivos contables en
singular.
ANY: Se refiere a uno sin especificar cuál, en un grupo de más de dos. Se usa con sustantivos
contables en plural y con sustantivos incontables. En este último caso, se refiere a una parte,
sin especificar cuál.
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Ej:
Either of her brothers will help you. (She has two brothers)
You can ask any of her friends. (She has more than two friends)
Can either person sell property acquired during a marriage?
Is there any restriction in hardware?
EITHER también puede usarse como conjunción junto con OR.
Ejemplo:
You can either pone the office or send an e-mail.
NEITHER: Indica “ninguno” en un grupo de dos. Se usa con sustantivos contables en singular.
NONE: Indica “ninguno” en un grupo de más de dos. Se usa con sustantivos contables en
plural y con sustantivos incontables.
Neither of them agreed to the proposal. (They were 2)
None of them agreed to the proposal. (They were more than 2)
None of the money was stolen.
It is an awkward moment when neither person knows what to say.
EITHER…OR y NEITHER… NOR también son conjunciones correlativas. (Ver 6.2)
ENOUGH: Significa “un número suficiente” para sustantivos contables en plural y “una
cantidad suficiente” para sustantivos incontables. Se puede usar como pronombre seguido de
“of.”
I do not know how to find enough time to do everything I want to.
There are not enough doctors in primary care.
Enough is also an adverb meaning “sufficiently”
This medication is good enough.
(a) FEW y su comparativo FEWER se usan con sustantivos contables en plural para indicar
“un pequeño número,” tanto como determinantes como como pronombres.
(a) LITTLE y su forma comparativa LESS se usan con sustantivos incontables para indicar
“una pequeña cantidad,” como determinantes y como pronombres.
He wanted to ask me a few questions but they were fewer than expected.
I have little money left but last month I had even less.
Little también es un adverbio que indica “en muy pequeños cantidad o grado”
Little is known about that subject.
MANY: Se usa con sustantivos contables en plural. Indica “un gran número.”
MUCH: Se usa con sustantivos incontables e indica “una gran cantidad.”
Ambos, much y many se pueden usar en forma pronominal seguidos de “of.”
In brainstorming you have to come up with as many ideas as possible.
He finished his studies after too much effort.
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MORE y MOST se usan con sustantivos contables en plural y con sustantivos incontables con
el significado de “un número/ cantidad adicional” y “el mayor número/ la mayor cantidad”
respectivamente, tanto como determinantes como como pronombres.
More students finished successfully.
Most students were absent.
SEVERAL: Se usa con sustantivos contables en plural y se refiere a “más de dos pero no un
gran número”. Se puede usar como determinante o como pronombre.
There were several people injured.
Several of them died.
NO: se usa con sustantivos contables singular o plural y con sustantivos incontables, solo
como determinante.
No child was admitted to the lecture.
I expected no answers.
There was no money left.
OTHER: Se usa con sustantivos contables en plural y con sustantivos incontables con el
significado de “distinto/a/s.”
THE OTHER: Se usa con sustantivos contables en singular e indica “el segundo de dos.”
ANOTHER: Se usa con sustantivos contables en singular y se refiere a “uno adicional.”
Assessment may be affected by illness or other circumstances.
He moved to the other side of the city.
They devised another treatment.
(the) OTHERS: Solo se utiliza como pronombre, con o sin “of” detrás, más frecuentemente
sin “of”.
Some of his friends are women; (the) others are men.
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El Verbo
El inglés no admite verbo sin sujeto (=sujeto tácito, en la gramática española), salvo en el
modo imperativo.
Verbo TO BE
“TO BE” generalmente se traduce como “ser” o “estar” cuando es el verbo principal de la
oración. También funciona como auxiliar en varias estructuras. A continuación presentamos
su paradigma en presente y pasado.
Negative
Interrogative
Am I …? Was I … ?
Is He/She/It…? Was He/She/It … ?
Are We/You/They…? Were We/You/They…?
Ej:
I am a pediatrician = Soy pediatra
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It isn’t a new drug = No es una droga nueva
Are these results good? = ¿Estos resultados son buenos?
Yes, they are = Si, lo son
He was in hospital = Estaba internado
They weren’t researchers = No eran investigadores
Were you at work yesterday morning? = ¿Estabas en el trabajo ayer a la mañana?
No, I wasn’t = No, no estaba
“There” seguido por alguna construcción del verbo “be” se traduce por la forma
impersonal de los verbos HABER o EXISTIR. Si el sustantivo que se encuentra a
continuación es singular o no contable, el verbo “Be” estará en singular (is/was), y si el
sustantivo es plural, la forma del verbo “Be” será plural (are/were).
PRESENTE PASADO
Ej:
There is pain, but usually not too severe. (Hay dolor, pero generalmente no muy intenso.)
There are no reliable data showing how many people have that disease. (No existen datos
confiables que muestren cuántas personas sufren esa enfermedad.)
There is not a vaccine for that disease. (No hay vacunas para esa enfermedad.)
There are not differences between the two of them. (No hay diferencias entre ellos dos.)
Is there any infection? (¿Hay infección?)
Are there any responses to the treatment? (¿Hay alguna respuesta al tratamiento?)
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5. They are very poisonous.
6. Doctor Smith is on call tonight.
7. Are there any more patients waiting to see the specialist?
8. How many bacteria are there in this sample of water?
9. I’m not a physician. I’m a nurse.
10. Is it worth doing that test again?
11. Were there many cases of tuberculosis last year?
12. It was cold yesterday.
13. He is 1,75 mts tall.
14. The patient is 42 years old.
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Uso del diccionario
Todos los diccionarios están siempre organizados en orden alfabético, por lo tanto a la hora
de buscar una palabra es importante prestar atención a la primera letra de la misma:
Brother. Una vez identificada la categoría, en este caso, “categoría B”, hay que mirar la
segunda letra de la palabra bRother.
Abreviaturas
Dichas abreviaturas guían al lector en la comprensión de cada palabra. Las mismas son
importantes porque, como en español, existen palabras que tienen más de un significado.
Water(n): agua. Water (v): regar // Can (n): lata Can (aux) = poder
Lea la definición
Cuando hayas localizado la palabra, verás su significado exacto (si tiene más de una
definición, la primera será la más común). Siempre es importante tener en cuenta el contexto
en el cual aparece la palabra.
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A continuación se presenta el tratamiento del término condition, de uso muy frecuente en
medicina, según distintos diccionarios consultados, para que el lector pueda comparar las
diferencias de criterio editorial que rigen la elaboración de diccionarios bilingües y
monolingües, generales y específicos, de ediciones impresas y electrónicas. Luego se agrega
un breve comentario sobre cada uno.
From: “Oxford Superlex for Windows. English/Spanish Dictionary”. Oxford University Press, England,1996.
1. ¿En qué orden aparecen estas palabras en el lado inglés-español y en el lado español-
inglés?
a. Saturday, cream, cut, write, shiny, kiss, belly, chess, mother, white.
pelo, inútil, con, abrazar, local, entrada, chicle, naranja, delantero, llevar
b. pane, practise, practice, pillow, plug, put, packet, photo, penguin, proud, party
contra, cine, chileno, cofre, conseguir, cabaña, caber, cantar, cantante, charco, celoso
2. En cada grupo, hay una palabra que no representa el orden alfabético. ¿Cuál es la intrusa?
mancha salt cabeza giant
mandar silver caer goal
malo short calle goose
marca smart cálculo great
marrano special caminar grasp
más stand canoso green
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3. Buscar palabras compuestas con el sustantivo birth, heart, blood.
4. Buscar ejemplos de phrasal verbs con los verbos look, get, take.
6. ¿Qué significado o equivalente hay que buscar en el diccionario para las siguientes
palabras?
Teeth: Tooth (Dientes – Diente)
Factories:
Ladies:
Gentlemen:
Feet:
Men:
Women:
People:
Dictionaries:
Formulae:
7. ¿Qué significados propone el diccionario para las siguientes palabras? Tener en cuenta que
las misma pueden variar según su categoría.
8. Buscar en el diccionario las siguientes palabras teniendo en cuenta que, a pesar de que sean
parecidas al español, tienen un significado diferente.
1. Arm
2. Influenza
3. Physician
4. Disorder
5. Gripe
6. Parents
7. Relatives
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Ejercicio n° 7
4 4 A
B
C
2
7
5 D
3 3
6
8 8
E
… …
…. … . 1…
…
…
… …
…
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C)
1. head
2. hair
3. face
4. forehead
5. eye
6. cheek
7. nose
8. lips
9. mouth
10. tooth / teeth
11. chin
12. ear
13. neck
14. throat
15. back of the neck
16. back
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E) THE MAJOR BONES OF THE SKELETON
Ubique las palabras según corresponda.
………….
………………. ……………
……………..
……………..
………………
F) Cinco de los términos utilizados están mal ubicados. Detéctelos y ubíquelos en el lugar
correcto.
Cervical
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum
Tibia
Thoracic
Phalanges
Lumbar vertebrae
ilium Ulna
Sacrum
Radius
Coccyx
Carpals Pubis
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Ischium
Ribs
Patella
Fibula
Humerus
Tarsals 25
Metatarsals
Femur
G) SOME ORGANS OF THE ABDOMEN
Complete las palabras según corresponda.
Stom…..
Pan…………..
Sple….
Li…… Transv…….. colon
Gallblad…..
Descend…… colon
Duode…..
Ascending co… Small intest….
Sigm…. colon
Caec….
Appen…… Rect…..
Midbrain
Midbrain
Spinal cord – Medulla - Forebrain
Brain - Cerebellum - stem Pons
Brain ………. …………. Hind brain
…………
…………….
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I) ANTERIOR ASPECT OF THE THORAX AND NECK
Ubique las palabras en el lugar correspondiente.
thyroid – heart – larynx – lung – trachea
--------------------
----------------------
-----------------------
Thymus -
------------------------- -----------
-----------
-
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UNIDAD 2
Frase Nominal
A continuación, analizaremos las palabras que pueden integrar una frase nominal.
El artículo
Se emplea para acotar la referencia de un sustantivo. El artículo definido especifica
la referencia que debe ser conocida por el emisor y el receptor de un mensaje,
mientras que el artículo indefinido restringe la referencia a un solo miembro de una
clase.
Analice por ejemplo, el uso de los cuatro artículos. ¿Cuál es el equivalente de estas dos
oraciones?
¡Importante!
El artículo no debe usarse cuando es innecesario o si confunde el
significado de la frase en castellano. 28
Ej: She is a nurse = Es enfermera
As a result... = Como resultado...
...in the form of water vapour =...en forma de vapor de agua
La preposición
Las preposiciones nos ayudan a establecer relaciones entre los diferentes elementos de una
frase u oración. Pueden mostrar una relación de movimiento, ubicación o tiempo entre dos
elementos. En la siguiente lista aparecen algunas de las preposiciones más comunes en inglés
que servirá de referencia para lo que analizaremos más adelante.
Sustantivo + sustantivo
Es muy común encontrar que uno o más sustantivos acompañen a un sustantivo núcleo
(noun head) para dar información sobre éste cumpliendo una función adjetiva al
premodificarlo. En este tipo de construcciones, el último sustantivo es el sustantivo núcleo.
Ej:
Blood circulation = circulación sanguínea
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FN FN
30
Ejercicio n° 9: Frases Nominales.
El adjetivo
La principal función de los adjetivos es la de modificar a los sustantivos. Califican,
clasifican, caracterizan, definen, describen, o indican grado.
Adjetivos calificativos
Los adjetivos son invariables en género y número. Suelen ubicarse delante del sustantivo.
Adjetivos gentilicios
Expresan nacionalidad y en inglés se escriben con mayúscula.
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German measles (rubéola)
The French nurse (la enfermera francesa/el enfermero francés)
Ejercicio n° 10
Summary
Phenotypic Expression of the Marfan Syndrome. Clinical Records of a Family in Three
Running Generations
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Grado comparativo del adjetivo
El adjetivo puede usarse en grado positivo, es decir sin ninguna modificación, comparativo
o superlativo.
Grado superlativo: oldest/youngest. Ej: John is 20 years old. John is the oldest
boy.
oldest
Grado .
comparativo
Se utiliza para comparar dos objetos, personas, lugares, etc. Debemos diferenciar entre los
adjetivos cortos y los largos. Los cortos son los monosílabos, es decir los que no se pueden
separar en sílabas (old) y los bisílabos terminados en er, ow, y, y le. Los adjetivos largos
tienen dos o más sílabas (interesting). Esta distinción servirá para diferenciar la forma de esta
estructura.
Adjetivos cortos
El grado comparativo de los adjetivos cortos se forma de la siguiente manera:
ADJ - ER + THAN
Adjetivos largos
Los adjetivos largos son los que tienen dos sílabas (siempre que no terminen en “er”, “ow”
o “y”) o más. El grado comparativo de estos adjetivos se forma anteponiendo “more”.
Ej: Mary is more intelligent than Sue. (Mary es más inteligente que Sue)
This study is less interesting than the previous one. (Este estudio es menos interesante
que el anterior.)
33
Grado superlativo
Se emplea para comparar más de dos elementos, cuando queremos destacar el elemento
que sobresale del resto.
Ej: Bone is the hardest tissue of the body. (El hueso es el tejido más duro de todo el cuerpo.)
This is the best medicine for that disease. (Éste es el mejor remedio para esa
enfermedad.)
That is the most effective treatment. (Aquel es el tratamiento más efectivo.)
Adjetivos cortos
Superlativos irregulares:
Good (bueno) ..... the best (el mejor)
Bad (malo) ..... the worst (el peor)
Far (lejano) .....the furthest / farthest (el más lejano)
Old (viejo) ..... the oldest (el más viejo) / eldest (el mayor)
Adjetivos largos
Ej: Mary is the most efficient nurse in the hospital. (Mary es la enfermera más eficiente del
hospital.)
This antibiotic is the least expensive in the market. (Este antibiótico es el menos caro del
mercado.)
Comparativo de igualdad
AS + ADJETIVO + AS
Con esta estructura podemos establecer relaciones de igualdad o diferencia entre dos
elementos.
Ej: This antibiotic is as expensive as that one. (Este antibiótico es tan caro como aquél.)
This antibiotic is not as expensive as the latest one. (Este antibiótico no es tan caro como
el último que salió a la venta.)
Progresión y paralelismo
Son formas especiales del comparativo. La progresión es la repetición de un adjetivo o
adverbio en forma comparativa.
34
Ej: The patient went into a deeper and deeper coma. (El paciente entró en estado de coma
cada vez mas profundo)
More and more investigators use a similar technique. (Cada vez más investigadores utilizan
una técnica similar)
1. The rate of flu related complications is even more complicated for people with heart
disease.
2. That was the least dangerous reaction of the three.
3. Your doctor recommends waiting until you feel better than today.
4. Favaloro was one of the most famous physicians in Argentina in the 90s.
5. The less a person eats, the less strength he has.
6. This disease is as contagious as the other one.
7. The sooner he arrives, the earlier he starts to work.
8. We work faster than you.
9. The rates for premature death due to bronchitis were the highest among postmen
working in the most polluted areas of Buenos Aires.
10. The principles of cholera prevention and control are basically the same as those for
other forms of infectious diarrhea, the second most common killer of children in less
developed countries (after neumonia).
35
entertain entertaining entertained
frighten frightening frightened
secrete secreting secreted
contract contracting contracted
Como el participio pasado indica un estado, el verbo “to be” equivale a “estar” cuando se usa
con el participio pasado.
Ej:
a contracted muscle: un músculo contraído (ESTÁ contraido/contracturado)
Como el participio presente indica una acción el verbo “to be” equivale a “ser” cuando está
en el mismo contexto. Ejemplo:
an interesting book: un libro interesante (ES interesante, produce interés)
Ej:
underlying tissues (tejidos subyacentes)
stored glycogen (glucógeno almacenado)
marked tendency (tendencia marcada)
Lea las siguientes cláusulas nominales. Identifique los adejtivos terminados en ‘ing’ y
‘ed’ y luego tradúzca las oraciones.
1. Emerging infectious diseases.
2. The doctor is very tired.
3. The surgery was tiring.
4. The conference was so boring that everyone was extremely bored.
5. What music do you listen to if you feel depressed?
6. I think that three successive days of rain are a bit depressing.
7. Television viewing as a cause of increasing obesity among children in the USA.
Breathing Difficulties
Breathing difficulties occur when the body is not getting enough oxygen. People with cancer
may experience shortness of breath or difficulty breathing due to a number of different
problems including:
Chronic lung diseases such as emphysema and other diseases not related to cancer
Airway obstruction (blockage of a breathing tube)
Pneumonia
Pain
Difficulty with movement or not being able to move
Malnutrition (lack of adequate nutrients for the body)
Obesity
Stress or anxiety
Surgery
36
Anemia
Side effects of chemotherapy or radiation therapy
The cancer itself
Fluid in the lungs
These problems either prevent the lungs from breathing in enough air or prevent them from
delivering enough oxygen to the cells of the body
From Advanced Cancer and Palliative Care. Treatment Guidelines for Patients. NCCN. Version I. December 2003.
Adjetivos numerales
Expresan cantidad. Pueden ser cardinales: one, two, three o pueden ser ordinales: first, second
third.
Cardinals Ordinals
0 zero
1 one 1st first
nd
2 two 2 second
3 three 3rd third
th
4 four 4 fourth
5 five 5th fifth
th
6 six 6 sixth
7 seven 7th seventh
8 eight 8th eighth
th
9 nine 9 ninth
10 ten 10th tenth
th
11 eleven 11 eleventh
12 twelve 12th twelfth
th
13 thirteen 13 thirteenth
14 fourteen 14th fourteenth
th
15 fifteen 15 fifteenth
16 sixteen 16th sixteenth
th
17 seventeen 17 seventeenth
18 eighteen 18th eighteenth
19 nineteen 19th nineteenth
th
20 twenty 20 twentieth
21 twenty-one 21st twenty-first
nd
22 twenty-two 22 twenty-second
23 twenty-three 23rd twenty-third
th
24 twenty-four 24 twenty-fourth
37
30 thirty 30th thirtieth
31 thirty-one 31st thirty-first
40 forty 40th fortieth
50 fifty 50th fiftieth
60 sixty 60th sixtieth
70 seventy 70th seventieth
80 eighty 80th eightieth
90 ninety 90th ninetieth
100 a hundred 100th a hundredth
Adjetivos indefinidos
Los que se encuentran con mayor frecuencia son: “SOME”, “ANY”, "NO". Se pueden
utilizar delante de:
- Sustantivos contables en plural (una cierta cantidad de, algunos/as)
- Sustantivos incontables (un poco/algo de)
There aren’t any special characteristics. Have you got any questions?
There isn’t any water in the glass. Is there any coffee?
NO: - en oraciones con la frase verbal afirmativa pero con función negativa, ya que este
adjetivo lleva esa información:
She has no pimples = she hasn’t got any pimples (contable)
She has no information = she hasn’t got any information (no contable)
No money. No more money
38
Adjetivos demostrativos
THIS THESE
Sing para algo que se encuentra cerca Pl para algo que se encuentra cerca
Sing para algo que se encuentra lejos Pl para algo que se encuentra lejos.
THAT THOSE
Preceden al sustantivo y son los únicos adjetivos que concuerdan con el número del
sustantivo.
Adjetivos posesivos
Se ubican delante de sustantivos comunes y dan información de pertenencia con respecto
al sustantivo que preceden.
HIS: su/s (masc.) This is my father. His name is Jerry = Te presento a mi padre.
Su nombre es Jerry
HER: su/s (fem.) Susan has her new medicine in that box =
Susan tiene su medicamento nuevo en aquella caja
ITS: su/s (objetos y animales) The dog is in its house = El perro está en su casa
YOUR: su/s (posesivo de “ustedes”) Open your books, please = Abran sus libros, por
favor
THEIR: su/s (posesivo de “ellos/as”) These are Tom, Susan, and their son Tim =
Te presento a Tom, Susan y su hijo Tim
39
Ejercicio n° 13
Lea el siguiente texto y encuentre ejemplos de: sustantivos en singular y en plural. Adjetivos
calificativos. Pronombres.
Es una estructura que se utiliza para denotar posesión. Aparece primero el “poseedor”,
seguido de un apóstrofo y una “s” y luego el “objeto poseído”.
Cuando el sustantivo que actúa como “poseedor” termina en “s” (“Sócrates”) o está en plural
(“patients”), se agrega solamente el apóstrofo y se omite la “s”.
40
La construcción con “of”
La oración simple
Consiste en una o más palabras que funcionan como unidad de sentido y expresan una
idea. Su estructura generalmente es:
41
Ejercicio n° 15: Estrucura de la oración simple.
a) Cavity ...........................................................................................................................
A cavity .........................................................................................................................
A conical cavity .............................................................................................................
A large conical cavity ....................................................................................................
This is a large conical cavity divided into three compartments .....................................
b) Woman ........................................................................................................................
A woman ......................................................................................................................
A young woman ............................................................................................................
A Spanish young woman ..............................................................................................
The following patient is a Spanish young woman .........................................................
c) Organs ..........................................................................................................................
The Organs ..................................................................................................................
The internal Organs ......................................................................................................
The principal internal organs ........................................................................................
The principal internal organs are surrounded by fats ..................................................
d) Sheath ..........................................................................................................................
A sheath …....................................................................................................................
A fibrous sheath …........................................................................................................
A thin fibrous sheath ………..........................................................................................
A thin fibrous sheath covers the skin…………………...................................................
e) Organisms …………………………………………………………………
Unicellular organisms ……………………………………………….……...
Small unicellular organisms ………………………………………………...
Very small, unicellular organisms ……………………………………………..
Bacteria are very small, unicellular organisms ………………………………..
f) Formation ……………………………………………………………………….
Fibre formation …..…………………………………………..…………………
Collagen fibre formation …………………………………………………………
Defective collagen fibre formation ……………………………..………………..
Lack of vitamin C causes defective collagen fibre formation ……………………
g) Vessels …………………………………………………...………………...
Blood vessels ……………………………………………………………...
Tubular blood vessels……………………………………………….……...
Long, tubular blood vessels ………………………………………………..
Arteries are long, tubular blood vessels. ………………………………….
42
Ejercicio n° 16: oraciones simples.
h) Veins are wide blood vessels with some muscle tissue in their walls.
...........................................................................................................................................
i) Platelets are very small particles which stick together to stop bleeding.
...........................................................................................................................................
43
j) Carbohydrates are the principal source of energy in most diets.
...........................................................................................................................................
l) The organs of digestion are the principal internal organs in the abdomen.
...........................................................................................................................................
44
UNIDAD 3
La oración compuesta
La oración compuesta presenta dos o más oraciones simples unidas por un signo de
puntuación, en el caso de las coordinadas yuxtapuestas, o por una conjunción que expresa la
relación entre ambas: adición, contradicción, alternativa, causa, consecuencia. Por ej: and, so,
but, because, either...or, neither...nor, both...and, yet, not only...but as well. Cada oración tiene
su Sujeto y su Predicado.
I want to read. I want to watch TV. (not only... but ...as well)
I want not only to read but to watch TV as well.
I want not only to read but also to watch TV.
45
Oraciones Compuestas
AND Chewing breaks the food into smaller pieces and saliva moistens them.
BUT In wasting diseases too, there is a reduction in the cell mass and in the energy
reserve, but there is an increase in the supporting tissue, which is caused by
oedema.
FOR I could not hear properly for the noise of the traffic was deafening.
SO The new internist is very inefficient so the head teacher will have to talk to
him.
46
For instance: por ejemplo Such as: tal/es como
Further(more): además That is (to say): o sea, es decir
Hence: por lo tanto, de aquí que That is why: ese es el motivo por el
However: sin embargo cual/que
If: si Therefore: por lo tanto, en consecuencia
In addition: además Thus: así, entonces, por lo tanto
In conclusion: en conclusión To: para
Indeed: de hecho Unless: a menos que
In due course: a su debido tiempo Whereas/ while: mientras que
In fact: de hecho Whether: si
In order to: para
In the first place: en primer lugar
In spite of: a pesar de
In summary: en resumen
In (its) turn: a su vez
instead of: en vez de, en lugar de
Lastly: en último lugar
Likewise: igualmente
Meanwhile: mientras tanto
Moreover: además, por otra parte
Next: luego, después
On the one hand, on the other hand: por un
lado, por el otro/ por una parte, por la otra
On the contrary: por el contrario
Otherwise: o si no, o de otro modo, por lo
demás
Owing to: debido a
Provided/ ing: siempre y cuando
Rather: más bien
Similarly: del mismo modo
Since: ya que
So (as to): entonces, luego, como
consecuencia
Subsequently: posteriormente
47
Ej:
Fever occurs before noticing lymph node enlargement. Subsequently the rush blossoms up.
(La fiebre ocurre antes de notar la ampliación de los ganglios linfáticos. Posteriormente, la fiebre
aumenta.)
If the blood flow to the brain is not enough, the patient immediately shows the symptoms.
(Si el flujo de sangre al cerebro no es suficiente, el paciente muestra inmediatamente los síntomas.)
The new antigen appears to be more effective than the last one. Besides, it is also cheaper.
(El nuevo antígeno parece ser más eficaz que el anterior. Además, también es más barato.)
Although chicken-pox occurs as an endemic disease throughout the whole year, its highest
incidence is during the winter months. (Aunque la varicela ocurre como una enfermedad endémica
durante todo el año, su incidencia más alta se da durante los meses de invierno.)
Ejemplos adaptados de: “Manual Básico de Inglés médico”, I. Darwin Telias, Alicia Osimani.
11
Tiempo verbal: Presente simple
Uso
Se lo emplea para describir acciones habituales, cotidianas, que tienen cierta frecuencia, y para
expresar verdades universales y estados permanentes.
Ej:
She starts work at eight o’clock = Comienza a trabajar a las ocho.
The Earth goes round the sun = La Tierra gira alrededor del sol.
We live in Rosario = Vivimos en Rosario.
Forma
En el “Presente Simple” se usa el INFINITIVO del verbo para todas las personas excepto para la
tercera persona del singular que utiliza el verbo en INFINITIVO + s/es/ies.
Forma afirmativa
I (escribo) HE
YOU WRITE (escribes/escriben) SHE WRITES (escribe)
WE (escribimos) IT
THEY (escriben)
I (voy) HE
YOU GO (vas/van) SHE GOES (va)
WE (vamos) IT
THEY (van)
I (cumplo) HE
YOU COMPLY (cumples/en) SHE COMPLIES (cumple)
WE (cumplimos) IT
THEY (cumplen)
I (miro) HE
YOU WATCH (miras/miran) SHE WATCHES (mira)
WE (miramos) IT
THEY (miran)
¡IMPORTANTE!
Para buscar en el diccionario es importante recordar la variación de la
tercera persona singular. Cuando un verbo termina en:
12
El verbo HAVE (tener) también lo podemos encontrar como HAS, conjugado para
HE / SHE / IT
Las formas interrogativa y negativa emplean “do” o “does” (para la tercera persona del singular)
acompañando al verbo principal en infinitivo. Actúan como auxiliares, no se traducen. Confieren
información sobre el tiempo verbal en que se redacta la oración e indican si la misma se presenta en
forma interrogativa o negativa.
Forma interrogativa
I (¿Escribo?) HE
DO YOU WRITE? (¿Escribes?/¿Escriben?) DOES SHE WRITE? ¿Escribe?)
WE (¿Escribimos?) IT
THEY (¿Escriben?)
Forma negativa
I (no escribo) HE
YOU DO NOT WRITE (no escribes/escriben) SHE DOES NOT WRITE (no escribe)
WE (no escribimos) IT
THEY (no escriben)
Las combinaciones “do not” y “does not” pueden aparecer abreviadas: “don’t” y
“doesn’t” respectivamente.
Ejercicio n° 18
Epithelial Tissue
The tissue making up the outer layer of skin, known as the epidermis, is epithelial tissue. The
tissues lining systems such as the digestive, respiratory, urinary, etc. (i.e. systems opening onto the
body surface) are also epithelial tissue.
Tissue consisting of more than one layer is known as stratified epithelial tissue. Epithelial tissue can
also be classified according to the shape of the cells at the surface as squamous (flat), cubic or
columnar.
Adaptado de: NUCLEUS. English for science and technology. MEDICE. Longman. 1980.
13
b. ¿A que sistemas recubren estos tejidos?
.............................................................................................................................................
c. ¿Cómo podemos clasificar al tejido epithelial?
.............................................................................................................................................
a- Identifique la función que cumplen las palabras subrayadas en las siguientes oraciones
(sustantivo (S), verbo (V) o adjetivo (ADJ).
8- Other treatments are plasmapheresis (blood filtration) and an operation to remove the thymus
gland.
9- There are various types of simple epithelium, classified according to cell shape.
10- Fibroblasts are flat, star-shaped cells with a large nucleus and fairly clear cytoplasm.
Presente Contínuo
Uso
Generalmente describe acciones que ocurren en el momento en que se está hablando (ahora).
Ej: Dr. Smith is seeing a patient at the moment. (El Dr. Smith está atendiendo a un paciente en este
momento)
Para expresar una actividad temporaria, que sucede en el presente pero no necesariamente en el
momento en que se está hablando. Ej:
I’m studying for my final exams these days. (Estoy estudiando para los exámenes finales en estos
días.)
He‘s writing an article about that case. (Está escribiendo un artículo sobre ese caso)
Para expresar planes inmediatos para un futuro cercano. En este caso aparece referencia temporal de
futuro. Ej:
Forma Afirmativa
Ej: The population is growing in number everyday. (La población está aumentando todos los días.)
Forma Negativa
Sujeto + forma correspondiente del verbo "To Be" + not + verbo -ing
Ej: The students are not studying at the moment. (Los alumnos no están estudiando en este
momento.)
I am not doing any research this year. (Este año no hago investigación.)
Forma Interrogativa
Ej: A: Are you studying this weekend? (¿Vas a estudiar este fin de semana?)
B: No, I’m not. I’m not having any exams this month. (No, este mes no tengo ningún examen.)
A: What are those people doing? (¿Qué están hacienda esas personas?)
B: They are waiting for the doctor. (Están esperando al doctor.)
Sin embargo, ciertos verbos no se utilizan en tiempos continuos. Estos incluyen los que expresan
estado como: be, cost, fit, mean, suit; los verbos que indican posesión como belong y have; los
verbos de los sentidos: see, hear, smell, taste y touch; los que indican sentimiento como hate, hope,
like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish y los que indican actividad pensante como believe, think, know
o understand.
15
Ej:
The patients usually wait for a long time. (Los pacientes generalmente esperan mucho tiempo.)
The doctor doesn’t usually arrive on time. (El doctor generalmente no llega a horario.)
The patients are sometimes late. (Los pacientes a veces llegan tarde.)
The doctor isn’t always on time. (El doctor no siempre llega a horario.)
También podemos encontrar frases adverbiales que denoten rutina, por ejemplo: every day, on
Mondays, in the morning.
Ej:
a) They are operating on the patient right now. (Están operando al paciente en este momento.)
b) They are trying the new drug on patients this year. (Este año están probando la droga nueva
en pacientes.)
c) I’m travelling to Buenos Aires next weekend. (El próximo fin de semana viajo a Buenos
Aires.)
a- Lea el parrafo a continuación. Indique la función de las palabras subrayadas. Si son pronombres
indique el antecedente.
b- Responda las siguientes preguntas en español:
Proteins
A protein is a long train of amino acids linked together. Proteins have different functions; they can
provide structure (ligaments, fingernails, hair), help in digestion, aid in movement, and play a part
in our ability to see.
The process of making a protein involves various parts of a cell, the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Proteins are produced from a special code found in the control center of the cell, the nucleus. The
nucleus contains the codes for all the different types of proteins in a body.
The skin
The skin performs very important functions. It serves as a physical barrier, and protects the
underlying tissues from injury and harmful bacteria. It contains nerve endings. They send
information concerning touch, pain and temperature to the brain. The skin performs some functions
as an excretory organ because it excretes water, sodium chloride and some urea through its sweat
glands. And finally it can function as a means of identification through fingerprints.
The skin, or cutis, is a membrane made up of two layers, and attached to the subcutaneous tissues
by collagen fibres. The outer layer is the epidermis, composed of epithelial tissue developed from
ectoderm. The epidermis has a deep layer of growing cells covered by a layer of dried dead cells.
The inner layer is the dermis, composed of vascular connective tissue developed from embryonic
mesoderm.
17
Ejercicio n° 22: Las Glándulas
a- Lea el siguiente texto. Seleccione un título para cada párrafo de las siguientes opciones:
Posibles afecciones
Las glándulas del cuerpo humano
La glándula tiroidea
La tiroxina
GLANDS
Glands manufacture and secrete necessary substances. Exocrine glands secrete their products through
ducts, but endocrine glands, or ductless glands, release their (1) products directly into the
bloodstream.
One important endocrine gland is the thyroid gland. It (2) is in the neck and has two lobes. The
thyroid gland collects iodine from the blood and produces thyroxine, an important hormone. The
thyroid gland stores it (3) in an inactive form. When the body needs thyroxine, the thyroid gland
excretes it directly into the bloodstream. This hormone is combined in the body cells with other
chemicals and affects many functions of the body.
The thyroid gland can be underactive or overactive, resulting in problems. An underactive thyroid causes
hypothyroidism, while an overactive one causes hyperthyroidism. The first problem, called myxedema
in adults and cretinism in children, causes the growth process to slow down. Hyperthyroidism results in
extreme nervousness, an increase in heart action, and other problems.
3) What substance does the thyroid gland take from the blood?
.....................................................................................................................................................
18
.................................................................................................................................
3. El cretinismo ocurre cuando la glándula tiroides de los niños no excreta suficiente tiroxina.
.................................................................................................................................
Cells and tissue are the building materials of the body. The branch of anatomy that deals with the
cells is called cytology.
The nucleus and the cytoplasm are the two parts of the cell. The nucleus is situated near the
centre of the cell, and the cytoplasm is the substance outside the nucleus. The cells have different
activities to perform, but all types have something to do with the body functions.
There are four kinds of body tissue. The epithelial tissue covers the body and arranges
secretions.
The connective tissue links together and encloses the frame of the body. The muscle tissue contracts
and relaxes, and provides possibilities for the limbs and organs to work. The nerve tissue makes the
body and its different parts active and integrated. Glands and membranes consist of specialized
tissue.
19
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
a- Lea el siguiente texto analice las palabras subrayadas en el texto. Clasifíquelas y analice su función
dentro del contexto.
Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the
lungs. It carries food materials from the intestines to all parts of the body and returns wastes to the
kidneys to be excreted. Blood aids in the regulation of the body temperature by distributing the heat
produced in active muscles. It plays a vital part in the maintenance of water and salt balance. It is
concerned with immunity to disease and protection of the body against invading bacteria.
THE STOMACH
Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, the stomach walls are made of a number of layers.
From inside to outside, the first main layer is the mucosa. This consists of an epithelium, the lamina
propria underneath, and a thin bit of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosae. The submucosa
lies under this and consists of fibrous connective tissue, separating the mucosa from the next layer,
the muscularis externa. The muscularis in the stomach differs from that of other GI organs in that it
has three layers of muscle instead of two. Under these muscle layers is the adventitia, layers of
connective tissue continuous with the omenta. The epithelium of the stomach forms deep pits,
called fundic or oxyntic glands. Different types of cells are at different locations down the pits. The
cells at the base of these pits are chief cells, responsible for production of pepsinogen, an inactive
precursor of pepsin, which degrades proteins. The secretion of pepsinogen prevents self-digestion of
the stomach cells.
c- Responda las siguientes preguntas
20
1. What does the mucosa consist of?
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
The process of digestion begins when food enters the mouth. Chewing breaks the food into smaller
pieces and exposes more surfaces to the saliva. Saliva has a double function: it moistens the food, so
facilitating swallowing, and it contains ptyalin, which begins the conversion of starch into simple
sugars.
Although enzimatic action begins in the mouth, the major processes of digestion occur when food
passes down the oesophagus into the stomach. The stomach has both a chemical and a physical function.
The walls of the stomach, which have the protection of a layer of mucus, secrete gastric juices
composed of several enzymes and hydrochloric acid. The most powerful enzyme is pepsin, which
begins the process of converting proteins into amino acids.
From: MACLEAN J.: “English in Basic Medical Science”. Oxford University Press, UK, 1995.
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
c- Determine si las siguientes oraciones son Verdaderas (V) o Falsas (F). Justifique en español.
1) El primer paso involucrado en el proceso de digestion se da en la boca.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
21
2) El proceso más importante de la digestion se la en la boca.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3) Una capa mcosa cubre las paredes del estómago.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4) La conversion de proteínas es iniciada por una enzima.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
23
UNIDAD 4
El adverbio
También pueden modificar partes de una oracion o inclusive una oracion entera.
Ej: It’s right on top of the cupboard. (Está justo encima del armario.) Modifica a una frase
preposicional.
Actually, I can’t go to the party. (En realidad, no puedo ir a la fiesta.) Modifica a una
oracion entera.
24
Ejercicio n° 28
The heart is in rythmic pulsation and changes its position a little between systole and diastole;
the lungs also are in rythmic motion, gliding down and up; the oesophagus dilates with each
bolus; and the great veins expand considerably during increased blood flow.
‘A little’: …………………………………………………………...
‘Also’: ……………………………………………………………..
‘Considerably’: …………………………………………………….
La terminación –ly se puede agregar a la mayoría de los adjetivos para formar adverbios Ej:
Existen los adverbios “hardly” y “lately” con otro significado y “good” tiene su adverbio de modo
irregular que es “well”.
El adverbio presenta los mismos grados comparativo y superlativo del adjetivo.
“Place”: here, there, backward, far, forward, etc. Indican: Posición, dirección, distancia.
“Time”: now, then, recently, usually, often, sometimes, always, never, already, etc. Indican:
Posición, frecuencia, duración, relación.
“Manner”: happily, automatically, quickly, fast, abreast, well, verbatim, quietly, carefully,etc.
Indican cómo se realiza una acción.
“Degree”: slightly, almost, thoroughly, completely, etc. Indican el alcance de una característica.
“Amplifiers/Intensifiers”: very, so, extremely, totally, completely, awfully, perfectly,more, too, etc.
Indican incremento de intensidad o grado en una escala.
“Diminishers/Downtoners”: slightly, somewhat, quite, almost, etc. Indican disminución del efecto
del elemento modificado o grado en una escala.
“Additive/Restrictive”: too, also, especially, only. Indican adición, énfasis, restricción.
“Epistemic”: probably, definitely, actually, really, apparently, reportedly, mainly, tipically, roughly.
Indican certeza, duda, realidad, evidencia, limitaciones, imprecisión.
“Attitude”: unfortunately, surprisingly, curiously. Indican la actitud del autor/hablante hacia la
proposición.
“Style”: honestly, frankly, quite simply. Indican la forma de expresión del autor/hablante.
25
Cuando se construye una oración formada por dos o más cláusulas, las palabras que las conectan
son tan importantes como los eslabones de una cadena. Si el eslabón es débil, la cadena se rompe; si
el conector es débil, la oración no tiene sentido. Por lo tanto, es importante comprender el uso
correcto de palabras como “and”, “but” o “although”. A continuación agruparemos algunos de estos
conectores según su significado.
Para agregar más información sobre un mismo tema: again, also, and, anyway, as a matter of
fact, apart from this / that, besides, further, furthermore, in addition, in fact, in like manner, in
the same way, like, likewise, more, moreover, nor, not only, or, otherwise, similarly, still, what is
more.
Para mostrar contraste: as a matter of fact, at the same time, but, conversely, however, in contrast
to, in fact, nevertheless, only, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, rather, still, still less,
to a certain degree, yet.
Para establecer efecto / resultado / consecuencia: accordingly, as a consequence, as a result,
consequently, for this reason, hence, in accordance with, it follows that, so, the fact that, the
reason that, therefore, thus, with this .. in mind.
Para comparar: as … as, compared to, likewise, similarly, so … as.
Para formular una conclusion o una síntesis: all in all, finally, for better or worse, in conclusion,
indeed, in the same way, in these circumstances, in this fashion, in this manner, in this way,
lastly, on the whole, such being the case, taking everything into account, to sum up.
Para indicar orden o grado: above all, after all, finally, in conclusion, in particular, in the first
(second, etc.) place, next, on the whole, to a certain degree, to begin with.
Para expresiones de tiempo: after, afterwards, as long as, as (while), at last, at the same time, at
this point, before, by the time that, by the same time, eventually, every time that, formerly, if ever,
meanwhile, now, now that, once, presently, since, somewhat later, soon, soon after, subsequently,
then, thereafter, thereupon, till, until, when, whenever, while.
Para conectar alternativas: both … and, either … or, neither … nor, not merely … but, not only
… but also, whether … or.
Para expresar causa o razón: as (= because), because, due to the fact that, for (= because), since
(= because), whereas, why.
Para mostrar propósito o resultado: for the purpose of, in order that, in order to, so, so that, such
(a) … that, so … that, that, to.
Para significar condición, concesión o contraste: although, as if, even if, even though, except that,
however, if, if only, inasmuch as, in case that, insofar as, in that, in the event that, no matter that,
on condition that, provided that, such … as, though, unless, wherever.
Para ejemplificar: for instance, for example, such as, like, particularly, in particular, especially,
briefly, e.g. (exempli gratia), indeed, i.e. (id es:, that is), in fact, in other words, that is, that is to
say, the, of that kind/sortn.
Ej:
Fever occurs before noticing lymph node enlargement. Then the rush blosoms up. Tiempo.
If the blood flow to the brain is not enough, the patient immediately shows the symptoms.
Condición/modo.
The new antigen appears to be more effective than the last one. Besides, it is also cheaper.
Comparación/ Adición.
26
Although chicken-pox occurs as an endemic disease throughout the whole year, its highest
incidence is during the winter months. Contraste.
Ejemplos adaptados de: “Manual Básico de Inglés médico”, I. Darwin Telias, Alicia Osimani.
MUSCLES
The muscles are connected to the bones, cartilages, ligaments, and skin, either directly, or through
the intervention of fibrous structures called tendons or aponeuroses. Where a muscle is attached to
bone or cartilage, the fibers end in blunt extremities upon the periosteum or perichondrium, and do
not come into direct relation with the osseous or cartilaginous tissue. Where muscles are connected
to skin, they lie as a flattened layer beneath it, and are connected with its areolar tissue by larger or
smaller bundles of fibers, as in the muscles of the face.
The muscles vary extremely in their form. In the limbs, they are of considerable length, especially
the more superficial ones; they surround the bones, and constitute an important protection to the
various joints. In the trunk, they are broad, flattened, and expanded, and assist in forming the walls
of the trunk cavities. Hence the reason of the terms, long, broad, short, etc., used in the description
of a muscle.
b- Responda en español las preguntas sobre el texto.
1. ¿Cuál es la función de los tendones o aponeurosis?
.................................................................................................................................
27
2. ¿Cómo se unen los músculos de la cara?
.................................................................................................................................
3. ¿Por qué se utilizan los términos ‘largo, ancho, corto, etc’, para describer a los músculos?
.................................................................................................................................
Verbos Irregulares
go (ir) - went
speak (hablar) - spoke
hold (agarrar) - held
cut (cortar) - cut
make (hacer) - made
give (dar) -gave
find (encontrar) - found
bring (traer) - brought
send (enviar) - sent
do (hacer) - did
have (tener) - had
Forma
En el “Pasado Simple”, el verbo no varía con la tercera persona singular como ocurre con el
Presente. Por lo tanto su conjugación es igual en todas las personas. En las formas interrogativa y
negativa se utiliza el auxiliar “did” y “did not”. Este auxiliar no se traduce ya que su única función
dentro de la oración es marcar el tiempo verbal de la oración, y establecer si es una pregunta o una
negación; tiene valor sintáctico. Cuando el auxiliar está presente, el verbo al que acompaña se
encuentra en su forma base (no en pasado).
28
Forma Afirmativa
Ej: In 1977, Skirrow described for the first time an enteritis caused by Campylobacter.
From: Community Health, Preventive Medicine and Social Services. Sixth Edition. By Brian Meredith Davies and Tom
Davies.
Forma Negativa
Sujeto + did + not + verbo en forma base.
Forma Interrogativa
29
2- Pasar las siguientes oraciones al pasado simple.
Tiene varias traducciones según la función que desempeñe en la oración o estructura que integra.
Cuando es verbo principal significa “tener”. En este caso puede estar solo o acompañado de “got”
("have got"). Si está acompañado por un verbo en participio pasado (gone/made/chosen, etc.) se
desempeña como auxiliar del tiempo “Presente Perfecto”y su equivalente es “haber”.
En la tercera persona del presente singular conjuga como “HAS”, y en el pasado conjuga como
“HAD” en todas las personas. Ej:
We have a new patient = We have got a new patient = Tenemos un paciente nuevo.
She has two children = She has got two children = Tiene dos hijos.
A small revolution has occurred in the field of AIDS research = Ha ocurrido (ocurrió) una
pequeña revolución en el campo de investigación del SIDA.
Para expresar una acción que sucede en el pasado pero en un tiempo indefinido. En este caso es más
importante la experiencia o el hecho en sí que el momento en que ocurrió la acción.
Para expresar una acción que sucede en el pasado pero cuyo resultado se puede apreciar en el
presente.
30
Para expresar una acción que se acaba de completar.
Forma Afirmativa
Forma Negativa
Forma Interrogativa
Have/Has + Sujeto + verbo en pasado participio?
a-Cada oración contiene un verbo en pasado o un participio irregular. Indique el infinitivo de cada
verbo.
She made a mistake.
Who gave you this money?
I’ve lost my keys!
Have you seen Tom?
I forgot her birthday.
b-Buscar en el diccionario
Pasado (pretérito) irregular de hit
Participio irregular de break
Pasado irregular de run
Pasado y participio irregular de leave
31
Pasado y participio irregular de find
Pasado y participio irregular de get
Pasado y participio irregular de sit
Pasado irregular de fall
Pasado irregular de write
The WHO has recognized that antibiotic use in animals certainly affects antibiotic resistance in
human beings and has published documents that acknowledge this problem. But a common feature
of almost all countries is a communication gap between the veterinary field and the public health
field that needs to be bridged. The WHO strategy for reducing resistance is applicable globally, but
requires tailoring to the needs of each country. We are now addressing the implementation phase,
and this is always where things get a little more complicated.
The European Union recently banned the antibiotic growth promoters avoparcin (a glycopeptide),
virginiamycin (streptogramin), and tylosin and spiramycin (both macrolides) […]
Additionally, food animal producers in Denmark have voluntarily stopped using the remaining
antimicrobial growth promoters in response to consumer concern.
Robin Bywater. Bywater Consultancy. Ciungunford. UK
3. Resalte dos ejemplos de estructuras verbales en pretérito perfecto simple y dos ejemplos de
conectores.
Ejercicio n° 34
32
SUPERBUGS: HOW ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE DEVELOPS
The first antibiotic, penicillin, was introduced in the 1940s. Since then, scientists have developed
more than 150 of these drugs to help stop the spread of infectious disease. But although these drugs
have saved millions of lives, they also have a dark side – their frequent use has given rise to bacteria
that are resistant to most, if not all, commonly used antibiotics.
Superbugs emerge when an antibiotic fails to kill every all of the bacteria it targets, and the
surviving bacteria become resistant to that particular drug. Doctors then prescribe a stronger antibiotic,
but the bacteria quickly learn to withstand the more potent drug as well, perpetuating a cycle in
which increasingly powerful drugs are required to treat infections. Superbugs also can exchange
survival information with other bacteria –even different species– allowing additional drug-resistant
organisms to emerge.
For years, the potent antibiotic vancomycin (Vancocin) was a reliable last defense against certain
severe infections, notably those caused by staphylococcus and enterococcus bacteria. But in recent
years, some superbugs have figured out how to resist vancomycin; a strain of vancomycin-resistant
enterococci (VRE) first appeared in the late 1980s and has thrived ever since. Scientists worry that
VRE not only will continue to multiply but will share its genetic secrets for survival with other bacteria.
By Mayo Clinic Staff © 1998-2006 Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. All rights reserved. Dec 19, 2006
Ejercicio n° 35
33
1. Indique los antecedentes de los pronombres subrayados.
2. Parafrasee el comentario de Ian Philips utilizando sus propias palabras.
3. Compare las razones para utilizar medicamentos en seres humanos y en animales.
4. Subraye algunas de las preposiciones utilizadas en el texto.
A) ACE Inhibitors
ACE inhibitors are used mainly in the treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure) and heart
failure. They are also used in some people with diabetes, for some forms of kidney disease and after
a heart attack to help to protect the heart. They have a variety of effects on the body. Their ability to
relax blood vessels is one of the most important. The side effects most commonly associated with
ACE inhibitors are minor. The most common side effect is a persistent dry cough.
a. What is hypertension?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
34
Heart failure – ACE inhibitors reduce the strain on the heart by decreasing the amount of fluid
pumped around the body. They also help the heart by relaxing blood vessels. This reduces the
amount of force needed to eject blood from the heart.
Diabetic nephropathy (diabetic kidney disease) – these drugs can help to maintain good kidney
function.
Chronic kidney disease – ACE inhibitors may help to slow the progress of kidney disease.
After a myocardial infarction (heart attack).
3. Nombre los transtornos para los que se utilizan los inhibidores ECA.
35
After the very first dose, on the first day you start an ACE inhibitor:
Stay indoors for about four hours as occasionally some people feel dizzy.
If you do feel dizzy, sit or lie down and it will usually ease off.
If you become very dizzy, contact your doctor immediately.
Thereafter, there is no need to take any special precautions.
36
2. ¿Verdadero o Falso?
37
UNIDAD 5
Verbos Modales (Modal Verbs)
Forma:
Características:
1.- Tienen la misma forma para todos los pronombres.
2.- No se conjugan en todos los tiempos verbales.
3.- No usan auxiliares.
4.- Siempre van seguidos por otro verbo en infinitivo.
CAN
Es un verbo modal que indica propiedad de un sustantivo, capacidad, habilidad o destreza. Siempre
seguido de un verbo infinitivo.
Ej:
A laser scalpel can make an accurate cut. (Un bisturí laser puede realizar un corte preciso.)
Platelets can stop bleeding. (Las plaquetas pueden detener el sangrado.)
Some cells can pass through capillary walls. (Algunas células pueden pasar a través de las paredes
capilares.)
Arteries can bend and stretch. (Las arterias se pueden doblar y estirar.)
Can you see that node? (¿Puede ver ese nódulo?)
I’m afraid we can’t remove it. (Me temo que no podemos extirparlo.)
También indica deducción en negativo
Ej: It can’t be a bacterium, it hasn’t responded to any antibiotic. (No puede ser una bacteria, no
ha respondido al antibiótico.)
Nota: CAN tiene dos formas para tres tiempos verbales por lo tanto es necesario utilizar la
expresión “be able to”para los demás tiempos verbales.
1) Can (presente)
2) Could (pasado y condicional) El condicional se utiliza para indicar posibilidad y en preguntas
amables (polite requests).
3) Be able to (presente, pasado y otros tiempos)
SHOULD
Generalmente se utiliza para expresar un consejo, sugerencia o una obligación moral.
Ej: The patient should be given an X-ray. (Al paciente se le debería realizar una radiografía.)
From: GLENDINNING E.H. et al.: “English in Medicine” 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, England, 1997.
Ej: A tourniquet should be placed above the site of the bite. Do this inmediately. (Se debe
colocar un torniquete arriba del lugar de la mordida. Esto se debe realizar inmediatamente.)
38
Ej: If the patient is in shock, he should be covered with a blanket and transported, on a stretcher,
to the nearest hospital. (Si el paciente se encuentra en estado de shock, se lo debería cubrir
con una manta y se lo debería transportar, en una Camilla, al hospital más cercano.)
From: ROTHENBERG R.E.: “The New American Medical Dictionary and Health Manual” Penguin, USA, 1992.
Ej: People should drive more carefully. (La gente debería manejar con más cuidado.)
You should smoke less. (Deberías fumar menos.)
SHOULD/OUGHT TO
Tienen significados muy similares. Ambos expresan obligación, se emplean para dar consejos
y nuestra opinión con respecto a lo que otros hacen. Sin embargo, hay una diferencia muy sutil: al
usar “SHOULD” damos nuestra propia opinión; hay una implicancia de subjetividad.
“OUGHT TO” tiene un significado más objetivo y se utiliza cuando hablamos de leyes, obligaciones
y normas; o cuando queremos que nuestra opinión como una ley (ética, moral).
Ej:
People ought to/should vote even if they don't agree with any of the candidates. (La gente debería
votar aún si no están de acuerdo con ninguno de los candidatos.)
MUST
Sólo tiene forma presente e indica:
a) Obligación fuerte impuesta por el que habla.
Ej: You must come earlier = I want you to come earlier (Debes venir más temprano = Yo quiero
que vengas más temprano.)
HAVE TO
Este verbo no es modal. Se utiliza para indicar obligación en afirmativo y ausencia de obligación en
negativo.
39
Presente
Denota obligación impuesta por circunstancias externas a quien habla
HAVE / HAS TO + infinitivo
Ej: I have to go to the dentist, I have a terrible toothache. (Tengo que ir al dentista. Tengo un
dolor de muela terrible.)
Pasado
Denota obligación en el pasado y la acción que fue realizada.
HAD TO + infinitivo
Ej: I had to see a lot of patients last Friday. (Tuve que ver muchos pacientes el viernes pasado.)
Nota: Por ser un verbo normal, HAVE TO en presente o en pasado se usa con los auxiliares
DO, DOES, DID en la interrogación o en la negación.
Estructura
don’t / doesn’t have to + infinitivo
Ej: On Sunday you don´t have to get up early, it´s your free day. (El domingo no te tenés que
levantar temprano, es tu día libre.)
MAY/MIGHT
Se usa para indicar permiso y posibilidad
Ej: You may leave. (Te puedes retirar.)
The patient may die during the procedure. (El paciente puede morir durante el procedimiento.)
Ej: There might appear adverse effects. (Podrían aparecer efectos adversos.)
Ej: Further studies might be necessary. (Se podrían requerir más estudios.)
40
Ejercicio n° 37: verbos atípicos o modales
En las siguientes oraciones detecte el uso de verbos atípicos y luego indique su equivalencia en
español.
Futuro Simple
Uso
Refiere a una acción que ocurrirá en el futuro, a una predicción o a una promesa o compromiso
adquirido.
Ej:
Forma
Para expresar futuro en inglés, se utiliza will acompañando al verbo principal en infinitivo. Will se
usa con todas las personas. Tal como otras construcciones verbales con auxiliares, will no se
traduce, denota el tiempo verbal “futuro” dentro de una oración.
41
Forma Afirmativa
We will emphasize here the possibilities and limitations inherent in the problem.
(Enfatizaremos aquí las posibilidades y limitaciones inherentes al problema.)
Forma Negativa
These conclusions will not lead to drastic improvements. (Estas conclusiones no conducirán a
importantes mejoras.)
Forma Interrogativa
Will the treatment have favorable results? (¿El tratamiento tendrá resultados favorables?)
Contracciones
She’ll finish soon; we won’t go. (Ella terminará pronto; no nos iremos.)
Futuro Contínuo
A diferencia del futuro simple, este tiempo verbal hace énfasis en la progresión de una acción que
ocurrirá en un tiempo determinado en el futuro.
Forma afirmativa.
Sujeto + will + be + verbo -ing
Ej: They will be conducting some new research on this subject next month. (Realizarán una nueva
investigación sobre este tema el próximo mes.)
Forma negativa
Sujeto + will + not + be + verbo -ing
Ej: They will not be conducting any new research on this subject next month. (No realizarán una
nueva investigación sobre este tema el próximo mes.)
42
Forma interrogativa
Will + sujeto + be + verbo -ing … ?
Ej: Will they be conducting any new research on this subject next month? (¿Realizarán una nueva
investigación sobre este tema el próximo mes?)
Futuro Perfecto
El futuro perfecto denota una acción futura ocurrida con anterioridad a otra también futura («Para
cuando yo salga al escenario, tú ya habrás subido el telón»).
Forma afirmativa.
Sujeto + will + have + verbo participio pasado (3ª columna)
Ej: They will be conducting some new research on this subject next month. (Realizarán una nueva
investigación sobre este tema el próximo mes.)
Forma negativa
Sujeto + will + not + have + verbo participio pasado (3ª columna)
Ej: They will not be conducting any new research on this subject next month. (No realizarán una
nueva investigación sobre este tema el próximo mes.)
Forma interrogativa
Will + sujeto + have + verbo participio pasado(3ª columna) … ?
Ej: Will they be conducting any new research on this subject next month? (¿Realizarán una nueva
investigación sobre este tema el próximo mes?)
Forma afirmativa
Sujeto + be + going to + verbo (forma base)
Ej: I am going to study this case tomorrow morning. (Voy a estudiar este caso mañana a la
mañana.)
Don’t stand up yet, your blood pressure is too low and you are going to faint. (No se pare
todavía, tiene la presión muy baja y se va a desmayar.)
43
Forma negativa
Sujeto + be + not + going to + verbo (forma base)
Ej: I am not going to study this case tomorrow morning. (No voy a estudiar este caso mañana a la
mañana.)
Forma interrogativa
Be + Sujeto + going to + verbo (forma base) … ?
Ej: Are we going to study this case tomorrow morning? (¿Vamos a estudiar este caso mañana a la
mañana?)
El presente simple se puede usar, como en español, para referirnos a una acción que se realizará en
el futuro.
Por ejemplo, cuando decimos que un evento ocurrirá tal día a tal hora del futuro.
Ejemplo: The class starts at 8 o’clock on Monday. (La clase comienza a las 8 el Lunes)
Al ser acciones que son periódicas, es decir, que se repiten en el tiempo, el presente simple nos
sirve para referirnos a ellas tanto en inglés como en español.
Ejemplo: My train leaves at 5am next Thursday. (Mi tren sale a las 5 am el próximo jueves)
El presente continuo se utiliza para el futuro cuando hablamos de actividades que ya están
planeadas. Si ya tienes algo previsto que vas a realizar en un momento determinado puedes utilizar
esta forma verbal.
Por ejemplo, has quedado con tu amigo Jose para ir al cine el sábado.
Ejemplo: I am meeting Joseph to go to the cinema on Saturday.(Me voy a encontrar con José para
ir al cine el sábado)
Si el médico te ha dado hora para la semana que viene porque te has roto el brazo, podrías decir:
Ejemplo: I’m seeing the doctor next Monday. (Voy a ver al médico el lunes que viene)
En síntesis, el presente simple se utiliza con acciones que se repiten en el tiempo, y que tienen
horarios; el presente continuo se utiliza cuando ya has hecho el plan: has quedado con un colega,
has reservado un vuelo, has comprado las entradas para algún evento o el médico te ha dado un
turno.
44
Ejercicio n° 38: Futuro
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45
UNIDAD 6
La oración compleja
Una oración compleja contiene una cláusula principal y una o más cláusulas subordinadas o
dependientes. Por su función sintáctica, pueden ser: cláusulas sustantivas, adjetivas y adverbiales, es
decir, cumplir la función de sustantivo, de adjetivo o de adverbio según el caso. Están introducidas
por pronombres y adverbios relativos y por pronombres interrogativos.
Ej: (When strong tendons or ligaments are attached to a bone), the periosteum is incorporated with
them.
The process of digestion begins when food is taken into the mouth.
If one of these be examined with a high power of the microscope, it will be found to be composed
of a finely reticular structure.
Unless sufficient nonprotein calories are available from either dietary sources or tissue stores, protein
cannot be used efficiently for tissue maintenance, replacement, or growth, and considerably more dietary
protein is required for positive nitrogen balance.
It is important to follow the instructions carefully.
We know that when patients take more responsibility and initiative, and when they put more effort
into improving their health-related habits and self-management skills, things usually improve.
We know that their role has been and should be changing.
Whether or not you develop your own version of a table like this, the idea is to work in a gentle yet
steady way to change counter-productive patient expectations
Clarifying expectations, and encouraging responsibility and initiative are not things that can be
discussed once and checked off.
A disease that affects the kidneys is more serious than other conditions because the kidneys are
vital.
The muscle content known as myoglobin flows into the bloodstream, which can damage the
kidneys.
When the myoglobin breaks down, it can contain some harmful toxins that might block the kidney
structures
46
Si decimos “Is that the woman?” posiblemente no sabríamos sobre quién se está hablando. La
expresión “who has to be operated” identifica al sustantivo.
The woman who looks after the patient has gone. DEFINING
vs.
Dorothy, who looks after the patient, has gone. NON-DEFINING
“Who” se emplea para aludir a personas, “which” y “that” se emplean para hacer referencia a
objetos
Ej: Vitamins, which are classified as water-or fat-soluble, are micronutrients.
Vitamins which are not present in the body should be included in the diet.
From: MACLEAN J.: “English in Focus. English in Basic Medical Science”. Oxford University Press, UK, 1992.
Mr. Black, who came here this morning, told me about the research.
The man who came here this morning told me about the research.
En textos más informales, se puede utilizar “that” en lugar de “who” para referirnos a personas, sólo en
defining relative clauses.
Ej: Anyone who/that wants to do the exam must enter before next Friday.
The patient who/that you saw this morning is here again.
The man who/that lives next door is very tall.
Identificar los pronombres y cláusulas relativas en las siguientes oraciones. Luego, tradúzcalas.
1. Patients who have received anticancer chemotherapeutic agents are apt to udergo surgery.
2. An enzyme is any group of catalytic proteins that are produced by living cells and that not only
mediate but promote the chemical processes of life without themselves being neither altered nor
destroyed.
3. Researchers are scientific investigators who aim at discovering and applying new facts,
techniques as well as natural laws.
4. The heart has valves which lie between its various chambers.
5. Scurvy results from lack of vitamin C, which can be found in citrus fruits.
6. Menstruation disappears at the menopause, which is an important epoch in the life of women.
7. There are some people with diabetes who can inject themselves with insulin.
8. Among the infectious diseases which affect the lungs, the most serious are tuberculosis and
pneumonia.
47
9. The heart is essentially a pump that circulates the blood through the body.
10. That is the man I told you.
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La voz pasiva
La voz pasiva en inglés se usa cuando es más importante resaltar el objeto
que quien lo realiza, o cuando la persona es desconocida, está
sobreentendida o es irrelevante.
En castellano rioplatense es más natural usar la voz pasiva con “se” (Se utilizaron 10 litros) que la
voz pasiva pura (10 litros fueron utilizados), la cual prácticamente no se emplea, salvo cuando el
significado queda más claro si se opta por la pasiva pura, o por razones estilísticas, en textos muy
extensos, como alternativa a la Pasiva con “se”.
Forma
La voz pasiva se construye con el verbo “To Be” conjugado en el tiempo y número correspondientes y con
el participio pasado del verbo principal.
Be (en el tiempo verbal correspondiente) + Participio Pasado (written/studied)
Presente
Voz activa: They use this drug on animals
Voz pasiva: This drug is used on animals
Pasado
Voz activa: They made that research last year
Voz pasiva: That research was made last year
Otros usos
Ciertos verbos tienden a aparecer siempre en Voz Pasiva, dadas las características de la acción
que describen:
My watch was stolen.
Se emplea más que:
Thieves stole my watch.
48
Cuando una oración contiene un Objeto Directo y otro Indirecto, tales como en el caso:
Someone gave her aspirin.
puede tomar dos formas de voz pasiva:
She was given aspirin.
Aspirin was given to her.
Tiempos continuos
Presente
Voz activa: They are repairing the equipment.
Voz pasiva: The equipment is being repaired.
Pasado
Voz activa: They were carrying the man to the ambulance.
Voz pasiva: The man was being carried to the ambulance.
Modales
Los verbos modales CAN, MAY, MUST, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, forman la Pasiva con el
verbo “To Be” en infinitivo más el participio pasado del verbo principal.
The new team of researchers can develop effective vaccines = Voz Activa
Effective vaccines can be developed (by the new team of researchers) = Voz Pasiva
THERMOCONTROL
Thermoreceptors can initiate generalised reactions to heat and cold. The signals from both superficial and
deep thermoreceptors must act through the hypothalamus to arouse appropriate, generalised reactions.
The anterior hypothalamus is responsible for sensing blood temperature variations. The anterior
hypothalamus, in particular the preoptic area, contains numerous heat-sensitive cells and less cold-
sensitive receptors. Such central thermoreceptors are also found at other levels of the Central Nervous
System (CNS). After destruction of the hypothalamus, the midbrain reticular formation takes over the
49
temperature control. Sections eliminating both the hypothalamus and the mesencephalon leave the
medulla and spinal cord to control temperature. The posterior hypothalamus does not contain
thermoreceptors.
Body-responses to cold: Cutaneous vasoconstriction lowers skin temperature, and thereby reduces the
conductive-convective heat loss that is determined by the temperature gradient from the skin
surface to the environment. Cutaneous vasoconstriction directs the peripheral venous blood back to
the body core through the deep veins and the commitant veins. Shivering is a reflex myogenic response
to cold with asynchronous or balanced muscle contractions elicited from the hypothalamus via
cutaneous receptors. The activity in agonist and antagonist muscles balance, so there is no external
work. Without outside work, all energy is liberated as metabolic heat energy. Heat production is
also increased by thyroid gland activity.
a- Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique las falsas.
1. Hay más células sensibles al calor que receptors sensibles al frio en el hipotálamo anterior.
2. El hipotálamo posterior puede sentir cuando la tempreatura de la sangre varía.
3. Los termoreceptores solo se encuentran en el hipotálamo anterior.
50
Check the heart's electrical activity.
Find the cause of unexplained chest pain, which could be caused by a heart attack, inflammation of
Find the cause of symptoms of heart disease, such as shortness of breath, dizziness, fainting, or rapid,
Find out if the walls of the heart chambers are too thick (hypertrophied).
Check how well medicines are working and whether they are causing side effects that affect the
heart.
Check how well mechanical devices that are implanted in the heart, such as pacemakers, are working
Check the health of the heart when other diseases or conditions are present, such as high blood
pressure, high cholesterol, cigarette smoking, diabetes, or a family history of early heart disease.
From: www.webmd.com/heart-disease/electrocardiogram
a. What is an electrocardiogram?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
51
Unproductive, distressing cough should be suppressed. Demulcent lozenges are occasionally
effective, but many patients require antitussive drugs, especially if sleep is disturbed by coughing.
Airway obstruction in bronchitis and asthma is treated by bronchodilator drugs and in certain
carefully selected cases by corticosteroids.
Chest pain: Pleural pain can usually be relieved by the application of a rubber hot water bottle or an
electric heating pad to the chest wall, supplemented by an analgesic and, if necessary, by an
antitussive drug. Mild analgesics, such as acetylsalicylic acid or codeine compound tablets, are adequate
in most cases but a few patients may require pethidine, 50-100 mg by mouth or intramuscular injection,
or even morphine, 10-15 mg subcutaneously. Opiates must, however be avoided in patients with
poor respiratory function and in those who (4) have difficulty in coughing up sputum.
The pain of acute tracheitis usually responds to the application of heat to the front of the chest,
combined with inhalations of steam medicated with benzoin. When there is an invasion of the chest
wall by a malignant tumour, if not relieved by radiotherapy, it is usually demanded a powerful
analgesic such as pethidine or morphine, given by injection. In advanced cases these drugs may
become ineffective and neurosurgical measures may be required for the relief of intractable pain.
From: O`BRIEN T. et al.: “Nucleus English for Science and Technology” (Medicine). Longman, UK, 1980.
b- Responda en español.
1) When is the use of antitussive drugs indicated?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2) When is the use of pethidine or morphine indicated?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3) What is pethidine? How should it be administered?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4) When is the use of morphine contraindicated? What do you think is the reason?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
52
Ejercicio n° 42: Medicamentos
Treating depression with antidepressants (may improve) your feelings of fatigue, since they may be
more due to depression and not just normal discouragement. Since patients often require pain
medications at the end of life, sometimes the use of stimulant medications (can help) counteract the
sleepiness that may come with the use of pain medicines.
Megestrol acetate is a female hormone that has been shown to be effective in improving appetite
loss and energy in some advanced cancer patients. Sometimes corticosteroids given to patients at
the end of life may help appetite, energy levels, strength, pain and depression. Steroids should be
taken in the morning to avoid any problems with sleep at night.
Repeating an assessment of your fatigue by your hospice care team or your medical team will be an
important part of your care at the end of life. No one (should feel) that there is absolutely nothing
that can be done to improve your level of fatigue at any point in your treatment or disease process.
From Cancer-Related Fatigue and Anemia. Treatment Guidelines for Patients. NCCN. Version III. November 2005.
Ejercicio n° 43
53
PREVPAC is not recommended in patients with creatinine clearance less than 30 mL/min.
Clarithromycin is contraindicated in patients taking cisapride, pimozide, or terfenadine, or in
patients with a known hypersensitivity to clarithromycin or any macrolide antibiotic.
Clarithromycin may elevate digoxin serum concentrations. Serum digoxine levels should be
carefully monitored while digoxin and clarithromycin are taken concomitantly.
Clarithromycin should not be used in pregnant women except in circumstances where no alternative
therapy is appropriate. Amoxicillin is contraindicated in patients who are allergic to penicillin.
For further information about warnings, precautions or adverse reactions for amoxicillin and
clarithromycin, please, see the complete prescribing information for TRIMOX and for BIAXIN.
For further information about adverse reactions associated with this regimen, please see the brief
summary of prescribing information.
From Gastrointestinal Endoscopy. Volume 47. Nº 6. 1998.
54
UNIDAD 7
Uso
Se utiliza para expresar probabilidad un tanto remota de que algo ocurra, una situación imaginaria
(con estos significados también se emplea en la cláusula principal de las oraciones condicionales del
segundo tipo que trataremos en la unidad 7) y preferencia.
Forma
Afirmativa
Ej:
That would be very important to me. (Eso sería muy importante para mí.)
The patient would like to see the doctor now. (Al paciente le gustaría ver al doctor ahora.)
Negativa
Ej:
That would not be very important to me. (Eso no sería muy importante para mí.)
The patient would not like to see the doctor now. (Al paciente no le gustaría ver al doctor
ahora.)
Interrogativa
Ej:
Would that be important to you? (¿Eso sería importante para usted?)
Would the patient like to see the doctor now? (¿Al paciente le gustaría ver al doctor ahora?)
Este tiempo verbal se usa para expresar probabilidad o suposición en el pasado y situaciones que
podrían haber ocurrido pero no fue así. Se utiliza por ejemplo en la cláusula principal de las
oraciones condicionales tipo tres (tema que se desarrollará en la unidad 7).
Forma afirmativa
Sujeto + would + have + verbo (pasado participio)
Ej: I would have gone to New York in April. (Yo habría ido a Nueva York en abril.)
55
He would have started work early. (El habría empezado a trabajar temprano.)
Forma negativa
Sujeto + would + not + have + verbo (pasado participio)
Ej: I would not have gone to New York in April. (Yo no habría ido a Nueva York en abril.)
He would not have started work early. (El no habría empezado a trabajar temprano.)
Forma interrogativa
Would + sujeto + have + verbo (pasado participio)?
Ej: Would I have gone to New York in April? (¿Habría ido yo a Nueva York en abril?)
Forma
Tipo 0
Se refieren a verdades universales, leyes de la naturaleza o teorías probadas. La conjunción “if” se
puede reemplazar por “when” “whenever” or “every time that.”
Ej: If you heat ice, it turns into water. (Si uno calienta hielo, se transforma en agua.)
If + Present + Present
Tipo 1
Se refieren a condiciones presentes que pueden arrojar un resultado presente/futuro con fuertes
probabilidades de realización.
Ej: If the rain stops, I will go to the cinema tonight. (Si la lluvia para, iré al cine esta noche.)
If + Present + Future
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If excess carbohydrate is taken in, this can be converted into fat and stored. (Si se ingieren
carbohidratos en exceso, se convierten en grasa y se almacenan.)
What can I do if my bag doesn’t open? (¿Qué puedo hacer si mi bolso no se abre?)
If the rain doesn’t stop, don’t go out. (Si la lluvia no para, no vayas.)
Tipo 2
Ej:
If he got better, he could travel abroad. (Si se mejorara, podría viajar al exterior.) (Improbable)
If I were a child, I would love that game. (Si yo fuera un niño, me encantaría ese juego.)
(impossible)
If + Past + Would + Verbo
Tipo 3
Expresan situaciones irreales o imaginarias en el pasado, por lo tanto son suposiciones, cosas que
no se realizaron.
Ej:
If you had called me, I would have told you. (Si me hubieras llamado, te habría dicho.) (Pero como
no llamaste no te lo dije.)
Condicionales Mixtos
Los “condicionales mixtos” son oraciones que combinan las estructuras de dos tipos de
condicionales distintos. Esto ocurre porque los tiempos de referencia de la cláusula principal y la
cláusula dependiente son diferentes. Las combinaciones más habituales son:
Tipos 3 y 2 (Pasado-presente)
En esta combinación, se ponen en contraste una situación imaginaria o real del pasado con su
posible resultado en el presente. Es muy común usar esta estructura para expresar arrepentimiento
por una acción (o falta de acción) en el pasado.
Ej:
If I had taken an aspirin, I would not have a headache now. (Si hubiese tomado una aspirina, ahora
no me dolería la cabeza.)
Tipos 2 y 3 (Presente-pasado)
57
Con esta combinación se describen circunstancias presentes en relación a un evento que ocurrió en
el pasado.
If you were not so unfit, you would have been able to complete the marathon. (Si no estuvieses tan
fuera de estado, hubieras podido completar la maratón.)
Ejemplo:
She has not decided whether to apply (or not)
Unless significa “a menos que,” de modo que es equivalente a “if not” o except if,“ Unless se usa
frecuentemente para referirse a excepciones a la regla.
Ejemplo:
He will be operated on unless the treatment is successful. (If the treatment is successful he will not
be operated on)
Unless I finish the report, I can’t tale a rest. (I can take a rest if I finish the report)
Only if se utiliza para enfatizar qué condiciones rodean la acción; on condition that, provided/ing
(that) se usan en el registro formal; suppose, supposing, y as/so long as son menos formales. Ej:
We will lend you the money on condition that it is repaid within 12 months.
We will lend you the money provided (that) you can repay it within 12 months.
I don’t mind talking to the press, but only if my identity is protected.
You can have the day off today providing you agree to work a double shift tomorrow.
You can borrow my DVD player as long as you return it on Monday.
Verbo “wish”
El verbo “wish” va seguido de distintos tiempos verbales según indique un deseo para el pasado, el
presente o el futuro.
58
I wish she had followed the treatment.
I wish he would stop smoking.
Identificar los condicionales en estas oraciones y luego traducir las oraciones al español:
3) Surgeons wouldn’t attempt surgery of the stomach without the aid that provides an X-ray.
5) Mr. Powell could recover soon unless he didn’t follow the treatment.
7) As a disease, malaria is characterized by periodic bouts of fever. The exact nature, severity and
periodicity of the symptoms as well as the kind and efficiency of the immune response vary
from one parasite to another, P. falciparum causing the most severe symptoms. If untreated, they
can rapidly lead to death.
8) Even if you get the flu despite having a flu shot, you will probably have a less severe case.
9) If preventive measures for environmental and health protection are taken before the impact of
pollution is felt by the general population, the limitation of processes generating the dissipation
and consumption of toxic elements will be possible.
10) You should not get a flu shot if you are allergic to eggs or if you have a serious allergic reaction
to the flu vaccine in the past.
12) Diffusion may proceed in the same manner through a permeable membrane, if such a membrane
is interposed between an aqueous solution and water.
________________________________________________________________________________
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59
EJERCITACIÓN EXTRA
A mutagen acts by changing the genetic material that is transferred to daughter cells when cell
division occurs, with the result that the new cells have new heritable characters. <the changes in the
genetic material may consist in the alteration of one or a few nucleotides, or in chromosomal
alterations, resulting in an altered number of chromosomes or an altered chromosomal structure.
If a mutagen acts on the germ cells (spermatozoa or ova) of man (or any other sexually
reproducing organisms) some of the offspring…………………..(carry) the mutant genes in all their
cells. The mutant may be so disadvantageous that death occur before birth, and if
this…………………(occur) at a very early stage of fetal growth, the pregnancy may not even
detected. If pregnancy goes to term, however, an abnormal offspring………………….(may) be
born, but the appearance of such an offspring is not in itself evidence that a mutation has occurred,
since it may also be due to teratogenesis.
This is the name given to the creation of congenital malformations resulting from interference
with normal embryonic development by an environmental agent. Such malformations are not
hereditary. In contrast, the congenital malformations resulting from changes in the genetic material
are mutations, and are hereditary.
Another type of interference with the genetic material of the cells (theoretically by a virus or
chemical), may make them capable of more rapid growth and multiplication, so that they are
formed far more rapidly that they can be removed from the blood, where they interfere with normal
functions: e.g. if the white cells were affected in this way, the outcome ……………….(be) a
leukaemia.
Similar interference with the genetic material could theoretically start up division in cells that do
not normally divide during adult life. If the products of such division…………….(invade) normal
tissues, the result would be a cancer.
In both these instances, the mutagen responsible would have manifested activity as a carcinogen
which produces heritable changes.
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Ejercicio n° 45: Los tejidos
TISSUES
A tissue is a group of associated and similarly structured cells that perform a specialized function
for the survival of the organism. Animal tissues take their first form when the blastula cells
differentiate into three layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm and the endoderm.
Through further differentiation, groups of cells grow into more specialized units to form organs,
which are made up of several tissues of similarly performing cells. Animal tissues are classified into
four main groups:
Epithelial tissues: These tissues include the skin and the inner surfaces of the body, such as those of
the lungs, stomach, intestines and blood vessels. Because its primary function is to protect the body
from injury and infection, epithelium is made up of tightly packed cells with little intercellular
substance between them. About 12 kinds of epithelial tissues can be classified.
Connective tissues: These tissues, which support and hold parts of the body together, comprise the
fibrous and elastic connective tissues, the adipose (fatty) tissues, and cartilage and bone. In contrast
to epithelium, the cells of these tissues are widely separated from one another, with a large amount
of intercellular substance between them. The cells of fibrous tissues, found throughout the body,
connect to one another by an irregular network of strands, forming a soft layer that also supports
blood vessels, nerves and other organs.
Muscle tissues: These tissues, which contract and relax, comprise the striated, smooth and cardiac
muscle.
Nerve tissues: These highly complex groups of cells transfer information from one part of the body
to another.
c- Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique las falsas.
1) El tejido fibroso es un tipo de tejido conectivo.
2) Todos los tejidos tienen la misma cantidad de sustancia intracelular entre las células que los
componen.
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3) El tejido epitelial se puede encontrar tanto en el exterior como en el interior del cuerpo.
HORMONES
The activities of the organs of the body are controlled in two ways: by hormones and nerves.
Hormones are chemical substances, produced by endocrine glands, which circulate in the blood and
bring about effects in distant organs. The posterior pituitary gland, for example, produces two
hormones, one of which, the antidiuretic hormone (ADH), regulates the reabsorption of water by the
kidney tubules. If the body is short of water, more ADH is released into the blood. Since ADH
controls water reabsorption in the kidneys, an increase in ADH will produce an increase in the
amount of water reabsorbed so that less urine will be produced.
b- Responda.
1) What are hormones and what is their function?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2) What is the function of ADH?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3) What does an increase in ADH produce?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4) When does the release of ADH into the blood increase?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
5) Where do endocrine glands release their products?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Carbohydrates provide the bulk of the calories (4 kcal/gram) in most diets. Age, sex, size, health,
and the intensity of physical activity strongly affect the daily need for calories. Moderately active
females (19-22 years old) need 1500-2500 kcal/day, while males of the same age need 2500-3300
kcal/day.
Fat provides our most concentrated form of energy. Its energy content (9 kcal/gram) is over twice as
great as carbohydrates and proteins (4 kcal/gram).
Humans can synthesize fat from carbohydrates. However, three essential fatty acids cannot be
synthesized this way and must be incorporated in the diet.
Types of fats: Saturated, Monounsaturated, Polyunsaturated, Trans Fats, Omega-3 fats.
Many studies have examined the relationship between fat in the diet and cardiovascular disease.
There is still no consensus, but the evidence seems to indicate that a diet high in fat is harmful.
From: “The Merk Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy”.
ARTICULATIONS
Bone constitutes the fundamental element of all the joints. In the long bones, the extremities are the
parts which form the articulations; they are generally somewhat enlarged; and consist of spongy
cancellous tissue with a thin coating of compact substance. In the flat bones, the articulations usually
take place at the edges; and in the short bones at various parts of their surfaces. The layer of compact
bone which forms the joint surface, and to which the articular cartilage is attached, is called the
articular lamella. It differs from ordinary bone tissue in that it contains no Haversian canals, and its
lacunæ are larger and have no canaliculi. The vessels of the cancellous tissue, as they approach the
articular lamella, turn back in loops, and do not perforate it; this layer is consequently denser and
firmer than ordinary bone, and is evidently designed to form an unyielding support for the articular
cartilage.
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b- Responda las siguientes preguntas en español.
1. What do the extremities of long bones consist of?
..............................................................................................................................................................
2. What is the difference between articular lamella and common bone tissue?
................................................................................................................................................................
THE EYE
The eyes are the two organs of sight. They are located in the front upper part of the skull and consist of
structures that focus an image onto the retina at the back of the eye which is a network of nerves
that convert this image into electrical impulses to be recorded in a region of the brain. Each eyeball
is moved by six delicate muscles which are activated and coordinated by nerves in the brain stem.
The eyeball has a tough, outer coat called the “sclera”, or white part of the eye. The front, circular
part is the “cornea” and is transparent. Behind the cornea is a shallow chamber full of watery fluid, at
the back of which is the “iris” (colored part) with the “pupil” (center). The pupil is black and its
diameter is changed by light intensity to control the amount of light which enters the eye.
Immediately behind the iris, and in contact with it is the crystalline lens. On the inside of the back
of the eye is the retina, which needs a constant supply of oxygen and sugar. These are supplied by a
thin network of branching blood vessels which lie just under the retina called the choroid plexus.
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Ejercicio n° 49: El sistema nervioso
a- Lea el texto y determine si las oraciones son verdaderas o falsas. Justifique las falsas.
An inactivated nerve fibre maintains a state of chemical stability with concentrations of potassium inside
and outside the lining membrane in a ratio of 30:1. Thus the nerve fibre at rest is electrically
charged. A nerve impulse is a wave of depolarization created by a chemical imbalance. Sodium
passes through the membrane, releasing potassium. The depolarization of any part of the nerve cell
causes the depolarization of the next segment, and so on to the end of the fibre. The end of a nerve
fibre is not structurally joined to the next cell, but the small gap between them can be bridged chemically.
This functional junction is known as a synapse. Not all the chemicals which act as transmitters are
known but among the most important are acetyl choline and noradrenaline. Once the synapse has
been made, these chemicals are rapidly destroyed by enzymes. The nerve fibre itself recharges within
milliseconds.
1) Una fibra nerviosa inactiva contiene treinta veces más potasio que su tejido circundante.
2) Un impulso nervioso es un desequilibrio químico.
3) Una sinapsis es una conexión que se hace sobre el pequeño espacio entre el extremo de una fibra
nerviosa y la célula siguiente.
4) Se sabe que la acetilcolina transmite impulsos.
5) Los transmisores son destruidos por las enzimas.
65
Ejercicio n° 50: Foro
Antibiotic Resistance- The interplay between antibiotic use in animals and human beings
There should be little doubt that antibiotic resistance can be spread between animals and human
beings. However, this view is not the same as saying that antibiotic use in animals causes the spread
of antibiotic resistance to people. It is well recognised that pathogens and other bacteria are
transmitted from animals to human beings via the food chain. If these bacteria possess antibiotic
resistant genes then it might be said that antibiotic resistance has been spread from animals to
people. The main problem with our ability to link antibiotic use in animals with the spread of
resistance to people is the limited understanding of the nature of antibiotic resistance.
Antibiotic-resistance genes often code for proteins that have been present in bacteria for an
extremely long time. These proteins serve functions other than simply rendering a bacterium
resistant to antibiotics. For example, some antibiotic-resistance genes code for proteins that protect
the bacterial ribosome, while others code for proteins that serve as efflux pumps, both of which
maintain the integrity of the bacterial cell. If these proteins have a broader evolutionary function,
we might expect to see the genes in bacterial populations that have never been under the selection
pressure of antibiotics, and potentially have never been exposed to human influence.
1. Resaltar todos los verbos del texto y determinar si se encuentran en voz pasiva o active.
a- La resistencia a los antibióticos puede propagarse de los animales a los seres humanos.
b- La resistencia a los antibióticos puede propagarse de los seres humanos a los animales.
5. Expresar con sus propias palabras la idea principal del segundo párrafo.
Roger Flinch.Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. University of Nottingham. Nottingham, UK.
66
b- Lea el siguiente extracto y realice las actividades a continuación
Antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance are clearly connected. Antibiotic resistance at present is
clearly associated with human use, but it would be a surprise if use in animals did not lead to
antibiotic resistance, and in turn raise the possibility of that resistance translating into occasional
human disease. Prophylactic use of antibiotics in animals, where mass flock exposure to antibiotics
is used to prevent an epidemic, is also known as metaphylaxis. The use of antibiotics as growth
promoters has, many years after the original UK Swann report, attracted much debate and
legislation. The gut flora of animals can clearly be a source of an infection in man, especially from
enteric pathogens such as salmonella, campylobacter, shigella, and perhaps enterococci. So is this
resistance in the animal flora likely to produce human disease? The answer is likely to be yes, but at
present I do not believe the effect to be substantial, possibly because our information base is weak.
The microbiology and epidemiology is not sufficiently robust for us to reliably establish food as a
source of human infections caused by resistant pathogens from antibiotic exposure in animals.
1- De la referencia a los pronombre subrayados.
a. What is metaphylaxis?
c. Can you mention enteric animal pathogens that can be a source of infection in man?
2. Responder:
67
b. Why are there only few cases documented of antibiotic resistance originating in an animal
source?
3. Comente sobre el proceso de formación y la función que cumplen las palabras subrayadas
John Walters, Chairman of the European Federation of Feed Addictive Companies (FEDESA)
1. Analice si las palabras subrayadas están en singular o en plural o si son invariables en número.
2. Resaltar ejemplos de voz pasiva y analizar en que tiempo de verbo se encuentran.
3. Responder:
a) How has it been demonstrated that human beings and animals share antimicrobial- resistant
flora?
b) How can the opportunity of sharing between resistant determinants between human and animal
bacteria be expanded?
c) What constitutes a barrier to such expansion?
68
It is no surprise, then, that many women are concerned when a contraceptive method changes
monthly bleeding. These bleeding changes differ, depending on the method. Combined hormonal
methods –the pill and monthly injectables, for example- tend to make monthly bleeding shorter and
more predictable. Progestin-only method such as long-acting injectables, implants, progestine-only
oral contraception (“the minipill”) and the hormonal levonorgestrel-releasing IUD all can cause
bleeding changes that range from bleeding and spotting at unexpected times to no monthly
bleeding. Copper IUDs do not change the length of menstrual cycles but do tend to cause somewhat
heavier and longer monthly bleeding. Often, the same method can have different effects for
different women or different effects over time for the same woman.
From Population Reports. Series J. Nº 54. Family Planning Programs. INFO Project Center for Communication Programs. John Hopkins School of
Public Health.
Highlights
When should I begin my search for a doctor?
What kind of practitioner should I look for?
Where can I get names of doctors to consider?
How will I know if a doctor recommended by someone else will be suitable for us?
I have some promising candidates. Now what should I do?
How do I interview a doctor?
How will my child's doctor know I've delivered my baby?
What should I do if I'm not entirely happy with the doctor I choose?
Choosing the right doctor for your baby is an important decision: You'll be visiting the doctor's
office six times in the first year for routine well-baby visits alone. It's easy to feel overwhelmed by
the choice, but with a little homework and legwork, you should be able to find one you like and
trust.
From: http://www.babycenter.com/0_choosing-a-doctor-for-your-baby_320.bc
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Ejercicio n° 53: Ejemplos de preguntas para entrevistas de trabajo en hospitales.
Interview Question 2: 'Describe a recent patient interaction which shows your ability to create trust
and what steps would you take to develop an effective relationship with your patient.'
Interview Question 3: 'Tell me about a time when your communication skills played a key role in
achieving a successful outcome. What was involved and what part did you play?'
Interview Question 4: 'Describe a time when you felt frustrated during an interaction with a patient.
How did you deal with this emotion both during the interaction and afterwards?'
Interview Question 5: 'How would you go about ensuring that you improve the quality of the care
you give to your patients?'
Interview Question 6: 'Can you please detail a time when a new and different approach to your
patient proved beneficial. What did you do and what was the outcome?'
* Questions taken from the InterviewGOLD™ Interview System.
From: http://www.blueskyinterviews.co.uk/int_art13.htm
DEAFNESS
The ear is a sensory organ which performs two functions, hearing and balance. In order to hear
properly the ear, the nerve of hearing and the relevant parts of the brain must be working effectively.
Hearing defects may be related to dysfunction in any area. Balance is a complex function and disorders
of balance can occur in association with hearing disorders or can occur alone.
Deafness, or hearing loss, can be divided into two categories: conductive deafness where the causes
are malfunction, malformation or occlusion in parts of the outer and middle ear, and sensorineural
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deafness where the cause is a malfunctioning of parts of the inner ear or nerves of hearing. Mixed
hearing loss occurs when there are conductive and sensorineural components to the hearing loss.
Some kind of conductive deafness, such as ‘glue ear’ (otitis media with effusion or fluid in the
middle ear) are temporary. Other types of deafness are permanent. One of the most common types
of inherited deafness is bilateral severe to profound sensorineural deafness which is usually of
autosomal recessive inheritance. Other causes include problems at or around the time of birth such
as infection or marked prematurity (perinatal causes) infections during pregnancy e.g. Rubella, or
infections during childhood e.g. meningitis. Early diagnosis and treatment is important. Testing of
babies for hearing can be carried out at any age.
b- Responda las siguientes preguntas en español,
a- Lea atentamente el texto. Identifique las frases verbales. ¿En qué tiempo verbal se
encuentran? ¿Son ejemplos de voz pasiva? Si es así, ¿se menciona el agente?
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
Alzheimer's disease (AD), also called Alzheimer disease, Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer Type
(SDAT) or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of dementia. This incurable,
degenerative, and terminal disease was first described by German psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer in
1906 and was named after him. Generally it is diagnosed in people over 65 years of age, although
the less-prevalent early-onset Alzheimer's can occur much earlier. An estimated 26.6 million people
worldwide had Alzheimer's in 2006; this number may quadruple by 2050.
Although each sufferer experiences Alzheimer's in a unique way, there are many common
symptoms. The earliest observable symptoms are often mistakenly thought to be 'age-related'
concerns, or manifestations of stress.In the early stages, the most commonly recognised symptom is
memory loss, such as difficulty in remembering recently learned facts. When a doctor or physician
is notified, and AD is suspected, the diagnosis is usually confirmed with behavioural assessments
and cognitive tests, often followed by a brain scan if available. As the disease advances, symptoms
include confusion, irritability and aggression, mood swings, language breakdown, long-term
memory loss, and the general withdrawal of the sufferer as their senses decline. Gradually, bodily
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functions are lost, ultimately leading to death. Individual prognosis is difficult to assess, as the
duration of the disease varies. AD develops for an indeterminate period of time before becoming
fully apparent, and it can progress undiagnosed for years. The mean life expectancy following
diagnosis is approximately seven years. Fewer than three percent of individuals live more than
fourteen years after diagnosis.
CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol is a lipidic, waxy alcohol found in the cell membranes and transported in the blood
plasma of all animals. It is an essential component of mammalian cell membranes where it is
required to establish proper membrane permeability and fluidity. Cholesterol is the principal sterol
synthesized by animals, but small quantities are synthesized in other eukaryotes, such as plants and
fungi. It is almost completely absent among prokaryotes, which include bacteria. Cholesterol is
classified as a sterol (a portmanteau of steroid and alcohol).
Although cholesterol is essential for life, high levels in circulation are associated with
atherosclerosis. Cholesterol can be ingested in the diet, recycled within the body through
reabsorption of bile in the digestive tract, and produced de novo. For a person of about 150 pounds
(68 kg), typical total body cholesterol content is about 35 g, typical daily dietary intake is 200–300
mg in the United States and societies with similar dietary patterns and 1 g per day is synthesized de
novo.
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A change in diet may help reduce blood cholesterol in addition to other lifestyle modifications.
Avoiding animal products may decrease the cholesterol levels in the body not through dietary
cholesterol reduction alone, but primarily through a reduced saturated fat intake. Those wishing to
reduce their cholesterol through a change in diet should aim to consume less than 7% of their daily
calories from saturated fat and less than 200mg of cholesterol per day.
Cerebral Palsy
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A child over 12 months with cerebral palsy might:
Not crawl
Not be able to stand with support
A child over 24 months with cerebral palsy might:
Not be able to walk
Not be able to push a toy with wheels
2. Mencionar los problemas que un niño con parálisis cerebral puede presenter a los 2, 6, 10, 12 y
24 meses de edad.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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ANEXO
APÉNDICE 1: GLOSARIOS y LISTA DE VERBOS IRREGULARES
Palabras compuestas
Falsas analogías
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Guinea pig Conejillo de indias West Indies Antillas
De: ASRIN L.A.: “Inglés Médico” Pág. 96,97. El Galeno, Córdoba, Argentina, 2000.
Expresiones idiomáticas
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Basal metabolic rate Velocidad de In debt Endeudado
metabolismo basal In due course A su tiempo
Bile salt secretion rate Velocidad de In ink En tinta
secreción de las sales biliares In love Enamorado
Birth rate Tasa de natalidad In need Con necesidad
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De: ASRIN L.A.: “Inglés Médico” Pág. 103-107. El Galeno, Córdoba, Argentina, 2000.
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Glosario técnico crítico regional de Ciencias Médicas (en elaboración)
Tendencia a usarlos indistintamente, aún entre los mismos médicos. La existencia de ambos
debe alertar sobre la posibilidad de distintos significados.
2. Anglicismos
3.1. De traducción acrítica, con equivalentes apropiados en español
3.2. Que aluden a diversos estados sin diagnóstico preciso, optándose por mantenerlo
3.3. De uso generalizado en Argentina, con equivalentes en castellano recomendados por lingüistas
y terminólogos
Shock Término polisémico. Choque, impacto, sacudida, Forma Bacteremic shock Shock
Traducción según vibración, temblor, crisis, bloques séptico
contexto perturbación. nominales:
3.4. Con distintos significados en ambas lenguas y usados con diferentes criterios terminológicos
en España y Argentina
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Traducción según contexto. Distintas significaciones y criterios en inglés y castellano
agent Agente Sinónimo de droga, forma expresiones que anti-allergic agents Antialérgicos
omiten su traducción:
Microbiología: suele referir a un microbio y también se omite traducirlo: bacterial agent, bacteria
viral agent virus
severe “grave”, “fuerte”, “intenso”, “extenso”: --leukemia, leucemia grave; --blow, golpe fuerte;
Ni “severo” ni “riguroso”, adjetivos --pain, dolor intenso; --psoriasis, soriasis extensa.
que describen a una persona Se los traduce en forma acrítica e incorrecta
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stage Término polisémico. Según contexto, período de formación, prácticas o estadía; período,
puede traducirse: fase, estadio, etapa; platina (de un microscopio)
La acepción “estadio”, suele acentuarse erróneamente sobre el sonido “i”, tal vez por una
asociación semántica-fonética acrítica del tipo “femenino-masculino”, de “estadía” a “estadío”. La
pronunciación correcta en Castellano es “estadio”, con acento prosódico sobre el sonido “a”
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TOP: termination of pregnancy En los países anglosajones, interrupción voluntaria del embarazo
Saunders: Miscarriage aborto o pérdida inminente: missed abortion
1999
En: MARTÍNEZ C. et al.: “Proyecto de Especialización Académica en el Área Salud para Traductores”. IV Congreso
Latinoamericano de Interpretación y Traducción. Colegio de Traductores Públicos de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires.
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VERBOS IRREGULARES MÁS COMUNES
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INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
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APÉNDICE 2: Preposiciones (glosario ilustrado)
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
between
PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
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APÉNDICE 3: AFIJOS: PREFIJOS Y SUFIJOS
AFIJOS
PREFIJOS RAIZ SUFIJO
success
Un- success- ful
success- ful
success- fully
A- PREFIJOS
A.1. Prefijos negativos y afirmativos
NEGATIVO PREFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO
un- unconscious
in- incompetent
im- no, opuesto immortality
il- illegitimate
ir- irreversible
mal- malnutrition
dis- en contra... dislocation
anti- antibiotics
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A.4. Prefijos de tiempo y orden
PREFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO
Ante- Anterior antecedent
Pre Anterior prefix
Prime- Primero primary
Post- Posterior post-graduate
Retro- hacia atrás retroactive
B- SUFIJOS
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B.2. Sufijos que forman verbos
SUFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO
-ize/ -ise denarcotize
-ate hacer activate
-ify simplify
-en widen
Por ejemplo:
Atypical (adj.) El prefijo “a/an” quiere decir “no, sin”.
Antibiotic (n.) El prefijo “anti” quiere decir “contra, opuesto a”.
En ambos casos, los prefijos forman el antónimo, pero no cambian la clase de palabra.
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APÉNDICE 4: TERMINACIONES ING/ED: FUNCIONES
Existen palabras que pueden desempeñar más de una función sintáctica, es decir, según su
forma y ubicación en el contexto, pueden funcionar como verbos, verboides, sustantivos o adjetivos.
A continuación desarrollamos los dos casos morfológicos típicos, de alta frecuencia de uso en el registro
académico: -ing form y -ed form.
1)Indica el Pasado Simple de los Verbos Regulares: consider - considered; love - loved;
open - opened; deny - denied. Se traducen como las terminaciones “-ado”; “-ido” del
-ed español, que también indican Participio Pasado: “considerado”; “amado”; “abierto”
form /“inaugurado”; “rechazado”.
2) El Participio Pasado de todo verbo, regular o irregular, tiene valor de adjetivo: The affected
tissue will be removed. Para reconocerlo, puede parafrasearse por una cláusula relativa
encabezada por operador y con verbo conjugado: The affected tissue will be removed
= The tissue which was affected will be removed. Este uso del Participio Pasado implica
una forma de Voz Pasiva donde los elementos conocidos o reiterados se omiten (los
verbos auxiliares) y se mantiene sólo los elementos portadores de información nueva
y relevante (el verbo principal en participio pasado). Se traduce tal como indicado en
1): El tejido afectado será extirpado.
El Participio Pasado es formante de los Tiempos Perfectos: have worked; had written;
etc., y de la Voz Pasiva en todos los tiempos de verbo: is being analyzed; were
documented; have been developed; will be considered; etc. Siempre se lo traduce por
las terminaciones “-ado”; “-ido”: han trabajado; había escrito; está siendo analizado/es
analizado; fue documentado; ha sido desarrollado; será considerado; etc.
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Ej:
He is suffering very much = Continuous Present
After suffering for two days, he decided to call for his physician = Prep. + Verbo + -ing form
He came here with a suffering face = -ing form con valor de adjetivo (modifica a un sustantivo)
The man suffering from pneumonia died yesterday = -ing form con valor de adjetivo,
postmodifica a un sustantivo, al
encabezar una cláusula adjetiva.
Ej:
The cancer affected all the important organs = Simple Past
*
suffering está precedido por un adjetivo posesivo y se desempeña como sustantivo. Pero relieving es una forma mixta,
un caso muy común en inglés médico, pues se desdibujan los límites entre verbo y sustantivo. No obstante, integra el
Sujeto Oracional y se desempeña como núcleo del mismo. Puede traducirse como: Aliviar su sufrimiento/El alivio de
su sufrimiento. Obsérvese que el infinitivo tiene valor de sustantivo y puede sustituirse por un sustantivo (“alivio”). Esto
fundamenta nuestro análisis de considerar a relieving como sustantivo en este contexto. No obstante, es conveniente
analizar cada ocurrencia de -ing form por separado, en casos similares al descripto.
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APÉNDICE 5: EJERCITACIÓN ADICIONAL
Examen 1
Read the following information
(From: http://www.instantanatomy.net)
B) Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? Correct the false ones
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Examen 2
Read the following information
(From: http://www.instantanatomy.net)
2. What is the location of the superior mesenteric vessels in the final arrangement?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
B) Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? Correct the false ones
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Examen 3
Read the following text
The lungs and the pleural cavities are lined by the pleura, a membrane of fibrous tissue surfaced by
a single layer of squamous epithelium. Its function is to provide two slippery surfaces so that the
structures contained within can move without friction. The lungs are in rhythmic motion, gliding
down and up. In each cavity the pleura lines the thoracic wall, the upper surface of the diaphragm
and the mediastinal surface. At each lung root the pleura is reflected from the mediastinum to form
a layer which covers the surface of the lung. Thus each lung lies enclosed in a pleural sac. There are
two adjacent layers of serous membrane separating each lung from the pleura.
A) According to the text, answer the following questions in Spanish using your own words
1) What is the pleura? What is the function of the pleura?
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
2) What does the pleura line?
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
B) Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? Correct the false ones in Spanish
1) The lungs have got a rhythmic movement.
2) The pleura can only be found lining the thoracic walls and the lungs.
3) There is a pleural sac enclosing both lungs together.
D) Comment on these words. What is their function in the text? Answer in Spanish
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Examen 4
Read the following text
THE HAND
The hand is an intricately complex structure that is adapted to permit an unequalled array of
movement. There are over sixty different muscles in the hand to accomplish this. The five
metacarpal bones are the bones of what is considered the hand. The thumb and fingers are made of
bones called phalanges and the bones create joints so that closing our hand is possible. The thumb
has a proximal segment and a distal segment whereas the fingers or digits have a proximal, middle,
and distal segment. Flexion and extension of the hand and phalanges or fingers are accomplished by
extrinsic muscles of the hand (or those of forearm). Precise finger movements that require the
coordination of abduction and adduction with flexion and extension are functionally the task of the
small intrinsic muscles (those inside) of the hand. The intrinsic muscles of the hand are divided into
thenar (concerning palm on the thumb side) and hypothenar (concerning palm next to the little
finger), and the intermediate groups.
A) Answer the following questions in Spanish
1. What do the sixty different muscles in the hand accomplish?
...........................................................................................................................................
2. How are intrinsic muscles classified?
...........................................................................................................................................
B) According to the text, are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? Correct the false ones in
Spanish
1. The hand is composed by the five metacarpal bones.
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Both, the thumb and the digits have proximal, middle and distal segment.
...........................................................................................................................................
3. Extrinsic muscles enable accurate finger movements.
...........................................................................................................................................
C) What do the underlined words refer to? Answer in Spanish
D) Comment on these words. What is their function in the text? Answer in Spanish
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Examen 5
Read the following text
Near its termination each axon divides into fine branches. Each of these branches ends in an axon
terminal i.e., synaptic button or Bolton terminal. The axon terminals contain mitochondria and synaptic
vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. These presynaptic structures are the sites where electrical
signals are converted into chemical messages for transmission to nearby neurons. Unipolar neurons
only have a single major process arising from the cell body. Most neurons have only one axon, a
few more than one and some neurons function without an axon. Their location, structure and
functional properties classify neurons. Communication from an axon to a dendrite is called
axodendritic, from a dendrite to another is termed dendro-dendritic, from a dendrite to an axon is
called dendro-axonal, from a dendrite to the soma is called dendro-somatic, and between two axons is
referred to as axo-axonal.
A) According to the text, are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? Correct the false ones in
Spanish
1. Presynaptic structures contain neurotransmitters.
2. Presynaptic structures transmit a chemical message to the nearby neurons.
3. Neurons can only communicate through their dendrites.
B) According to the text, answer the following questions in Spanish using your own words
1. Where are electrical signals converted into chemical messages?
...........................................................................................................................................
2. What is taken into account when classifying neurons?
...........................................................................................................................................
C) What do the underlined words refer to? Answer in Spanish
D) Comment on these words. What is their function in the text? Answer in Spanish
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Examen 6
CLASSIFICATION OF FRACTURES
We can divide fractures into two main types: “closed” (or simple) and “open” (or compound). In a
closed fracture, the broken bone ends remain beneath the skin and few, if any, surrounding tissues are
damaged; in an open fracture, one or both bone ends project through the skin. If the two bone ends
move apart, the fracture is “displaced”; in an undisplaced fracture, the ends remain in alignment and
there is simply a crack in the bone. The cause of most fractures is a sudden injury that exerts more
force on the bone than it can resist. The force can be direct, as when a finger is hit by a hammer, or
indirect, as when twisting the foot exerts severe stress on the shin. Common sites of fracture include
the hand, the wrist, the ankle joint, the collarbone, and the neck of the femur (thigh bone), usually as
the result of a fall. Fractures are common in elderly people because they fall more and because they
have fragile bones. In a fracture, there is usually swelling and tenderness at its site and, in some
cases, deformity or projecting bone ends. The pain is often severe, especially if there is movement
of the area.
A) According to the text, answer the following questions in Spanish using your own words
1. What is the difference between closed and open fractures?
..............................................................................................................................................
2. What causes a fracture?
..............................................................................................................................................
B) Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? Correct the false ones in Spanish
1. In an un-diplaced fracture the bone ends do not present any movement.
2. Fractures are not very usual at the ankle.
3. There is always deformity in a fracture.
D) Comment on these words. What is their function in the text? Answer in Spanish
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