Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
EN ELECTROQUIMICA
EN ELECTROQUIMICA.
I. Q. JUAN PABLO FRANCISCO
REBOLLEDO CHÁVEZ
MAESTRÍA EN ELECTROQUÍMICA
JULIO, 2017
Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico en
Electroquímica
REALIZADO POR
I. Q. Juan Pablo Francisco Rebolledo Chávez
DIRIGIDA POR
Dr. Luis Antonio Ortiz-Frade
SINODALES
Presidente
Secretario
Vocal
Suplente
Cyclic voltammetry experiments using as working electrodes glassy carbon and platinum
in the presence and in the absence of CO2 were carried out, the catalytic rate constant
(k) and the turnover frequency (TOF) relationships were calculated by FOW analysis.
A Gabo y Dam, son mis ganas de seguir adelante todos los días.
Al Dr. Luis Antonio Ortiz-Frade, millones de gracias por todo, no tengo palabras para
describir lo agradecido que me siento.
A Lalo, Tefs, Chino, Trini, Xaca, Rob; a ustedes por hacer éste camino que se llama
vida tan divertido y agradable.
A CIDETEQ y CONACyT, por el apoyo recibido para llevar a cabo este proyecto.
1. ANTECEDENTES .................................................................................................... 1
JUSTIFICACIÓN ........................................................................................................... 15
HIPÓTESIS ................................................................................................................... 16
OBJETIVOS .................................................................................................................. 16
3. RESULTADOS ...................................................................................................... 23
CONCLUSIONES ......................................................................................................... 67
PERSPECTIVAS........................................................................................................... 68
REFERENCIAS ............................................................................................................ 69
ANEXOS ....................................................................................................................... 75
1
1.2. Propiedades fisicoquímicas del dióxido de carbono
El dióxido de carbono es una molécula lineal con las siguientes estructuras de Lewis
resonantes:
Orbitales moleculares
Orbitales Orbitales
atómicos de C atómicos de O
Energía
2
1.2.2. Estabilidad
Como se mencionó anteriormente el CO2 es una molécula lineal que comprende átomos
tanto electrofílicos (C) como nucleófilos (O), aunque la formación de enlaces M-C se
encuentra con más frecuencia. Tras la coordinación con un ión metálico, los orbitales
LUMO del CO2 se ocuparán como resultado de la transferencia electrónica, lo que
conlleva a la re-hibridación de estos orbitales con los orbitales d del metal dando lugar
a la pérdida de linealidad [4].
Los tipos de enlace más comúnmente observados para el CO2 y el ion metálico se
representan en la Figura 1.3. Los metales ricos en electrones prefieren el modo de unión
η1(C) en el cual el carácter electrofílico del átomo de carbono controla el enlace, mientras
que los iones metálicos pobres en electrones favorecen la coordinación η1(O). Por otro
lado, dependiendo de la esfera de coordinación del metal y de los ligantes auxiliares que
3
lo rodean, se puede observar un modo de enlace bidentado η2(C, O), donde la retro-
donación de los orbitales d del metal a los orbitales π * vacíos del CO2 juega un papel
importante. El esquema de unión η2(O, O) es una estructura del tipo de unión de
"carboxilato metálico", se encuentran a menudo en estructuras inorgánicas,
organometálicas y sistemas biológicos [4].
4
Tabla 1.1 Productos de reacción de CO2 con distintos donadores protónicos y potenciales
de reducción [8].
La ruta superior (figura 1.4) es la adición de un ácido de Lewis, en este caso la misma
molecula de CO2, al radical anión y su reacción consecutiva. Como el radical generado
es mucho más sencillo de reducir que el mismo CO2, se presenta un mecanismo tipo
ECE-DESP (Electroquímico-Químico-Electroquímico o Desproporción), dando lugar a
una especie inestable que libera carbonato y monóxido de carbono. Otra posible reacción
es la dimerización entre dos radicales anión, ruta central (figura 1.4), lo que conduce a la
formación del anión divalente oxalato.
La ruta inferior se sigue cuando se añade agua al medio de reacción. El radical anión se
protona, dando lugar a un radical que es más fácil de reducir que la molécula inicial,
desencadenando así, un mecanismo ECE-DESP con una estequiometría de dos
electrones.
5
Figura 1.4 Distintas rutas en el mecanismo de reducción electroquímica de CO2
7
Electrodo Solución
Reacción Electroquímica
Directa
Reacción Electroquímica
Catalizada (Mediada)
La energía de activación para la formación del radical anión CO2•- es elevada debido a lo
antes mencionado por lo cual una estrategia novedosa para disminuir el sobrepotencial
y aumentar la cinética electródica, consiste en usar moléculas que catalizan la
transferencia electrónica es decir catálisis molecular. Dichas moléculas ya sea en
solución o inmovilizadas sobre el electrodo, son susceptibles a ser reducidas para
transferir de manera concentrada o secuencial electrones al CO2 [10, 13].
Dentro de la literatura los complejos de metales de transición, han sido reportados como
buenos candidatos para la catálisis molecular de CO2, donde un sitio vacante es
necesario para coordinar dicha molécula. Estos complejos metálicos pueden agruparse
según los tipos de ligantes: Complejos con ligantes porfirínicos y ftalocianinas, complejos
8
con ligantes macrocíclicos, complejos con ligantes fosfínicos y complejos con ligantes
polipiridínicos [14].
En los primeros trabajos de este tipo, se reportan complejos de níquel y cobalto con
ftalocianinas depositados sobre un electrodo de grafito para la reducción de CO2,
obteniendo ácido fórmico como producto de reacción [15]. En otros estudios los
complejos PtII(OEP), AgII(OEP) and PdII(TPP) (OEP = 2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-
octaetilporfirina, TPP = 5,10,15,20-tetrafenilporfirina) también presentaron actividad
electrocatalítica, donde el producto de reacción fue oxalato [16]. También existen
reportes que bajo atmósfera de CO2 y en medio acuoso un complejo de CoII con
porfirinas, conduce a la formación de monóxido de carbono y ácido fórmico [17].
9
El mecanismo de este tipo de compuestos (figura 1.6) presenta dos reducciones
consecutivas de un electrón, lo que genera electroquímicamente especies de hierro (0)
las cuales interactúan con CO2, formando un aducto de carbeno-hierro (II). La adición de
un ácido de Bronsted a este aducto produce monóxido de carbono con la liberación de
una molécula de agua [13].
Este mecanismo presenta la desventaja que solo es válido para compuestos de hierro
con dos vacancias axiales para la coordinación del CO2, dejando así abierto el estudio
del caso de complejos con distinta saturación en la esfera de coordinación del metal que
presentan catálisis molecular para la reducción de CO2.
Con respecto a los ligantes macrocíclicos, los ejemplos típicos para la catálisis molecular
de CO2 corresponden a los complejos tetra-azamacrocíclicos de Ni(II) y Co(II) que
generan como producto principal CO [18]. Otros estudios de complejos mono- y tri-
nucleares de Ni(II) con ligantes azamacrocíclicos, mostraron actividad catalítica para la
reducción electroquímica a CO [19]. En este mismo sentido, complejos de Co(II) con
ligantes tetra-azamacrocíclicos reducen el CO2 cuando el estado de oxidación es Co(I).
En reportes más recientes, complejos de Co(II) y el ligante macrocíclico
(azacalix[4](2,6)piridina) con distintos sustituyentes, también presentan electrocatálisis
de CO2 en presencia de ácidos de Brönsted [20].
10
En la bibliografía, diferentes grupos de investigadores han explorado el posible uso de
complejos de Ni, Co, Re, Ru, Rh, Ir y Os con ligantes polipiridínicos[17, 19, 20-23]. Dentro
de estos, el complejo [Re(bipi)(CO)3Cl] (bipi = 2,2'-bipiridinina) mostró la reducción
selectiva de CO2 a CO [24].
Otro grupo de compuestos que ha sido ampliamente estudiado son los complejos rutenio
[Ru(bipi)2(CO)2]2+ y [Ru(bipi)2(CO)(Cl)]+, dando como productos CO y HCOO- [25, 26].
Se ha propuesto que para estos compuestos, después de una reducción de 2 electrones,
hay una pérdida de CO para dar una especie pentacoordinada tipo Ru(0)-η1-CO2. Por
otra parte, distintos tipos de ligantes polipiridínicos con Rh, Ru, Ni, e Ir se han estudiado,
dando CO o HCOO como productos [14,26].
11
estudios sobre los mecanismos de reacción, ya que muchos de éstos son inertes a la
sustitución, dejando en duda los modos de coordinación del CO2.
fac-Re(ptpy)(CO)3Cl CO DMSO
12
HOCH2CO2
Ru(bpy)2(tpy)(qu)(CO) CH3COCH3 -1.31 DMSO+(CH3)4N+
Ru(bpy)(napy)2(CO)2
Cis-Rh(bby)(O3SCF3)2 HCO2- -1.05 MECN+H2O
Todos los ejemplos citados con anterioridad son una muestra del gran número de
compuestos de coordinación reportados en la literatura que poseen como factor común
la presencia de sitios vacantes para la coordinación de CO2. Contrariamente a lo
observado para compuestos con ligantes polipiridínicos, sin sitios de coordinación
disponibles e inertes a la sustitución, ya que presentan una considerable actividad de
catálisis molecular; que, hasta la fecha, cuenta con pocos estudios reportados sobre el
aumento en la denticidad y el cambio de la configuración electrónica en función del
aumento de los electrones d del metal.
13
Por lo cual, el presente trabajo estudia la respuesta electroquímica y
espectroelectroquímica de compuestos de coordinación con ligantes polipiridínicos de
esfera de coordinación saturada, es decir sin sitios vacantes disponibles, e inertes a la
sustitución. Con la finalidad de evaluar la catálisis molecular del dióxido de carbono. En
primera instancia se prepararán complejos de Fe II con distinta denticidad, tipo bidentado
[FeII(L)3](BF4)2 (L = (bipi => 2,2’-bipiridina) o (fen => 1,10-fenantrolina) o tipo tridentado
[FeII(L)2](BF4)2 (L= terpi => 2,2’:6’,6’’-terpiridina) (esquema 1.1), posteriormente al
seleccionar una coordinación saturada se cambiará el centro metálico por CoII, ZnII y RuII
escogiendo, por razones descritas en la presentación de resultados, bipiridina (esquema
1.2), [MII(L)3](BF4)2, M=Fe (3d6), Co (3d7), Zn (3d10), Ru (4d6)
14
Justificación
15
Hipótesis
Objetivos
Objetivos Específicos
16
2. Desarrollo Experimental
17
se agrega por goteo a la solución de la sal de Fe(II). La reacción se lleva a cabo con
agitación constante a temperatura ambiente hasta la evaporación por completo del
disolvente. El producto obtenido se lava con éter etílico para eliminar el exceso de ligante
y finalmente se deja secando al vacío. La caracterización de esta serie de compuestos
se presenta a continuación:
18
enjuaga con éter etílico. La caracterización de esta serie de compuestos se presenta a
continuación:
19
anión, se purificó por recristalización en acetonitrilo / éter etílico, y finalmente se deja
secando al vacío
Se empleó una celda convencional con un arreglo de tres electrodos. Como electrodo de
trabajo (WE) se usó carbón vítreo (Ф= 3 mm) para determinar la respuesta
electroquímica, ya que este electrodo permite ventanas más amplias. También se
realizaron estudios con electrodo de platino (Ф= 1.6 mm) ya que los estudios
espectroelectroquímicos se realizan con mallas de platino. Como contra electrodo (CE)
se utiliza un alambre de platino. como electrodo de pseudoreferencia (RE) un alambre
de plata. Se utilizó como electrodo de referencia, un alambre de plata sumergido en
solución de nitrato de plata (AgNO3) 0.1 M en MeCN dentro de un compartimiento
separado, conectado a través de una membrana vycor. Todos los potenciales se
referenciaron al par Fc/Fc+, como recomienda la IUPAC [33].
Antes de cada medición las soluciones fueron burbujeadas con nitrógeno (N2) o con
dióxido de carbono (CO2) por 5 minutos. La limpieza del electrodo de trabajo se realiza
mediante un pulido manual con polvo de diamante (0.1 µm), para posteriormente,
enjuagarlo con agua y colocarlo en un baño ultrasónico por un minuto. Se enjuaga de
nuevo con agua y se seca con acetona. Los voltamperogramas fueron obtenidos a
diferentes velocidades de barrido a partir del potencial de circuito abierto (Eoc) en sentido
20
catódico. La compensación de la caída óhmica (iR) se realizó mediante el método de
retroalimentación positiva. El cálculo de la resistencia de la solución (Ru) se determinó
mediante la medición de la impedancia (ZIR). La determinación de la constante catalítica
del sistema se determinó mediante el análisis del pie de onda [34] (análisis FOW, Foot
of the wave, por sus siglas en inglés)
21
2.6. Cálculos Teóricos
Se realizaron cálculos según la Teoría de Funcionales de la Densidad (DFT por sus siglas
en inglés) [35–37] con el software Gaussian 09 [38]. Se realizó una optimización de la
geometría completa sin restricciones de simetría utilizando el conjunto de tres
parámetros de funcionalidad B3LYP [39–41] y el conjunto de base 6-311G(d,p) [42–45].
La optimización de las geometrías y los mínimos locales fueron verificadas con el número
de frecuencias imaginarias (que debería ser cero). Se utilizaron funcionales híbridos, que
incluyen en parte la energía de intercambio de Hartree-Fock; equivalentes a los
reportados con la teoría de perturbaciones Möller-Plesset de segundo orden y conjuntos
base doble zeta tales como 6-311G(d,p), y cc-pVDZ [46].
22
3. Resultados
En la segunda parte se presentan los resultados que exploran el efecto del cambio en la
configuración electrónica del metal en la catálisis molecular de la reducción del CO2,
manteniendo constante el tipo de ligante. Para este fin se estudió la respuesta
electroquímica los compuestos los [CoII(bipi)3](BF4)2, [ZnII(bipi)3](BF4)2 y
[RuII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en presencia y en ausencia de CO2. Estos compuestos se comparan
con el complejo [FeII(bipi)3](BF4)2. En el caso del complejo de Zn(II), se presentan
cálculos teóricos de DFT, para proponer los sitios de reducción de estos.
120
100 a*
a*
80
60
va
40
i (A)
20
a
0
-20
vc
-40 c c
Figura 3.1 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [Fe II(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como
electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito
abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo.
24
Contrariamente a lo observado a velocidades de barrido altas donde el proceso de
difusión es predominante. Por otro lado, un nuevo proceso (I*) se registra, probablemente
debido a una especie adsorbida. En resumen, se propone el siguiente mecanismo,
basando en la evidencia antes presentada y de acuerdo a la literatura:
400
100 mV
250 mV
300
a* 500 mV
750 mV
a* 1000 mV
1500 mV
200
va
i/v1/2 (A V-1/2s )1/2
100
*
a
0
-100
vc
c c
c
-200
Figura 3.2 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [Fe II(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 en MeCN
con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
25
del CO2, debido a sus diferentes valores de potencial redox en comparación con los otros
complejos estudiados.
40 va
a
20 ´
a
0
-20 vc
c
i (A)
-40 c
100 mV
-60
-80
c
-100
-3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.3 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en
sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
Para confirmar la idea anterior, se llevaron a cabo experimentos con velocidad de barrido
variable (ver Figura 3.4). En este caso se puede apreciar una superposición de señales
para I, II y IV, en su representación de corriente normalizada(i/v1/2), típica para la
transferencia electrónica reversible controlada por difusión. Por otro lado, la disminución
26
en la corriente normalizada del proceso IIIc y un cambio en el valor del potencial de pico
permiten establecer un mecanismo ECi en la región KP. Con todas estas evidencias y
de acuerdo con la capacidad de un ligante aceptor-π, como la terpiridina para estabilizar
bajos estado de oxidación [47], se propone el siguiente mecanismo:
[Fe0(terpi -)2]P
150
va
100
a ´
50 a
0
i/v1/2 (A V-1/2s1/2)
-50 vc
-100 c
-150 c
100 mV
250 mV
-200 500 mV
750 mV
-250 1000 mV
1500 mV
-300 c
-3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.4 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [Fe II(terpi)2](BF4)2 en MeCN con
TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
La figura 3.5 muestra una voltamperometría cíclica típica de una solución 1mM
[FeII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN en presencia de TBAPF6 0.1 M como electrolito soporte,
27
burbujeado con N2; a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de
circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Al iniciar el barrido aparecen 3 señales de reducción (Ic, IIc y IIIc) en -1.743, 1.940 y -
2.19 (IIIc) respectivamente. Al invertir el barrido se detectan 3 señales de oxidación (Ia,
IIa y III a) en –1.691, -1.880 y -2.128. Dada la estructura química de la molécula, estos
procesos redox reversibles (Ep 0.060 V e ipc/ipa ≈1) se generan sobre las 3 bipiridinas
que complejan al hierro. Además, se observa un proceso de oxidación IVa en 0.719 V
vs Fc-Fc+ con su respectiva señal de reducción IVc en 0.655 V vs Fc-Fc+ que
corresponde a la oxidación reversible del centro metálico (Ep 0.060 V é ipc/ipa ≈1).
30
va
20
a
10 a
a
0
i (A)
-10
vc
-20 c
c
-30
c 100 mV
-40
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
+
E (V vs Fc-Fc )
Figura 3.5 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [Fe II(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en
sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo.
28
Epc) 0.060V [48], característica de transferencias mono-electrónicas consecutivas
reversibles.
120
va
80
a
40 a
a
i/v1/2 (A V-1/2s1/2 )
-40
100 mV vc
250 mV
500 mV
-80 c 750 mV
c 1000 mV
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.6 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [Fe II(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con
TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
29
Para una mejor comparativa, en la figura 3.7 se presenta la respuesta electroquímica de
los 3 complejos de hierro a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1. Se observa que el
complejo [FeII(bipi)3](BF4)2] presenta los procesos redox reversibles a potenciales más
negativos que los demás complejos. Así mismo, el complejo [FeII(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 que
tiene la misma denticidad que el complejo con bipiridinas, con una estructura química
más rígida, sigue la misma tendencia en cuanto a las reducciones, con la diferencia que
presenta procesos de adsorción debido a las interacciones π-π de los anillos aromáticos
con el electrodo. Análogamente se observa que el aumento en la denticidad (complejo
[FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 disminuye los potenciales de los procesos redox asociados a los
ligantes y así mismo aumenta la estabilidad del complejo, además, se sabe que los
compuestos de coordinación con ligantes aceptores π, permiten estabilizar bajos estados
de oxidación [47] por lo cual se propone la electrogeneración de una especie de Fe(0),
que no es observable en los demás complejos. Resumiendo, el aumento en la denticidad
en los ligantes polipiridínicos disminuye el valor de los potenciales redox para los
sistemas modelo de Fe(II).
va
a
(a) a
a
vc
c
c
c a*
a*
(b)
va
a
vc
c c
c
va
(c) a ´
a
vc
c
c
c
Figura 3.7 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM (a) [Fe II(bipi)3](BF4)2, (b) [FeII(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 y
(c)[FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 a una velocidad de barrido
de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón
30
3.1.2. Catálisis molecular de CO2 en carbón vítreo
31
a*
100 a* vc
*
a
0
c c va
c
-100
i (A)
-200 N2
CO2
-300
c*
-400
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
+
E (V vs Fc-Fc )
Figura 3.8 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [FeII(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como
electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 (línea negra) y CO2 (línea roja). Velocidad de barrido 100 mVs-1 a partir de
potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
32
40 va
a ´
a
0
c vc
-40
c
-80
c
i (A)
-120
N2
-160 CO2
-200
-240
-3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
+
E (V vs Fc-Fc )
Figura 3.9 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [Fe II(terpi)2](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 (línea negra) y CO2 (línea roja). Velocidad de barrido 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de
circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
.
La voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM de
[FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 en MeCN con 0.1 M TBAPF6 con diferentes velocidades de barrido se
muestra en la Figura 3.10. La corriente normalizada para la señal IIIc disminuye con el
aumento de la velocidad de barrido debido a la competencia entre el mecanismo ECi y
la catálisis molecular. En este caso, por la presencia de la reacción acoplada (región KP)
no es posible estimar un potencial redox y, por lo tanto, el análisis FOW no puede
evaluarse, a pesar de la presencia de las especies electrogeneradas de valencia cero
[Fe0(terpi-)2], que acorde a la literatura, se reportan como buenos catalizadores
moleculares.
33
va
100 a ´
a
0
-100
c vc
-200 c
i/v1/2 (A V-1/2)
-300
-400
50 mV
-500
100 mV
velocidad de 250 mV
-600 barrido 500 mV
750 mV
-700 1000 mV
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.10 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [Fe II(terpi)2](BF4)2 en MeCN con
TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con CO2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
34
40
va
a
20 a a´
a
0
-20
c vc
c
-40 c
i (A)
-60
-80 N2
CO2
-100
-120
-140
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.11 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [FeII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 (línea negra) y CO2 (línea roja). Velocidad de barrido 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de
circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
35
va
80
a a a´
0 a
-80 vc
c
-160
c
i/v1/2 (A V-1/2)
c
-240
-320 100 mV
250 mV
500 mV
-400 velocidad de 750 mV
barrido 1000 mV
1500 mV
-480
Figura 3.12 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [Fe II(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con
TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con CO2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
RT 0
2.24 2kCCO 2
i Fv
Ec. 1
i 0p F
1 exp
E EMLred
0
/ MLox
RT
36
k
TOF Ec. 2
F
1 exp
ECO 2 / CO 2. EMLred
0
/ MLox
RT
4 2.8
a a b c d e
3 b
c 2.4
2
d
1 e
2.0
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 -1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2
1
1 + exp[ (F/RT) (E - EPQ)] log (V/s)
Figura 3.13 (A) Análisis FOW del complejo [FeII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte a una
velocidad de barrido de (a) 100, (b) 250, (c) 500, (d) 750 y (e) 1000 mVs-1. (B) Constante de velocidad de las
pendientes de las porciones lineales en el lado derecho
20
-20
-40
100 mV
TOF
-60 250 mV
500 mV
-80 750 mV
1000 mV
-100
-120
-140
Figura 3.14 Relación TOF-η del complejo [FeII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en presencia de CO2 a distintas velocidades de barrido.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo.
Con los resultados obtenidos hasta este punto es posible afirmar que los compuestos de
coordinación de Fe(II) con potencial redox más negativo que se presenta con los ligantes
37
con menor denticidad, presentan un mejor rendimiento la catálisis molecular de CO 2,
cuando la transferencia electrónica heterogénea se lleva a cabo en los ligantes
polipiridínicos. Para tener una idea más clara de este fenómeno, en la figura 3.15 se
observan los 3 complejos de hierro sobre la misma escala a la misma velocidad de
barrido.
a a´ va
a a
(a)
vc
c c
c
vc
a* a*
*
a
(b)
c c va
c
va
a ´
(c) a
vc
c c
N2
c CO2
Figura 3.15 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM (a) [Fe II(bipi)3](BF4)2, (b) [FeII(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 y
(c)[FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 (línea negra), CO2 (línea
roja) a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo
de trabajo carbón vítreo
38
3.1.3. Respuesta electroquímica en Platino
va
a
a
a
(a) vc
c
c
a*
c a*
va
a
vc
(b) c c
va
c
a
a ´
(c) vc
c
c
Figura 3.16 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM (a) [Fe II(bipi)3](BF4)2, (b) [FeII(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 y
(c)[FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2, velocidad de barrido de 100
mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo platino
Al comparar este gráfico con la figura 3.7, puede establecerse que no hay diferencias
significativas en el perfil electroquímico cuando se cambia el electrodo de trabajo; salvo
que la ventana de trabajo se ve más reducida en sentido catódico, debido a la naturaleza
39
del platino, por consecuencia la señal IIIc en el complejo [FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 asociada a
la especie de Fe(0) electrogenerada no es observable.
40
En el caso del complejo [FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 (figura 3.17c) cabe recalcar que a pesar del
incremento aparente en la corriente de las señales Ic e IIc, no hay catálisis molecular en
estas condiciones de potencial, como quedó demostrado con los experimentos con el
electrodo de carbón vítreo. Este aumento es una consecuencia de la reducción
electroquímica de CO2 catalizada por el platino. Por esta razón se detecta una nueva
señal de oxidación (I’’) en -1.183 V vs Fc-Fc+ Es importante hacer la comparación entre
los experimentos con diferentes electrodos, para hacer una interpretación fiable de los
experimentos espectroelectroquímicos, debido a la contribución de los electrodos.
va
a
a
a
(a) c vc
c c
a*
a* va
´´
a
(b) vc
c
c
c
va
a ´´
c* a
vc
(c) c
N2
CO2
c
Figura 3.17 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM (a) [Fe II(bipi)3](BF4)2, (b) [FeII(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 y
(c)[FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 (línea negra), CO2 (línea
roja) A una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo
de trabajo carbón vítreo
41
A 10 B 5.0
0100 mV/s (a)
9 0250 mV/s (b) 4.5
0500 mV/s (c)
8
0750 mV/s (d) 4.0
7 1000 mV/s (e)
5 3.0
a b c d e
4
a 2.5
3 b
c 2.0
2 d
e
1.5
1
0 1.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 -1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2
1
1 + exp[ (F/RT) (E - EPQ)] log (V/s)
Figura 3.18 (A) Análisis FOW del complejo [FeII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte a una
velocidad de barrido de (a) 100, (b) 250, (c) 500, (d) 750 y (e) 1000 mVs-1. (B) Constante de velocidad de las
pendientes de las porciones lineales en el lado derecho
-50
-100
50 mV
TOF
100 mV
-150 250 mV
500 mV
-200 750 mV
1000 mV
-250 1500 mV
-300
Figura 3.19 Relación TOF-η del complejo [FeI(bipi)3](BF4)2 en presencia de CO2 a distintas velocidades de barrido.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
La comparación de estos valores con los obtenidos del análisis FOW en el carbón vítreo
indica una diferencia significativa entre ambos electrodos, debido a la contribución del
platino en el proceso catalítico, como se demostró en los voltamperogramas de la figura
3.11.
42
Este análisis no se presentó para [FeII(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 y [FeII(Terpi)2](BF4)2 debido a
las complicaciones de adsorción y la nula actividad catalítica, respectivamente.
En ausencia de CO2, (figura 3.20a), los valores de absorbancia para la transición MLCT,
que se encuentran a 515 nm disminuyen durante la electrólisis, alcanzando un valor
cercano a 0,2 al final del experimento. No se detectan transiciones electrónicas típicas
para bajos estados de oxidación en el hierro, o un cambio en la λmax [49], indicando así
que la reducción tiene lugar sobre los ligantes polipiridínicos, sin cambios importantes en
la geometría, ya que no se detectan un desplazamiento en el máximo de absorbancia.
43
Wavelength (nm)
0.56
0.42
Absorbance
(s
e
0.28
m
Ti
0.14
0.00
Absorbance
)
(s
e
m
Ti
400 600 800
(a)
Wavelength (nm)
Wavelength (nm)
0.60
0.48
)
Absorbance
(s
0.36
e
m
Ti
0.24
0.12
0.00
Absorbance
)
(s
e
m
Ti
Figura 3.20 Experimento espectroelectroquímico de [FeII(bipi)3](BF4)2 5x10-4 M en MeCN con 0.1 M TBAPF6. Eimp=-
2.20 V vs Fc-Fc+. Medido cada 10 segundos durante 15 minutos, en ausencia (a) y presencia (b)de CO2.
44
En el caso de los complejos [FeII(1,10-fen)3](BF4)2 y [FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 los estudios
espectroelectroquímicos no presentaron cambio alguno, debido a la baja catálisis
molecular en el potencial aplicado, donde no hay diferencia en los experimentos en
presencia (figuras 3.21b y 3.22b) y en ausencia (figuras 3.21a y 3.22a) de dióxido de
carbono.
45
Longitud de Onda (nm)
1.20
0.96
)
(s
Absorbancia
0.72
po
m
Ti 0.48
0.24
0.00
Absorbancia
)
(s
po
em
Ti
400 500 600 700
(a)
Longitud de Onda (nm)
1.04
)
(s
Absorbancia
0.78
po
m
Ti
0.52
0.26
0.00
Absorbancia
)
(s
po
em
Ti
Figura 3.21 Experimento espectroelectroquímico de [FeII(1,10-phen)3](BF4)2 5x10-4 M en MeCN con 0.1 M TBAPF6.
Eimp=-2.20 V vs Fc-Fc+. Medido cada 10 segundos durante 15 minutos, en ausencia (a) y presencia (b)de CO2.
46
Wavelength (nm)
1.20
0.96
Absorbance
(s
0.72
e
m
Ti
0.48
0.24
0.00
Absorbance
)
(s
e
m
Ti
400 500 600 700 800
(a)
Wavelength (nm)
Wavelength (nm)
1.20
0.96
)
Absorbance
(s
0.72
e
m
Ti
0.48
0.24
0.00
Absorbance
)
(s
e
m
Ti
Figura 3.22 Experimento espectroelectroquímico de [FeII(terpi)2](BF4)2 5x10-4 M en MeCN con 0.1 M TBAPF6. Eimp=-
2.20 V vs Fc-Fc+. Medido cada 10 segundos, en ausencia (a) y presencia (b)de CO 2
47
3.1.6. Cálculos Teóricos
Hasta este punto hay evidencia experimental que indica que la reducción electroquímica
de los complejos metálicos estudiados en este trabajo se lleva a cabo sobre los ligantes.
Sin embargo, para dar un soporte teórico de la distribución electrónica de los orbitales
accesibles donde se producen las reducciones, se realizaron cálculos DFT para las
energías LUMO. Las estructuras para el orbital LUMO y LUMO+1 de todos los complejos
[FeII(1,10-fen)3]2+, [FeII(terpi)2]2+ y [FeII(bipi)3] 2+ en su forma catiónica, con sus valores
correspondientes se muestran en la figura 3.23 y se enumeran en la Tabla 3.1. Estas
estructuras indican como es la distribución electrónica en los compuestos, en el orbital
molecular más bajo desocupado (LUMO) y el siguiente orbital desocupado (LUMO+1).
Los orbitales LUMO son degenerados, es decir, poseen el mismo nivel energético y
presentan simetría E doblemente degenerada, y están localizados principalmente en los
anillos polipiridínicos, lo que indica que son más accesibles para aceptar electrones, lo
cual empata con los resultados espectroelectroquímicos.
Tabla 2.1 Valores de la energía LUMO para los complejos Fe(II) con ligantes
polipiridínicos estudiados.
48
a)
LUMO LUMO +1
b)
LUMO LUMO +1
c)
LUMO LUMO +1
Figura 3.23 Estructuras de los orbitales LUMO para (a) [FeII(bipy)3]2+ (b) [FeII(1,10-fen)3] 2+ and (c) [FeII(terpy)2] 2+
49
3.1.7. Mecanismo Propuesto
[M(L-)2(L)] + e- ⇄ [M(L-)3]-
Cabe destacar que los compuestos de coordinación a potenciales redox más negativos
E ° presentan mayor actividad de la catálisis molecular del CO2. Este comportamiento
también se observa en el complejo bis-quelato [Fe(terpi)2]2+, donde la especie
electrogenerada de Fe(0) tiene el potencial redox más negativo (observado en carbón
vítreo) es la responsable de la catálisis molecular, por lo cual se propone el siguiente
mecanismo:
[M0(L-)2]2- → P*
P* = Productos
50
3.2. Efecto del cambio en la configuración electrónica del metal [MII(2,2’-
bipi)3]2+ (M= Fe, Co, Zn, Ru)
51
30
a
20
a
10 ´
a*
0
-10
c
i (A)
-20
c
-30 0100 mV
-40
-50 c
-60
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5
+
E (V vs Fc-Fc )
Figura 3.24 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [CoII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en
sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo.
Es importante señalar que la señal IIc es de mayor intensidad que sus análogas, lo cual
indica una reducción bi-electrónica irreversible en la cual se propone la disociación de un
ligante polipiridínico dada la ausencia de la señal análoga de oxidación correspondiente,
sin embargo, al aumentar la velocidad de barrido esta se vuelve reversible apareciendo
el proceso IIa*.
Así mismo el proceso III del par Co(III)/Co(II) (Ep (Epa-Epc)) 0.120V indica una
transferencia de electrones cuasi-reversible.
52
100
a a
a*
50
´
Figura 3.25 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [Co II(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con
TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
[Co(bipi)(bipi-)2]-[Co(bipi)(bipi-)]+ (bipi) –
53
10
a ´
-10
i (A) -20
0100 mV
-30
c
-40 c
Figura 3.26 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [Zn II(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en
sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo.
54
60
a ´
40
20
0
-20
-120 c 500 mV
750 mV
1000 mV
-140 c 1500 mV
-160
Figura 3.27 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [Zn II(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con
TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
55
60
va
40
a
20 a
0
a
i (A)
-20
vc
-40
c
c
-80
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.28 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [RuII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en
sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo.
Se observa que los procesos de reducción (Ic, IIc, IIIc y IVc) y de oxidación (Ia, IIa, IIIa
y IVa) a las distintas velocidades de barrido convergen en los mismos potenciales con
Ep (Epa-Epc) 0.060V [48], característica de las transferencias mono electrónicas
reversibles consecutivas.
56
250 100 mV
250 mV
200 500 mV
750 mV
150 1000 mV
1500 mV
100
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.29 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [RuII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con
TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
57
El complejo de [CoII(bipi)3](BF4)2 cambió totalmente la forma de la voltamperometría aun
teniendo la misma geometría que el complejo de Fe(II), se observa una reducción bi
electrónica en el cobalto (figura 3.30) la señal IIc, distinta a las reducciones mono
electrónicas que se encontraron para el hierro. El CoII tiene una configuración electrónica
de valencia 3d7, al ocurrir el proceso de reducción a CoI se obtiene una configuración
3d8, y según la teoría de campo cristalino esta prefiere una geometría cuadrada lo cual
tiene como consecuencia un cambio en el ambiente de coordinación del centro metálico
y por tanto la reducción bi-electrónica promoviendo la disociación de uno de los ligantes.
58
a a
a* ´
(a) c
c
c
a ´
(b)
c c
va
a a
a
(c)
c vc
c c
va
a
a a
(d)
c vc
c c
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
+
E (V vs Fc-Fc )
Figura 3.30 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM (a) [CoII(bipi)3](BF4)2, (b) [ZnII(bipi)3](BF4)2 (c)
[RuII(bipi)3](BF4)2 y (d) [FeII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con N2 a una
velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo
carbón
Una vez que se obtuvo el perfil electroquímico de los compuestos de coordinación con
distintos centros metálicos, se procedió a estudiar su catálisis molecular en CO2. Se
burbujeo durante 5 minutos antes de cada experimento, esto para generar un medio
saturado de CO2.
59
aparición de una nueva señal I’ en -0.772 V vs Fc-Fc+ indica la oxidación de especies
electrogeneradas en la catálisis molecular.
20
a
a ´
a*
0
-20
c
c
-40
i (A)
c
-60 N2
CO2
-80
-100
Figura 3.31 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [CoII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 (línea negra) y CO2 (línea roja). Velocidad de barrido 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de
circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
60
100
a
50 a ´
a*
0
-50
c
-100 c
-200
100 mV
-250 c 250 mV
500 mV
-300 750 mV
1000 mV
-350 1500 mV
-400
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.32 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [CoII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con
TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con CO2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
0100 mV
5 0250 mV 4.0
0500 mV
3.5
1000 mV
4 1500 mV 3.0
3 2.0
°p
1.5
2 1.0
0.5
1 0.0
-0.5
0 -1.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -1.4 -1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2
1
1 + exp[ (F/RT) (E - EMLred / MLox)] log (V/s)
Figura 3.33 Análisis FOW del complejo [CoII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte. (b)
Constante de velocidad de las pendientes de las porciones lineales en el lado derecho
61
20
´
10 a
-10
i (A)
-20
N2
-30 CO2
c
-40 c
-50
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.34 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [ZnII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 (línea negra) y CO2 (línea roja). Velocidad de barrido 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de
circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo1
62
80
va
60
40
a
20 a
a
0
-20
vc
i (A)
-40 c
-60
c 100 mV
-80 c 100 mV
-100
-120
-140
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.35 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM [RuII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito
soporte, burbujeado con N2 (línea negra) y CO2 (línea roja). Velocidad de barrido 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de
circuito abierto en sentido catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
63
200
100
-100
-400
-500
E (V vs Fc-Fc+)
Figura 3.36 Voltamperometría cíclica de corriente normalizada de una solución 1mM [RuII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con
TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte, burbujeado con CO2 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido catódico.
Electrodo de trabajo carbón vítreo
0100 mV
5 0250 mV
0500 mV 4.0
0750 mV 3.5
4 1000 mV
1500 mV 3.0
2.5
log 2k (M-1 s-1)
3
°p
2.0
2k = 24.77 (M-1 s-1)
1.5
2
1.0
0.5
1 0.0
-0.5
0 -1.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -1.4 -1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2
1
1 + exp[ (F/RT) (E - EMLred / MLox)] log (V/s)
Figura 3.37 Análisis FOW del complejo [RuII(bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte. (b)
Constante de velocidad de las pendientes de las porciones lineales en el lado derecho
Con los resultados obtenidos, es posible afirmar que el centro metálico juega un papel
crucial en la catálisis molecular, ya que es capaz de reducir el sobrepotencial requerido
para este proceso como se observó con el complejo [CoII(bipi)3](BF4)2, debido al hecho
de la reducción a CoI que cambia la configuración electrónica del centro metálico,
64
promoviendo la disociación de uno de los ligantes y dejando una posición vacante para
interactuar con el CO2. En el caso el zinc el complejo [ZnII(bipi)3](BF4)2, al contar con una
configuración electrónica 3d10 cuenta con el orbital d saturado se presentan reducciones
electroquímicas irreversibles sobre los ligantes que no permiten la catálisis molecular del
CO2. Y, por último, pero no menos importante el complejo [RuII(bipi)3](BF4)2 al tener un
nivel energético mayor confiere mayor estabilidad al complejo lo cual limita los cambios
geométricos necesarios para la reducción del dióxido de carbono, ya que la energía de
desdoblamiento de campo cristalino aumenta al descender en una misma familia.
Para tener una idea más clara de este fenómeno, en la figura 3.38 se observan los 4
complejos con el ligante 2,2’-bipiridina con los distintos centros metálicos sobre la misma
escala a la misma velocidad de barrido.
a
a ´
a*
(a) c
c
c
a ´
(b)
c
c
va
a
a a
c vc
(c) c c
a a va
a
c c vc
(d) c
Figura 3.38 Voltamperometría cíclica de una solución 1mM (a) [CoII(bipi)3](BF4)2, (b) [ZnII(bipi)3](BF4)2 (c)
[RuII(bipi) II
3](BF4)2 y (d) [Fe (bipi)3](BF4)2 en MeCN con TBAPF6 como electrolito soporte burbujeado con N2 (línea
negra), CO2 (línea roja) a una velocidad de barrido de 100 mVs-1 a partir de potencial de circuito abierto en sentido
catódico. Electrodo de trabajo carbón
65
3.2.3. Cálculos Teóricos
En la figura 3.39 vemos el orbital molecular no ocupado de más baja energía (LUMO) en
donde se aprecia la densidad electrónica sobre los átomos de nitrógeno y la
deslocalización electrónica sobre los anillos aromáticos. La disminución de energía en el
LUMO aumenta la capacidad de esa molécula de aceptar un electrón en ese orbital con
un aumento del potencial de pico de la molécula. Por lo cual, los ligantes son los que
aumentan la densidad electrónica de la molécula del complejo y por lo tanto participan
en el mecanismo de reducción de CO2 el cual se lleva a cabo en el orbital LUMO de la
molécula.
66
Conclusiones
67
Perspectivas
Emplear los ligantes de fenantrolina y terpiridina con los metales seleccionados, cobalto,
zinc y rutenio, para observar los cambios que generan en la catálisis molecular de dióxido
de carbono.
Realizar los cálculos teóricos de los demás metales para confirmar lo observado en la
catálisis molecular.
68
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74
Anexos
La relación del logaritmo de TOF-η puede ser linealizada, dando lugar a la ley de Tafel,
que permite la caracterización del catalizador por el valor del TOF a un sobrepotencial
cero (TOF0). El análisis del pie de onda (FOWA por sus siglas en ingles) de las
respuestas catalíticas en la voltametría cíclica permite la determinación de la relación
TOF, log TOF-η y TOF 0, independientemente de los fenómenos laterales que interfieren
en altas densidades de corriente, que evitan aparición de la meseta esperada para un
proceso catalizado. El número de recambio se define como el número de moles de
sustrato transformado por un mol de ambas formas del catalizador presente en la
superficie:
75
Lo cual demuestra que existe una relación definida entre la frecuencia de recambio y el
sobrepotencial, lo cual caracteriza de una manera más competa las propiedades
catalíticas de la molécula analizada.
Para relacionar el análisis del pie de onda y la voltametría cíclica, se sabe que para un
proceso catalítico sin perturbación alguna se define por:
76
RMN del complejo [ZnII(bipy)3](BF4)
H4 H3
H1
H2
77
(H1)= 8.74 ppm (1) ddd
H4
H3 (H2)= 7.45 ppm (1) ddd
H2
(BF4)2 (H3)= 7.96 ppm (1) td
N N
H1
Zn (H4)= 8.55 ppm (1) dt
3
J1-2=4.8 Hz
J1-3=1.8 Hz
J1-4=0.9 Hz,
J2-4=1.2 Hz
J3-4= 8.0 Hz
78
Electrochimica Acta 247 (2017) 241–251
Electrochimica Acta
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/electacta
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Received 7 April 2017 In this work the electrochemical behavior, of three Fe(II) polypyridinc complexes [Fe(bipy)3]2+, [Fe
Received in revised form 29 June 2017 (phen)3]2+, and [Fe(terpy)2]2+ in acetonitrile solution was explored, to understand the mechanism of the
Accepted 1 July 2017 molecular catalysis of carbon dioxide reduction, for metal complexes with no available coordination sites
Available online 3 July 2017 and inert to substitution. Cyclic voltammetry experiments using as working electrodes glassy carbon and
platinum in the presence and in the absence of CO2 were carried out. All the compounds present the
Keywords: oxidation Fe(II)Ln + e @ Fe(III)Ln. For the tris chelate systems [Fe(phen)3]2+ and [Fe(bipy)3]2+, three
Fe(II) complex reduction processes over the coordinated ligands are observed. On the other hand, the bis chelate
molecular catalysis
complex [Fe(terpy)2] 2+ shows two reductions processes center in ligands. For experiments with a glassy
spectroelectrochemistry
carbon electrode, a third reduction process that yield the species [Fe0(terpy )2] is detected. DFT
electrochemistry
DFT calculations calculations support the idea for the electrochemical reduction in the coordinated ligands. For compound
[Fe(bipy)3]2+, the catalytic rate constant (k) and the turnover frequency (TOF) relationships were
calculated. Spectroelectrochemical experiments in the absence and in the presence of CO2 were also
carried out, demonstrating the regeneration of catalysts. An outer sphere homogenous electron transfer
mechanism between the catalyst and CO2 is proposed, where high negative redox potential values
favored the molecular catalysis.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.07.003
0013-4686/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
242 J.P.F. Rebolledo-Chávez et al. / Electrochimica Acta 247 (2017) 241–251
the use of different metallic electrodes such as mercury, lead and different polypyridine ligands of Rh, Ru, Ni, and Ir have been
zinc in the reduction of CO2. The main disadvantages of these are, studied, giving CO or HCOO as products [8,20].
its low faradaic efficiencies, high overpotentials and passivation of In the aim for searching catalysts with abundant elements in
the electrodes [3]. A successful alternative is the use of molecular the earth, compounds of Mn have been reported; [Mn(L)(CO)3Br]
catalysts, either in solution or immobilized at the electrode and (L = 2,2'-bipyridine (bipy); L = 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine
surface, that through an interaction with CO2, diminishes the (dmbipy)), with excellent efficiency, selectivity and stability to
activation energy [5,6]. Within the literature, transition metal reduce CO2 to CO, [21]. In the same direction, the electrocatalytic
complexes have been reported as good candidates for molecular conversion to CO using Mn complexes with formula (bipy-R2)
catalysis of CO2 reduction, where a vacant site is necessary to (CO)3MnX (bipy-R2 = 4,40 - disubstituted-2,2'-bipyridine, X = halo-
coordinated the CO2. These metal complexes can be grouped gen) has been also demonstrated [22].
according to the types of ligands: Complexes with porphyrinic and All the examples mentioned above, being a sample of the large
phthalocyanines ligands, complexes with macrocyclic ligands, number of complexes reported in the literature, have as a common
complexes with phosphine ligands and complexes with polypyr- factor the presence of vacancies for CO2 coordination, contrary to
idine ligands [7]. the observed for complexes with polypyridine ligands with no
In the earlier works, nickel and cobalt phthalocyanines available coordination sites and inert to substitution with
complexes deposited on a graphite electrode were reported for considerable molecular catalysis activity [5,6]. Leaving thus the
CO2 reduction, obtaining formic acid as reaction product [8]. Other question of the type of mechanism of these compounds. Therefore,
studies for the complexes PtII(OEP), AgII(OEP) and PdII(TPP) in this work the metal complexes Fe(II), [Fe(phen)3]2+, [Fe(bipy)3] 2
+
(OEP = 2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octaethylporphyrin, TPP = 5,10,15,20-tet- and [Fe(terpy)2]2+, were prepared with the purpose of studying its
raphenylporphyrin), also demonstrated their electrocatalytic electrochemical response in the presence and absence of CO2,
activity, where the reduction product is oxalate [9]. In aqueous using cyclic voltammetry and spectroelectrochemistry, to establish
media, it has also been reported that under a CO2 atmosphere the possible mechanisms of molecular catalysis of CO2 in systems
Co(II)(tetrakis(4-trimethyl aminophenyl)porphyrin) iodide com- without vacant coordination sites. The results obtained are
plex leads to the formation of CO and HCOOH [10]. intended to contribute to the understanding and design of more
Other examples reported correspond to Fe(II) derivatives with efficient molecular catalysts to produce liquid fuels useful for the
porphyrinic ligands containing different substituents in their generation of energy by recycling CO2 from the burning of fossil
structures, present high efficient of molecular catalysis with a fuels.
synergistic effect in the presence of a Brönsted acid [6]. In the
mechanism of these compounds, two consecutive one electron 2. Experimental
transfer were suggested to electro-generate a Fe(0) species which
interact with CO2, giving an Fe(II) carbene adduct. By the addition 2.1. Chemicals
of a Brönsted acid this adduct produces a carbon monoxide
complex with the release of one water molecule [6]. This All chemicals and solvents used were used as received from
mechanism is proposed for iron compounds with axial vacant Aldrich Chemical Co., Acros Organics and J.T. Baker
positions for the CO2 coordination, leaving in doubt its validity for
other complexes with another type of vacancy. 2.2. Physical measurements
With respect to macrocyclic ligands, typical examples for the
molecular catalysis of CO2 correspond to the tetra-azamacrocyclic Elemental analyses were performed in a Fissons Instruments
Ni (II) and Co (II) complexes that, yield as main product CO [11]. Analyzer model EA 1108 using a sulfanilamide standard. IR spectra
Other studies of mono-nuclear and trinuclear Ni(II) complexes were recorded on KBr disks using a Nexus Thermo Nicolet
with azamacrocyclic ligands, showed catalytic activity for the
electrochemical reduction to CO [12]. In the same way, Co(II)
complexes with tetra-azamacrocyclic ligands reduce CO2 when is
in its Co(I) oxidation state [10]. In more recent reports, the Co(II)
compound with the macrocyclic ligand azacalix[4](2,6)pyridine,
also presented electrocatalysis of CO2 in the presence of Brønsted
acids [13].
For complexes with phosphine ligands such as [M(triphos)L]
(BF4)2 (triphos = C6H5P(CH2CH2P(C6H5)2) (M = Ni, L = P(OMe)3 and
PEt3)); (M = Pd, L = CH3CN, P(OMe)3, PEt3, P(CH2OH)3 and PPh3) and
(M = Pt, L = PEt3), the Pd(II) derivatives have a considerable catalytic
activity for the reduction of CO2 to CO in acidic solutions of MeCN,
contrary as the observed for the Ni and Pt derivatives [14]. In
addition, this study reveal that it is necessary the dissociation of
one of the four phosphorus atoms for the catalysis to take place.
In the literature, different groups of researchers have explored
the possible use of Ni, Co, Re, Ru, Rh, Ir and Os complexes with
polypridinic ligands [10,12–16]. Within these, the compound [Re
(bipy)(CO)3Cl] (bipy = 2,2'-bipyridinine) showed the selective
reduction of CO2 to CO [17]. Another group of compounds that
has been extensively studied are the ruthenium complexes Ru
(bipy)2(CO)22+ and Ru(bipy)2(CO)(Cl)+, giving CO and HCOO as
products [18,19]. It has been proposed that for these compounds,
Fig. 1. Cyclic voltammogram of 1 103 M (a) [Fe(bipy)3](BF4)2 (b) [Fe(1,10-phen)3]
followed by a reduction of 2 electrons, there is a loss of CO to give a (BF4)2 and (c) [Fe(terpy)2](BF4)2 obtained in MeCN in presence of 0.1 M TBAPF6. The
penta-coordinated species with Ru(0)-h1-CO2. On the other hand, scan potential was initiated from Eocp to negative direction. Scan rate 0.1 V s1.
Glassy carbon electrode was used.
J.P.F. Rebolledo-Chávez et al. / Electrochimica Acta 247 (2017) 241–251 243
Fig. 3. Cyclic voltammogram with normalized current (iv1/2) of 1 103 M [Fe Fig. 4. Cyclic voltammogram with normalized current (i/v1/2) of 1 103 M [Fe
(1,10-phen)3](BF4)2 obtained in MeCN in presence of 0.1 M TBAPF6. The scan (terpy)2](BF4)2 obtained in MeCN in presence of 0.1 M TBAPF6. The scan potential
potential was initiated from Eocp to negative direction. Scan rate from 0.1 to 1.5 V s1. was initiated from Eocp to negative direction. Scan rate from 0.1 to 1.5 V s1. Glassy
Glassy carbon electrode was used. carbon electrode was used.
244 J.P.F. Rebolledo-Chávez et al. / Electrochimica Acta 247 (2017) 241–251
3. Results
rate conditions, the same signals are observed with values that
converge in potentials and in normalized currents with DEp
0.060 V [37], characteristic of consecutive reversible one electron
transfer.
Based on the literature, the following electrode reversible
mechanism with no significant changes in reorganization energies
among all species with their corresponding redox potential values
is proposed:
[FeII(bipy)3]2+ + e @ [FeII(bipy)(bipy)2] + E (I) = 1.717 V vs Fc-Fc+
[FeII(bipy)(bipy)2] + + e @ [FeII(bipy)2(bipy)] E (II) = 1.910 V vs Fc-Fc+
[FeII(bipy)2(bipy)] + e @ [FeII(bipy)3] E (III) = 2.159 V vs Fc-Fc+
[FeII(bipy)3]2+ + e @ [FeIII(bipy)3]3+ E (IV) = 0.689 V vs Fc-Fc+
Fig. 14. Spectroelectrochemical experiment 5 104 M [Fe(bipy)3](BF4)2 MeCN + 0.1 M TBAPF6. Eimp = 2.20 V vs Fc.Fc. Measurements each 10 second, in the absence (a) of
and the presence of CO2 (b).
10 second with a OTTLE, imposing a potential at 2.20 V vs Fc-Fc+ out in the presence of CO2, the absorbance for MLCT transition also
of 5 104 M [Fe(bipy)3](BF4)2 in MeCN solution+ 0.1 M TBAPF6. In presented a diminution form initial condition to 7 minutes, where
the absence of CO2, Fig. 14a, the absorbance values for the typical this value started to increase until a constant was achieved. This is
MLCT transition at 515 nm diminish during the electrolysis, associated to the regeneration of the complex [FeII(bipy)3]2+, as a
reaching a value close to 0.2 at the end of the experiment. No result of the homogeneous electron transfer between the reduced
typical electronic transitions for low iron oxidation states, or a shift species [FeII(bipy)3] and CO2. In the case of the other complexes
in l max are detected [41], indicating that the reduction takes place this response was not observed, due to the low molecular catalysis
over the polypiridinic ligands. When the experiment was carried in the applied potential for spectroelectrochemical studies, such as
J.P.F. Rebolledo-Chávez et al. / Electrochimica Acta 247 (2017) 241–251 249
Fig. 15. Spectroelectrochemical experiment 5 104 M [Fe(terpy)2](BF4)2 MeCN + 0.1 M TBAPF6. Eimp = 2.15 V vs Fc.Fc. Measurements each 10 second, in the absence (a) of
and the presence of CO2 (b).
it is observed in Fig. 15 for [FeII(terpy)2]2+, where there are no calculations for LUMO energies were calculated. Sketches for
changes in experiments in the presence and in the absence of LUMO orbital of all complexes in their cationic form, with their
carbon dioxide. corresponding values are shown in Fig. 16 and listed in Table 1.
LUMO orbitals are degenerate (E symmetry) and are mainly
3.6. Theoretical studies localized in the polypyridinic rings, suggesting that they are the
most accessible to accept electrons, already proposed from
It was demonstrated that the electrochemical reduction of the spectroelectrochemical results. In literature, similar relationships
metal complexes studied in this work is over the ligands. In order a between electrochemical and spectroelectrochemical with DFT
give a theoretical understanding for the electronic distribution of calculations have proposed for transition metal complexes [42].
accessible orbitals where the reductions take place, DFT The observed distribution of the LUMO orbital in the studied Fe(II)
250 J.P.F. Rebolledo-Chávez et al. / Electrochimica Acta 247 (2017) 241–251
[M0(L)2]2 ! P
4. Conclusion
Fig. 16. Sketches for LUMO orbitals for (a) [Fe(bipy)3]2+ (b) [Fe(1,10-phen)3] 2+ and
(c) [Fe(terpy)2] 2+. Acknowledgement
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Catalysis Today xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Catalysis Today
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cattod
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: We report the study of a series of Ru-bipyridine (Ru-Bpy) complexes to correlate their photophysical and
Photocatalysis electrochemical properties to their performance in [4 + 2] cycloadditions, as a model reaction for electron
[4 + 2] cycloaddition transfer catalysis. Redox potentials, absorption and emission spectra, quantum yields and DFT calculations are
Ruthenium bipyridine derivatives presented to understand the catalytic transformation. The study shows that complex [Ru(Bpy)3](PF6)2 is the
more active photocatalyst, giving complete conversion to the product after 2 h reaction under white light. Any
substitution in the para position of the Bpy ring decreases the reaction conversion. The [4 + 2] cycloaddition can
be performed with different substrates and dienes, using either acetonitrile or nitromethane as solvents.
Mechanistic studies suggest that the active catalyst for the transformation is [Ru(Bpy)3]3+ and that the rate
determining step is the oxidation of [Ru(Bpy)3]2+ to generate the corresponding Ru3+ species.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2017.05.021
Received 15 February 2017; Received in revised form 27 April 2017; Accepted 5 May 2017
0920-5861/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Rozenel, S.S., Catalysis Today (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2017.05.021
S.S. Rozenel et al. Catalysis Today xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Scheme 1. Proposed mechanisms for the [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction with photocatalysts. Mechanism A: the excited species {[Ru(Bpy)]2(μ-L)}2+* (L = bipyridyl bis-urea macrocycle)
transfers an electron to the co-oxidant to generate {[Ru(Bpy)]2(μ-L)}3+. This species oxidizes trans-anethole to trans-anethole+· [18]. Mechanism B: the excited species [Ru(Bpz)3]2+*
(Bpz = 2,2′-bipyrazine) subtracts an electron from trans-anethole to generate trans-anethole+·. The reduced Ru species [Ru(Bpy)3]+ is oxidized by O2 to regenerate [Ru(Bpy)3]2+ [17].
For both proposed mechanisms, the Ru complex acts as an initiator, and the propagation of the reaction is due to an electron transfer process between the intermediate and trans-anethole.
neutral product and more dienophile cation radical species, thus, 2.1.1. Synthesis
allowing the reaction to continue. Shores and co-workers recently Complexes [Ru(Bpy)3](PF6)2 (1) and their derivatives 2-11 were
reported a comprehensive mechanistic study for the Diels-Alder type prepared according to literature methods [20–26], precipitated as the
[4 + 2] cycloadditions with a chromium-based species. They concluded PF6 salt by adding NH4PF6 (excess) in water, and purified by recrys-
that the Cr(III) catalyst directly oxidizes the dienophile, and molecular tallization from acetonitrile/diethyl ether. The complexes were dried
oxygen acts as an electron shuttle for the reaction [19]. overnight at 60 °C under high vacuum. [Ru(Bpy)3](PF6)3 and 1,1′-
To gain insights about the photocatalytic reactions, we decided to dimethyl-4,4′-bipyridinium bis(hexafluorophosphate) ([MV][PF6]2)
synthesize a series of Ru-bipyridine complexes and carried out a were synthesized according to literature methods [27,28] and dried
systematic study of their photo- and electrochemical properties, in overnight at 60 °C under high vacuum.
order to correlate them with their photocatalytic activity. As a model
reaction to quantify the ability of these species to act as electron 2.2. Electrochemistry
transfer reagents, we studied the [4 + 2] cycloaddition reactions. DFT
calculations were employed to improve our understanding of the All electrochemical measurements were performed in anhydrous
species involved. acetonitrile solutions (99.7% Extra Dry over molecular sieve Acros
Organics) containing 0.1 M Tetra-N-butylammonium hexafluorpho-
sphate (TBAPF6) as supporting electrolyte, with sample concentrations
2. Material and methods of 1 × 10−3 M. The measurements were performed in a Potentiostat/
Galvanostat BioLogic SP-300. A three-electrode array was employed for
2.1. General considerations all electrochemical measurements: a glassy Carbon disk as working
electrode (& x3D5; = 3 mm), platinum wire as counter-electrode, and
Unless otherwise noted, all reactions were performed using standard silver/silver chloride as reference electrode. All potentials were re-
Schlenk techniques under an N2-atmosphere. All NMR spectra were ported versus the couple Fc/Fc+ according to IUPAC [29]. Cyclic
obtained in DMSO-d6, acetone-d6, CD3CN or CDCl3 at ambient tem- voltammetry was initiated from open circuit potential (Eocp) with a scan
perature using a Bruker AV-300 or DRX-500. 1H NMR chemical shifts rate ranging from 0.02 to 1.5 V s−1. IR compensation was applied using
(δ) were calibrated relative to the residual solvent peak. The absor- positive feed-back, measuring Ru with electrochemical impedance
bance was measured using OceanOptics USB2000 UV–vis spectro- technique. Otherwise noticed, E0 refers to half wave potentials for
photometer in a 1 cm quartz cell. Nitromethane and acetonitrile were reversible processes (E0′= (Eap + Ecp)/2), where Eap and Ecp are the
dried over CaCl2 and distilled under nitrogen flow. trans-anethole, potentials at the maximum anodic and cathodic current peaks, respec-
isosafrole, 1,2-dimethoxy-4-propenylbenzene, trans-stylbene, trans-β- tively. For irreversible processes, Eap and Ecp are reported.
methylstyrene and styrene were purchased from Aldrich and dried
over molecular sieves (3 Å). Isoprene, dicyclopentadiene, 2,4-dimethyl- 2.3. Photocatalytic experiments
1,3-pentadiene, 2,3-dimethyl-1,3-butadiene, RuCl3.H2O, NH4PF6, 2,2′-
bipyridine, 4,4′-diterbutyl-2,2′-bipyridine, 4,4′-dimethyl-2,2′-bipyri- Stock solutions of the photocatalysts 1-11 (0.02 M), 1,1′-dimethyl-
dine, 4,4′-dimethoxy-2,2′-bipyridine, 1,1′-dimethyl-4,4′-bipyridine and 4,4′-bipyridinium bis(hexafluorophosphate) (co-oxidant, 0.12 M), and
iodomethane were purchased from Aldrich and used without further dienophiles (trans-anethole, isosafrole, 1,2-dimethoxy-4-propileneben-
purification. zene, trans-stylbene, trans-β-methylstyrene and styrene, 0.133 M) were
2
S.S. Rozenel et al. Catalysis Today xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
2.4. Quantum yields comparison. The values obtained are in excellent agreement with the
reported values found in the literature under the same analysis
Emission spectra were recorded using a Cary Eclipse Fluorescence conditions [25,38,39].
Spectrophotometer. Quantum yields were calculated by the formula The complexes 1-4, 7, 10 and 11 show four reversible processes:
one oxidation assigned to the Ru2+/Ru3+ redox couple, and three
η2 Aref I reductions (Bpy/Bpy·−), one for each bipyridine ligand. When the
Φ = Φref × × ×
ηref 2 A Iref solvent is nitromethane, complex 1 shows only one quasi-reversible
process in the solvent window due to the oxidation of Ru2+ to Ru3+
Where η is the refractive index of the solvent used, ηref is the refractive
(0.938 V vs Fc/Fc+). Complexes with ester groups allow for two
index of acetonitrile (1.3404), Φref is the quantum yield of [Ru(Bpy)3]
reductions over each Bpy ligand, giving a total of five redox processes
(PF6)2 (1) in aerated solution [30], Aref is the absorbance of 1, A is the
for 5, six reversible processes for 9, and seven for 8, corresponding to
absorbance of the complex, Iref is the area under the emission spectrum
one oxidation of Ru2+ to Ru3+ at 1.18 V vs Fc/Fc+, and six reductions
at the highest excitation wavelength for 1 and I is the area under the
distributed in two sets of redox pairs, the first one between −1.30 and
emission spectrum at the highest excitation wavelength for the com-
−1.65 V and the second one ranging from −2.10 to −2.57 V vs Fc/
plex. Measurements were performed at least three times employing
Fc+. All these processes are reversible. Complex (6) CV shows a
solutions with absorbance values below 0.1.
reversible electron transfer process corresponding to the Ru2+/Ru3+
The values for the redox potentials of the excited species were
redox pair (E0′ = 0.749 V vs Fc/Fc+) with two irreversible reduction
obtained by the Rahm-Weller equation using the Stephenson approx-
processes at Ecṕ = −1.85 V and −2.02 V vs Fc/Fc+. In the reverse
imation [31]:
sweep, only one sharp oxidation peak at Eaṕ = −1.72 V is observed,
Eex = E° + E0 − 0 related to the adsorption of electrogenerated species form the two
reduction processes.
Where Eex is the redox potential of the excited species, E0 is the redox As expected, the presence of electron donating groups has the effect
potential of the species in the ground-state (E0′ = (Eap + Ecp)/2) and E0- of lowering the oxidation and reduction potentials (up to 0.32 V in the
0 is the λmax in the emission spectrum (E0-0 = hc/λem). case of the OMe substituent species 7), while the ester groups (electron
withdrawing) have the opposite effect.
2.5. Computational methods The redox potentials of the excited species were calculated by the
Rahm and Weller method [31]. For complex 1, the values obtained are
DFT calculations were performed with Gaussian 09 (version D.01) in good agreement with the experimental values obtained by Jones and
package [32] with the following specifications. Two different func- Fox by phase-modulated voltammetry (E0(Ru2+*/Ru3+) = −1.17 V and
tionals were examined: a hybrid functional B3LYP [33] and a long- E0(Ru2+*/Ru+) = 0.44 V vs Fc/Fc+) [40]. The potential for the redox
range-corrected functional with dispersion corrections ωB97X-D [34]. pair Ru2+*/Ru3+ lies within 0.02 V shift. For the redox couple Ru2+*/
A mixed basis set SDD [35]/cc-pVTZ [36] was used for Ru/Bpy. Ru+ the difference is 0.14 V with the reported experimental value. The
Geometries of 1-5 and their 3+ species were optimized in gas phase. excited species show the same trend observed for the complexes in
Solvent effects were included using the PCM method [37] as imple- ground-state by introducing electron-donating or withdrawing-groups.
mented in Gaussian 09. Fully optimized geometries were obtained in In the case of 5, the difference of redox potential for the Ru2+*/Ru3+
gas phase and for a dielectric constant corresponding to acetonitrile process is 0.3 V in comparison with 1, indicating a less potent reducing
(CH3CN) as solvent. The gas phase and solvation free energies of each agent. For the redox pair Ru2+*/Ru+ the lower potential observed is for
species were evaluated through a thermochemical analysis at 298.15 K complex 7 containing six methoxy groups (-0.08 V), and the highest for
and 1 atm of the aforementioned geometries in order to obtain the free species 8 (6 carboxilate groups, 0.66 V). For all the species studied, the
energy differences of the cycle, ΔGo; redox gas; ΔGo solv (Red) and potential differences between the Ru2+*/Ru3+ and Ru2+*/Ru+ pro-
ΔGo solv (Ox). Singlet and triplet excited states were calculated using cesses lie within 1.4–1.45 V.
TD-DFT as implemented in Gaussian 09. The tris species 6-8 show that the electron donating and with-
drawing effects are additive. For the case of the redox pair Ru2+/Ru3+,
3. Results and discussion where the process occurs at the metal center, complexes 6 (six tert-butyl
groups) and 7 (six methoxy groups) lower the potential by 0.13 V and
3.1. Electrochemistry 0.22 V respectively, in comparison to 1. The presence of six carboxylate
groups in 8 increases it by almost 0.4 V.
A series of [Ru(Bpy)3]2+ derivatives were synthesized (Scheme 2)
and their redox behavior investigated by cyclic voltammetry (Table 1). 3.2. Photochemistry
The studies were performed under the same reaction conditions
(reference electrode, working electrode and counterion), for better In order to correlate the electron transfer process of the complexes
3
S.S. Rozenel et al. Catalysis Today xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table 1
Electrochemical data for the [Ru(Bpy)3]2+ series.
Entry Complex Ox 1 Red 1 Red 2 Red 3 Red 4 Red 5 Red 6 Ru2+* → Ru3+ Ru2+* → Ru+
Conditions: Half wave potentials E0′ = (Eap + Ecp)/2, reported vs Fc/Fc+ in 0.1 M TBAPF6-acetonitrile. Scan rate 0.10 V s−1. a Cathodic potential peak with adsorption oxidation peak at
−1.716 vs Fc/Fc+. b nitromethane as solvent.
with their photocatalytic performance, we studied the photophysical are measured and referenced to solutions degassed with Ar (reference
properties of systems 1-8 in aerated solutions (See SI). Oxygen has been values 0.063 for 1 in acetonitrile) [30].
shown to be necessary for the [4 + 2] cycloaddition reactions to occur
catalytically [19]. 3.3. Photocatalysis
The data show a red shift in the absorption and emission values by
introducing groups in the para position to the nitrogen in the Bpy rings. The [4 + 2] cycloaddition of trans-anethole and isoprene, two
The changes are small in magnitude with Me and tBu substituents, more electron-rich substrates, was used as model reaction to analyze the
pronounced with OMe and up to 55 nm with COOMe substituted Bpy. behavior of the photocatalysts (1-11). The reaction was optimized using
This is not an additive phenomenon, species 6 has absorptions and 1 in different solvents, varying the amount of co-oxidant and the
emissions closely related to those observed for 2. For complexes with reaction time. The [4 + 2] cycloaddition experiments were performed
methoxy and carboxylate groups, the differences between di and hexa in nitromethane and acetonitrile with 1,1′-dimethyl-4,4′-bipyridinium
substituted species follow different directions. While the methoxy bis(hexafluorophosphate) ([MV][PF6]2) as co-oxidant, and they were
species shows a red shift (30 nm) by going from 4 to 7, the carboxylate performed in a light-photoreactor at 20 °C, irradiating 5,145 Lux of
species 5 has an emission approximately 40 nm lower than the hexa- white light. With both solvents, the conversion was complete after 2 h,
substituted one (8). using concentrations of 5% mol photocatalyst and 30% mol co-oxidant.
The absorption and emission values for these series are not When the reaction was carried out in a polar solvent such as DMF (a
significantly affected by changing the solvent, from acetonitrile to common solvent for Diels-Alder cycloadditions), no product was
nitromethane; however, an important enhancement in the fluorescence observed. Results of the screening for the photocatalysts 1-11 are
quantum yield (Φ) is observed (Fig. 1). In nitromethane, the quantum summarized in Table 2.
yields are between 30% and 60% higher than the ones observed in Results show that any substitution in the para position of the Bpy
acetonitrile, suggesting a better stabilization of the excited species. All ring decreases the reaction conversion for the [4 + 2] cycloaddition,
the complexes with electron donating groups have lower Φ than the one despite the nature (electron withdrawing or donating) of the substituted
observed for 1, with 5 (carboxylate substituent) showing the highest Φ moiety. Striking is the fact than 3 shows a 19% higher yield than 2 after
for the di-substituted species. Compound 8 has the highest Φ of all the a 2 h reaction, despite the closely related structures of these species. For
complexes analyzed in both solvents. All the values are lower than 4, the low yield can be attributed to two phenomena: its low quantum
those reported in the literature for degassed solutions [30]. They were yield and the lower potential of the Ru2+/Ru3+ redox pair, resulting in
referenced to aerated solution of 1, while in general the quantum yields a less stabilized excited species and an electron transfer process less
favored. With the COOMe substituent, 5 shows good yields. This species
has a high quantum yield and a higher redox potential than trans-
anethole (trans-anethole shows an irreversible oxidation with a max-
imum current peak at 0.892 V vs Fc/Fc+, see SI) allowing for the
electron transfer process to occur in good yields. In the series 2, 10, 11
(methyl) and 5, 9, and 8 (COOMe) there is a decrement in the reaction
yield in the order di > tetra > hexa. Complex 11, with three methyl-
substituted Bpy ligands, generates the product in 17%, while for the tris
substituted complex with carboxilates (8) the yield obtained was 13%.
The stability of the Ru complex and co-catalyst in the reaction was
studied by 1H NMR (nitromethane as internal standard). No loss of
either species was observed after reaction completion, indicating that
the system is robust and both catalyst and co-oxidant can be reused.
The scope of the reaction was investigated using different dienes
and dienophiles. The results are presented in Table 3. The screening
process shows that the reaction proceeds to almost completion after 2 h
with the four diene used (isoprene, cyclopentadiene, 2,4-dimethyl-1,3-
pentadiene or 2,3-dimethyl-1,3-butadiene) and trans-anethole (Table 3,
Fig. 1. Quantum Yields (Φ) of complexes 1-8 in acetonitrile and nitromethane. entries 1–4). In the case of the reaction with cyclopentadiene, two
isomers are observed, the trans, endo and trans, exo species, in a 5:1
4
S.S. Rozenel et al. Catalysis Today xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table 2
Selected data for the [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction.
1 1 30 > 99
2 2 30 66
3 3 30 85
4 4 30 35
5 5 30 90
6 6 30 40
7 7 30 2
8 8 30 13
9 9 30 31
10 10 30 45
11 11 30 17
Reaction conditions: 0.08 M trans-anethole; 0.8 M isoprene; 5% mol photocatalyst; 30% mol co-oxidant ([MV][PF6]2); nitromethane as solvent (5 mL); reaction time: 2 h; under white
light irradiation (5145 Lux).
ratio (measured by GC). The result is consistent with the one obtained 3.4. Mechanistic studies
by Bauld and Gao using Ar3N+· as electron transfer reagent and
indicates that the kinetic product is favored [41,42]. To better understand how the reaction between the catalyst and
For the reaction of 2,4-dimethyl-1,3-pentadiene and trans-anethole, trans-anethole may proceed, a series of chemical and electrochemical
a linear correlation between the concentration of diene and the amount experiments were performed.
of product is observed (see SI). One equivalent of diene generates 33% The reaction Cat+ + trans-anethole → Cat + trans-anethole+. was
product after 2 h. Doubling the amount of 2,4-dimethyl-1,3-pentadiene investigated by cyclic voltammetry. Trans-anethole shows an irrever-
generates the product in 44% yield, and 10 equivalents allow for almost sible process with an anodic potential peak value of Eap = 0.892 V vs
complete conversion after 2 h (97% yield). The reaction with isoprene Fc/Fc+ in acetonitrile. By adding complex 1 (1 eq., 0.878 V vs Fc/Fc+),
requires a lower amount of diene to go to completion. By adding one a catalytic curve is observed, where the reversibility of the Ru2+/Ru3+
equivalent of diene, an 83% yield was obtained after 2 h, and with 2.5 disappears (no cathodic current is observed in the CV) and the
eq. full conversion was observed (2 h, see SI). oxidation of trans-anethole occurs at a slightly lower potential
The reaction conversions for the different dienes with trans-anethole (Fig. 3a). The result is consistent with a fast electron transfer process
were investigated as a function of time (Fig. 2). The results show that between 1+ and trans-anethole. For complex 3, with a redox potential
the fastest reaction occurs with cyclopentadiene, and the slowest one of 0.842 V vs Fc/Fc+ (0.036 V lower than that observed for 1), a
with 2,4-dimethyl-1,3-pentadiene. The difference in reaction rates catalytic current is also observed; however, the interaction is less
cannot be attributed to the redox potentials of the dienes used, given favored than that for 1, as it can be seen by a small cathodic current
that each one presents an irreversible oxidation with maximum current present in the CV with 1 eq. of trans-anethole (Fig. 3b). Under the same
peaks at 1.21 V, 1.36 V and 1.57 V vs Fc/Fc+ for 2,4-dimethyl-1,3- reaction conditions, complex 4 (0.779 V vs Fc/Fc+) shows an almost
pentadiene, cyclopentadiene and isoprene, respectively. Thus, for the complete reversibility for the redox pair Ru2+/Ru3+ (Fig. 3c). The
reaction between trans-anethole radical cation and the dienes, steric reversibility gradually disappears by increasing the concentration of
effects rather than electronic ones dominate the reaction rates. trans-anethole (see SI). Complex 7, with an even lower redox potential
Changing the dienophile has a major effect in the catalysis; those (0.560 V vs Fc/Fc+), shows no interaction with trans-anethole in the CV
with two electron-donating groups in the aromatic ring (isosafrole, 1,2- regardless of the dienophile concentration (Fig. 3c). This result is
dimethoxy-4-propenylbenzene) gave approximately 30% conversion in consistent with the low catalytic activity observed for 7 (2%) in the
the reaction with isoprene, while trans-anethole, with only one methoxy photochemical experiment. When the potential of the Ru complex is
substituent in the ring, generates the product with a conversion > 99%. higher than the one for trans-anethole (complex 5, 1.01 V vs Fc/Fc+) no
When no methoxy groups are present in the dienophile, the reaction catalytic interaction is observed, but the difference in the potentials
does not occur (Table 3, Entries 7–9). Stilbene gave 0% conversion to between the dienophile and the electrogenerated Ru3+ species would
the desired [4 + 2] cycloaddition product, and 12% conversion of an allow for an electron transfer process to occur between trans-anethole
unidentified product after 2 h reaction. No product is observed with and 5+, regenerating 5.
styrene and methyl-styrene, even when allowing the reaction to In the series 2, 10, 11 (methyl) and 5, 9, and 8 (COOMe) there is a
proceed for 24 h; in these cases, the dienophile is not consumed and decreasing trend in the reaction yield in the order di > tetra > hexa.
no side reactions are observed. We attribute the difference in reactivity This observation cannot be attributed to the quantum yields (8 has a Φ
to the ability of the dienophile to stabilize the radical cation inter- three times that of 5) and we believe the explanation for these series
mediate. The methoxy group in para position stabilizes the positive behavior is different. For the methyl series, adding substituted bipyr-
charge by donating electron density to the ring. It is important to notice idine ligands lowers the redox potential of the Ru2+/Ru3+ redox pair,
that the reaction between isosafrole and 2,4-dimethyl-1,3-pentadiene making it less likely to subtract an electron from trans-anethole. For the
goes to completion after 2 h (Table 3, entry 10), while isoprene and carboxylate series, the substitution has the opposite effect, it increases
isosafrole only gave 27% conversion. The result might be due to the the potential of the redox couple, and thus, it should favor the electron-
relative stabilities of the transition states. However, more experiments transfer process. Complex 8 has a redox potential for the excited species
are needed to support this statement. of −0.78 V, a higher value that the one needed for reducing MV2+ to
5
S.S. Rozenel et al. Catalysis Today xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table 3
Scope for the [4 + 2] cycloaddition catalysis.
Reaction conditions: 0.08 M substrate; 0.8 M diene; 5% mol 1; 30% mol co-oxidant ([MV][PF6]2); nitromethane as solvent (5 mL); reaction time: 2 h; under white light irradiation
(5145 Lux). a) An unidentified product was obtained in 12% yield (no the [4 + 2] cycloaddition product); b) 24 h reaction time.
MV+ (E0 = −0.84 V vs Fc/Fc+), thus hindering the formation of the (Bpy)3]3+. Molecular oxygen regenerates the co-oxidant, allowing the
Ru3+ species. For this complex, the alternative pathway, the formation catalytic cycle to continue. The result supports the idea that [Ru
of trans-anethole+· by reducing the species Ru2+* to Ru+, would not (Bpy)3]3+ is the active species. When the reaction is performed in O2
occur due to the difference in potentials between the two redox couples atm., yields are not improved, implying that the rate determining step
(E0 = 0.66 V vs Fc/Fc+ for Ru2+*/Ru+ couple, and Eap = 0.892 V vs for the formation of [Ru(Bpy)3]3+ is the reaction 1* + [MV][PF6]2 →
Fc/Fc+ for the irreversible oxidation of trans-anethole). 1+ + [MV][PF6] and not the regeneration of the co-oxidant.
Along with the nature of the catalyst, diene and dienophile, the [4 The [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction yields are also proportional to
+ 2] cycloaddition reaction is also influence by molecular oxygen and the amount of co-oxidant used. After 2 h reaction, a load of 30% mol
the amount of co-catalyst used. A series of experiments were performed ([MV][PF6]2 (Table 2, Entry 1) gives complete conversion. When the
to gain insights about how these two species affect the catalytic co-oxidant concentration is 15% mol, the product is formed in 54%
conversion. The results are summarized in Table 4. yield (Table 4, Entry 2). The reaction does not occur without co-oxidant
The experiments performed show that O2 is necessary for the (Table 4, Entry 4). These results are in accordance with [Ru(Bpy)3]3+
reaction to give yields above the co-oxidant concentration (Table 4, being the active species and the oxidation of [Ru(Bpy)3]2+* by [MV]
Entry 1). Two equivalents of product for each mole of catalyst are [PF6]2 the rate determining step.
formed when the reaction solution is degassed with N2 and a 15% mol The previous results suggest that the Ru species act as the active
load of co-oxidant is used. The results imply that [MV][PF6]2 is the catalyst instead of as an initiator for the reaction (Scheme 1). The
limiting reagent for the reaction under N2 atm. In the mechanism mechanisms proposed indicate that once the trans-anethole+· and
proposed by Shimizu and co-workers [18], [MV][PF6]2 acts as an isoprene undergo [4 + 2] cycloaddition, the intermediate formed is
oxidizing reagent for the [Ru(Bpy)3]2+ excited species to generate [Ru capable to oxidize trans-anethole to trans-anethole+·, thus, propagating
6
S.S. Rozenel et al. Catalysis Today xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table 4
Experiments related to reaction mechanism.
Reaction conditions: 0.08 M substrate; 0.8 M diene; solvent (5 mL); reaction time: 2 h;
under white light irradiation (5145 Lux).
a
Nitromethane as solvent.
b
Acetonitrile as solvent.
the catalytic reaction. Two experiments were performed to understand Complex Ru2+ → Ru3+ Ru2+* → Ru3+
the role of the Ru complex in the catalytic transformation. In the first E0exp(V) E0calc(V) E0exp(V) E0calc(V)
one, two identical solutions of trans-anethole, complex 1, MV2+ and
2,4-dimethyl-1,3-pentadiene in nitromethane were prepared and irra- 1 0.878 0.878 −1.15a −1.48
diated with white light for 10 min. (an aliquot of each was taken and 2 0.842 0.809
3 0.842 0.849
analyzed by GC, approximate yield of 20%). After this time one sample
4 0.779 0.775
was taken out of the photoreactor and kept on the dark, while the other 5 1.010 1.039
one was irradiated for 2 h more. The results of the experiment showed
that the sample under light gave complete conversion, while the one in Theoretical values after calibration. a) Calculated by the Rahm-Weller method (see sec.
the dark did not enhance the reaction yield and stayed at the same 2.4).
Fig. 3. Cyclic voltammogram of different catalysts (1 × 10−3 M) with 1 eq. of trans-anethole in acetonitrile. Conditions: 0.1 M TBAPF6. The scan potential was initiated from Eocp to
positive direction. Scan rate 0.1 V s−1. Working electrode: glassy carbon. a) complex 1; b) complex 3; c) complex 4; d) complex 7.
7
S.S. Rozenel et al. Catalysis Today xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 4. Energy differences (with respect to reactants) of reaction intermediates for compound 1 and co-oxidant.
The second experiment consisted in the reaction between the Ru3+ 5. Conclusions
species [Ru(Bpy)3](PF6)3 and trans-anethole. The reaction, in the
presence of isoprene, is quantitative and the Ru3+ species is reduced A series of ruthenium complexes with bipyridine derivatives were
to Ru2+ very fast, as observed by the immediately change of color of synthesized and their electrochemical and photochemical behavior
the solution from green (Ru3+) to orange (Ru2+). The experimental studied, in order to correlate their properties with their catalytic
results indicate that the Ru3+ complex is responsible for the activation activity for [4 + 2] cycloaddition reactions. Results showed that the
of the substrate. While the mechanisms proposed by Yoon and Shimizu activity of the series is affected by the redox potentials and quantum
are consistent with the oxidation potentials of the cation radical yield values, and that the best catalytic conversion occurs with 1. The
product and trans-anethole (1.29 V [19] and 0.892 V vs Fc/Fc+, scope of the reaction was investigated and results show that varying the
respectively), we did not find any evidence that the electron transfer diene gave excellent yields, while changing the dienophile allowed the
process between these two species occurs, indicating that the cationic reaction to occur in moderate to excellent yields. Mechanistic insights
intermediate formed after the [4 + 2] cycloaddition is reduced to the for the reaction were obtained by chemical and electrochemical
neutral product by an alternative pathway [19,43], rather than reacting experiments and they were supported by DFT calculations. The results
with more dienophile. Further experiments are needed to understand strongly suggest that the active species for the transformation to occur
what this pathway is. is [Ru(Bpy)3]3+ and the rate determining step for the formation of the
dienophile radical cation is the oxidation of the Ru complex in its
4. DFT calculations excited-state.
8
S.S. Rozenel et al. Catalysis Today xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
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9
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