!

!
!
 La conexin csmica
Una perspectiva extraterrestre
"#$%!&#'#(!
!
)*+%*,-./#!0.!1*23%'#/*4(!"*.(-56*/#!muy INTERESANTE!78!
!
91:":;<9&!;=):&>!&?!@?!
1*A-$*+3/*4(!.B/%3A*2#!C#$#!@$'.(-*(#>!"D*%.>!E#$#'3#F>!E.$G!F!H$3'3#F!
IJ&E@K9=:"@!
!
L5-3%,!,$*'*(#%M!LD.!/,AN*/!/,((./-*,(!O!@(!.B-$#-.$$.A-$*#%!C.$AC./-*2.!
L$#03//*4(M!P#*N.!E*Q.*$,!
!
1*$.//*4(!0.!%#!/,%.//*4(M!R*$'*%*,!;$-.'#!
!
S!8TUV!+F!"#$%!&#'#(!#(0!P.$,N.!@'.%!
S!8TUW!+F!E%#X#!Y!P#(.A!&?!@?!90*-,$.A!
S!C,$!%#!C$.A.(-.!.0*/*4(>!90*/*,(.A!;$+*A!&?!@?!
!
1*A-$*+3/*4(!.B/%3A*2#!C#$#!@$'.(-*(#>!"D*%.>!E#$#'3#F>!E.$G!F!H$3'3#FM!
IJ&E@K9=:"@!91:":;<9&!@=Z9<L:<@>!&?@?!
!
K#$X,!0.!8TW[!
!
!
!
!
!
90*/*4(!0*'*-#%!F!$.2*A*4(!0.!%#!-$#03//*4(!0.!3$*\.((F!],0,(*#(,^F#D,,?/,N?#$_!
!
ndice
!

!
E$.6#/*, ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????W
!
E$*N.$#!E#$-.M!E.$AC./-*2#A!/4AN*/#A??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8`
8?!H(!#(*N#%!0.!-$#(A*/*4( ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8a
`?!9%!3(*/,$(*,!0.!".-3A ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8T
V?!H(!N.(A#\.!0.!%#!L*.$$# ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????`a
a?!H(!N.(A#\.!#!%#!L*.$$# ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????`W
b?!9BC.$*N.(-,A!.(!3-,C5#A????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????VW
[?!"D#32*(*AN,???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????aV
U?!c#!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.%!.AC#/*,!/,N,!.NC$.A#!D3N#(#!O!8?!9%!*(-.$dA!/*.(-56*/, ?????b8
W?!c#!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.%!.AC#/*,!/,N,!.NC$.A#!D3N#(#!O!`?!9%!*(-.$dA!CG+%*/, ????????bU
T?!c#!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.%!.AC#/*,!/,N,!.NC$.A#!D3N#(#!O!V?!9%!*(-.$dA!D*A-4$*/, ??????[`
!
&.'3(0#!C#$-.M!9%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$ ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????[U
87?!&,+$.!%#!.(A.Q#(X#!0.!C$*N.$!'$#0, ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????[W
88?!c,A!%.'.(0#$*,A!0*,A.A!0.!%#!#(-*'e.0#0 ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????U8
8`?!c#!D*A-,$*#!0.-./-*2.A/#!0.!R.(3A????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????Ua
8V?!R.(3A!.A!.%!:(6*.$(,??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????UT
8a?!"*.(/*#!.!f:(-.%*'.(/*#g ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????WV
8b?!c#A!%3(#A!0.!)#$A,,N??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????WW
8[?!c#A!N,(-#Q#A!0.!K#$-.!O!8?!;+A.$2#/*,(.A!0.A0.!%#!L*.$$# ??????????????????????????877
8U?!c#A!N,(-#Q#A!0.!K#$-.!O!`?!;+A.$2#/*,(.A!0.A0.!.%!.AC#/*, ???????????????????????87b
8W?!c,A!/#(#%.A!0.!K#$-. ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????887
8T?!c#A!6,-,'$#65#A!C.$0*0#A!0.!K#$-.??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????88b
`7?!c#!.0#0!0.%!D*.%,!F!%#!/#%0.$#?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????88T
`8?!",N*.(X,A!F!6*(#%.A!0.!%#!L*.$$# ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8``
``?!L.$$#6,$N#/*4(!0.!%,A!C%#(.-#A ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8`a
`V?!c#!.BC%,$#/*4(!F!3-*%*X#/*4(!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$????????????????????????????????????????????????8`T
!
L.$/.$#!C#$-.M!K#A!#%%h!0.%!A*A-.N#!A,%#$????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8VU
`a?!@%'3(,A!0.!N*A!N.\,$.A!#N*',A!A,(!0.%6*(.A?????????????????????????????????????????????????8VW
`b?!!i;*'#j!k1*A-$*+3/*4(!".(-$#%l!i9(25.(N.!2.*(-.!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.Aj ??????????????????8aT
`[?!c#!/,(.B*4(!/4AN*/# ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8b`
`U?!R*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.M!3(#!*0.#!/3F,!N,N.(-,!D#!%%.'#0, ????????????????????????????????8bU
`W?!kI#!A*0,!2*A*-#0#!%#!L*.$$#l????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8[V
`T?!9A-$#-.'*#!.(!%#!+GAm3.0#!0.!%#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$. ????????????????????????????8[T
V7?!&*!-.(.N,A!dB*-,?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8UV
V8?!"#+%.A>!-#N+,$.A!F!/#$#/,%#A ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8UW
V`?!L$.(!(,/-3$(,!#!%#A!.A-$.%%#A ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8W`
VV?!@A-$,*('.(*.$5# ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8Wa
Va?!R.*(-.!C$.'3(-#AM!3(#!/%#A*6*/#/*4(!0.!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!/4AN*/#A ?????????????????????8WU
Vb?!:(-.$/#N+*,A!/3%-3$#%.A!'#%h/-*/,A??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8T`
V[?!9(-$#0#!#%!:(6*(*-, ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????8Tb
VU?!I#+*-#(-.A!0.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!O!8?!H(#!6h+3%# ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????8TT
 VW?!I#+*-#(-.A!0.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!O!`?!H(!63-3$,????????????????????????????????????????????????????????`7a
VT?!I#+*-#(-.A!0.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!O!V?!c,A!'#-,A!(.'$,A!/4AN*/,A ???????????????????????????`7T
!
Dedicado a mis hijos Dorion, Jeremy y Nicholas.
Ojal que su futuro y el de todos los humanos as como otros seres se presente
lleno de promesas.
!
 !
Les mystres des Infinis de Grandville, 1844.

!
Prefacio
! PUES SI, PARECE QUE SOLO SE PUEDE ESCRIBIR EN ZONAS BIEN DESPEJADAS

!
"3#(0,! F,! -.(5#! 0,/.! #Q,A>! N*! #+3.%,! N.! C$.'3(-4! nN.0*#(-.! 3(! -$#03/-,$>! C3.A!
(3(/#! D#+5#! #C$.(0*0,! +*.(! .%! *('%dAn! m3d! m3.$5#! A.$! /3#(0,! 63.A.! N#F,$?! c.!
$.AC,(05!m3.!f#A-$4(,N,g>!C#%#+$#!m3.!#%!/#+,!0.!3(,A!N,N.(-,A!%.!-$#03\.$,(?!
S respondi, pero cmo te ganars la vida?
J,!A3C,(5#!m3.!#%!*'3#%!m3.!-,0#A!%#A!C.$A,(#A!#03%-#A!m3.!/,(,/5#>!N.!-.(0$5#!m3.!
%*N*-#$!#!.6./-3#$!3(!-$#+#\,!#+3$$*0,>!N,(4-,(,>!/#$.(-.!0.!-,0,!C,0.$!/$.#-*2,?!@!%#!
#A-$,(,N5#! A4%,! C,0$5#! 0.0*/#$N.! .(! %,A! 6*(.A! 0.! A.N#(#?! "3#(0,! .A-30*#+#! .%!
A.'3(0,!#Q,!.(!%#!.A/3.%#!A3C.$*,$!0.A/3+$5!m3.!#%'3(,A!#A-$4(,N,A!$./*+5#(!3(#!
C#'#!,!A3.%0,!C,$!A.'3*$!/3%-*2#(0,!A3!C#A*4(?!9(-,(/.A!N.!A.(-5!#+$3N#0,!C,$!3(!
.(,$N.! ',X,o! A*(! 030#! #%'3(#>! C,0$5#! 0.0*/#$! -,0,! N*! -*.NC,! #! %,! m3.! NhA! N.!
'3A-#+#!F!#!%,!m3.!NhA!N.!*(-.$.A#+#?!
:(/%3A,!D,F!05#!D#F!N,N.(-,A!.(!m3.!%,!m3.!D#',!N.!C#$./.!3(!A3.Q,!*NC$,+#+%.>!
#3(m3.! A5! A3N#N.(-.! #'$#0#+%.?! L,N#$! C#$-.! .(! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! 0.! R.(3A>! K#$-.>!
PGC*-.$! F! &#-3$(,o! $.C$,03/*$>! $.C.-*$! %,A! C#A,A! m3.! /,(03\.$,(! #%! ,$*'.(! 0.! %#! 2*0#!
D#/.!/3#-$,!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!.(!3(#!L*.$$#!N3F!0*6.$.(-.!#!%#!m3.!/,(,/.N,Ao!
0.C,A*-#$! *(A-$3N.(-,A! .(! K#$-.! C#$#! +3A/#$! #%%5! %#! 2*0#>! F>! m3*Xh>! 0.0*/#$! A.$*,A!
.A63.$X,A! #! /,N3(*/#$(,A! /,(! ,-$,A! A.$.A! *(-.%*'.(-.A>! A*! %,A! D#F>! #D5! 63.$#>! .(! %#!
6,$N*0#+%.!,+A/3$*0#0!0.%!6*$N#N.(-,!(,/-3$(,?!
&*!D3+*.$#!(#/*0,!/*(/3.(-#!#Q,A!#(-.A>!(,!D3+*.A.!C,0*0,!0.0*/#$N.!#!(*('3(#!0.!
.A#A! #/-*2*0#0.A?! E,$! .(-,(/.A>! (,! .$#(! NhA! m3.! C$,03/-,! 0.! 3(#! *N#'*(#/*4(!
.AC./3%#-*2#?! &*! D3+*.$#! (#/*0,! /*(/3.(-#! #Q,A! NhA! -#$0.>! -#NC,/,! D#+$5#! C,0*0,!
0.0*/#$! N*! 2*0#! #! .A-#A! #/-*2*0#0.A>! .B/.C-,>! C,A*+%.N.(-.>! #! %#! G%-*N#! 0.! %#A!
N.(/*,(#0#A>!F#!m3.!0.(-$,!0.!/*(/3.(-#!#Q,A>!#!C#$-*$!0.!#D,$#>!A.!D#+$h!0#0,!6*(!
#!3(!$./,(,/*N*.(-,!C$.%*N*(#$!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$>!0.!%#!+GAm3.0#!0.!2*0#!.(!K#$-.!F!
0.%!.A-30*,!0.%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#?!K.!/,(A*0.$,!A3N#N.(-.!#6,$-3(#0,!0.!2*2*$!.(!3(!
N,N.(-,! 0.! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0! /3#(0,! A.! .A-h(! .NC$.(0*.(0,! -#%.A!
#2.(-3$#A?!
1.!N#(.$#!m3.!/3#(0,!P.$,N.!@'.%!2*(,!#!2.$N.!C#$#!m3.!.A/$*+*.$#!3(!%*+$,!m3.!
63.A.!C,C3%#$>!3(!%*+$,!m3.!-$#-#$#!0.!/,N3(*/#$!#!%,A!0.NhA!N*A!,C*(*,(.A!A,+$.!%#A!
*(2.A-*'#/*,(.A!.NC$.(0*0#A!F!%#!N*AN#!*NC,$-#(/*#!0.!.A-#A!#2.(-3$#A>!#/.C-d!-#%!
$.AC,(A#+*%*0#0>!#3(!/3#(0,!A3!A3'.$.(/*#!%%.'#+#!C,/,!#(-.A!0.!m3.!A.!%%.2#A.!#!
/#+,!%#!N*A*4(!Mariner!T!#!K#$-.>!D./D,!m3.!.A-#+#!A.'3$,!,/3C#$5#!%#!N#F,$!C#$-.!
0.!N*!-*.NC,!03$#(-.!N3/D,A!N.A.A?!9(!3(#!,/#A*4(!C,A-.$*,$>!0.AC3dA!0.!/D#$%#$!
#/.$/#!0.!%#!/,N3(*/#/*4(!/,(!%#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!@'.%!F!F,!/.(#N,A!.(!
3(!$.A-#3$#(-.!C,%*(.A*,!0.!),A-,(?!K*!D,$4A/,C,!0.%!05#!0./5#M!fK3F!C$,(-,!A.!-.!
.B*'*$h! m3.! 0.A/*6$.A! 3(! *NC,$-#(-.! N.(A#\.?g! E,$! A3C3.A-,>! #3(m3.! %,! 0.%!
D,$4A/,C,!(,!C#A#+#!0.!A.$!3(!\3.',!*(6#(-*%>!.%!C$.A#'*,>!.%!C$,(4A-*/,>!.$#!+3.(,?!
@%! /#+,! 0.! A*'%,A! 0.! /,(63A#A! /,(\.-3$#A>! 0.! .AC./3%#/*,(.A! #+A3$0#A>!
/,(A.$2#03$*AN,!*(0*'.A-,!F!0.A*(-.$dA!/#$.(-.!0.!-,0#!C,A*+%.!*N#'*(#/*4(>!C,$!6*(!
 aes
Te ganaras el pan con el sudor de tu frente

D#!%%.'#0,!#!A3!N#F,$5#!0.!.0#0!.%!-.N#!0.!%#!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!F!.(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0!
D#! #%/#(X#0,! 3(#! .-#C#! C$h/-*/#! 0,(0.! A.! %#! C3.0.! .A-30*#$! N.0*#(-.! -d/(*/#A!
$*'3$,A#N.(-.! /*.(-56*/#A>! 3(#! .-#C#! .(! %#! m3.! D#! /,(A.'3*0,! $.AC.-#+*%*0#0!
/*.(-56*/#! F! .(! %#! m3.>! #A*N*AN,>! A.! .(-*.(0.! #NC%*#N.(-.! A3! A*'(*6*/#0,?! E,$! .A#!
$#X4(>!$.C*-,>!%#!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!#/#+#!0.!#%/#(X#$!A3!N#F,$5#!0.!.0#0?!
9A-.! %*+$,! A.! 0*2*0.! .(! -$.A! C#$-.A! #! /3#%! NhA! *NC,$-#(-.?! 9(! %#! C$*N.$#! *(-.(-,!
-$#(AN*-*$! .%! A.(-*0,! 0.! %#! C.$AC./-*2#! /4AN*/#! 2*2*.(0,! 63.$#! 0.! (3.A-$#A! 2*0#A! .(!
3(!0*N*(3-,!-$,X,!0.!$,/#!F!N.-#%!/*$/3(0#(0,!3(#!0.!%#A!0,A/*.(-#A!/*(/3.(-#!N*%!
N*%%,(.A!0.!.A-$.%%#A!m3.!6,$N#(!(3.A-$#!'#%#B*#!.(!3(!H(*2.$A,!0.!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!
0.! '#%#B*#A?! c#! 0./%*(#/*4(! 0.! 3(#! 0.! (3.A-$#A! NhA! /,N3(.A! /,(/.C/*,(.A>! ,! 0.!
3(,! 0.! (3.A-$,A! NhA! 23%'#$.A! .('$.*N*.(-,A>! -#N+*d(! .A! 3(#! 0.! %#A! #C%*/#/*,(.A!
C$h/-*/#A! 0.! %#! #A-$,(,N5#?! c#! A.'3(0#! C#$-.! 0.j! %*+$,! A.! $.%#/*,(#! /,(! 2#$*,A!
#AC./-,A! 0.! (3.A-$,! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! nC$*(/*C#%N.(-.! /,(! %#! L*.$$#>! K#$-.! F! R.(3An?!
@m35! C3.0.(! D#%%#$A.! #%'3(,A! 0.! %,A! $.A3%-#0,A! .! *NC%*/#/*,(.A! 0.%! Mariner! T?! c#!
-.$/.$#! C#$-.! A.! 0.0*/#! #! %#! C,A*+*%*0#0! 0.! /,N3(*/#/*4(! /,(! %#! *(-.%*'.(/*#!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.! .(! C%#(.-#A! 0.! ,-$#A! .A-$.%%#A?! E3.A-,! m3.! -,0#25#! (,! A.! D#!
.A-#+%./*0,! (*('G(! /,(-#/-,! n(3.A-$,A! .A63.$X,A! D#A-#! %#! 6./D#! D#(! A*0,! 0d+*%.An>!
.A-#!C#$-.!.A!(./.A#$*#N.(-.!.AC./3%#-*2#?!<,!D.!030#0,!.(!/,(\.-3$#$!0.(-$,!0.!%,!
m3.!.A-*N,!C3.0#(!A.$!%,A!%5N*-.A!(,$N#%.A!0.!3(#!C%#3A*+*%*0#0!/*.(-56*/#?!J!#3(m3.!
(,!A,F>!C,$!6,$N#/*4(>!3(!6*%4A,6,>!A,/*4%,',!,!D*A-,$*#0,$>!(,!D.!030#0,!.(!.A+,X#$!
*NC%*/#/*,(.A!D*A-4$*/#A>!A,/*,%4'*/#A!F!6*%,A46*/#A!0.!#A-$,(,N5#!0.!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.%!
.AC#/*,?!
1.A0.!#m35!N.!#-$.2.$5#!#!0./*$!m3.!%,A!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,A!#A-$,(4N*/,A!m3.!.A-#N,A!
#! C3(-,! 0.! /,(A.'3*$! A,(! 0.%! NhA! #NC%*,! A*'(*6*/#0,! D3N#(,?! &*! .A-.! %*+$,! %%.'#! #!
0.A.NC.Q#$! 3(! C.m3.Q,! C#C.%! .(! #3N.(-#$! .%! *(-.$dA! CG+%*/,! C,$! .A-#A! #2.(-3$#A!
.BC%,$#-,$*#A>!/$.,!m3.!D#+$h!D./D,!D,(,$!#!A3!C$,C4A*-,?!
@%!*'3#%!m3.!D#!A3/.0*0,!/,(!-$#+#\,A!#(-.$*,$.A!#!dA-.>!A,+$.!-,0,!A*!A.!+#A#(!.(!
-.N#A! .AC./3%#-*2,A>! #%'3(#A! 0.! %#A! 0./%#$#/*,(.A! m3.! #C#$./.(! .(! .A-#A! Ch'*(#A!
0.AC.$-#$h(! .(d$'*/#A! ,+\./*,(.A?! 9B*A-.(! ,-$,A! %*+$,A! .(! %,A! m3.! A.! .BC,(.(!
0*A-*(-#A!,C*(*,(.A?!c#!0*A/3A*4(!$#X,(#0#!.A!.%!#%N#!0.!%#!/*.(/*#>!/,N,!(,!%,!.A>!
C,$!0.A'$#/*#>!.(!.%!-.$$.(,!*(-.%./-3#%N.(-.!NhA!#(dN*/,!0.!%#!C,%5-*/#?!E.$,!/$.,!
m3.! %#A! ,C*(*,(.A! m3.! ,6$./.(! ,/#A*4(! 0.! 3(#! N#F,$! /,(-$,2.$A*#! F! m3.! #m35! A.!
.BC,(.(>! -*.(.(>! A*(! .N+#$',>! 2#%*,A,A! .%.N.(-,A! 0.! A*'(*6*/#0,! /*.(-56*/,?!
1.%*+.$#0#N.(-.! D.! *(-$,03/*0,! .%! N*AN,! /,(/.C-,! .(! /,(-.B-,A! %*'.$#N.(-.!
0*6.$.(-.A!F!.(!/*.$-,A!%3'#$.A!0,(0.!/$.5!A.!C$./*A#+#!0.!%#!0*A/3A*4(?!9%!%*+$,!.A-h!
/3*0#0,A#N.(-.! .A-$3/-3$#0,>! C.$,>! C#$#! #m3.%%,A! %./-,$.A! m3.! A4%,! 0.A..(!
.A/30$*Q#$>! %#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! %,A! /#C5-3%,A! %.A! ,6$./.$h(! -,0,A! %,A! .%.N.(-,A!
#0./3#0,A!C#$#!%%.2#$%,!#!/#+,?!
p3.$,(! 0.N#A*#0#A! %#A! C.$A,(#A! m3.! N.! #F30#$,(! #! /,(6*'3$#$! %#A! ,C*(*,(.A! m3.!
.BC,(',!A,+$.!.A-,A!-.N#A!/,N,!C#$#!C,0.$!.BC$.A#$%.A!N*!$./,(,/*N*.(-,!#!-,0#A!
.%%#A!0.A0.!.A-#A!Ch'*(#A>!C.$,!#%!$.%..$!%,A!/#C5-3%,A!/,(A*0.$,!m3.!N.!.(/3.(-$,!
.AC./*#%N.(-.! .(! 0.30#! /,(! P,A.CD! R.2.$q#! F! p$#(q! 1$#q.>! #N+,A! 0.! %#! ",$(.%%!
H(*2.$A*-F>! F! /,(! m3*.(.A! 03$#(-.! %,A! G%-*N,A! #Q,A! 0*A/3-5! -#(-,A! #AC./-,A! 0.! .A-#!
,+$#?! 9%! %*+$,! 63.! $.0#/-#0,! C#$/*#%N.(-.! 03$#(-.! 3(! %#$',! 2*#\.! -$#(A/,(-*(.(-#%! .(!
3(!#3-,N42*%!N3F!C.m3.Q,?!1,F!%#A!'$#/*#A!#!c*(0#!F!#!<*/D,%#A!C,$!A3!.A-5N3%,!F!
C#/*.(/*#?! L#N+*d(! #'$#0.X/,! #! c*(0#! %,A! 0,A! 0*+3\,A! .(! %,A! m3.! #C#$./.(! 0,A!
#C3.A-,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!F!3(!.%.'#(-.!3(*/,$(*,?!E,$!,-$,!%#0,>!.BC$.A,!N*!C$,63(0,!
$./,(,/*N*.(-,!#%!6#%%./*0,!K#3$*-X!9A/D.$>!C,$!.%!C.$N*A,!/,(/.0*0,!C#$#!$.C$,03/*$!
A3!Otro Mundo>!F!#!=,+.$-!K#/*(-F$.>!C,$!%#!6*'3$#!D3N#(#!F!/#NC,!0.!.A-$.%%#A!0.!
%#! -.$/.$#! C#$-.?! c,A! /3#0$,A! F! 0*+3\,A! 0.! P,D(! c,N+.$'! /,(A-*-3F.$,(>! C#$#! N5>!
#3-d(-*/#! 63.(-.! 0.! .N,/*4(! .A-d-*/#! .! *(-.%./-3#%>! F! %.! #'$#0.X/,! %#! C$,03//*4(! 0.!
N3/D,A! 0.! .%%,A! .AC./*#%N.(-.! C#$#! .A-.! %*+$,?! c#A! /3*0#0,A#A! $.C$,03//*,(.A!
6,-,'$h6*/#A!0.!I.$N#((!9/q%.N#(!A,+$.! %#!,+$#!0.!c,N+.$'!D#(!6#/*%*-#0,!N3/D,!
A3!C3+%*/#/*4(!.(!.A-.!%*+$,?!J>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!0,F!%#A!'$#/*#A!#!P.$,N.!@'.%>!A*(!/3F#!
0.0*/#/*4(!F!C.$A.2.$#(/*#!.A-.!%*+$,!\#NhA!A.!D3+*.A.!.A/$*-,?!
E,$!,-$#!C#$-.>!N.!A*.(-,!.(!0.30#!/,(!P,D(!<#3'%.>!0.!%#!<@&@>!C,$!N,A-$#$N.!A3!
#$/D*2,!0.!$.AC3.A-#A!0.!%#!,C*(*4(!CG+%*/#!#!%#!C%#/#!0.%!E*,(..$!87o!/,(!.%!;$.',(!
&FA-.N!,6!I*'D.$!903/#-*,(>!C,$!.%!C.$N*A,!/,(/.0*0,!C#$#!$.C$,03/*$!#%'3(#A!*0.#A!
0.! N*! %*+$,! Planetary explorationo! #%! p,$3N! 0.! I*A-,$*#! ",(-.NC,$h(.#>! 0.! &#(-#!
)h$+#$#>!C,$!.%!C.$N*A,!C#$#!C3+%*/#$!3(#!C#$-.!0.!N*!/#$-#!0*A-$*+3*0#!C,$!.%!p,$3N!
.(!.(.$,!0.!8TUVo!#!%#!",$(.%%!H(*2.$A*-F!E$.AA>!C,$!.%!C.$N*A,!C#$#!$.*NC$*N*$!C#$-.!
0.!N*!/#C5-3%,!fLos extraterrestres y otras hiptesisg>!0.!UFO's: A scientific debate>!
.0*-#0,!C,$!"#$%!&#'#(!F!LD,$(-,(!E#'.>!",$(.%%!H(*2.$A*-F!E$.AA>!8TU`?!@A*N*AN,>!
.A-,F!N3F!$./,(,/*0,!#!-,0,A!/3#(-,A!N.!D#(!#3-,$*X#0,!#!$.C$,03/*$>!.(!.%!/#C5-3%,!
:R>!A3A!,+A.$2#/*,(.A!A,+$.!%#!C%#/#!Pioneer!87?!c#!.2,%3/*4(!0.!.A-.!%*+$,!#!-$#2dA!
0.! N3/D#A! N#m3.-#A! A*(! 030#! A.! 0.+.! N3/D,! #! %#! /#C#/*0#0! -d/(*/#! 0.! P,! @((!
",r#(!F>!A,+$.!-,0,>!0.!K#$F!&XFN#(Aq*?!
Carl Sagan
!
 !
Otro Mundo de M. C. Escher.

!
Primera Parte: Perspectivas csmicas
!
!
No dejaremos de explorar
y al final de toda nuestra investigacin
habremos llegado a donde comenzamos
y conoceremos el lugar por vez primera...
cuando las lenguas de fuego se plieguen
para formar un nudo de fuego
y el fuego y la rosa sean slo uno.
T. S. Eliot
Four quartets
!
 !
Imagen sin ttulo de Jon Lomberg.

!
1. Un animal de transicin
!
I#/.! /*(/,! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A>! /3#(0,! #C#$./*4! .%! &,%>! .%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! A.!
-$#(A6,$N4! 0.A0.! 3(#! (.'$3$#! *NC.(.-$#+%.! #! 3(! /.'#0,$! /D,$$,! 0.! %3X?! 9(! %#A!
C#$-.A!*(-.$*,$.A!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$>!%,A!C$*N.$,A!C%#(.-#A!.$#(!'$3C,A!*$$.'3%#$.A!0.!
$,/#!F!N.-#%!n%,A!0.A./D,A>!%,A!/,(A-*-3F.(-.A!N.(,$.A!0.!%#!(3+.!*(*/*#%>!.%!N#-.$*#%!
m3.!(,!A.!D#+5#!#%.\#0,!-$#A!%#!*'(*/*4(!0.%!&,%?!
9A-,A!C%#(.-#A!A.!/#%.(-#$,(!#%!6,$N#$A.?!c,A!'#A.A!#-$#C#0,A!.(!A3!*(-.$*,$!63.$,(!
.B30h(0,A.>! 2#%'#! %#! .BC$.A*4(>! C#$#! 6,$N#$! #-N4A6.$#A?! &.! 0.$$*-*.$,(! A3A!
A3C.$6*/*.A!F!%,A!2,%/#(.A!63.$,(!/,A#!/,NG(?!
c#A! C$*N.$#A! #-N4A6.$#A! A.! /,NC,(5#(! 0.! %,A! NhA! 0*2.$A,A! h-,N,A! F! .$#(! N3F!
$*/#A! .(! D*0$4'.(,?! c#! %3X! 0.%! &,%>! #%! *(/*0*$! A,+$.! %#A! N,%d/3%#A! 0.! %#! C$*N*-*2#!
-.NC$#(#! #-N4A6.$#>! %#A! .B/*-4>! C$,2,/4! /D,m3.A! N,%./3%#$.A! F! C$,03\,! N,%d/3%#A!
0.! N#F,$! -#N#Q,?! )#\,! %#A! *(.B,$#+%.A! %.F.A! 0.! %#! s35N*/#! F! %#! p5A*/#>! .A-#A!
N,%d/3%#A!#/-3#$,(!$./5C$,/#N.(-.>!6,$N#$,(!2.$0#0.$,A!,/d#(,A!F!0*.$,(!%3'#$!#!
%#! C$,03//*4(! 0.! ,-$#A! N,%d/3%#A! N3/D,! N#F,$.A>! N,%d/3%#A! +#A-#(-.! NhA!
/,NC%.\#A! m3.! #m3.%%,A! h-,N,A! *(*/*#%.A! 0.! %#A! /3#%.A! A.! D#+5#(! 6,$N#0,>! C.$,!
-,0#25#!N*/$,A/4C*/#A!#(-.!-,0#!C,A*+%.!N.0*0#!,!(,$N#!D3N#(#?!
9A-#A!N,%d/3%#A>!(,-#+%.N.(-.!A36*/*.(-.A>!A,(!%#A!m3.!(,A!6,$N#(?!c,A!+%,m3.A!0.!
/,(A-$3//*4(>! C,$! #A5! 0./*$%,>! 0.! %,A! h/*0,A! (3/%.*/,A>! m3.! /,(A-*-3F.(! (3.A-$,!
N#-.$*#%!D.$.0*-#$*,>!F!%,A!+%,m3.A!0.!/*N.(-#/*4(!0.!%#A!C$,-.5(#A>!%,A!,+$.$,A!m3.!
.\./3-#(! .%! -$#+#\,! 0.! %#! /d%3%#>! A.! C$,03\.$,(! 0.! %#! #-N4A6.$#! F! ,/d#(,A! 0.! %#!
C$*N*-*2#!L*.$$#?!&#+.N,A!.A-,!C,$m3.!D,F!05#!C,0.N,A!$.C$,03/*$!0*/D#A!N,%d/3%#A!
$.C*-*.(0,!%#A!/,(0*/*,(.A!C$*N*-*2#A?!
"#A3#%N.(-.>!D#/.!N3/D,A!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A>!A.!6,$N4!3(#!N,%d/3%#!m3.!
C,A.5#! 3(#! /#C#/*0#0! (,-#+%.?! 9$#! /#C#X! 0.! C$,03/*$>! 0.! %,A! +%,m3.A! 0.!
/,(A-$3//*4(! N,%./3%#$.A! 0.! %#A! #'3#A! /*$/3(A-#(-.A>! 3(#! /,C*#! 0.! A5! N*AN#>! 3(!
0,+%.! 0.! A5! N*AN#! +#A-#(-.! .B#/-,?! 9(! .A-.! A*A-.N#! N,%./3%#$! D#F! 3(! /,(\3(-,! 0.!
*(A-$3//*,(.A>! 3(! /40*',! N,%./3%#$! m3.! /,(-*.(.! %#! A./3.(/*#! 0.! +%,m3.A! 0.!
.0*6*/#/*4(!0.!%,A!/3#%.A!A.!/,(A-$3F.!%#!N,%d/3%#!N#F,$?!"3#(0,>!C,$!#//*0.(-.>!A.!
C$,03/.! 3(! /#N+*,! .(! %#! A./3.(/*#>! -#N+*d(! A.! N,0*6*/#! %#! /,C*#! ,! %,! m3.! D.N,A!
%%#N#0,! f0,+%.g?! &.N.\#(-.! A*A-.N#! N,%./3%#$! n/#C#X! 0.! $.C%*/#/*4(>! N3-#/*4(! F!
$.C.-*/*4(! 0.! A3A! N3-#/*,(.An! C3.0.! 0.(,N*(#$A.! f2*2,g?! 9A! 3(#! /,%.//*4(! 0.!
N,%d/3%#A! m3.! C3.0.! .2,%3/*,(#$! N.0*#(-.! %#! A.%.//*4(! (#-3$#%?! c#A! N,%d/3%#A!
/#C#/.A! 0.! $.C%*/#$! /,(! N#F,$! $#C*0.X>! ,! 0.! $.C$,03/*$! +%,m3.A! 0.! /,(A-$3//*4(!
C#$-*.(0,!0.!/3#(-,!%.A!$,0.#!C#$#!#%/#(X#$!3(#!N#F,$!2#$*.0#0>!3(#!2#$*.0#0!NhA!
G-*%>! A.! $.C$,03\.$,(! /,(! N#F,$! .6*/#/*#! m3.! A3A! /,NC.-*0,$#A>! F! /,(! .%! -*.NC,!
0,N*(#$,(?!
E.$,! %#A! /,(0*/*,(.A! /#N+*#$,(! '$#03#%N.(-.?! 9%! D*0$4'.(,! .A/#C4! #%! .AC#/*,?! c#!
C$,03//*4(! 0.! +%,m3.A! N,%./3%#$.A! 0.! .0*6*/#/*4(! 0./%*(4?! 1*AN*(3F4! .%! N#-.$*#%!
#%*N.(-*/*,!m3.>!#(-*'3#N.(-.>!.B*A-5#!.(!'$#(!#+3(0#(/*#?!&.!.BC3%A4!#!%#!2*0#!0.%!
\#$05(!N,%./3%#$!0.%!90d(?!L#(!A4%,!63.$,(!/#C#/.A!0.!A,+$.2*2*$!#m3.%%,A!/,(\3(-,A!
0.! N,%d/3%#A! /#C#/.A! 0.! -$#(A6,$N#$! /3#(-,! %.A! $,0.#+#>! /#C#/.A! 0.! C$,03/*$!
Nhm3*(#A! N,%./3%#$.A! .6*/#/.A! C#$#! %#! /,(2.$A*4(! 0.! N,%d/3%#A! A*NC%.A! .(! ,-$#A!
/,NC%.\#A! #C-#A! C#$#! %#! A3C.$2*2.(/*#?! @*A%h(0,A.! 0.! /3#(-,! %#A! $,0.#+#>!
N#(-.(*.(0,!%#A!C$*N*-*2#A!/,(0*/*,(.A!*05%*/#A>!#m3.%%#A!N,%d/3%#A!m3.!A.!$,0.#+#(!
0.!N.N+$#(#A!-.(5#(!3(#!2.(-#\#?!&3$'*.$,(!%#A!C$*N.$#A!/d%3%#A?!
@%!/#$./.$!,!#%!(,!A.$!6h/*%.A!0.!,+-.(.$!%,A!+%,m3.A!N,%./3%#$.A!0.!.0*6*/#/*4(>!%,A!
,$'#(*AN,A! -32*.$,(! m3.! -$#+#\#$! 03$#N.(-.! C#$#! 6,$N#$%,A?! c#A! C%#(-#A! 63.! .%!
$.A3%-#0,?!c#A!C%#(-#A!A.!*(*/*#(!/,(!#*$.!F!#'3#>!N*(.$#%.A!F!%3X!A,%#$>!F!C$,03/.(!
+%,m3.A! N,%./3%#$.A! 0.! .0*6*/#/*4(>! 0.! N3F! .%.2#0#! /,NC%.\*0#0?! c,A! #(*N#%.A>!
/,N,!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A>!A,(!C#$hA*-,A!.(!%#A!C%#(-#A?!
c,A!/#N+*,A!0.!/%*N#!F!/,NC.-.(/*#!.(-$.!%,!m3.!.$#!.(-,(/.A!#NC%*#!0*2.$A*0#0!0.!
,$'#(*AN,A!0*,!,$*'.(!#!3(#!N#F,$!.AC./*#%*X#/*4(>!3(#!A,6*A-*/#/*4(!0.!63(/*,(.A!F!
3(#! .%#+,$#/*4(! 0.! 6,$N#?! H(#! $*/#! 6,$N#/*4(! 0.! C%#(-#A! F! #(*N#%.A! /,N.(X4! #!
/3+$*$! %#! L*.$$#?! @C#$-.! 0.! %,A! C$*N.$,A! ,/d#(,A! .(! %,A! m3.! A3$'*4! %#! 2*0#>! A.!
/,%,(*X#$,(!(3.2,A!#N+*.(-.A>!/,N,!%#!-*.$$#!F!.%!#*$.?!9(-,(/.A>!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!F#!
2*25#(! 0.A0.! %#! /*N#! 0.%! N,(-.! 92.$.A-! D#A-#! %,A! $*(/,(.A! NhA! C$,63(0,A! 0.! %,A!
#+*AN,A?! c,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! 2*2.(! .(! A,%3/*,(.A! /,(/.(-$#0#A>! #$0*.(-.A>! 0.! h/*0,!
A3%6G$*/,! F! .(! A./,A! 2#%%.A! 0.%! @(-h$-*/,?! c,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! 2*2.(! .(! .%! #'3#!
/,(0.(A#0#!F!$.-.(*0#!.(!3(!A*NC%.!/$*A-#%!0.!A#%?!
c#A! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#! 0.A#$$,%%#0#A! m3.! #$N,(*X#+#(! +*.(! /,(! A3A! #N+*.(-.A!
.AC./56*/,A>! A.! #0#C-#$,(! #0N*$#+%.N.(-.! #! %#A! /,(0*/*,(.A! $.*(#(-.A?! E.$,! dA-#A!
/#N+*#$,(?! c,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! .A-#+#(! 0.N#A*#0,! .AC./*#%*X#0,A?! K3$*.$,(?! ;-$,A!
,$'#(*AN,A!A.!#0#C-#$,(!.(! C.,$.A!/,(0*/*,(.A>!C.$,!.A-#+#(!NhA!'.(.$#%*X#0,A?!
c#A!/*$/3(A-#(/*#A!/#N+*#$,(>!.%!/%*N#!2#$*4>!C.$,!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!63.$,(!/#C#/.A!0.!
C.$A*A-*$?!K3/D#A!NhA!.AC./*.A!0.!,$'#(*AN,A!D#(!N3.$-,!03$#(-.!%#!D*A-,$*#!0.!%#!
.2,%3/*4(!-.$$.A-$.!m3.!%,A!m3.!2*2.(!D,F!05#?!9%!A./$.-,!0.!%#!.2,%3/*4(!.A!.%!-*.NC,!
F!%#!N3.$-.?!
9(-$.!%#A!#0#C-#/*,(.A!m3.!C#$./.(!A.$!G-*%.A!.A-h!%#!m3.!%%#N#N,A!*(-.%*'.(/*#?!c#!
*(-.%*'.(/*#!.A!%#!#NC%*#/*4(!0.!3(#!-.(0.(/*#!.2,%3/*,(*A-#!m3.!A.!N#(*6*.A-#!.(!%,A!
,$'#(*AN,A!NhA!A*NC%.AM!%#!-.(0.(/*#!D#/*#!.%!/,(-$,%!0.%!#N+*.(-.?!9%!#0*/-,!F!6*.%!
Nd-,0,! +*,%4'*/,! 0.! /,(-$,%! D#! A*0,! .%! N#-.$*#%! D.$.0*-#$*,M! *(6,$N#/*4(! -$#(AN*-*0#!
C,$!h/*0,A!(3/%.*/,A!0.!'.(.$#/*4(!.(!'.(.$#/*4(>!*(6,$N#/*4(!A,+$.!/4N,!/,(A-$3*$!
3(!(*0,>!*(6,$N#/*4(!A,+$.!.%!-.N,$!#!%#A!/#50#A>!#!%#A!A.$C*.(-.A>!,!#!%#!,+A/3$*0#0o!
*(6,$N#/*4(! A,+$.! /4N,! 2,%#$! D#/*#! .%! &3$! 03$#(-.! .%! *(2*.$(,?! E.$,! %#! *(-.%*'.(/*#!
(./.A*-#! *(6,$N#/*4(! A,+$.! 3(#! /3#%*0#0! #0#C-#+%.! 0.A#$$,%%#0#! 03$#(-.! %#! 2*0#!
/,NC%.-#!0.!3(!A,%,!A.$?!I,F!05#!.B*A-.!3(#!2#$*.0#0!0.!,$'#(*AN,A!.(!%#!L*.$$#!m3.!
C,A..(! .A-#! /3#%*0#0! m3.! %%#N#N,A! *(-.%*'.(/*#?! c,A! 0.%6*(.A! %#! -*.(.(! F! %,! N*AN,!
,/3$$.! /,(! %,A! '$#(0.A! #(-$,C,*0.A?! E.$,! .A! N3/D,! NhA! .2*0.(-.! .(! .%! ,$'#(*AN,!
%%#N#0,!D,N+$.?!
9(!.%!D,N+$.!(,!A4%,!.B*A-.!.A#!*(6,$N#/*4(!0.!#0#C-#+*%*0#0!#0m3*$*0#!.(!%#!2*0#!0.!
3(! A,%,! *(0*2*03,>! A*(,! m3.! A.! -$#(AN*-.! .A-$#-d'*/#N.(-.! #! -$#2dA! 0.! %#! /3%-3$#>!
%*+$,A!F!.03/#/*4(?!9A!C$./*A#N.(-.!.A-,>!NhA!m3.!,-$#!/,A#>!%,!m3.!D#!.%.2#0,!#%!
D,N+$.!#!A3!#/-3#%!.A-#0,!C$..N*(.(-.!.(!.%!C%#(.-#!L*.$$#?!
&,N,A! .%! C$,03/-,! 0.! /*(/,! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! 0.! .2,%3/*4(! +*,%4'*/#! %.(-#>!
6,$-3*-#>! F! (,! D#F! $#X4(! #%'3(#! C#$#! C.(A#$! .(! m3.! A.! D#F#! 0.-.(*0,! -#%! C$,/.A,!
.2,%3-*2,?!9%!D,N+$.!.A!3(!#(*N#%!.(!C.$5,0,!0.!-$#(A*/*4(?!<,!.A!.%!/%*N#B!0.!3(#!
/$.#/*4(?!
c#! L*.$$#! F! .%! &,%! .B*A-*$h(! N3/D,A! NhA! N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A?! 9%! 63-3$,!
0.A#$$,%%,! 0.%! D,N+$.! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! 0.C.(0.$h! 0.! 3(#! 0*AC,A*/*4(! /,,C.$#0,$#!
.(-$.! %#! .2,%3/*4(! +*,%4'*/#! /,(-$,%#0#>! N#(.\,A! '.(d-*/,A! F! 3(#! 5(-*N#! #A,/*#/*4(!
.(-$.!,$'#(*AN,A!F!Nhm3*(#A!*(-.%*'.(-.A?!E.$,!(,!/$.,!m3.!D#F#!(#0*.!m3.!C3.0#!
.N*-*$!C$,(4A-*/,!#%'3(,!0.!.A-#!.2,%3/*4(!63-3$#?!c,!m3.!A5!$.A3%-#!.2*0.(-.!.A!m3.!
(,!C,0.N,A!C.$N#(./.$!.A-h-*/,A?!
@%! C#$./.$>! .(! (3.A-$#! D*A-,$*#! NhA! C$*N*-*2#>! %,A! *(0*2*03,A! .$#(! #0*/-,A! #! A3!
*(N.0*#-,! '$3C,! -$*+#%>! m3.! C,A*+%.N.(-.! (,! A,+$.C#A#$5#! %,A! 0*.X! ,! 2.*(-.!
*(0*2*03,A>!-,0,A!.%%,A!.NC#$.(-#0,A!C,$!%#X,A!0.!/,(A#('3*(*0#0?!@!N.0*0#!m3.!.%!
-*.NC,!-$#(A/3$$*4>!%#!(./.A*0#0!0.!3(!/,NC,$-#N*.(-,!0.!/,,C.$#/*4(!n.(!%#!/#X#!
0.! '$#(0.A! #(*N#%.A! ,! $.+#Q,A>! .(! %#! #'$*/3%-3$#! F! .(! .%! 0.A#$$,%%,! 0.! /*30#0.An!
,+%*'4! #! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! #! 6,$N#$! '$3C,A! /#0#! 2.X! N#F,$.A?! 9(! %#! #/-3#%*0#0>!
.\.NC%,!C#$-*/3%#$!0.!%,A!/*(/,!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!0.!D*A-,$*#!0.!%#!I3N#(*0#0>!%#!
N#F,$5#! 0.! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! 0.+.(! 6*0.%*0#0! F! ,+.0*.(/*#! #%! .A-#0,O(#/*4(!
]#3(m3.! #%'3(,A! 0.! %,A! C$,+%.N#A! C,%5-*/,A! NhA! C.%*'$,A,A! A3$\#(! -,0#25#! #! /#3A#!
0.!/,(6%*/-,A!-$*+#%.A!$.%#/*,(#0,A!/,(!3(*0#0.A!0.!C,+%#/*4(!N3F!C.m3.Q#A_?!
K3/D,A! %50.$.A! 2*A*,(#$*,A! D#(! *N#'*(#0,! 3(#! dC,/#! .(! %#! m3.! %#! 0.2,/*4(>!
,+.0*.(/*#! ,! 6*0.%*0#0! 0.! 3(! A.$! D3N#(,! *(0*2*03#%! (,! A.! /.(-$.! .(! A3! C#$-*/3%#$!
.A-#0,O(#/*4(>! $.%*'*4(>! $#X#! ,! '$3C,! ./,(4N*/,>! A*(,! m3.! %,! D#'#! A,+$.! -,0#! %#!
I3N#(*0#0! .(! A3! /,(\3(-,>! .A! 0./*$! m3.! /3#(0,! A.! +.(.6*/*.! #! 3(! A.$! D3N#(,! 0.!
,-$,!A.B,>!$#X#>!$.%*'*4(>!m3.!A.!.(/3.(-$#!#!3(#!0*A-#(/*#!0.!(,A,-$,A!0.!m3*(/.!N*%!
q*%4N.-$,A>!.%!D./D,!(,A!A.#!-#(!C$./*#0,!/,N,!A*!D3+*dA.N,A!6#2,$./*0,!#!(3.A-$,!
C$,C*,! D.$N#(,! ,! 2./*(,?! &.! -*.(0.! #! A.'3*$! .%! /$*-.$*,>! C.$,! .%! #2#(/.! .A!
A3N#N.(-.!%.(-,?!@m35!.A!C$./*A,!D#/.$A.!3(#!C$.'3(-#!N3F!A.$*#!A,+$.!A*!A.!C,0$h!
%,'$#$! A.N.\#(-.! #3-,O*0.(-*6*/#/*4(! '%,+#%! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0! #(-.A! 0.! m3.! (,A!
0.A-$3F#N,A!/,(!%#A!63.$X#A!-./(,%4'*/#A!m3.!D#!0.A#$$,%%#0,!(3.A-$#!*(-.%*'.(/*#?!
9(!3(!A.(-*0,!N3F!$.#%>!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!A,(!Nhm3*(#A!/,(A-$3*0#A!C,$!%,A!h/*0,A!
(3/%.*/,A!C#$#!0*AC,(.$!3(#!.6*/*.(-.!$.C.-*/*4(!0.!NhA!h/*0,A!(3/%.*/,A?!9(!/*.$-,!
A.(-*0,>! (3.A-$#A! (./.A*0#0.A! NhA! #/3/*#(-.A>! %#A! NhA! (,+%.A! .NC$.A#A>! F! .%!
N#(*6*.A-,! %*+$.! #%+.0$5,>! A,(! 3(#! .BC$.A*4(! 0.! %#! *(6,$N#/*4(! /,0*6*/#0#! .(! .%!
N#-.$*#%! '.(d-*/,M! .(! /*.$-,! A.(-*0,>! A,N,A! 0.C4A*-,A! -.NC,$#%.A! F! #N+3%#(-.A! 0.!
(3.A-$,A! h/*0,A! (3/%.*/,A?! 9A-,! (,! (*.'#! (3.A-$#! D3N#(*0#0?! <,! (,A! *NC*0.!
C.$A.'3*$! .%! +*.(>! %#! 2.$0#0! F! %,! +.%%,?! E.$,! A.$5#! 3(! '$#(! .$$,$! *'(,$#$! 0.! 04(0.!
C$,/.0.N,A!.(!(3.A-$,A!*(-.(-,A!C,$!0.-.$N*(#$!#!04(0.!2#N,A?!
<,!/#+.!030#!#%'3(#!0.!m3.!(3.A-$,!A*A-.N#!*(A-*(-*2,!A.!D#!N,0*6*/#0,!C,/,!0.A0.!
%,A!05#A!.(!m3.!%,A!D,N+$.A!A.!$.3(5#(!C#$#!/#X#$>!D#/.!2#$*,A!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!N*%.A!
0.!#Q,A?!<3.A-$#!A,/*.0#0!D#!/#N+*#0,!.(,$N.N.(-.!0.A0.!#m3.%%,A!-*.NC,A>!F!%,A!
NhA! '$#(0.A! C$,+%.N#A! 0.! A3C.$2*2.(/*#! .(! .%! N3(0,! /,(-.NC,$h(.,! C3.0.(!
.(-.(0.$A.! .(! -d$N*(,A! 0.! .A-.! /,(6%*/-,>! .(-$.! %,! m3.! fA.(-*N,Ag! m3.! 0.+.N,A!
D#/.$! ,+.0./*.(0,! #! (3.A-$,A! *(A-*(-,A! NhA! C$*N#$*,A>! F! %,! m3.! fA#+.N,Ag! m3.!
0.+.N,A!D#/.$!,+.0./*.(0,>!6*(#%N.(-.>!#!(3.A-$#!/3%-3$#!.B-$#'.(d-*/#?!
&*! A,+$.2*2*N,A! .(! .A-,A! C.%*'$,A,A! -*.NC,A>! $.A3%-#! .2*0.(-.! m3.! *(/%3A,! 3(#!
*0.(-*6*/#/*4(!/,(!-,0#!%#!I3N#(*0#0!(,!.A!%#!*0.(-*6*/#/*4(!0.A.#+%.!F!63(0#N.(-#%?!
&*!A.(-*N,A!C$,63(0,!$.AC.-,!C,$!,-$,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!/,N,!*'3#%.A!$./.C-,$.A!0.!
.A-.!C$./*,A,!C#-$*N,(*,!0.!/*(/,!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!0.!.2,%3/*4(>!kC,$!m3d!(,!D#!
0.!#C%*/#$A.!-#%!*0.(-*6*/#/*4(!-#N+*d(!#!-,0,A!%,A!0.NhA!,$'#(*AN,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!m3.!
A,(>!#A*N*AN,>!.%!C$,03/-,!0.%!N*AN,!(GN.$,!0.!#Q,A!0.!.2,%3/*4(l!"3*0#N,A!0.!
3(#!C.m3.Q#!6$#//*4(!0.!,$'#(*AN,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!/,N,>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!C.$$,A>!'#-,A!F!
2#/#A!nC,$m3.!A,(!G-*%.A!,!C,$m3.!(,A!D#%#'#(n?!E.$,!%#A!#$#Q#A>!%#A!A#%#N#(0$#A>!
.%!A#%N4(!F!.%!'*$#A,%!A,(!*'3#%N.(-.!(3.A-$,A!D.$N#(,A!F!D.$N#(#A?!
"$.,!m3.!%#!0*6*/3%-#0!m3.!-,0,A!.BC.$*N.(-#N,A!0.!.B-.(0.$!(3.A-$,A!D,$*X,(-.A!0.!
*0.(-*6*/#/*4(! .(! -#%! A.(-*0,! .A>! .(! A5! N*AN#>! '.(d-*/#?! c#A! D,$N*'#A! 0.! 3(#! -$*+3!
%3/D#$h(! D#A-#! N,$*$! #(-.! %#! *(-$3A*4(! 0.! ,-$#A! D,$N*'#A! C.$-.(./*.(-.A! #! 0*6.$.(-.!
-$*+3?!c#!D*A-,$*#!D3N#(#!.A-h!%%.(#!0.!/#A,A!N,(A-$3,A,A!0.!C.m3.Q#A!0*6.$.(/*#A!
nC*'N.(-#/*4(!0.!%#!C*.%>!.AC./3%#/*4(!-.,%4'*/#!#+A-$3A#!,!6,$N#!0.!2.A-*$!F!.A-*%,!
0.!C.*(#0,n>!m3.!A,(!/#3A#!0.!D,A-*'#N*.(-,>!.A/%#2*-30!F!#A.A*(#-,A?!
H(!A.$!.B#/-#N.(-.!*'3#%!#!(,A,-$,A>!C.$,!/,(!3(#!C.m3.Q#!0*6.$.(/*#!6*A*,%4'*/#!n
3(! -.$/.$! ,\,>! ,! C.%,! #X3%! m3.! /3+$#! A3! (#$*X! F! 6$.(-.n>! .A! #%',! m3.! C$,2,/#!
A.(-*N*.(-,A!0.!$.C3'(#(/*#!,!$.-$,/.A,?!L#%.A!A.(-*N*.(-,A!C3.0.(!D#+.$!-.(*0,!3(!
2#%,$!#/.C-#+%.!.(!,-$#A!dC,/#A!#%!0.6.(0.$!(3.A-$#!C.m3.Q#!-$*+3!/,(-$#!%#A!+.A-*#A!
,! %,A! 2./*(,A?! E.$,! .(! (3.A-$#! dC,/#! .A-,A! A.(-*N*.(-,A! A,(! C.%*'$,A,A! F!
#(-*/3#0,A?!
I#!%%.'#0,!.%!N,N.(-,!0.!A.(-*$!$.AC.-,!F!$.2.$.(/*#!(,!A,%#N.(-.!D#/*#!%,A!A.$.A!
D3N#(,A>! A*(,! -#N+*d(! D#/*#! -,0#A! %#A! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#o! .%! N*AN,! $.AC.-,! m3.!
N,A-$#$5#N,A! D#/*#! 3(#! ,+$#! N#.A-$#! 0.! %#! .A/3%-3$#! ,! D#/*#! 3(#! Nhm3*(#!
N#$#2*%%,A#N.(-.! -.$N*(#0#?! 1.A0.! %3.',>! .A-,! (,! A*'(*6*/#! m3.! 0.+#N,A!
#+#(0,(#$! %,A! *NC.$#-*2,A! 0.! (3.A-$#! C$,C*#! A3C.$2*2.(/*#?! 9%! $.AC.-,! D#/*#! .%!
+#/*%,!0.%!-d-#(,A!(,!%%.'#$h!D#A-#!.%!.B-$.N,!0.!,6$./.$!(3.A-$,!/3.$C,!/,N,!N.0*,!
0.! /3%-*2,?! E.$,>! #%! N*AN,! -*.NC,>! C,0.N,A! $./,$0#$! m3.! #m35! -.(.N,A! 3(!
,$'#(*AN,! /,(! 3(#! +*,m35N*/#! m3.! A.! $.N,(-#! N3/D,! NhA! #%%h! 0.%! C#A#0,! 0.!
(3.A-$,! C%#(.-#?! 9%! +#/*%,! 0.%! -d-#(,A! .A-h! *(-,B*/#0,! C,$! .%! ,B5'.(,! N,%./3%#$>! .%!
m3.!(,A,-$,A!$.AC*$#N,A!-#(!%*+$.N.(-.?!9%!+#/*%,!0.%!-d-#(,A>!C.$,!(,!(,A,-$,A>!A.!
D#%%#$5#! /,N,! C.X! .(! .%! #'3#! .(! #m3.%%#! #-N4A6.$#! $*/#! .(! D*0$4'.(,! F! %*+$.! 0.!
,B5'.(,!0.!%#!C$*N*-*2#!L*.$$#?!
9%! $.AC.-,! F! $.2.$.(/*#! D#/*#! -,0#! 6,$N#! 0.! 2*0#! .A! 6#/-,$! *NC,$-#(-5A*N,! .(! 3(#A!
/3#(-#A!$.%*'*,(.A!0.%!C%#(.-#!L*.$$#>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!.(-$.!%,A!jainos!0.!%#!:(0*#?!J!#%',!
m3.!A.!#C$,B*N#!N3/D,!#!.A-#!*0.#!.A!$.AC,(A#+%.!0.!2.'.-#$*#(*AN,>!#%!N.(,A!.(!
%#A!N.(-.A!0.!N3/D,A!C$#/-*/#(-.A!0.!.A-#!0*.-#!$.C$.A*2#?!E.$,>!kC,$!m3d!D#!0.!A.$!
N.\,$!N#-#$!C%#(-#A!m3.!#(*N#%.Al!
c,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! A4%,! C3.0.(! A,+$.2*2*$! N#-#(0,! ,-$,A! ,$'#(*AN,A?! E.$,!
C,0.N,A! $.#%*X#$! 3(#! /,NC.(A#/*4(! ./,%4'*/#! /3%-*2#(0,! ,-$,A! ,$'#(*AN,Ao!
.A-*N3%#(0,! %#! C%#(-#/*4(! 0.! +,Am3.A>! *NC*0*.(0,! %#! N#-#(X#! #%! C,$! N#F,$! 0.!
,$'#(*AN,A!/,N,!%#A!+#%%.(#A!F!6,/#A>!,$'#(*AN,A!m3.!C3.0.(!-.(.$!2#%,$!/,N.$/*#%!
,! *(03A-$*#%>! /,N,! #A*N*AN,! 0./%#$#(0,! 63.$#! 0.! %#! %.F! %#! /#X#! *(\3A-*6*/#0#>! F!
D#/*.(0,! m3.! .%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! A.#! NhA! #'$#0#+%.! C#$#! -,0,A! A3A!
D#+*-#(-.A?!
E3.0.!D#+.$!3(!N,N.(-,>!/,N,!.BC,(',!.(!%#!-.$/.$#!C#$-.!0.!.A-.!%*+$,>!.(!.%!m3.!
.(-$.N,A! .(! /,(-#/-,! /,(! ,-$,A! A.$.A! *(-.%*'.(-.A! .(! 3(! C%#(.-#! 0.! #%'3(#! %.\#(#!
.A-$.%%#>! /,(! A.$.A! m3.! /3.(-#(! /,(! N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! 0.! .2,%3/*4(!
/,NC%.-#N.(-.!*(0.C.(0*.(-.>!A.$.A!m3.!.A!C$,+#+%.!A.!C#$.X/#(!C,/,!#!(,A,-$,A>!
#3(m3.!C3.0#(!C.(A#$!0.!6,$N#!C#$./*0#?!9A!*NC,$-#(-.!m3.!.B-.(0#N,A!(3.A-$,A!
D,$*X,(-.A!0.!*0.(-*6*/#/*4(>!(,!C$./*A#N.(-.!A,+$.!%#A!6,$N#A!0.!2*0#!NhA!A*NC%.A!F!
D3N*%0.A! 0.! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#>! A*(,! -#N+*d(! D#/*#! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#! .B4-*/#A! F!
#2#(X#0#A!m3.!C3.0#(!D#+*-#$!/,(!(,A,-$,A>!.(!(3.A-$#!.(,$N.!'#%#B*#!0.!.A-$.%%#A?!
!
2. El unicornio de Cetus
!
9(!.%!/*.%,>!/3#(0,!.%!#*$.!.A-h!%*NC*,!F!/%#$,>!D#F!3(!-.A-!0.!=,$A/D#/D!m3.!(,A!.A-h!
.AC.$#(0,?! K*%%#$.A! 0.! .A-$.%%#A! +$*%%#(-.A! F! 0d+*%.A>! .(! 0.A%3N+$#0,$#! 2#$*.0#0! 0.!
/,%,$.A>! C#$./.(! /$3X#$! .%! 0,A.%! 0.! %#! (,/D.?! 9%! ,\,>! *$$*-#0,! C,$! #m3.%! A3C3.A-,!
0.A+#$#\3A-.>!+3A/#(0,!,$0.(>!-*.(0.!#!,$'#(*X#$!C#3-#A!,!C#-$,(.A!.(-$.!#%.\#0,A!F!
0*A-*(-,A! C3(-,A! 0.! %3X?! <3.A-$,A! #(-.C#A#0,A! 0.! D#/.! N*%.A! 0.! #Q,A>! m3.! A.!
C#A#+#(!-,0,!.%!-*.NC,!#%!#*$.!%*+$.>!3(!#*$.!C3$,>!.A-30*#$,(!/3*0#0,A#N.(-.!-,0,A!
.A-,A!C#-$,(.A?!@A5!A.!0.A#$$,%%4!-,0#!3(#!$*/#!/*.(/*#!N*-,%4'*/#?!
Z$#(! C#$-.! 0.%! /,(-.(*0,! ,$*'*(#%! 0.! .A-#! N*-,%,'5#! #A-$#%! (,! D#! %%.'#0,! D#A-#!
(,A,-$,A?! 9A! -#(! #(-*'3#>! A.! D#! $.,$0.(#0,! F! $.%#-#0,! -#(-#A! 2./.A>! A,+$.! -,0,!
03$#(-.!%,A!G%-*N,A!N*%%#$.A!0.!#Q,A!C,$!*(0*2*03,A!(,!6#N*%*#$*X#0,A!/,(!.%!#AC./-,!
0.%! /*.%,>! m3.! A*(! 030#! #%'3(#! A.! D#! C.$0*0,! '$#(! C#$-.! 0.! .%%#?! @m35! F! #%%h>! .(!
.B-$#Q,A!%3'#$.A>!#G(!C.$N#(./.(!%,A!./,A!0.!$.%#-,A!/4AN*/,A!A,+$.!%,A!C#-$,(.A!
m3.!C$.A.(-#!.%!/*.%,?!
9(!.%!Libro de los Jueces!6*'3$#!3(!$.%#-,!#/.$/#!0.!3(!%.4(!#-#/#0,!C,$!3(!.(\#N+$.!
0.! #+.\#A>! *(/*0.(-.! #! C$*N.$#! 2*A-#! $#$,! F! C,/,! /,(A./3.(-.?! E.$,! %#! /,(A-.%#/*4(!
0.!Leo>!.(!.%!/*.%,!(,/-3$(,>!A.!D#%%#!\3(-,!#!3(!'$3C,!0.!.A-$.%%#A>!2*A*+%.A!.(!3(#!
(,/D.! /%#$#! /,N,! 3(! 2.%%,A,! $.-#X,! 0.! %3X! %%#N#0,! Praesepe?! E,$! .%! #AC./-,! m3.!
C$.A.(-#>! ,+A.$2#0,! /,(! .%! -.%.A/,C*,>! %,A! #A-$4(,N,A! N,0.$(,A! %.! %%#N#(! fLa
Colmenag?! K.! C$.'3(-,! A*! .(! .%! Libro de los Jueces! (,! (,A! D#+$h(! 0.\#0,! /,N,!
D.$.(/*#!.A#!*N#'.(!0.!Praesepe>!,+-.(*0#!C,$!#%'G(!D,N+$.!0.!2*A-#!.B/.C/*,(#%!
m3.!2*2*.$#!.(!#m3.%%#!dC,/#!N3F!#(-.$*,$!#%!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,!0.%!-.%.A/,C*,?!
"3#(0,!/,(-.NC%,!.%!/*.%,!C,$!%#!(,/D.>!(,!C3.0,!0*A-*('3*$!%#!6*'3$#!,!.%!C.$6*%!0.!3(!
%.4(!.(!%#!/,(A-.%#/*4(!Leo?!R.,!%#!Osa Mayor>!F>!A*!%#!(,/D.!.A!/%#$#>!%#!Osa Menor?!
K.!A*.(-,!C.$0*0,!A*!-$#-,!0.!D#%%#$!3(!/#X#0,$!.(!Orion!,!%#!6*'3$#!0.!3(!C.X!.(!%#!
/,(A-.%#/*4(!0.!Piscis!F>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!N.!$.A3%-#!-,-#%N.(-.!*NC,A*+%.!2.$!%#!6*'3$#!
0.! 3(! #3$*'#! ,! /,/D.$,! .(! Auriga?! c#A! +.A-*#A! N5-*/#A>! C.$A,(#\.A! .! *(A-$3N.(-,A>!
A*-3#0,A!C,$!%,A!D,N+$.A!.(!.%!/*.%,>!A,(!#$+*-$#$*,A!F!(,!.2*0.(-.A?!I#F!#/3.$0,A>!
/,(2.(*,A>!A,+$.!/3h%!.A!.A-#!,!#m3.%%#!/,(A-.%#/*4(>!#/3.$0,A!A#(/*,(#0,A!.(!#Q,A!
$./*.(-.A! C,$! %#! :(-.$(#-*,(#%! @A-$,(,N*/#%! H(*,(>! m3.! -$#X#! %5N*-.A! A.C#$#(0,! 3(#!
/,(A-.%#/*4(!0.!,-$#?!E.$,!.(!.%!/*.%,!D#F!N3F!C,/#A!6*'3$#A!/%#$#A?!
9A-#A!/,(A-.%#/*,(.A>!#3(!/3#(0,!A.!0*+3\#(!.(!0,A!0*N.(A*,(.A>!%#!2.$0#0!.A!m3.!
A,(! -$*0*N.(A*,(#%.A?! H(#! /,(A-.%#/*4(! /,N,>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! Orion! .A-h! 6,$N#0#! C,$!
.A-$.%%#A! +$*%%#(-.A! A*-3#0#A! #! /,(A*0.$#+%.A! 0*A-#(/*#A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! F! .A-$.%%#A! 0.!
N.(,A! %3X! A*-3#0#A! N3/D,! NhA! /.$/#?! &*! 2#$*hA.N,A! (3.A-$#A! C.$AC./-*2#A>! A*!
N,2*dA.N,A! (3.A-$,! C3(-,! 0.! 2*A-#! nC,$! .\.NC%,>! /,(! 3(! 2.D5/3%,! .AC#/*#%!
*(-.$.A-.%#$n>! .%! #AC./-,! 0.%! /*.%,! /#N+*#$5#?! c#A! /,(A-.%#/*,(.A! A.! 0.6,$N#$5#(!
%.(-#N.(-.?!
Z$#/*#A!#!%,A!.A63.$X,A!$.#%*X#0,A!C,$!1#2*0!t#%%#/.!.(!.%!c#+,$#-,$*,!0.!9A-30*,A!
E%#(.-#$*,A!0.!%#!",$(.%%!H(*2.$A*-F>!A.!D#!C,0*0,!C$,'$#N#$!3(#!/,NC3-#0,$#!/,(!%#!
*(6,$N#/*4(!A,+$.!%#A!C,A*/*,(.A!-$*0*N.(A*,(#%.A!0.A0.!%#!L*.$$#!#!/#0#!3(#!0.!%#A!
NhA!+$*%%#(-.A!F!/.$/#(#A!.A-$.%%#A>!*(/%3A,!0.!3(#!m3*(-#!N#'(*-30>!.%!%*N*-#0,!63%',$!
2*A*+%.!C#$#!.%!,\,!0.A(30,!.(!3(#!(,/D.!/%#$#?!"3#(0,!C.0*N,A!#!%#!/,NC3-#0,$#!
m3.!(,A!N3.A-$.!.%!#AC./-,!m3.!C$.A.(-#!.%!/*.%,!2*A-,!0.A0.!%#!L*.$$#>!,+A.$2#N,A!
#%'3(,A!$.A3%-#0,A!$.%#/*,(#0,A!/,(!%#!0.6,$N*0#0!#(-.A!N.(/*,(#0#!.(!%#A!6*'3$#A!
#/,NC#Q#(-.AM! H(#! 0.6,$N#/*4(! C#$#! %#A! /,(A-.%#/*,(.A! 0.%! <,$-.>! /*$/3NC,%#$.A>!
*(/%3F.(0,!%#!Osa Mayor>!%#!Osa Menor>!F!Casiopeao!,-$#!C#$#!%#A!/,(A-.%#/*,(.A!0.%!
&3$>! /*$/3NC,%#$.A>! *(/%3F.(0,! %#! Cruz del Suro! F! ,-$#! C#$#! %#! #NC%*#! '#N#! 0.!
.A-$.%%#A! A*-3#0#A! .(! %#-*-30.A! N.0*#A! *(/%3F.(0,! Orion! F! %#A! /,(A-.%#/*,(.A! 0.%!
Zodaco?! &*! .%! %./-,$! (,! .A! 3(! .A-30*#(-.! #2.X#0,! .(! %#A! /,(A-.%#/*,(.A!
/,(2.(/*,(#%.A>! /$.,! m3.! .BC.$*N.(-#$h! #%'3(#A! 0*6*/3%-#0.A! .(! 0*A-*('3*$!
.A/,$C*,(.A!F!25$'.(.A!.(!.%!/3#0$,!'.(.$#%?!
c3.',! C.0*N,A! #! %#! /,NC3-#0,$#! m3.! (,A! N3.A-$.! .%! /*.%,! 2*A-,! 0.A0.! %#! .A-$.%%#!
NhA! /.$/#(#! #! %#! (3.A-$#>! @%6#! ".(-#3$,>! A*A-.N#! 0.! -$.A! .A-$.%%#A>! A*-3#0,! #! 3(,A!
a>V!#Q,AO%3X!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!9(!63(/*4(!0.!%#!.A/#%#!0.!(3.A-$#!'#%#B*#!R5#!ch/-.#>!dA-#!
.A!3(#!0*A-#(/*#!-#(!/,$-#!m3.!(3.A-$#A!C.$AC./-*2#A!A*'3.(!A*.(0,!.B#/-#N.(-.!%#A!
N*AN#A?!c#!Osa Mayor!A.!C$.A.(-#!*'3#%!m3.!A*!A.!2*.$#!0.A0.!%#!L*.$$#?!"#A*!-,0#A!
%#A! $.A-#(-.A! /,(A-.%#/*,(.A! #C#$./.(! *(2#$*#+%.A?! &*(! .N+#$',>! D#F! 3(#!
A,$C$.(0.(-.! .B/.C/*4(>! F! .A! %#! /,(A-.%#/*4(! Casiopea>! %#! $.*(#! 0.%! #(-*'3,! $.*(,>!
N#0$.! 0.! @(0$4N.0#! F! A3.'$#! 0.! E.$A.,>! m3.! #C#$./.! /,N,! /,(\3(-,! 0.! /*(/,!
.A-$.%%#A!0*AC3.A-#A!.(!6,$N#!0.!t!,!K>!0.C.(0*.(0,>!(#-3$#%N.(-.>!0.!/4N,!D#F#!
'*$#0,!.%!/*.%,?!&*(!.N+#$',>!0.A0.!@%6#!".(-#3$,!A.!0*A-*('3.!3(#!N3.A/#!.B-$#!.(!
%#! Ko! 3(#! A.B-#! .A-$.%%#! #C#$./.! .(! "#A*,C.#>! N3/D,! NhA! +$*%%#(-.! m3.! %#A! ,-$#A!
/*(/,?! 9A#! .A-$.%%#! .A! .%! &,%?! 1.A0.! 3(#! A*-3#/*4(! 2.(-#\,A#! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#! NhA!
/.$/#(#>! (3.A-$,! &,%! .A! C3(-,! $.%#-*2#N.(-.! +$*%%#(-.>! C.$,! C,/,! *(A*(3#(-.! .(! .%!
/*.%,!(,/-3$(,?!<,!D#F!N#(.$#!0.!0*A-*('3*$!N*$#(0,!#!"#A*,C.#!0.A0.!.%!/*.%,!0.!3(!
D*C,-d-*/,!C%#(.-#!0.!@%6#!".(-#3$,!m3.!D#F#!C%#(.-#A!'*$#(0,!#%$.0.0,$!0.%!&,%>!m3.!
.(!.%!-.$/.$,!0.!.A-,A!C%#(.-#A!D#F#!6,$N#A!0.!2*0#>!F!m3.!3(#!0.!.A-#A!6,$N#A!0.!
2*0#!A.!/,(A*0.$.!0,-#0#!0.!'$#(!*(-.%*'.(/*#?!&*!dA-.!.A!#C%*/#+%.!#!%#!A.B-#!.A-$.%%#!
.(!"#A*,C.#>!k(,!C,0$5#!A.$%,!-#N+*d(!#!*((3N.$#+%.A!N*%%,(.A!0.!,-$#A!.A-$.%%#A!.(!
.%!/*.%,!(,/-3$(,l!
H(#!0.!%#A!0,A!.A-$.%%#A!m3.!.%!E$,F./-,!;XN#!.A-30*4!D#/.!3(#!0d/#0#!+3A/#(0,!
C,A*+%.A! *(0*/*,A! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.! 63.! L#3! ".-*>! .(! %#! /,(A-.%#/*4(! 0.!
Cetus!]-#%!F!/,N,!A.!2.!0.A0.!%#!L*.$$#_>!%#!+#%%.(#?!c#!/,NC3-#0,$#!0*+3\4!.%!/*.%,!
/,N,! A*! 63.$#! 2*A-,! 0.A0.! 3(! D*C,-d-*/,! C%#(.-#! 0.! ".-*?! @D,$#! (,A! D#%%#N,A! #! 3(!
C,/,! NhA! 0.! ,(/.! #Q,AO%3X! 0.! 0*A-#(/*#! 0.%! &,%?! c#! C.$AC./-*2#! D#! /#N+*#0,! #%',!
NhA?! I#! 2#$*#0,! %#! $.%#-*2#! ,$*.(-#/*4(! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! F! m3.0#N,A! .(! %*+.$-#0! 0.!
*(2.(-#$!(3.2#A!/,(A-.%#/*,(.A>!f-.A-g!0.!C$,F./-,!CA*/,%4'*/,!C#$#!%,A!/.-*#(,A?!
!
 !
Las constelaciones de la zona septentrional del cielo, vistas desde las cercanas del Sol o de la
Tierra.

!
La misma escena vista desde la estrella ms cercana, Alfa Centauro. La nueva estrella de la
constelacin de Casiopea, cerca de 60 de latitud celeste y 2,5 horas de longitud celeste, es el
Sol.
E.05! #! N*! .AC,A#! c*(0#>! m3.! .A! 3(#! +3.(#! #$-*A-#>! 0*+3\#$#! %#! /,(A-.%#/*4(! 0.! 3(!
Unicornio! .(! .%! /*.%,! /.-*#(,?! J#! D#F! 3(! 3(*/,$(*,! .(! (3.A-$,! /*.%,>! %%#N#0,!
Monoceros>! C.$,! 0.A.#+#! m3.! .A-.! 3(*/,$(*,! 63.A.! N#F,$! F! NhA! .%.'#(-.! nF!
-#N+*d(!%*'.$#N.(-.!0*6.$.(-.!#!%,A!3(*/,$(*,A!-.$$.A-$.A!/,N3(.An>!/,(!A.*A!C#-#A>!
C,$!.\.NC%,>!.(!%3'#$!0.!/3#-$,?!K*!.AC,A#!*(2.(-4!3(#!%*(0#!+.A-*#?!9(!/,(-$#!0.!%,!
m3.! N.! .AC.$#+#>! .A! 0./*$! m3.! .%! #(*N#%! C$.A.(-#$#! -$.A! C#$.A! 0.! C#-#A>! .A-.!
.AC./*#%! 3(*/,$(*,! #C#$./.! '#%,C#(0,! ,$'3%%,A#N.(-.! A,+$.! 0,A! '$3C,A! 0.! -$.A!
C#-#A! /#0#! 3(,?! 1#! %#! *NC$.A*4(! 0.! m3.! .%! #(*N#%! .A-h! $.#%*X#(0,! 3(! 2.$0#0.$,!
'#%,C.?!I#F!3(#!0*N*(3-#!.A-$.%%#!m3.!#C.(#A!A.!2.>!A*-3#0#!.(!.%!C3(-,!0,(0.!A.!
3(.(!%#!/,%#!F!.%!/3.$C,!0.%!3(*/,$(*,?!9A#!.A-$.%%#!-#(!0d+*%!F!-#(!N#%!/,%,/#0#!.A!.%!
&,%?!c,A!/.-*#(,A!C3.0.(!/,(A*0.$#$%#!/,N,!0*2.$-*0#!.AC./3%#/*4(!0.!m3.!3(#!$#X#!
0.! A.$.A! *(-.%*'.(-.A! 2*2.! .(! 3(! C%#(.-#! m3.! '*$#! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#>! m3.! /#A*!
3(.!#%!3(*/,$(*,!/,(!A3!/,%#?!

!
Las estrellas ms brillantes vistas desde la Tierra y el Sol, que no estn cerca de los polos
celestes Norte o Sur.

!
Las mismas estrellas, vistas desde Tau Ceti una de las estrellas ms prximas, como el Sol. En
el cielo de Tau Ceti, el Sol es estrella de cuarta magnitud.
"3#(0,! (,A! N,2.N,A! #! 0*A-#(/*#A! N#F,$.A! 0.%! &,%! m3.! L#3! ".-*! n#! /3#$.(-#! ,!
/*(/3.(-#! #Q,AO%3Xn! .%! &,%! #N*(,$#! -,0#25#! NhA! A3! +$*%%,! D#A-#! A.$! *(2*A*+%.! #%! ,\,!
D3N#(,?! c,A! %#$',A! 2*#\.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! nA*! #%'G(! 05#! %%.'#(! #! $.#%*X#$A.n! (,!
.NC%.#$h(! #%! &,%! /,N,! C3(-,! 0.! $.6.$.(/*#?! <3.A-$#! C,0.$,A#! .A-$.%%#! 0.! %#! /3#%!
0.C.(0.!-,0#!2*0#!A,+$.!%#!L*.$$#>!(3.A-$,!&,%>!m3.!.A!-#(!+$*%%#(-.!m3.!A.!/,$$.!.%!
C.%*'$,!0.!m3.0#$A.!/*.',!A*!A.!%.!/,(-.NC%#! 0*$./-#N.(-.>!(,!A.!2.!.(!#+A,%3-,!#!
3(#! 0*A-#(/*#! 0.! 3(#A! /3#(-#A! 0,/.(#A! 0.! #Q,AO%3X>! 3(#! N*%dA*N#! C#$-.! 0.! %#!
0*A-#(/*#!m3.!D#F!#%!/.(-$,!0.!(3.A-$#!Z#%#B*#?!
!
3. Un mensaje de la Tierra
!

!
La placa a bordo de la nave espacial Pioneer 10.

!
9%! C$*N.$! *(-.(-,! A.$*,! m3.! D*X,! %#! I3N#(*0#0! C,$! /,N3(*/#$A.! /,(! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!-32,!%3'#$!.%!V!0.!N#$X,!0.!8TU`>!/,(!.%!%#(X#N*.(-,!0.%!Pioneer 10!
0.A0.! "#+,! u.((.0F?! 9%! Pioneer 10! 63.! .%! C$*N.$! 2.D5/3%,! .AC#/*#%! m3.! A.! 0*A.Q4!
C#$#! .BC%,$#$! .%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! 0.%! C%#(.-#! PGC*-.$! F>! #(-.A! .(! A3! 2*#\.>! %,A!
#A-.$,*0.A!m3.!D#F!.(-$.!%#A!4$+*-#A!0.!K#$-.!F!PGC*-.$?!&3!4$+*-#M!(,!A36$*4!-$#A-,$(,!
#%'3(,! C,$! C#$-.! 0.! 3(! #A-.$,*0.! .$$#(-.o! .%! 6#/-,$! A.'3$*0#0! A.! /#%/3%4! .(! %#!
C$,C,$/*4(!0.!`7!#!8?!&.!#C$,B*N4!#!PGC*-.$!.%!05#!V!0.!0*/*.N+$.!0.!8TUV>!F!.(!.A.!
N,N.(-,! A36$*4! 3(#! #/.%.$#/*4(! C,$! %#! '$#2.0#0! 0.! PGC*-.$! C#$#! /,(2.$-*$A.! .(! .%!
C$*N.$! ,+\.-,! 2,%#0,$! /,(A-$3*0,! C,$! .%! D,N+$.! m3.! #+#(0,(#+#! .%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$?!
&3!2.%,/*0#0!0.!0.AC.'3.!.A!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!0.!8V!qNvA?!
9%! Pioneer 10! .A! -#N+*d(! .%! ,+\.-,! NhA! 2.%,X! %#(X#0,! D#A-#! %#! 6./D#! C,$! %#!
I3N#(*0#0?!E.$,!.%!.AC#/*,!.A-h!N3F!2#/5,!F!%#A!0*A-#(/*#A!.(-$.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!A,(!
.(,$N.A?!9(!%,A!C$4B*N,A!0*.X!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A>!.%!Pioneer 10!(,!C.(.-$#$h!.(!
.%!A*A-.N#!C%#(.-#$*,!0.!(*('3(#!,-$#!.A-$.%%#>!#3(!A3C,(*.(0,!m3.!-,0#A!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!
0.! %#! Z#%#B*#! /3.(-.(! /,(! -#%.A! A*A-.N#A! C%#(.-#$*,A?! c#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! (./.A*-#$h!
3(,A! W7?777! #Q,A! C#$#! $./,$$.$! %#! 0*A-#(/*#! m3.! D#F! #! %#! .A-$.%%#! NhA! C$4B*N#!
A*-3#0#!#!a>V!#Q,AO%3X!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!
E.$,! .%! Pioneer 10! (,! D#! A*0,! 0*$*'*0,! D#/*#! %#A! C$,B*N*0#0.A! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#! NhA!
/.$/#(#?!9(!%3'#$!0.!.A-,>!2*#\#$h!D#/*#!3(!C3(-,!A*-3#0,!.(!%#!.A6.$#!/.%.A-.!/.$/#!
0.%!%5N*-.!0.!%#A!/,(A-.%#/*,(.A!0.!Tauro!F!Orion>!0,(0.!(,!D#F!,+\.-,A!/.$/#(,A?!
9A! C,A*+%.! m3.! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! A.! .(/3.(-$.! /,(! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!
A*.NC$.!F!/3#(0,!0*/D#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!C,A.#!'$#(!/#C#/*0#0!0.!23.%,A!*(-.$.A-.%#$.A!F!
C3.0#!*(-.$/.C-#$!A.N.\#(-.A!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A!.(!%#A!m3.!*NC.$#!.%!A*%.(/*,?!
c#!/,%,/#/*4(!0.!3(!N.(A#\.!#!+,$0,!0.%!Pioneer 10!.A!#%',!A*N*%#$!#!%#!+,-.%%#!m3.!
%#(X#! #%! ,/d#(,! .%! N#$*(.$,! m3.! D#! (#36$#'#0,>! +,-.%%#! /,(! 3(! N.(A#\.! .(! A3!
*(-.$*,$>!/,(!%#!.AC.$#(X#!0.!m3.!%%.'3.!#!N#(,A!0.!#%'3*.(?!E.$,!.%!,/d#(,!.AC#/*#%!
.A!N3/D5A*N,!NhA!2#A-,!m3.!/3#%m3*.$!,/d#(,!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!
"3#(0,! N.! %%#N4! %#! #-.(/*4(! %#! C,A*+*%*0#0! 0.! /,%,/#$! 3(! N.(A#\.! .(! 3(#! f+,-.%%#!
.AC#/*#%g>!N.!C3A.!.(!/,(-#/-,!/,(!%#!,6*/*(#!0.!C$,F./-,A!0.%!Pioneer 10!F!/,(!.%!
/3#$-.%! '.(.$#%! 0.! %#! <@&@! /,(! ,+\.-,! 0.! /,NC$,+#$! A*! .B*A-5#! #%'3(#! C$,+#+*%*0#0!
0.!m3.!N*!A3'.$.(/*#!-32*.$#!#%'G(!./,?!@(-.!N*!A,$C$.A#!F!#%.'$5#>!%#!*0.#!.(/,(-$4!
#C,F,!*(N.0*#-,!.(!-,0,A!%,A!.A/#%,(.A!\.$h$m3*/,A!0.!%#!<@&@>!#!C.A#$!0.!m3.!.$#!
nA.'G(!%#A!(,$N#A!'.(.$#%.An!F#!N3F!-#$0.!C#$#!$.#%*X#$!*(/%3A,!N5(*N,A!/#N+*,A!
.(!%#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%?!13$#(-.!3(#!$.3(*4(!0.!%#!&,/*.0#0!@N.$*/#(#!0.!@A-$,(,N5#!
/.%.+$#0#! .(! &#(! P3#(! 0.! E3.$-,! =*/,>! .(! 0*/*.N+$.! 0.! 8TU8>! 0*A/3-5! .(! C$*2#0,>!
/,(! N*! /,%.'#! .%! C$,6.A,$! p$#(q! 1$#q.>! -#N+*d(! 0.! ",$(.%%>! m3d! 6,$N#! C,0$5#(!
#0,C-#$!%,A!C,A*+%.A!N.(A#\.A!m3.!/,%,/#$5#N,A!#!+,$0,?!@%!/#+,!0.!3(#A!/3#(-#A!
D,$#A!0./*0*N,A!#!-5-3%,!0.!C$3.+#>!/3h%!A.$5#!.%!/,(-.(*0,!0.%!N.(A#\.?!c3.',>!%#A!
6*'3$#A! D3N#(#A! A.! #Q#0*.$,(! N.0*#(-.! .%! -$#+#\,! C.$A,(#%! 0.! N*! .AC,A#O#$-*A-#>!
c*(0#! &#%XN#(! &#'#(?! &*(! .N+#$',>! (,! /$..N,A! m3.! A.#! .%! N.(A#\.! NhA! 4C-*N,!
m3.!A.!C3.0#!/,(/.+*$!C#$#!-#%!C$,C4A*-,M!A,%#N.(-.!0*AC,(5#N,A!0.!-$.A!A.N#(#A!
0.!C%#X,!C#$#!%#!C$.A.(-#/*4(!0.!%#!*0.#>!0*+3\,!F!0*A.Q,!0.%!N.(A#\.>!A3!#C$,+#/*4(!
C,$!%#!<@&@!F!%#!'$#+#/*4(!0.!%#!C%#/#!6*(#%?!9(!8TUV>!F#!A.!D#!%#(X#0,!#%!.AC#/*,!
3(#!C%#/#!0.!*0.(-*6*/#/*4(!.(!.%!Pioneer 11>!.(!3(#!N*A*4(!A*N*%#$?!
&.! -$#-#! 0.! 3(#! C%#(/D#! 0.! 8b! B! `V! /N>! 0.! #%3N*(*,! F! ,$,! #(,0*X#0,>! A3\.-#! #! %,A!
C3(-#%.A!m3.!A,C,$-#(!%#!#(-.(#!0.%!Pioneer 10?!9%!5(0*/.!0.!0.A'#A-.!m3.!A.!C3.0.!
.AC.$#$! .(! .%! .AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$! .A! A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! C.m3.Q,! /,N,! C#$#! m3.! .A-.!
N.(A#\.! C3.0#! C.$N#(./.$! *(-#/-,! 03$#(-.! /.(-.(#$.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A>! F!
C$,+#+%.N.(-.>! C,$! 3(! C.$5,0,! 0.! -*.NC,! N3/D,! N#F,$?! 1.! #m35! m3.! dA-.! A.#! .%!
#$-.6#/-,!/,(A-$3*0,!C,$!%#!I3N#(*0#0!/,(!3(#!NhA!%#$'#!.AC.$#(X#!0.!2*0#?!
9%! N.(A#\.! *(-.(-#! /,N3(*/#$! /,(! %,A! %,/#%.A>! N#(*6.A-#$! dC,/#! F! #%',! A,+$.! %#!
(#-3$#%.X#!0.!%,A!/,(A-$3/-,$.A!0.!%#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%?!9A-h!.A/$*-,!.(!.%!G(*/,!%.('3#\.!
m3.! /,NC#$-*N,A! /,(! %,A! 0.A-*(#-#$*,AM! %#! /*.(/*#?! 9(! %#! C#$-.! A3C.$*,$! *Xm3*.$0#!
#C#$./.! 3(#! $.C$.A.(-#/*4(! .Am3.Nh-*/#! 0.! %#! -$#(A*/*4(! .(-$.! '*$,A! 0.! .%./-$,(.A!
0.! C$,-,(.A! C#$#%.%,A! F! #(-*C#$#%.%,A! 0.%! h-,N,! 0.! D*0$4'.(,! (.3-$,?! )#\,! .A-#!
$.C$.A.(-#/*4(! .A-h! .%! (GN.$,! +*(#$*,! 8?! L#%.A! -$#(A*/*,(.A! 0.! D*0$4'.(,! .A-h(!
#/,NC#Q#0#A!C,$!%#!.N*A*4(!0.!3(!6,-4(!.(!$#0*,6$./3.(/*#!0.!3(#!%,('*-30!0.!,(0#!
0.!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!`8!/N!F!3(#!6$./3.(/*#!0.!3(,A!8?a`7!N.'#D.$-X?!@A5>!D#F!3(#!
0*A-#(/*#! /#$#/-.$5A-*/#! F! 3(! -*.NC,! /#$#/-.$5A-*/,! #A,/*#0,A! #! %#! -$#(A*/*4(?! E3.A-,!
m3.!.%!D*0$4'.(,!.A!.%!h-,N,!NhA!#+3(0#(-.!.(!%#!Z#%#B*#>!F!/,N,!%#!65A*/#!.A!*'3#%!
.(! -,0#! %#! Z#%#B*#>! /$..N,A! m3.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! #2#(X#0#! (,! -.(0$h! 0*6*/3%-#0!
#%'3(#! .(! /,NC$.(0.$! .A-#! C#$-.! 0.%! N.(A#\.?! E.$,>! /,N,! /,NC$,+#/*4(>! .(! .%!
N#$'.(!0.$./D,!#C#$./.!.%!(GN.$,!+*(#$*,!W!]8OOO_!.(-$.!0,A!N#$/#A>!*(0*/#(0,!%#!#%O
-3$#! 0.! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! Pioneer 10>! $.C$.A.(-#0#! -$#A! .%! D,N+$.! F! %#! N3\.$?! H(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(! m3.! $./*+#! %#! C%#/#! A*(! 030#! -#N+*d(! $./*+*$h! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%>! F! C,0$h!
0.-.$N*(#$!m3.!%#!0*A-#(/*#!*(0*/#0#!.A!.2*0.(-.N.(-.!/.$/#(#!#!,/D,!2./.A!`8!/N>!
/,(6*$N#(0,!#A5!m3.!.%!A5N+,%,!0.!%#!C#$-.!A3C.$*,$!*Xm3*.$0#!$.C$.A.(-#!%#!-$#(A*/*4(!
0.%!D*0$4'.(,?!
p*'3$#(! NhA! (GN.$,A! +*(#$*,A! .(! .%! 0*+3\,! $#0*#%! m3.! #+#$/#! %#! C#$-.! C$*(/*C#%! 0.%!
0*#'$#N#!.(!.%!/.(-$,!*Xm3*.$0#?!9A-,A!(GN.$,A>!A*!.A-32*.$#(!.A/$*-,A!.(!.%!A*A-.N#!
0./*N#%>!.A-#$5#(!6,$N#0,A!C,$!0*.X!05'*-,A?!1.+.(!$.C$.A.(-#$!0*A-#(/*#A!,!-*.NC,A?!
&*!A,(!0*A-#(/*#A>!.(-,(/.A!A.$h(!0.!3(!,$0.(!2#$*#A!2./.A!8788!/N>!,!3(#A!/3#(-#A!
0,/.(#A! 0.! 2./.A! %#! 0*A-#(/*#! m3.! D#F! .(-$.! %#! L*.$$#! F! %#! c3(#?! 9A! N3F! C$,+#+%.!
m3.! (,A,-$,A! %.A! /,(A*0.$hA.N,A! G-*%.A! C#$#! %#! /,N3(*/#/*4(?! @! /#3A#! 0.%!
N,2*N*.(-,! 0.! %,A! ,+\.-,A! 0.(-$,! 0.%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$>! -#%.A! 0*A-#(/*#A! 2#$5#(! 0.!
N#(.$#!/,(-*(3#!F!/,NC%.\#?!
&*(!.N+#$',>!%,A!/,$$.AC,(0*.(-.A!-*.NC,A!.A-h(!.(!.%!,$0.(!0.!8v87!A.'3(0,A!#!8!
A.'3(0,?!wA-,A!A,(!%,A!C.$5,0,A!/#$#/-.$5A-*/,A!0.!%,A!C3%A#$.A>!63.(-.A!(#-3$#%.A!F!
$.'3%#$.A!0.!.N*A*4(!$#0*,/4AN*/#o!%,A!C3%A#$.A!A,(!.A-$.%%#A!(.3-$4(*/#A!m3.!'*$#(!
$hC*0#N.(-.>! C$,03/*0#A! .(! /#-#A-$46*/#A! .BC%,A*,(.A! .A-.%#$.A! ]2d#A.! .%! /#C5-3%,!
VW_?! "$..N,A! m3.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! /*.(-56*/#N.(-.! A,6*A-*/#0#! (,! -.(0$h! 0*6*/3%-#0!
#%'3(#! .(! /,NC$.(0.$! .%! 0*+3\,! $#0*#%>! #A5! /,N,! %#A! C,A*/*,(.A! F! C.$5,0,A! 0.! 8a!
C3%A#$.A!/,(!$.AC./-,!#%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$!0.!%#(X#N*.(-,?!
E.$,!%,A!C3%A#$.A!A,(!$.%,\.A!/4AN*/,A!m3.!A.!'#A-#(>!C,$!#A5!0./*$%,>!+#\,!5(0*/.A!
+*.(! /,(,/*0,A?! c,A! m3.! $./*+#(! .%! N.(A#\.! 0.+.$h(! C$.'3(-#$A.! #! A5! N*AN,A! (,!
A4%,!04(0.!63.!A*.NC$.!C,A*+%.!2.$!8a!C3%A#$.A!0*AC3.A-,A!.(!C,A*/*4(!-#(!$.%#-*2#>!
A*(,! -#N+*d(! /3h(0,! 63.! C,A*+%.! 2.$%,A?! c#A! $.AC3.A-#A! A,(M! G(*/#N.(-.! 0.A0.! 3(!
2,%3N.(! N3F! C.m3.Q,! 0.! %#! R5#! ch/-.#! F! .(! 3(! A,%,! #Q,! .(! -,0#! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#!
Z#%#B*#?! 1.(-$,! 0.! %,A! %5N*-.A! 0.! .A.! C.m3.Q,! 2,%3N.(! D#F>! m3*Xh>! N*%! .A-$.%%#Ao!
A,%#N.(-.!3(#!0.!.%%#A!D#!0.!-.(.$!.%!,$0.(>!0.!C%#(.-#A!/,(!0*A-#(/*#A!$.%#-*2#A!-#%!
F! /,N,! A.! *(0*/#! .(! .%! 6,(0,! 0.%! 0*#6$#'N#?! @A*N*AN,! A.! N3.A-$#(! %,A! -#N#Q,A!
#C$,B*N#0,A! 0.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! F! %,A! #(*%%,A! 0.! &#-3$(,o! C,$! A3C3.A-,>! 0.! 6,$N#!
.Am3.Nh-*/#?! E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.>! .(! .%! 0*#6$#'N#! A.! N3.A-$#! 3(#! $.C$.A.(-#/*4(!
.Am3.Nh-*/#! 0.! %#! -$#F./-,$*#! *(*/*#%! 0.! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! %#(X#0#! 0.A0.! %#! L*.$$#>!
/,N,! -#N+*d(! A3! C#A,! \3(-,! #! PGC*-.$?! @A5>! .%! N.(A#\.! .AC./*6*/#! 3(#! .A-$.%%#! .(!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! 0,A/*.(-,A! /*(/3.(-#! N*%! N*%%,(.A>! F! 3(! #Q,! ]8TU7_! .(!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!0*.X!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A?!
I#A-#!.A-.!C3(-,>!.%!/,(-.(*0,!0.%!N.(A#\.!0.+.!A.$!A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!/%#$,!C#$#!3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.! #2#(X#0#>! m3.! A*(! 030#! -.(0$h! m3.! .B#N*(#$! -#N+*d(! #!
-,0,! .%! Pioneer 10?! E$,+#+%.N.(-.>! .%! N.(A#\.! .A! N3/D,! N.(,A! /%#$,! C#$#! .%!
D,N+$.!0.!%#!/#%%.>!A*!.A-#!/#%%.!A.!D#%%#!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!]&*(!.N+#$',>!%#A!/,N3(*0#0.A!
/*.(-56*/#A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! (,! D#(! .BC.$*N.(-#0,! (*('3(#! 0*6*/3%-#0! C#$#! 0.A/*6$#$! .%!
N.(A#\.?_!E,0.N,A!#A.'3$#$!m3.!.%!/#A,!A.!C$.A.(-#!#%!$.2dA!.(!/3#(-,!A.!$.6*.$.!#!
%#A!$.C$.A.(-#/*,(.A!0.!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!m3.!#C#$./.(!.(!%#!0.$./D#?!c,A!A.$.A!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A>! m3.! A,(! .%! C$,03/-,! 0.! /*(/,! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! ,! NhA! 0.!
.2,%3/*4(! +*,%4'*/#! *(0.C.(0*.(-.>! C3.0.! m3.! (,! A.! C#$.X/#(! .(! #+A,%3-,! #! %,A!
D3N#(,A>! (*! -#NC,/,! A.#! *'3#%! -,0,! /3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$#! #! %#A! /,(2.(/*,(.A! A,+$.!
C.$AC./-*2#A! F! 0*+3\,! m3.! .B*A-.(! #m35?! 9(! /,(A./3.(/*#>! .A! N3F! C$,+#+%.! m3.! %#!
C#$-.!NhA!N*A-.$*,A#!0.%!N.(A#\.!%#!/,(A-*-3F#(!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A?!
!
4. Un mensaje a la Tierra
!
c#! 0,$#0#! -#$\.-#! 0.! 2*A*-#! ,! A#%30,>! A*-3#0#! #! +,$0,! 0.%! Pioneer 10>! -.(5#! /,N,!
,+\.-*2,! C$*(/*C#%>! A5! #%'3(#! 2.X! A.! 0#+#! -#%! $.N,-#! /,(-*('.(/*#>! 0.! m3.! %,A!
$.C$.A.(-#(-.A! 0.! 3(#! #2#(X#0#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! -.$$.A-$.! C30*.A.(! D#%%#$! ,! $./*+*$! .A-.!
C$*N.$!#$-.6#/-,!0.!%#!I3N#(*0#0!m3.!#+#(0,(#+#!.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$!C,$!2.X!C$*N.$#?!
E.$,! .%! N.(A#\.! -32,! 3(! *NC#/-,! N3/D,! NhA! *(N.0*#-,?! J#! 63.! 0.-#%%#0#N.(-.!
.A-30*#0,>! (,! C,$! A.$.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A>! A*(,! C,$! -.$$.A-$.A?! c,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! 0.!
-,0#! %#! L*.$$#! %,! D#(! .B#N*(#0,>! #C%#30*0,>! /$*-*/#0,>! *(-.$C$.-#0,>! .! *(/%3A,! D#(!
C$,C3.A-,!,-$#!/%#A.!0.!N.(A#\.A?!
c,A!'$h6*/,A!0.%!N.(A#\.!A.!$.C$,03\.$,(!#NC%*#N.(-.!.(!C.$*40*/,A!F!C$,'$#N#A!0.!
-.%.2*A*4(>! .(! $.2*A-#A! %*-.$#$*#A>! '$h6*/#A! F! .(! C3+%*/#/*,(.A! (#/*,(#%.A! 0.! /#$h/-.$!
/*.(-56*/,?! I.N,A! $./*+*0,! /#$-#A! 0.! /*.(-56*/,A>! #N#A! 0.! /#A#>! D*A-,$*#0,$.A! F!
#$-*A-#A! 6.N*(*A-#A! F! D,N,A.B3#%.A>! ,6*/*#%.A! 0.%! 9\d$/*-,! F! 63(/*,(#$*,A! 0.%! 9A-#0,?!
:(/%3A,! $./*+*N,A! 3(#! /#$-#! 0.! 3(! C$,6.A,$! 0.! /,(-$#+#\,?! <3.A-$#! C%#/#! 63.!
$.C$,03/*0#!C,$!3(#!/,NC#Q5#!0.!'$#+#/*4(!C#$#!A3!/,N.$/*#%*X#/*4(>!#A5!/,N,!C,$!
3(! 0*A-$*+3*0,$! 0.! \3.',A! /*.(-56*/,A! C#$#! (*Q,A>! 3(! 6#+$*/#(-.! 0.! -#C*/.$5#A>! 3(#!
6h+$*/#! *-#%*#(#! .AC./*#%*X#0#! .(! %*(',-.A! 0.! C%#-#???! -,0,A>! #! C$,C4A*-,>! A*(! /,(-#$!
C#$#!.%%,!/,(!%#!NhA!N5(*N#!#3-,$*X#/*4(?!
c#!N#F,$!C#$-.!0.!%,A!/,N.(-#$*,A!63.$,(!6#2,$#+%.A!F!#%'3(,A!D#A-#!.(-3A*hA-*/,A?!
c,A! .(,$N.A! -#+%.$,A! 0.! C3+%*/*0#0! /#%%.\.$,A! 0.%! Tribune! 0.! Z*(.+$#>! &3*X#>!
#(3(/*#+#(M!
fMessage de la NASA pour les extraterrestres!g!
<,A!.A/$*+*4!3(!/*.(-56*/,!C#$#!0./*$(,A!m3.!%#!+#A.!/*.(-56*/#!F!A3!0.A/$*C/*4(!0.!%#!
C%#/#! m3.! C3+%*/#N,A! .(! .%! 0*#$*,! #N.$*/#(,! Science! .$#! .%! C$*N.$! 0,/3N.(-,!
/*.(-56*/,! m3.! $.#%N.(-.! %.! D#+5#! D./D,! 0.$$#N#$! %h'$*N#A! 0.! #%.'$5#?! H(!
/,$$.AC,(A#%!.(!@-D.(A>!Z.,$'*#>!.A/$*+.M!
fTodos nos habremos ido antes de que este particularsimo mensaje haya sido
recogido por algn indescriptible ser espacial, pero aun as su misma existencia, la
audacia del sueo, produce inevitablemente en m y en muchos otros, lo s los
sentimientos de un Balboa, un Leeuwenhoek, de un ser humano al sentirse muy
humano.g!
9(!.%!:(A-*-3-,!0.!L./(,%,'5#!0.!"#%*6,$(*#>!0,(0.!%#!*(A/$*C/*4(!.A!3(!N*A-.$*,>!#%'G(!
#$-*A-#! 0.A/,(,/*0,! 0*+3\4! .%! N.(A#\.! A,+$.! .%! N3$,! 0.! 3(! A,%#$>! 0.AC.$-#(0,!
#N*A-,A,A! A#%30,A! C,$! C#$-.! 0.! %,A! C.#-,(.A! F! 2./*(,A! m3.! .AC.$#N,A! A*$2#(! 0.!
N,0.%,!#!%,A!%./-,$.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A?!
!
 !
Graffiti en Caltech: una respuesta a la placa del Pioneer 10. Cortesa de Engineering and
Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California.

E.$,!-#N+*d(!D3+,!/,N.(-#$*,A!/$5-*/,A?!<,!A.!0*$*'5#(!D#/*#!.%!N#C#!C3%A#$>!(G/%.,!
/*.(-56*/,!0.%!N.(A#\.>!A*(,!NhA!+*.(!#!%#!$.C$.A.(-#/*4(!0.%!D,N+$.!F!%#!N3\.$?!c,A!
0*+3\,A!,$*'*(#%.A!0.!.A-#! C#$.\#!63.$,(!D./D,A!C,$!N*!.AC,A#!F!A.!+#A#$,(!.(!%,A!
N,0.%,A!/%hA*/,A!0.!%#!.A/3%-3$#!'$*.'#!F!.(!%,A!0*+3\,A!0.!c.,(#$0,!0#!R*(/*?!c,A!
0,A!A.$.A!(,!#C#$./.(!/,'*0,A!0.!%#!N#(,>!F#!m3.!.A-,!C,0$5#!*(03/*$!#!C.(A#$!#!%,A!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!m3.!%#!C#$.\#!.A!3(!A,%,!,$'#(*AN,!3(*0,!C,$!%#A!F.N#A!0.!%,A!0.0,A!
].(!#3A.(/*#!0.!/#+#%%,A!*(05'.(#A>!-#(-,!%,A!#X-./#A!/,N,!%,A!*(/#A!/,(A*0.$#+#(!
#%! /,(m3*A-#0,$! N,(-#0,! /,N,! 3(! A,%,! #(*N#%>! .AC./*.! 0.! /.(-#3$,! /,(! 0,A!
/#+.X#A_?! 9%! D,N+$.! F! %#! N3\.$! (,! A.! N3.A-$#(! .(! %#! C%#/#! #0,C-#(0,! %#! N*AN#!
C,A-3$#>! 0.! N#(.$#! m3.! C3.0#! $.6%.\#$A.! %#! 6%.B*+*%*0#0! 0.! %,A! N*.N+$,A>! #3(m3.!
.(-.(0.N,A! C.$6./-#N.(-.! m3.! %#A! (,$N#A! 0.! C.$AC./-*2#A! F! 0*+3\,! %*(.#%! 0.! %#!
L*.$$#! (,! A*'(*6*m3.(! (#0#! ,! /#A*! (#0#! C#$#! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! /,(! ,-$#A! (,$N#A!
#$-5A-*/#A?!
c#!N#(,!0.$./D#!0.%!D,N+$.!.A-h!#%X#0#!.(!.%!'.A-,!m3.!3(#!2.X!%.5!.(!3(!%*+$,!0.!
#(-$,C,%,'5#! A.! /,(A*0.$#! /,N,! A*'(,! f3(*2.$A#%g! 0.! +3.(#! 2,%3(-#0>! #3(m3.! -#%!
3(*2.$A#%*0#0! A.#>! C,$! A3C3.A-,>! C,/,! C$,+#+%.?! @%! N.(,A>! .%! A#%30,! N3.A-$#!
(3.A-$,A!C3%'#$.A!,C3.A-,A?!&,%#N.(-.!3(#! 0.!%#A!0,A!C.$A,(#A!C$.A.(-#!%#!N#(,!
#%X#0#! .(! #0.Nh(! 0.! A#%30,>! #! N.(,A! m3.! n-#N+*d(! C,0$5#! 0#$A.! .%! /#A,n! %,A!
$./.C-,$.A!0.03\.$#(!.m3*2,/#0#N.(-.!m3.!3(,!0.!(3.A-$,A!+$#X,A!.A-h!0,+%#0,!0.!
N#(.$#!C.$N#(.(-.!C,$!.%!/,0,?!@%'3(#A!A.Q,$#A!.A/$*+*.$,(!m3.\h(0,A.!0.!m3.!%#!
N3\.$! #C#$./.! #0,C-#(0,! 3(#! #/-*-30! 0.N#A*#0,! C#A*2#?! H(#! 0.! .%%#A! .A/$*+*4!
0*/*.(0,!m3.!-#N+*d(!%.!#'$#0#$5#!A#%30#$!#%!H(*2.$A,!/,(!#N+,A!+$#X,A!.B-.(0*0,A>!
.(!'.A-,!0.!A#%3-#/*4(!N3F!6.N.(*(#?!c#!C$*(/*C#%!/$5-*/#!6.N.(*(#!A.!/.(-$#!A,+$.!.%!
D./D,! 0.! m3.! %#! N3\.$! (,! .A-h! 0*+3\#0#! 0.%! -,0,>! m3.! #C#$./.! A*(! (*('3(#! D3.%%#!
.B-.$*,$! m3.! *(0*m3.! A3! A.B,?! c#! 0./*A*4(! 0.! ,N*-*$! .A-.! 0.-#%%.! .(! .%! 0*#'$#N#! A.!
-,N4>! .(! C#$-.>! 0.+*0,! #! m3.! %#A! .A-$3/-3$#A! '$*.'#A! -#N+*d(! %,! ,N*-.(?! E.$,! D3+,!
,-$#!$#X4(M!(3.A-$,!0.A.,!0.!2.$!.%!N.(A#\.!%#(X#0,!/,(!.%!Pioneer 10?!9A!C$,+#+%.>!
#%! N*$#$! #D,$#! D#/*#! #-$hA>! m3.! .(-,(/.A! \3X'h$#N,A! #! %#A! \.$#$m35#A!
C,%*-*/,/*.(-56*/#A!0.!%#!<@&@!/,N,!N3/D,!NhA!C3$*-#(#A!0.!%,!m3.!.(!$.#%*0#0!A,(?!
9(! %#A! (3N.$,A#A! /,(2.$A#/*,(.A! m3.! A,A-32.! /,(! 0*/D,A! 63(/*,(#$*,A>! 0.A0.! .%!
@0N*(*A-$#0,$! Z.(.$#%! 0.! %#! <@&@! D#A-#! .%! /,(A.\.$,! /*.(-56*/,! 0.%! E$.A*0.(-.>!
C3.0,! #A.'3$#$! m3.! .(! N,N.(-,! #%'3(,! A.! C$,(3(/*4! (*('3(#! '#XN,Q.$5#!
2*/-,$*#(#>!F!m3.!#A*N*AN,>!.(!-,0,!*(A-#(-.>!A.!(,A!/,(/.0*4!'$#(!#F30#!F!.A-5N3%,?!
&*(! .N+#$',>! $.A3%-#! .2*0.(-.! m3.! #%! N.(,A! #%'3(,A! *(0*2*03,A! A.! A*(-*.$,(!
,6.(0*0,A!C,$!%#!$.C$.A.(-#/*4(!D3N#(#!.(!%#!C%#/#?!9%!Sun Times!0.!"D*/#',>!C,$!
.\.NC%,>! C3+%*/4! -$.A! 2.$A*,(.A! 0.! %#! C%#/#! .(! 0*6.$.(-.A! .0*/*,(.A>! -,0#A! .(! .%!
N*AN,!05#M!9(!%#!C$*N.$#!.%!D,N+$.!#C#$./5#!/,NC%.-,o!.(!%#!A.'3(0#!A36$5#!0.!3(#!
.B-$#Q#!F!$.C.(-*(#!#!%#!2.X!m3.!6.#!/#A-$#/*4(o!F!.(!%#!2.$A*4(!6*(#%!nA*(!030#!C#$#!
-$#(m3*%*X#$!#%!C#0$.!0.!6#N*%*#n!#C#$./5#!A*(!(*('G(!A*'(,!A.B3#%!.(!#+A,%3-,?!9A-,!
C3.0.!D#+.$!/,NC%#/*0,!#!3(#!/,$$.AC,(A#%!6.N*(*A-#!m3.!.A/$*+*4!#%!L*N.A!0.!<.r!
J,$q>! 0*/*.(0,! m3.! A.! A.(-5#! -#(! 63$*,A#! C,$! %#! *(/,NC%.-#! $.C$.A.(-#/*4(! 0.! %#!
N3\.$>!m3.!.BC.$*N.(-#+#!.%!*$$.A*A-*+%.!*NC3%A,!0.M!
f...cortar el brazo derecho del hombre!g!
9%!Inquirer!0.!p*%#0.%6*#!C3+%*/4!.(!A3!C$*N.$#!Ch'*(#!3(#!*%3A-$#/*4(!0.!%#!C%#/#!C.$,!
A3C$*N*.(0,!%,A!C.X,(.A!0.!%#!N3\.$!F!.%!#C#$#-,!'.(*-#%!0.%!D,N+$.?!@%!C#$./.$>!.(!
-#%!,/#A*4(>!.%!#F30#(-.!0.%!\.6.!0.!$.0#//*4(!0*\,M!
fUn peridico de familia debe mantener las sanas normas de la comunidad.g!
L,0#! 3(#! /,NC%.-#! N*-,%,'5#! A.! 0.A#$$,%%4! A,+$.! %#! #3A.(/*#! 0.! A*'(,A! 2*A*+%.A!
'.(*-#%.A! 6.N.(*(,A?! p3.! 3(#! /,%3N(#! .A/$*-#! C,$! .%! $.AC.-#0,! .A/$*-,$! /*.(-56*/,!
L,N!;xL,,%.>!0.%!Post!0.!t#AD*('-,(>!%#!m3.!C$*N.$,!*(6,$N4!A,+$.!.%!D./D,!0.!m3.!
%,A! 63(/*,(#$*,A! 0.! %#! <@&@! D#+5#(! /.(A3$#0,! 3(#! ,$*'*(#%! $.C$.A.(-#/*4(! 0.! %#!
N3\.$?! 9A-#! D*A-,$*#! /*$/3%4! C,$! -,0#! %#! (#/*4(! .A/$*-#! C,$! /,%3N(*A-#A! /,N,! @$-!
I,CC.>! P#/q! &-#C%.-,(! P$?>! F! ,-$,A?! &-#C%.-,(! *N#'*(#+#! #! %,A! .(/,%.$*X#0,A! F!
.A/#(0#%*X#0,A!/*30#0#(,A!0.!,-$,!C%#(.-#!$./*+*.(0,!%#!C%#/#>!F!.(!C%.(#!63$*#!0.!
3%-$#\.! N,$#%! /3+$5#(! /,(! /*(-#! #0D.A*2#! %#! $.C$.A.(-#/*4(! C,$(,'$h6*/#! 0.! %,A! C*.A!
0.%!D,N+$.!F!%#!N3\.$?!H(#!/#$-#!0*$*'*0#!#%!Daily News!C$,C,(5#!m3.>!A*!D#+5#!m3.!
/.(A3$#$! #! %#! N3\.$>! .(-,(/.A>! /,(A./3.(-.N.(-.>! 0.+5#(! D#+.$A.! C*(-#0,! 0.! #X3%!
%#A! (#$*/.A! 0.! %,A! 0,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A?! H(#! /#$-#! C3+%*/#0#! .(! %#! $.2*A-#! Playboy>!
/#$-#! N3F! 03$#>! A.! m3.\#+#! 0.! .A-#! *(-$3A*4(! 0.! %#! /.(A3$#! '3+.$(#N.(-#%! .(! %#A!
2*0#A! 0.! %,A! /*30#0#(,A?! E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.>! D3+,! N3/D#A! C3+%*/#/*,(.A! 0.! /*.(/*#O
6*//*4(! m3.! .(! A.(0,A! .0*-,$*#%.A! /.(A3$#$,(! 03$#N.(-.! %#! *(-.$2.(/*4(! 0.%!
Z,+*.$(,?!
c#!A.B3#%*0#0!m3.!C3.0#!D#+.$!.(!.%!N.(A#\.!-#N+*d(!C$,2,/4!#3-d(-*/,A!*(/.(0*,A!
.C*A-,%#$.A?! 9%! Times! 0.! c,A! @('.%.A! C3+%*/4! %#! /#$-#! 0.! 3(! #*$#0,! %./-,$>! m3*.(!
0./5#M!
fDebo decir que me sent sumamente escandalizado por la tremenda exhibicin de
los rganos sexuales masculinos y femeninos que aparecen en la primera pgina del
L*N.A. Seguramente este tipo de explotacin sexual est muy por debajo de las
normas que nuestra comunidad espera del L*N.A.!
gNo es ya suficiente que tengamos que soportar el bombardeo de pornografa con
que nos abruman pelculas y las revistas grficas? No es ya cosa suficientemente
daina, para coronarlo todo, que nuestros propios funcionarios de las organizaciones
espaciales hayan considerado necesario extender esta suciedad incluso ms all de
nuestro Sistema Solar?g!
9A-#!N*A*2#!63.!A.'3*0#>!05#A!NhA!-#$0.>!C,$!,-$#!/#$-#!C3+%*/#0#!.(!.%!TimesM!
fCiertamente, estoy de acuerdo con todas aquellas personas que protestan por el
envo de esos sucios dibujos al espacio. Creo que se deban haber suprimido los
rganos de reproduccin del hombre y de la mujer. Junto a ellos, deba de haberse
dibujado una cigea con un pequeo paquete colgado del pico y descendiendo del
cielo.
fEntonces, si realmente deseamos que nuestros celestiales vecinos sepan en qu
medida hemos progresado en el aspecto intelectual, debamos haber incluido dibujos
de &#(-#!"%#3A, 9#A-.$!)3((F, y L,,-D!p#*$F.g!
9%! Daily News>! 0.! <.r! J,$q>! C3+%*/#+#! 3(! -*-3%#$! C#$#! .%! $.%#-,! A*'3*.(0,! %#A!
/,$$*.(-.A!0.!%#!N,0#!*NC.$#(-.M!
fLos desnudos y los mapas cuentan a otros mundos la historia de la Tierra.g!
@%'3(,A! 0.! %,A! /,$$.AC,(A#%.A! #$'3N.(-#+#(! m3.! %#! 63(/*4(! 0.! %,A! 4$'#(,A!
A.B3#%.A!(,!A.!D#$5#!.(!#+A,%3-,!.2*0.(-.>!#3(!/3#(0,!#C#$./*.A.(!$.C$.A.(-#0,A!
'$h6*/#N.(-.>! F! (,A! .A-*N3%#+#(! #! m3.! 0*+3\hA.N,A! 3(#! A./3.(/*#! 0.! .A/.(#A! .(!
m3.!#C#$./*.$#!%#!/,C3%#/*4(?!<,!D#+5#!.AC#/*,!A36*/*.(-.!C#$#!.A-,!.(!3(#!C%#/#!0.!
-#(! .A/#A#A! 0*N.(A*,(.A?! K.! *N#'*(,! -#N+*d(>! .(! /#A,! 0.! D#+.$A.! D./D,! .A-,>!
/3h%.A!D3+*.$#(!A*0,!%#A!/#$-#A!.(2*#0#A!#%!Times!0.!c,A!y('.%.A?!
H(!#$-5/3%,!C3+%*/#0,!.(!Catholic Review!/$*-*/#+#!%#!C%#/#!C,$m3.M!
f???lo incluye todo excepto Dios???g!
F! A3'.$5#! m3.! .(! %3'#$! 0.! 0*+3\#$! 3(! C#$! 0.! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! D#+$5#! m3.! D#+.$!
.A+,X#0,!3(!C#$!0.!N#(,A!.(%#X#0#A!.(!'.A-,!0.!,$#/*4(?!
;-$,! /,$$.AC,(A#%! A,A-.(5#! m3.! %,A! 0.-#%%.A! 0.! C.$AC./-*2#! $.A3%-#+#(!
*(A3C.$#+%.N.(-.!0*65/*%.A!F!(,A!#(*N#+#!#!m3.!.(2*h$#N,A!#%!.B-.$*,$!%,A!/#0h2.$.A!
/,NC%.-,A!0.!3(!D,N+$.!F!3(#!N3\.$?!&.!/,(A.$2#$5#(!C.$6./-#N.(-.!.(!.%!6$5,!0.%!
.AC#/*,!F!#A5!%,A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!%,A!C,0$5#(!.B#N*(#$!/,(!0.-#%%.?!<#-3$#%N.(-.>!(,A!
(.'#N,A!#!D#/.$%,!#%.'#(0,!3(!.B/.A,!0.!C.A,?!
c#! C$*N.$#! Ch'*(#! 0.%! Barb>! 0.! ).$q.%.F>! "#%*6,$(*#>! #%! C#$./.$! -$#-#(0,! 0.! 0#$! %#!
*NC$.A*4(!0.!m3.!.%!D,N+$.!F!%#!N3\.$!0.%!N.(A#\.!#C#$./5#(!0.N#A*#0,!/,$$./-,A!F!
+*.(!6,$N#0,A>!%,A!$.C$,03\,!/,(!.A-#!6$#A.!#%!C*.M!
fHola! Somos de Orange County.g!
9A-.! /,N.(-#$*,! -,/#+#! 3(! #AC./-,! 0.! %#! $.C$.A.(-#/*4(! 0.%! D,N+$.! F! %#! N3\.$! #%!
m3.! /,(/.05! '$#(! *NC,$-#(/*#?! 9(! %,A! 0*+3\,A! ,$*'*(#%.A! 0.! %,A! m3.! NhA! -#$0.! A.!
D*/*.$,(! %,A! '$#+#0,A>! $.#%*X#N,A! 3(! '$#(! .A63.$X,! C#$#! /,(A.'3*$! m3.! -#(-,! .%!
D,N+$.! /,N,! %#! N3\.$! -32*.$#(! '$#(! #%/#(/.! $#/*#%?! @! %#! N3\.$! A.! %.! 0*,! #AC./-,!
65A*/,! #'$#0#+%.>! F! .(! /*.$-#! 6,$N#! #A*h-*/,>! #3(m3.! C#$/*#%N.(-.?! @%! D,N+$.! A.! %.!
#-$*+3F4!(#$*X!#(/D#>!%#+*,A!'$3.A,A!F!/,$-.!0.!C.%,!f#6$,g?!9(!#N+,A!A.$.A!-#N+*d(!
.A-#+#(!C$.A.(-.A!%,A!/#$#/-.$5A-*/,A!$#A',A!/#3/hA*/,A?!9AC.$h+#N,A!$.C$.A.(-#$>!
#%! N.(,A>! -$.A! 0.! %#A! C$*(/*C#%.A! $#X#A! D3N#(#A?! 9(! .%! '$#+#0,! 6*(#%! A,+$.2*2*.$,(!
%,A!%#+*,A>!%#!(#$*X!F!.%!#AC./-,!#'$#0#+%.!.(!'.(.$#%>!C.$,>!/,N,!%,A!/#+.%%,A!0.!%#!
N3\.$!A4%,!.A-h(!0*+3\#0,A!.(!/,(-,$(,>!#!N3/D,A!%.A!C#$./*4!$3+*#>!0.A-$3F.(0,!#A5!
%#! C,A*+*%*0#0! 0.! 3(#! A*'(*6*/#-*2#! /,(-$*+3/*4(! 0.! '.(.A! #A*h-*/,A?! L#N+*d(>! F! .(!
#%'G(! N,N.(-,! 0.! %#! -$#(A/$*C/*4(! 0.%! 0*+3\,! ,$*'*(#%! #%! '$#+#0,! 6*(#%>! .%?! #AC./-,!
f#6$,g! A.! /,(2*$-*4! .(! 3(! /,$-.! 0.! C.%,! 0#0,! #%! D,N+$.! m3.! #C#$./5#! /,(! /#+.%%,!
$*X#0,>!/,$-,>!/,(!#AC./-,!N3F!N.0*-.$$h(.,?!&*(!.N+#$',>!.%!D,N+$.!F!%#!N3\.$!0.!
%#!C%#/#!A,(>!.(!'$#(!N.0*0#>!$.C$.A.(-#(-.A!0.!%,A!A.B,A!F!$#X#A!D3N#(#A?!
9%! C$,6.A,$! 9?! Z,N+$*/D>! 0*$./-,$! 0.%! t#$+3$'! :(A-*-3-.>! 6#N,A#! .A/3.%#! 0.! #$-.! 0.!
c,(0$.A>! /$*-*/#! %#! C%#/#! .(! .%! Scientific American?! &.! C$.'3(-#+#! /4N,! .A! C,A*+%.!
m3.!A.!.AC.$.!m3.!%#!C%#/#!C3.0#!A.$!2*A*+%.!#!3(!,$'#(*AN,!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!m3.!m3*Xh!
(,! D#F#! 0.A#$$,%%#0,! .%! A.(-*0,! 0.! %#! 2*A-#! .(! %,('*-30.A! 0.! ,(0#! 2*A*+%.A?! c#!
$.AC3.A-#! A.! 0.$*2#! A*NC%.N.(-.! 0.! %#A! %.F.A! 65A*/#A?! c#A! #-N4A6.$#A! C%#(.-#$*#A!
#+A,$+.(! %#! %3X! 0.%! /.$/#(,! A,%! ,! A,%.A! 0.+*0,! #! -$.A! C$,/.A,A! N,%./3%#$.A?! 9%!
C$*N.$,! .A! 3(! /#N+*,! .(! %#! .(.$'5#! 0.! %,A! .%./-$,(.A! *(0*2*03#%.A! #0D.$*0,A! #! %,A!
h-,N,A?! 9A-#A! -$#(A*/*,(.A! A.! 0#(! .(! %#A! X,(#A! 3%-$#2*,%.-#>! $#F,A! z! F! '#NN#! 0.%!
.AC./-$,! F! -*.(0.(! #! /,(2.$-*$! .(! ,C#/#A! %#A! #-N4A6.$#A! C%#(.-#$*#A! .(! .A-#A!
%,('*-30.A! 0.! ,(0#?! 9%! A.'3(0,! A.! -$#-#! 0.! -$#(A*/*,(.A! 2*+$#-,$*#A! m3.! ,/3$$.(!
/3#(0,!0,A!h-,N,A!.(!3(#!N,%d/3%#!0.-.$N*(#0#!,A/*%#(!.(-$.!A5?!L#%.A!-$#(A*/*,(.A!
-*.(0.(! #! D#/.$! m3.! %#A! #-N4A6.$#A! C%#(.-#$*#A! A.#(! ,C#/#A! .(! %#! /.$/#(#! X,(#!
*(6$#$$,\#! 0.%! .AC./-$,?! 9(! -.$/.$! %3'#$>! %#A! N,%d/3%#A! A36$.(! /#N+*,A! '*$#-,$*,A!
0.+*0,A! #! %#! %*+$.! $,-#/*4(! 0.! %#! N,%d/3%#?! L#%.A! -$#(A*/*,(.A! -*.(0.(! #! #+A,$+.$! %#!
C#$-.!*(6$#$$,\#!NhA!#%.\#0#?!",N,!$.A3%-#0,>!.(!'.(.$#%>!%#!$#0*#/*4(!0.!%#!/.$/#(#!
.A-$.%%#! m3.! C.(.-$#! #! -$#2dA! 0.! 3(#! #-N4A6.$#! C%#(.-#$*#! A.! D#%%#$h! .(! %#A! C#$-.A!
2*A*+%.A!0.%!.AC./-$,>!%#A!C#$-.A!m3.!(,!A,(!#+A,$+*0#A!C,$!%#!#-N4A6.$#?!
1.! D./D,>! dA-#A! A,(! %#A! C$*(/*C#%.A! f2.(-#(#Ag! m3.! .NC%.#(! %,A! #A-$4(,N,A! C#$#!
*(AC.//*,(#$!.%!H(*2.$A,!0.A0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!E.$,!%#A!%,('*-30.A!0.!,(0#!
0.! $#0*,! A,(! -#(! %#$'#A! m3.! (*('G(! ,$'#(*AN,! 0.! $#X,(#+%.! -#N#Q,! C3.0.!
0.A#$$,%%#$!0*+3\,A!0.!A3A!#%$.0.0,$.A!/,(!f,\,Ag!0.!%,('*-30!0.!,(0#!0.!$#0*,?!E,$!
-#(-,>!.AC.$#N,A!A.!C.$6.//*,(.(!A.(A,$.A!0.!6$./3.(/*#!4C-*/#!.(-$.!,$'#(*AN,A!F!
.(!C%#(.-#A!0.!.A-$.%%#A!.(!-,0#!%#!Z#%#B*#?!
&*(!.N+#$',>!#3(!/3#(0,!*N#'*(.N,A!,$'#(*AN,A!/3F,A!,\,A!63(/*,(.(!+*.(!.(!%#!
X,(#!*(6$#$$,\#!],!.(!%#!$.'*4(!0.!$#F,A!'#NN#_!F!m3.!A.#(!/#C#/.A!0.!*(-.$/.C-#$!#%!
Pioneer 10! .(! .%! .AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! (,! A.#! N3/D,! C.0*$%.A! m3.!
C,A.#(!#$-.6#/-,A!m3.!.B#N*(.(>!.A/30$*Q.(!F!.A-30*.(!%#!C%#/#!.(!6$./3.(/*#A!#!%#A!
/3#%.A!A3A!,\,A!A,(!*(A.(A*+%.A?!
",N,! %#A! %5(.#A! '$#+#0#A! .(! %#! C%#/#! A,(! NhA! ,+A/3$#A! m3.! .%! #%3N*(*,! 0.! ,$,!
#(,0*X#0,!m3.!%#A!$,0.#>!.%!N.(A#\.!0.+.!#C#$./.$!/,NC%.-#N.(-.!2*A*+%.>!*(/%3A,!
.(!%#!X,(#!*(6$#$$,\#?!
Z,N+$*/D! -#N+*d(! (,A! D#/.! ,+\.-,! 0.! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! $.C$*N.(0#! C,$! C*(-#$! 3(#!
6%./D#!/,N,!A.Q#%!0.!%#!-$#F./-,$*#!#!A.'3*$!C,$!%#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%?!K#(-*.(.!m3.!%#A!
6%./D#A!A.$5#(!A4%,!/,NC$.(A*+%.A!C#$#!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!m3.!A.!D#(!0.A#$$,%%#0,>!/,N,!
%#!(3.A-$#>!C#$-*.(0,!0.!3(#!A,/*.0#0!/#X#0,$#?!E.$,!#m35>!0.!(3.2,>!(,!D#/.!6#%-#!
-$,C.X#$A.! /,(! 3(! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.! 0.N#A*#0,! *(-.%*'.(-.! C#$#! /,NC$.(0.$! .%!
A*'(*6*/#0,! 0.! %#! 6%./D#?! I#F! 3(#! %5(.#! m3.! A.! *(*/*#! .(! .%! -.$/.$! C%#(.-#! 0.! 3(!
A*A-.N#! A,%#$! F! -.$N*(#! .(! #%'G(! %3'#$! 0.%! .AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$>! .(! $.C$.A.(-#/*4(!
.Am3.Nh-*/#! 0.! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%>! m3.! %,A! 0.A/3+$*0,$.A! 0.%! N.(A#\.! -*.(.(! fa
manogM! c#! C%#/#! .A-h! 3(*0#! #! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%?! @! C#$-*$! 0.! .A-,>! F,! NhA! +*.(!
.AC.$#$5#!m3.!C30*.A.(!0*A/3-*$!D#A-#!%%.'#$!#!(3.A-$,A!#(-.C#A#0,A!/#X#0,$.A?!
1.! %#! N*AN#! N#(.$#>! %#A! 0*A-#(/*#A! $.%#-*2#A! 0.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! #%! &,%! N,A-$#0#A!
N.0*#(-.! #(,-#/*4(! +*(#$*#! .(! %#! C#$-.! *(6.$*,$! 0.! %#! C%#/#! *(0*/#(! m3.! (,A,-$,A!
.NC%.#N,A! %#! #$*-Nd-*/#! 0.! +#A.! 87?! @! \3X'#$! C,$! .%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! -.(.N,A! 0*.X!
0.0,A! .(! %,A! C*.A! F! ,-$,A! 0*.X! .(! %#A! N#(,A! n0*+3\#0,A! /,(! #%'G(! /3*0#0,! .(! %#!
C%#/#n>!.AC.$,!m3.!/3#%m3*.$!A.$!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!C,0$h!0.03/*$!m3.!3A#N,A!.%!(GN.$,!
87! /,N,! +#A.! F! m3.! #%'3(,A! 0.! (,A,-$,A! /,(-#N,A! /,(! %,A! 0.0,A?! @A*N*AN,>! F! #!
\3X'#$! C,$! %#! $*'*0.X! 0.! %,A! 0.0,A! 0.! (3.A-$,A! C*.A>! *(/%3A,! C3.0.(! 0.03/*$! m3.!
C$,/.0.N,A!0.!#(-.C#A#0,A!#$+4$.,A?!
I#F!,-$,A!#AC./-,A!N.0*#(-.!%,A!/3#%.A!.%!N.(A#\.!D#!0.N,A-$#0,!A.$!3(#!C$3.+#!
CA*/,%4'*/#! C$,F./-*2#?! H(! D,N+$.! .A/$*+*4! A,+$.! A3! C$.,/3C#/*4(! 0.! m3.! .%!
N.(A#\.! D#F#! /,(0.(#0,! #! -,0#! %#! I3N#(*0#0?! @%.'#+#! m3.! %#A! C.%5/3%#A!
#N.$*/#(#A!A,+$.!%#!&.'3(0#!Z3.$$#!K3(0*#%!N3F!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!D#/.(!C3+%*/*0#0!
N.0*#(-.! %#! -$#(AN*A*4(! -.%.2*A*2#! #%! .AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$>! F! m3.>! #! \3X'#$! C,$! -#%.A!
C$,'$#N#A>! %,A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! 6h/*%N.(-.! C,0$h(! 0.03/*$M! 8_! m3.! %,A! (#X*A! .$#(!
*(0*2*03,A! C.$2.$A,A>! F! `_! m3.! A.! A#%30#+#(! N3-3#N.(-.! /,(! %#! N#(,! .B-.(0*0#!
D#/*#!.%!6$.(-.?!=.C*-,!m3.>!#!\3X'#$!C,$!%#!6,$N#!.(!m3.!.A-h!0*+3\#0,!.%!D,N+$.!0.!
%#!C%#/#!m3.!#%X#!A3!N#(,!0.$./D#!0.!%#!N*AN#!6,$N#!.(!m3.!(3.A-$,!/,$$.AC,(A#%!
/$..!m3.!.$#!.%!A#%30,!(#X*>!.%!D,N+$.!A.!A*.(-.!A3N#N.(-.!C$.,/3C#0,!C,$m3.!%,A!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! A3C,('#(! m3.! .%! +#(0,! C.,$! 63.! .%! m3.! '#(4! %#! &.'3(0#! Z3.$$#!
K3(0*#%! F! m3.! N3F! C$,(-,! .(2*#$h(! #! %#! L*.$$#! 3(#! .BC.0*/*4(! 0.! /#A-*',! C#$#!
#$$.'%#$!N.\,$!%#A!/,A#A?!
&.N.\#(-.!/#$-#>!A*(!030#>!0.A/$*+.!N3/D,!N.\,$!.%!.A-#0,!N.(-#%!0.%!m3.!%#!.A/$*+.!
m3.! .%! 0.! %,A! C$,+#+%.A! 0.A-*(#-#$*,A! 0.%! N.(A#\.?! c#! N#(,! 0.$./D#>! #%X#0#! .(!
'.A-,! 0.! A#%30,>! A.! D#%%#! D*A-4$*/#N.(-.! $.%#/*,(#0#! /,(! .%! N*%*-#$*AN,>! C.$,! .(!
6,$N#! (.'#-*2#M! H(#! N#(,! #%X#0#! F! 2#/5#! A*N+,%*X#! m3.! (,! A.! %%.2#! .(/*N#! #$N#!
#%'3(#?!
E#$#!N5>!#%'3(#A!0.!%#A!NhA!/,(N,2.0,$#A!$.AC3.A-#A!#%!N.(A#\.!A,(!%#A!,+$#A!0.!
#$-.!F!C,.A5#!m3.!N,-*24?!9%!A.Q,$!@*N!K,$D#$0-!.A!C*(-,$!0.!#/3#$.%#A!0.%!0.A*.$-,!F!
A*.$$#A>! m3.! 2*2.! .(! )*AD,C>! "#%*6,$(*#>! 0,(0.>! m3*Xh! (,! C,$! C3$#! /,*(/*0.(/*#>! A.!
.(/3.(-$#!A*-3#0#!%#!'*'#(-.A/#!.A-#/*4(!0.!Z,%0A-,(.!0.%!Pioneer 10?!9%!C,.N#!0.%!
A.Q,$!K,$D#$0-!0./5#M!
!
Pioneer 10: el mensajero de oro

La proa del dragn que cruz los mares del Norte,

buscando la aventura con el clan guerrero;
la galante sirena se inclina bajo la brisa
en barcarolas y mercantes de esbelto casco;
todos los descubridores de desconocidas tierras
se han ido en esta alada edad donde permanece la nada
en busca de extraos tesoros de alguna costa extranjera
abandonando la bien conocida tierra.
Ahora aparece el nuevo mascarn de proa del hombre
enfrentndose a la desconocida inmensidad.
Desnudo, veloz como las estrellas, mucho ms all de la llamada de los aos.
Por parejas, o como extrao solitario en el exterior
ve, diminuto mensajero de tu propia raza,
y toca, si puedes, en puerto de algn lugar lejano.
!
9%!A.Q,$!@$2*0!p?!&C,(+.$'>!0.!).%6#A->!:$%#(0#!0.%!<,$-.>!.A/$*+*4M!
fEl viaje del E*,(..$!87 y los viajes de otros como l producirn un efecto que los
poetas, pintores, y msicos no podrn ignorar por ms tiempo. La existencia de la
idea del E*,(..$!87 es prueba de esto. La misin cientfica, por supuesto, tiene valor
e inters incalculables, pero la idea del viaje posee un valor imaginativo mucho
mayor. El E*,(..$!87 nos acerca ms al da en el que los artistas deben hacer frente
al nuevo viaje del hombre como experiencia y no fantasa.g!
9%!A.Q,$!&C,(+.$'!/,NC3A,!C#$#!(,A,-$,A!,-$,!C,.N#M!
!
!
!
 La nueva Odisea

Lejos, a gran distancia, ms all, carente de vnculos,

descarriado, errante, anhelante
arrastrado por las estrellas el E*,(..$ pasa rpido
solitario en el exterior, a la deriva en el viento solar.

Un hombre, una mujer, hurfanos de calor terrenal,

o esplndidos viajeros con velas de oro,
o como gitanos vagando por viejos senderos estelares,
una caravana en busca de anclaje celestial.

Si en la profundidad del fro espacio interestelar

algunos ojos temerosos espan la vida de esta balsa:
percibirn el corazn que hay dentro de nuestro barco
cuyos latidos sealan los ritmos de paz?
Un nuevo espritu abre nuevas fronteras.
Una Odisea es nuestro hogar; loor a los E*,(..$!
! por aqui
E,$!A3C3.A-,>!.B*A-.!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!m3.!.%!N.(A#\.!6*\#0,!#%!Pioneer 10!n*(2.(-#0,!
C,$! A.$.A! D3N#(,A>! C.$,! 0*$*'*0,! #! /$*#-3$#A! 0.! /%#A.! N3F! 0*6.$.(-.n! C3.0#! A.$>!
0.AC3dA! 0.! -,0,>! 3(! N*A-.$*,! C#$#! .%%#A?! &*(! .N+#$',>! /$..N,A! m3.! (,?! L#N+*d(!
/$..N,A! m3.! .%! N.(A#\.! n.B/.C-,! .%! 0.%! D,N+$.! F! %#! N3\.$n! .A-h! .A/$*-,! .(! 3(!
*0*,N#! 3(*2.$A#%?! c,A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! (,! .(-.(0.$h(! .%! *('%dA>! .%! $3A,>! .%! /D*(,! ,!
.AC.$#(-,>! C.$,! 0.+.(! /,NC#$-*$! /,(! (,A,-$,A! %#! #A-$,(,N5#>! 65A*/#! F! N#-.Nh-*/#A?!
"$.,! 6*$N.N.(-.! m3.! .(-.(0.$h(>! A*(! '$#(! .A63.$X,>! .A-.! N.(A#\.! .A/$*-,! .(! .%!
*0*,N#!'#%hB*/,M!fel cientficog?!
E.$,! C,0.N,A! .m3*2,/#$(,A?! c#! $.2*A-#! 0.! D3N,$! +$*-h(*/#! Punch! $.#%*X4! #%',!
C#$./*0,! #! 3(#! .(/3.A-#! 0.! -,-#%! ffalta de comprensing>! .(/3.A-#>! C,$! 0.NhA>!
A3N#N.(-.!0*2.$-*0#!N.0*#(-.!3(!#$-5/3%,!m3.!-*-3%4M!
fSegn el I.$#%0! L$*+3(. (Pars), solamente uno de cada diez cientficos de la
NASA fue capaz de descifrar el mensaje. As pues, qu oportunidad les queda a los
profanos o extraos?
Punch!C$.A.(-#!3(#!N3.A-$#!0.!%#!,C*(*4(!0.!/3#-$,!$.C$.A.(-#(-.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A?!
E,$!A3C3.A-,>!A.!$.6*.$.(!#!%#!*(-.$C$.-#/*4(!0.%!2.$0#0.$,!N.(A#\.M!
fTodava debo poner de relieve que, en estos momentos, slo hacemos cbalas y
que ninguno de nosotros ha explicado el significado de los puntos que hay a lo largo
de la parte inferior. Se nos ha sugerido que bien podra tratarse del mapa de algn
ferrocarril metropolitano, pero tenemos la impresin de que esto deja de tener en
cuenta la probable posicin marcada por la flecha de algn yate zozobrado o
posiblemente la de una cizaa de huerto. Sin embargo, la inclusin de una rubia
desnuda hace que sea ms que probable que esto sea alguna especie de broma o
chiste enviado por algn atrasado planeta, quizs el que usan los terrestres.g!
fHablando como araa extremadamente delgada que cuenta con catorce patas dijo
una voz desde la parte posterior de @(0$4N.0# 8 he estudiado esta tarjeta de los
terrestres y la considero como un desaire. La caricatura de nuestra especie es a la
vez cruda y absurda, ya que entre otras cosas sugiere que tenemos una pata
derecha ms larga que todo el resto. Adems, el ser geomtrico que est en el fondo
nos vuelve claramente la espalda y uno de los otros dos est sealando con cinco
antenas en gesto francamente srdido. Parece existir poca razn para dudar, al
menos entre nosotras las araas inteligentes, que esta cosa no es ms que una
declaracin de guerra. La ilustracin de la criatura que est en la derecha lanzando
flechas desde el hombro es realmente siniestra, algo que presagia, sin duda alguna,
una larga y amarga lucha con los terrestres.g!
fSea lo que fuere declar el Ser no ha recorrido todo este camino por nada.
Sospecho que trata de decirnos algo. Supongamos, no hagamos ms que suponer y
esto en beneficio de una posible polmica, que esta cosa que tenemos ante nosotros
no es una verdadera criatura en s misma, sino ms bien un artefacto de alguna
clase. Tal teora podra explicar, como principio, que hasta ahora no ha dicho una
sola palabra. No, esta cosa fue enviada probablemente desde algn primitivo
mundo tridimensional y yo dira que quiere ser un dibujo o cdigo con algn
mensaje para nosotros, los Seres. Por supuesto, lo que sea el mensaje depende de
la manera en que se suponga pueda ser. Nada me sorprendera que fuese
chabacano o grosero.g!
fMagnfico! la cosa en Alfa Centauro estaba abrumada por el asombro.
Verdaderamente magnfico! Que sepamos hasta ahora, sta es la primera vez que
llega a nuestro planeta un trabajo original del antiguo terrestre Leonardo da Vinci.
Nuestros telescopios muestran que el estilo es el suyo sin duda alguna. No obstante,
el descubrimiento altera algunos de los datos que poseemos sobre la Tierra. Hasta
ahora no se saba que el clima era lo suficientemente clido como para que los
policas prestaran servicio en su mundo sin ninguna clase de ropas, ni que los
principales miembros de los terrestres funcionaran mediante cuerdas. Esperamos
que pronto nos enven ms tarjetas de saludo.g!
s3*XhA!.%!/,N.(-#$*,!.0*-,$*#%!NhA!/,NC$.(A*+%.!.A!.%!0.%!Times!0.!<.r!J,$qM!
f...esa placa baada en oro constituye para nosotros algo ms que un reto. A pesar
de la misteriosa maestra o poder de las leyes divinas que permiten al hombre lanzar
sus artefactos hacia las estrellas, todava nos sentimos totalmente incapaces para
ordenar nuestros sistemas aqu, en la Tierra. Aun cuando tratamos de hallar una
manera de asegurar que el I,N,! A#C*.(A no liquide su planeta entre llamas
nucleares, se alza un coro de voces que nos dice que el hombre puede suprimir su
Tierra bien mediante el exceso de poblacin, exigiendo demasiado a sus recursos
naturales, o mediante ambas cosas.!
fAs, el artefacto lanzado al espacio es al mismo tiempo un guante de desafo
lanzado a la Tierra: que la placa lleve en su tiempo el mensaje de que el hombre
est todava aqu, no que haya estado aqu.g!
9%!N.(A#\.!m3.!%%.2#+#!#!+,$0,!.%!Pioneer 10!D#!A*0,!3(#!#3-d(-*/#!0*2.$A*4(?!E.$,!
-#N+*d(!D#!A*0,!#%',!NhA!m3.!.A,?!9A!3(#!.AC./*.!0.!C$3.+#!/4AN*/#!=,$A/D#/D>!
.(! %#! /3#%! N3/D#A! C.$A,(#A! 2.(! $.6%.\#0#A! A3A! .AC.$#(X#A! F! -.N,$.A>! A3A!
#AC*$#/*,(.A!F!0.$$,-#A>!%,A!NhA!,+A/3$,A!F!%,A!NhA!%3N*(,A,A!#AC./-,A!0.%!.AC5$*-3!
D3N#(,?!
9%!.(25,!0.!-#%!N.(A#\.!(,A!,+%*'#!#!/,(A*0.$#$!/4N,!0.A.#N,A!.A-#$!$.C$.A.(-#0,A!
.(!3(#!$#/*,/*(#/*4(!/4AN*/#?!k"3h%!.A!%#!*N#'.(!0.!%#!I3N#(*0#0!m3.!C,0$5#N,A!
0.A.#$! C$.A.(-#$! #! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! A3C.$*,$! 3+*/#0#! .(! /3#%m3*.$! C3(-,! 0.! %#!
Z#%#B*#l!c#!-$#(AN*A*4(!0.%!N.(A#\.!0.%!Pioneer 10!(,A!.A-*N3%#!#!/,(A*0.$#$(,A!#!
(,A,-$,A!N*AN,A!0.A0.!3(#!C.$AC./-*2#!/4AN*/#?!
9(! N*! ,C*(*4(>! /$.,! m3.! .%! N#F,$! A*'(*6*/#0,! 0.! %#! C%#/#! 0.%! Pioneer 10! (,! .A!
C$./*A#N.(-.!.%!D./D,!0.!.(2*#$!3(!N.(A#\.!#%!.B-.$*,$>!A*(,!NhA!+*.(!.%!0.!m3.!A.!
-$#-#!0.!3(!N.(A#\.!.(2*#0,!#!(,A,-$,A!N*AN,A?!
!
5. Experimentos en utopas
!

!
La bsqueda de utopas de Jon Lomberg.

@%! 2#%,$#$! %#! C$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.! m3.! .B*A-#(! #2#(X#0#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! -./(,%4'*/#A! .(!
/3#%m3*.$! C3(-,! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#>! (,A! .(/,(-$#N,A! /,(! m3.! .%! D./D,! ,! 6#/-,$! NhA!
*NC,$-#(-.!.A!C$./*A#N.(-.!#m3.%!A,+$.!.%!/3#%!N.(,A!A#+.N,AM!.%!-*.NC,!0.!2*0#!
0.! -#%! /*2*%*X#/*4(?! &*! %#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! A.! 0.A-$3F.(! #! A5! N*AN#A! $hC*0#N.(-.! -$#A!
D#+.$! #%/#(X#0,! %#! 6#A.! -./(,%4'*/#>! .(! /3#%m3*.$! N,N.(-,! 0#0,! ]/,N,! #D,$#_!
C3.0.(!.B*A-*$!N3F!C,/#A!/,(!%#A!/3#%.A!.(-$#$!.(!/,(-#/-,?!&*>!C,$!,-$#!C#$-.>!3(#!
C.m3.Q#!C#$-.!0.!.A#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!A#+.(!2*2*$!/,(!#$N#A!0.!0.A-$3//*4(!N#A*2#!F!
.2*-#(! -#(-,! %#A! /#-hA-$,6.A! (#-3$#%.A! /,N,! %#A! #3-,'.(.$#0#A>! .(-,(/.A! C3.0.!
%%.'#$!#!A.$!N3F!'$#(0.!.%!(GN.$,!0.!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!/,(!%#A!m3.!C,0.$!/,N3(*/#$(,A!
.(!/3#%m3*.$!N,N.(-,?!
9A-#!.2#%3#/*4(!,>!NhA!+*.(>!A*NC%.!$#X,(#N*.(-,>!.A!C$./*A#N.(-.!.%!m3.!D#/.!m3.!
(,A!C$.,/3C.!.%!-*.NC,!0.!2*0#!0.!-#%.A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A?!J>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!-,0#25#!D#F!
3(#! $#X4(! #G(! NhA! C,0.$,A#?! 1.+*0,! #! /#3A#A>! .A-#! 2.X! 0.! /#$h/-.$! C.$A,(#%>!
.AC.$#N,A!m3.!.%!-*.NC,!0.!2*0#!0.!(3.A-$#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!A.#!%#$',?!
E$,+#+%.N.(-.! (,! D#F! (*('3(#! dC,/#! .(! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0! m3.! D#F#!
A36$*0,!-#(-#A!2#$*#/*,(.A!F!/#N+*,A!/,N,!.(!%#!C$.A.(-.?!I#/.!0,A/*.(-,A!#Q,A!A.!
.(2*#+#!%#!*(6,$N#/*4(!0.!3(#!/*30#0!#!,-$#!.NC%.#(0,!3(!N.0*,!(,!NhA!$hC*0,!m3.!
.%!A*NC%.!/#+#%%,?!I,F!05#>!-#%!*(6,$N#/*4(!A.!C3.0.!-$#(AN*-*$!C,$!-.%d6,(,>!-.%d'$#6,>!
$#0*,>! ,! -.%.2*A*4(>! #! %#! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.! %#! %3X?! 9(! 0,A/*.(-,A! #Q,A>! %#! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.!
/,N3(*/#/*4(!D#!#3N.(-#0,!N.0*#(-.!3(!6#/-,$!0.!-$.*(-#!N*%%,(.A?!"$..N,A!m3.!(,!
A.!C$,03/*$h!3(!/,$$.AC,(0*.(-.!#2#(/.!63-3$,>!C3.A-,!m3.!%,A!N.(A#\.A!(,!C3.0.(!
.(2*#$A.!/,(!N#F,$!$#C*0.X!m3.!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X?!
I#/.!0,A/*.(-,A!#Q,A!A.!-#$0#+#!-#(-,!.(!*$!0.A0.!c*2.$C,,%!#!c,(0$.A!/,N,!#D,$#!
A.!-#$0#!.(!*$!0.A0.!%#!L*.$$#!#!%#!c3(#?!"#N+*,A!N3F!C#$./*0,A!A.!D#(!0#0,!.(!%,A!
$./3$A,A!.(.$'d-*/,A!#%!#%/#(/.!0.!(3.A-$#!/*2*%*X#/*4(>!.(!%#!/#(-*0#0!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!
m3.! A.! #%N#/.(#! F! C$,/.A#>! .(! %,A! Nd-,0,A! 0.! C$,03//*4(! 0.! #%*N.(-,A! F! A3!
0*A-$*+3/*4(>! .(! %#! A5(-.A*A! 0.! (3.2,A! N#-.$*#%.A>! .(! %#! /,(/.(-$#/*4(! 0.! C,+%#/*4(!
m3.! A.! D#! N,2*0,! 0.A0.! .%! /#NC,! #! %#A! /*30#0.A>! .(! .%! .(,$N.! *(/$.N.(-,! 0.! %#!
C,+%#/*4(>!.(!%#A!N.\,$#A!0.!%#!C$h/-*/#!Nd0*/#!F!.(!.%!.(,$N.!-$#A-,$(,!A,/*#%?!
<3.A-$,A!*(A-*(-,A!F!.N,/*,(.A!A,(!%,A!N*AN,A!0.!(3.A-$,A!#(-.C#A#0,A!F!C$*N*-*2,A!
/#X#0,$.A! 0.! D#/.! 3(! N*%%4(! 0.! #Q,A?! E.$,! (3.A-$#! A,/*.0#0! .A! #A,N+$,A#N.(-.!
0*6.$.(-.! #! %#! 0.! D#/.! 3(! N*%%4(! 0.! #Q,A?! 9(! dC,/#A! 0.! /#N+*,A! %.(-,A>! %,A!
/,(,/*N*.(-,A!F!D#+*%*0#0.A!#C$.(0*0#A!C,$!3(#!'.(.$#/*4(!A,(!3-*%*X#0,A>!C$,+#0,A!
F!#0#C-#0,A>!F!A.!$./*+.(!'3A-,A#N.(-.!/3#(0,!A.!C#A#(!#!%#!'.(.$#/*4(!A*'3*.(-.?!
E.$,!.(!dC,/#A!/,N,!%#!#/-3#%>!/3#(0,!%#!A,/*.0#0!/#N+*#!.B-$#,$0*(#$*#N.(-.!A4%,!
.(!.%!/3$A,!0.!3(#!2*0#!D3N#(#>!%,A!/,(,/*N*.(-,A!C#-.$(#%.A!F#!(,!-*.(.(!2#%*0.X!
#%'3(#! C#$#! %,A! \42.(.A?! 9%! 0.(,N*(#0,! #+*AN,! '.(.$#/*,(#%! (,! .A! NhA! m3.! 3(#!
/,(A./3.(/*#!0.%!5(0*/.!0.!/#N+*,!-./(,%4'*/,!F!A,/*#%?!
:(/%3A,!.(!.%!-$#(A/3$A,!0.!3(#!2*0#!D3N#(#!.%!/#N+*,!.A!-#(!'$#(0.!m3.!N3/D#A!
C.$A,(#A!m3.0#(!#*A%#0#A!0.!A3!C$,C*#!A,/*.0#0?!K#$'#$.-!K.#0!D#!0.A/$*C-,!#!%,A!
#(/*#(,A!0.!D,F!05#!/,N,!*(2,%3(-#$*,A!*(N*'$#(-.A!0.%!C#A#0,!#%!C$.A.(-.?!
c,A! 2*.\,A! A3C3.A-,A! ./,(4N*/,A>! %,A! #(-*'3,A! Nd-,0,A! 0.! 0./*A*4(! .(! /3#(-,!
$.AC./-#!#!%,A!%50.$.A!C,%5-*/,A>!%,A!2.-3A-,A!Nd-,0,A!0.!0*A-$*+3/*4(!0.!$./3$A,A>!%,A!
0.!/,N3(*/#$!*(6,$N#/*4(!0.A0.!.%!Z,+*.$(,!#%!C3.+%,!nF!2*/.2.$A#n>!-,0,A!C3.0.(!
3(#!2.X!D#+.$!A*0,!2h%*0,A>!G-*%.A>!,!#%!N.(,A!#0#C-#+%.A>!C.$,!#/-3#%N.(-.!m3*Xh!F#!
(,! C,A.#(! (*('G(! 2#%,$! 0.! A3C.$2*2.(/*#! .(! #+A,%3-,?! L,0#A! %#A! 2*.\#A! #/-*-30.A!
,C$.A*2#A!F!/D#32*(*A-#A!.(-$.!$#X#A>!.(-$.!A.B,A>!F!.(-$.!'$3C,A!./,(4N*/,A!.A-h(!
/#N+*#(0,!\3A-*6*/#0#N.(-.?!9A-h!$#A'h(0,A.!%#!-.%#!A,/*#%!m3.!/3+$.!#%!N3(0,?!
@%! N*AN,! -*.NC,>! D#F! *(-.$.A.A! /$.#0,A! m3.! A.! ,C,(.(! #%! /#N+*,?! :(/%3F.(! #!
*(0*2*03,A! m3.! .A-h(! .(! .%! C,0.$! F! m3.! -*.(.(! N3/D,! m3.! '#(#$! #! /,$-,! C%#X,!
N#(-.(*.(0,! %,A! #(-*'3,A! Nd-,0,A! F! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#>! #3(! /3#(0,! A3A! D*\,A! -.('#(!
N3/D,!m3.!C.$0.$!#!%#$',!C%#X,?!&,(!*(0*2*03,A!*(/#C#/.A!0.!/#N+*#$!0.!#/-*-30!.(!
A3A! .0#0.A! N.0*#(#A>! #/-*-30! m3.! A.! %.A! *(/3%/4>! (#-3$#%N.(-.>! /3#(0,! .$#(!
\42.(.A?!
c#! A*-3#/*4(! .A! 2.$0#0.$#N.(-.! 0*65/*%?! 9%! 5(0*/.! 0.! /#N+*,! (,! C3.0.! /,(-*(3#$!
*(0.6*(*0#N.(-.?! ",N,! #A5! %,! *(0*/#! .%! .\.NC%,! 0.! %#A! /,N3(*/#/*,(.A>! .A! C$./*A,!
#%/#(X#$! 3(! %5N*-.?! <,! C,0.N,A! /,N3(*/#$(,A! #! N#F,$! 2.%,/*0#0! m3.! %#! %3X?! <,!
C,0.N,A! -.(.$! 3(#! C,+%#/*4(! m3.! A.#! A3C.$*,$! #! %,A! $./3$A,A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! &.#!
/3#%.A! 63.$.(! %#A! A,%3/*,(.A! m3.! A.! %,'$.(>! #! C#$-*$! 0.! #D,$#! -$#(A/3$$*$h(!
/.(-.(#$.A! 0.! #Q,A! A*(! m3.! %#! L*.$$#! .BC.$*N.(-.! '$#(0.A! /#N+*,A! F! -.(A*,(.A!
A,/*#%.A?!&*(!030#!#%/#(X#$.N,A!#%'3(#!A,%3/*4(!#!(3.A-$,A!C$,+%.N#A!#/-3#%.A?!c#!
C$.'3(-#!.AM!km3d!A,%3/*4(l!
9(! .%! -.$$.(,! /*.(-56*/,>! 3(#! A*-3#/*4(! -#(! /,NC%*/#0#! /,N,! dA-#! $.A3%-#! 0*65/*%! 0.!
-$#-#$! -.4$*/#N.(-.?! <,! .(-.(0.N,A! -,0,A! %,A! 6#/-,$.A! m3.! *(6%3F.(! A,+$.! (3.A-$#!
A,/*.0#0! F>! C,$! -#(-,>! (,! C,0.N,A! D#/.$! A.'3$#A! C$.0*//*,(.A! A,+$.! m3d! /#N+*,A!
A,(!0.A.#+%.A?!I#F!0.N#A*#0#A!F!/,NC%.\#A!#//*,(.A!$./5C$,/#A?!@!%#!9/,%,'5#!A.!
%#! D#! %%#N#0,! /*.(/*#! A3+2.$A*2#! C,$m3.>! /#0#! 2.X! m3.! A.! D#/.! 3(! A.$*,! .A63.$X,!
C#$#! /,(A.$2#$! 3(#! /#$#/-.$5A-*/#! 0.%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.>! A.! -$,C*.X#! /,(! .(,$N.!
/#(-*0#0!0.!*(-.$.A.A!/$.#0,A!-#(-,!A,/*#%.A!/,N,!./,(4N*/,A?!c,!N*AN,!A.!C3.0.!
0./*$! 0.! /#0#! 2.X! m3.! *(-.(-#N,A! $.#%*X#$! /#N+*,A! 0.! *NC,$-#(/*#! .(! #%',! m3.! 2#!
N#%o!.%!/#N+*,!#+#$/#!#!-,0#!%#!A,/*.0#0!.(!A3!/,(\3(-,?!9A!0*65/*%!#*A%#$!C.m3.Q,A!
6$#'N.(-,A!0.!%#!A,/*.0#0!F!/#N+*#$%,A!A*(!.\.$/.$!C$,63(0#!*(6%3.(/*#!.(!.%!$.A-,!0.!
%#!A,/*.0#0?!
"3#(0,! %#! -.,$5#! A.! D#/.! *NC,A*+%.! .(! %#! /*.(/*#>! .(-,(/.A! .A! C$./*A,! $./3$$*$! #! %#!
.BC.$*N.(-#/*4(?!9%!.BC.$*N.(-,!.A!%#!C*.0$#!0.!-,m3.!0.!%#!/*.(/*#!A,+$.!%#!m3.!A.!
#A*.(-#(!%#A!-.,$5#A?!9%!.BC.$*N.(-,!.A>!.BC%*/#0,!.(!,-$,A!-d$N*(,A>!3(#!.AC./*.!0.!
G%-*N,! -$*+3(#%! 0.! #C.%#/*4(?! iJ! %,! m3.! A*(! 030#! A.! (./.A*-#! A,(! A,/*.0#0.A!
.BC.$*N.(-#%.Aj!
9B*A-.!3(!+3.(!C$./.0.(-.!+*,%4'*/,!C#$#!.A-#!*0.#?!9(!%#!.2,%3/*4(!0d!%#!2*0#!D#F!
*((3N.$#+%.A!/#A,A!.(!%,A!m3.!3(!,$'#(*AN,!.$#!/%#$#N.(-.!0,N*(#(-.>!#%-#N.(-.!
.AC./*#%*X#0,! F! C.$6./-#N.(-.! #/%*N#-#0,! #! A3! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.?! E.$,! .%! N.0*,!
#N+*.(-.! /#N+*4! F! .%! ,$'#(*AN,! N3$*4?! E,$! .A-#! $#X4(>! %#! <#-3$#%.X#! .NC%.#! %#A!
N3-#/*,(.A! ,! 2#$*#/*,(.A! +$3A/#A?! c#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! .A-#A! N3-#/*,(.A! A,(!
0.%.-d$.#A!,!N,$-#%.A?!c#A!.AC./*.A!m3.!D#(!2#$*#0,!A,(!N.(,A!#0#C-#+%.A!m3.!%,A!
-*C,A!(,$N#%.A?!E.$,!3(#!.(-$.!N*%!,!0.!/#0#!0*.X!N*%>!C,A..!%*'.$#A!2.(-#\#A!A,+$.!
A3A!C#0$.A?!c#A!N3-#/*,(.A!A.!N3%-*C%*/#(!F!.%!,$'#(*AN,!#A5!2#$*#0,!A.!.(/3.(-$#!
F#!N.\,$!#0#C-#0,!m3.!#(-.A?!
"$.,!m3.!%,!m3.!.A-#N,A!(./.A*-#(0,!A,(!%,A!/#N+*,A!,!N3-#/*,(.A!A,/*#%.A?!s3*Xh!
0.+*0,!#!m3.!%#!-$#0*/*4(!0.!%#!/*.(/*#O6*//*4(!#A.'3$#!m3.!%#A!N3-#/*,(.A!A,(!6.#A!F!
,0*,A#A>!A.$5#!N.\,$!.NC%.#$!,-$,!-d$N*(,?!
E.$,!%#!N3-#/*4(!A,/*#%!n3(#!2#$*#/*4(!.(!.%!A*A-.N#!A,/*#%!m3.!A.!C3.0.!N3%-*C%*/#$!
F! m3.! A*! 63(/*,(#! +*.(! C3.0.! A.$! .%! /#N*(,! D#/*#! ,-$,! 63-3$,n! C#$./.! A.$! %#! N.\,$!
6$#A.?! &.$5#! /,(2.(*.(-.! .B#N*(#$! C,$! m3d! #%'3(,A! 0.! (,A,-$,A! /,(A*0.$#N,A!
0*A/3-*+%.!.A-#!6$#A.?!
1.+.$5#N,A!.A-*N3%#$!%#!.BC.$*N.(-#/*4(!A,/*#%>!./,(4N*/#!F!C,%5-*/#>!#!'$#(!.A/#%#>!
.(!-,0,A!%,A!C#5A.A?!&*(!.N+#$',>!#%!C#$./.$>!.A-h!,/3$$*.(0,!%,!/,(-$#$*,?!9(!C#5A.A!
/,N,! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A! F! %#! H(*4(! &,2*d-*/#>! %#! C,%5-*/#! ,6*/*#%! /,(A*A-.!
C$./*A#N.(-.! .(! 0.A#%.(-#$! %#! .BC.$*N.(-#/*4(! C,$m3.>! 0.A0.! %3.',>! .A! *NC,C3%#$!
C#$#! %#! N#F,$5#?! c#! /,(A./3.(/*#! C$h/-*/#! .A! 3(#! 0.A#C$,+#/*4(! 63.$-.N.(-.!
C,C3%#$! 0.! %,A! /#N+*,A! m3.! C3.0#(! A.$! .B-$#,$0*(#$*,A?! c,A! \42.(.A! *0.#%*A-#A!
3$+#(,A! *(N.$A,A! .(! 3(#! /3%-3$#! 0.! %#! 0$,'#>! /,(! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2.A-*$! /,(A*0.$#0#A!
/,N,! '$,-.A/#A! A.'G(! (,$N#A! /,(2.(/*,(#%.A>! F! A*(! (*('G(! /,(,/*N*.(-,! A,+$.!
#'$*/3%-3$#>! (,! .A! C$,+#+%.! m3.! ,+-.('#(! .%! dB*-,! .(! .A-#+%./.$! 3-4C*/#A!
/,N3(*0#0.A! #'$5/,%#A! .(! .%! &30,.A-.! #N.$*/#(,>! *(/%3A,! A*(! D,A-*'#N*.(-,A! ,!
C.$A./3/*,(.A!%,/#%.A?!&*(!.N+#$',>!.A-#A!/,N3(*0#0.A!.BC.$*N.(-#%.A>!.(!-,0,!.%!
N3(0,>! D#(! .A-#0,! F! .A-h(! A3\.-#A! #! %#! D,A-*%*0#0! F! 2*,%.(/*#! 0.! A3A! 2./*(,A! NhA!
/,(2.(/*,(#%.A?!9(!#%'3(,A!/#A,A>!%,A!2*'*%#(-.A!A.!.(/,%.$*X#(!C,$m3.>!.(!.%!6,(0,>!
$./D#X#(!-,0,!/3#(-,!%.A!D#!*(/3%/#0,!%#!'.(.$#/*4(!C$./.0.(-.!/,(!$.AC./-,!#!%,A!
/,(2.(/*,(#%*AN,A?!
E,$! -#(-,>! (,! 0.+.! A,$C$.(0.$(,A! m3.! 6$#/#A.(! %#A! /,N3(*0#0.A! .BC.$*N.(-#%.A?!
L$,C*.X#(! A*.NC$.! /,(! .(,$N.! ,C,A*/*4(?! &4%,! A.! 0#! 3(! C.m3.Q,! (GN.$,! 0.!
N3-#/*,(.A?! E.$,! %#! 2.(-#\#! m3.! -*.(.(! %#A! N3-#/*,(.A! A,/*#%.A! A,+$.! %#A!
N3-#/*,(.A! +*,%4'*/#A! .A! m3.! %,A! *(0*2*03,A! #C$.(0.(o! %,A! C#$-*/*C#(-.A! .(!
6$#/#A#0,A! .BC.$*N.(-,A! /,N3(#%.A! C3.0.(! 2#%,$#$! %#A! $#X,(.A! 0.%! 6$#/#A,! F! .(!
C,A-.$*,$.A!.BC.$*N.(-,A!-$#-#$!0.!.2*-#$!%#A!/#3A#A!0.%!6$#/#A,!*(*/*#%?!
<,!A4%,!0.+*.$#(!/,(-#$!/,(!%#!#C$,+#/*4(!C,C3%#$!-#%.A!.BC.$*N.(-,A>!A*(,!-#N+*d(!
/,(! 3(#! #F30#! '3+.$(#N.(-#%! m3.! %,A! #C,F#$#?! c.A! 2,%3(-#$*,A! C#$#! 0*/D,A!
.BC.$*N.(-,A! 3-4C*/,A! n#%! .(6$.(-#$A.! /,(! A*-3#/*,(.A! N3F! .B-$#Q#A! F! D#A-#!
C.%*'$,A#A! .(! +.(.6*/*,! 0.! %#! A,/*.0#0n! /$.,! m3.! D#(! 0.! /,(A*0.$#$A.! /,N,!
D,N+$.A! F! N3\.$.A! 0.! '$#(! 2#%,$>! 0.! 3(! 2#%,$! $.#%N.(-.! .\.NC%#$?! &,(! /,N,! .%!
$,NC.D*.%,A! m3.! A.! #+$.! C#A,! D#/*#! .%! 63-3$,?! H(! 05#! A3$'*$h! 3(#! /,N3(*0#0!
.BC.$*N.(-#%! m3.! 63(/*,(.! N3/D,! NhA! .6*/#XN.(-.! m3.! %#! A,/*.0#0! C,%5'%,-#>!
/,$$.,A#>! F! %%.(#! 0.! C#$/D.A! .(! m3.! .A-#N,A! 2*2*.(0,?! 9(-,(/.A! -.(0$.N,A! #(-.!
(,A,-$,A!3(#!#%-.$(#-*2#!2*#+%.?!
<,! /$.,! m3.! D#F#! (#0*.! D,F! 05#! %,! A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! A#+*,! /,N,! C#$#! C$.0./*$! /3h%!
A.$h!.%!63-3$,!0.!-#%!A,/*.0#0?!E3.0.!m3.!D#F#!N3/D#A!F!0*6.$.(-.A!#%-.$(#-*2#A!C#$#!
/#0#!3(#!0.!.%%#A>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!/,(!NhA!dB*-,!m3.!%#!C.(,A#!F!-$*A-.!2#$*.0#0!m3.!
#/-3#%N.(-.!2*2*N,A?!
H(! C$,+%.N#! 5(-*N#N.(-.! $.%#/*,(#0,! /,(! dA-.! .A! m3.! %#A! A,/*.0#0.A! (,!
,//*0.(-#%.A>! A3+0.A#$$,%%#0#A>! /#$.(-.A! 0.! -,0#! -./(,%,'5#>! 2*.(0,! .%! C,0.$! F! %#!
'$#(! $*m3.X#! N#-.$*#%! 0.! ;//*0.(-.>! .A-h(! D#/*.(0,! .(,$N.A! .A63.$X,A! C,$!
*N*-#$(,A>! #+#(0,(#(0,! #A5! N3/D#A! #(-*'3#A! -$#0*/*,(.A>! F! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#!
$.#%N.(-.!*NC,$-#(-.A?!I,F!05#!A#+.N,A!N3F!+*.(!m3.!#%'3(#A!0.!.A#A!#%-.$(#-*2#A!
m3.! A.! #+#(0,(#(! /,(-*.(.(! .%.N.(-,A! C#$#! %#A! ,-$#A! #%-.$(#-*2#A! m3.! +3A/#N,A?!
1.+.! D#+.$! #%'3(#! N#(.$#! 0.! /,(A.$2#$! %,A! .%.N.(-,A! #0#C-#+%.A! 0.! (3.A-$#A!
A,/*.0#0.A!n0,%,$,A#N.(-.!%,'$#0#A!#!-$#2dA!0.!N*%.(*,A!0.!.2,%3/*4(!A,/*,%4'*/#n>!
N*.(-$#A! m3.>! #%! N*AN,! -*.NC,>! .A! C$./*A,! #/.C-#$! %#! -./(,%,'5#! N,0.$(#?! 9%!
C$,+%.N#!C$*(/*C#%!F!NhA!*(N.0*#-,!.A!.B-.(0.$!%,A!%,'$,A!-./(,%4'*/,A!#!%#!2.X!m3.!
A.!N#(-*.(.!%#!0*2.$A*0#0!/3%-3$#%?!
@%'3(#A!2./.A!A.!.A-*N#!m3.!%#!C$,C*#!-./(,%,'5#!/,(A-*-3F.!3(!C$,+%.N#!.(!A5?!J,!
A,A-.(',!m3.!.%!.$$,$!$.A*0.!.(!.%!N#%!3A,!m3.!D#/.(!0.!%#!-./(,%,'5#!%,A!%50.$.A!0.!
%#A! A,/*.0#0.A! .%.'*0,A! C,$! Nd-,0,A! 0.N,/$h-*/,A! ,>! A*NC%.N.(-.>! #! 0.0,>! /,N,!
D,F! 05#! A.! 0*/.?! &*! -32*dA.N,A! m3.! 2,%2.$! #! C$*N*-*2#A! -.(-#-*2#A! #'$5/,%#A>! /,N,!
#%'3(,A!A3'*.$.(>!2*d(0,(,A!,+%*'#0,A!#!#+#(0,(#$!%#!-./(,%,'5#!#'$5/,%#!N,0.$(#>!
/,(0.(#$5#N,A!#!N3.$-.!#!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!C.$A,(#A?!9%!C$,+%.N#!.A-h!.(!
3A#$!C$30.(-.N.(-.!%#!-./(,%,'5#?!
E,$! $#X,(.A! N3F! A*N*%#$.A>! %#! -./(,%,'5#! 0.+.! A.$! 3(! 6#/-,$! C$*(/*C#%5A*N,! .(!
A,/*.0#0.A! C%#(.-#$*#A! NhA! #(-*'3#A! m3.! %#! (3.A-$#?! ",(A*0.$,! C$,+#+%.! m3.! .A#A!
A,/*.0#0.A! m3.! A,(! *(6*(*-#N.(-.! NhA! A#+*#A! F! +.(*'(#A! m3.! %#! (3.A-$#>! A*(!
.N+#$',>!',X#(!0.!3(#!-./(,%,'5#!N3/D,!NhA!#2#(X#0#!m3.!%#!-.$$.A-$.?!
<,A! .(/,(-$#N,A! .(! 3(! N,N.(-,! 0.! -$#(A*/*4(! .(! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! 2*0#! A,+$.! %#!
L*.$$#?!<,!D#F!*(A-#(-.A!NhA!C.%*'$,A,A>!C.$,!-#N+*d(!.A!2.$0#0!m3.!(*!D3+,!(*!D#F!
N,N.(-,A!-#(!C$,N.-.0,$.A!C#$#!.%!63-3$,!0.!%#!2*0#!.(!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#?!
!
6. Chauvinismo
!
9(!.%!6,(0,>!%,A!/D*A-.A!A,(!3(#!6,$N#!NhA!0.!%3/D#$!/,(-$#!%#!#(A*.0#0?!I#F!3(!-*C,!
0.!/D*A-.A!m3.!A.!$.%#/*,(#!5(-*N#N.(-.!/,(!%#!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.?!9(!3(,!0.!.%%,A>!
3(!2*A*-#(-.!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!m3.!%%.'#!#!%#!L*.$$#!A.!#/.$/#!#!3(#!+,N+#!0.!'#A,%*(#!,!
3(#!Nhm3*(#!0.!2.(0.$!/D*/%.!n.%!.6./-,!0.C.(0.!0.!m3*d(!%,A!/3.(-.n!F!C$.'3(-#M!
Qu es lo que est haciendo en un lugar como ste una chica tan bonita como
t?
9(!/3#%m3*.$!,-$#!C#$-.>!%,A!A.$.A>!A*(!030#!#%'3(#>!A.$h(!N3F!0*6.$.(-.A!#!(,A,-$,A?!
E.$,!.%!/D*A-.!A3C,(.!m3.!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!A.$h(>!A*!(,!/,N,!%,A!A.$.A!
D3N#(,A>! A5! /,N,! +,N+#A! 0.! '#A,%*(#! ,! Nhm3*(#A! 2.(0.0,$#A! 0.! /D*/%.?! c,! NhA!
C$,+#+%.! .A! m3.! %,A! A.$.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! (,! A.! C#$.X/#(! .(! #+A,%3-,! #! /3#%m3*.$!
,$'#(*AN,! ,! Nhm3*(#A! m3.! C#$#! (,A,-$,A! $.A3%-.(! 6#N*%*#$.A?! c,A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!
A.$h(! .%! C$,03/-,! 0.! N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! 0.! .2,%3/*4(! +*,%4'*/#!
*(0.C.(0*.(-.>! .2,%3/*4(! %.(-#>! C#A,! #! C#A,>! F! .(! /#0#! 3(,! 0.! .A-,A! C#A,A! A.!
D#+$h(!0#0,!3(#!A.$*.!0.!C.m3.Q,A!#//*0.(-.A!0.!N3-#/*4(>!.(!C%#(.-#A!/,(!N.0*,!
#N+*.(-.A!N3F!0*A-*(-,A!0.%!m3.!/#$#/-.$*X#!#!%#!L*.$$#?!
E.$,! .A-,A! /D*A-.A! A3+$#F#(! 3(! C$,+%.N#! '.(.$#%! F! 3(#! 2*$-30! -#N+*d(! '.(.$#%! #%!
C.(A#$! ,! $.6%.B*,(#$! A,+$.! %#! 2*0#! .(! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$,! %3'#$?! 9%! C$,+%.N#! .A! m3.! -#(!
A4%,! -.(.N,A! C#$#! .A-30*#$! 3(#! A,%#! /%#A.! 0.! 2*0#>! %#! +*,%,'5#! /,$$.%#/*,(#0#! 0.%!
C%#(.-#!L*.$$#>!-,0,A!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!0.!%,A!m3.!A.!D#!0.A/.(0*0,!#!C#$-*$!0.!3(!A,%,!
/#A,!0.%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#?!E#$#!.%!+*4%,',!-#(-,!/,N,!C#$#!.%!C$,6#(,>!$.A3%-#!0*65/*%!
0.-.$N*(#$! m3d! C$,C*.0#0.A! 0.! %#! 2*0#! .(! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#! A,(! #//*0.(-.A! 0.%!
C$,/.A,!.2,%3-*2,!F!m3d!C$,C*.0#0.A!A,(!/#$#/-.$5A-*/#A!0.!%#!2*0#!.(!-,0#A!C#$-.A?!
c#! A3C,A*/*4(! 0.! m3.! %#! 2*0#! .(! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$,! %3'#$! D#! 0.! A.$>! 0.! #%'3(#! 6,$N#!
C$*(/*C#%>!%#!N*AN#!m3.!#m35!.A!3(#!6#(-#A5#>!(,/*4(!,!C$.A3(/*4(>!m3.!%%#N#$d!C3$,!
/D#32*(*AN,?!
@! %#! 2.X! m3.! -#%! /D#32*(*AN,! D#! A*0,! F! .A! /,A#! /,NG(! #! -$#2dA! 0.! -,0#! %#! D*A-,$*#!
D3N#(#>! 0.! 2.X! .(! /3#(0,! D#(! A3$'*0,! C3(-,A! 0.! 2*A-#! N3/D,! NhA! /%#$,A>! /,N,>!
C,$!.\.NC%,>!.%!0.%!'$#(!#A-$4(,N,!6$#(/dA!E*.$$.!&*N,(>!N#$m3dA!0.!c#C%#/.?!9(!A3!
,+$#!/%hA*/#!Le mecanique celeste!.A/$*+*4M!
La influencia {0.%! &,%| provoca el nacimiento de animales y plantas que cubren la
Tierra, y la analoga nos induce a creer que produce efectos similares en los
planetas; pues no es natural proponer o afirmar que este factor, cuya fecundidad
vemos desarrollarse de varias formas, deba ser estril sobre un planeta tan grande
como Jpiter, que, al igual que la Tierra, tiene sus das, sus noches, y sus aos, y en
el cual la observacin descubre cambios que indican la presencia de fuerzas muy
activas. El hombre, formado para vivir a la temperatura que disfruta sobre la Tierra,
no podra, segn todo posible indicio, vivir en otros planetas, pero es que no habr
cierta diversidad de organizacin adecuada a las diferentes temperaturas de los
planetas de este Universo? Si la diferencia de elementos y climas causa tal variedad
en la produccin de la Tierra, cuan infinitamente diversificada debe ser la
produccin de los planetas y sus satlites?
c#C%#/.!.A/$*+5#!.A-#A!C#%#+$#A!#!6*(#%.A!0.%!A*'%,!zR:::?!

!
Evidentemente, los habitantes de la Tierra son muy parecidos a nosotros los jupiterianos...
Excepto en el hecho de que no usan ropa.

Un comentario sobre el chauvinismo. Cortesa de Paul Conrad, Times de Los Angeles.

c#! 2*$-30>! ,>! NhA! +*.(>! %#! /3#%*0#0>! 0.! C.(A#$! .(! %#! 2*0#! 0.! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$#! C.$A,(#!
(,A! ,+%*'#! #! 6,$X#$! (3.A-$#! *N#'*(#/*4(?! kE,0.N,A! C.(A#$! .(! A,%3/*,(.A!
#%-.$(#-*2#A!#!C$,+%.N#A!+*,%4'*/,A!F#!$.A3.%-,A!0.!3(#!6,$N#!C#$-*/3%#$!.(!%#!L*.$$#l!
E,$! .\.NC%,>! %#! $3.0#! .A! 3(#! *(2.(/*4(! $.%#-*2#N.(-.! $./*.(-.! .(! .%! C%#(.-#! L*.$$#?!
E#$./.!D#+.$!A*0,!*(2.(-#0#!.(!.%!#(-*'3,!;$*.(-.!E$4B*N,!D#/.!N.(,A!0.!0*.X!N*%!
#Q,A?!1.!D./D,>!%#A!#2#(X#0#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!0.!@Nd$*/#!".(-$#%>!%,A!#X-./#A!F!%,A!
N#F#A>!(3(/#!.NC%.#$,(!%#!$3.0#!#!(,!A.$!.(!%,A!\3'3.-.A!0.!%,A!(*Q,A?!c#!)*,%,'5#!
n.%! C$,/.A,! .2,%3-*2,n! (3(/#! D#! *(2.(-#0,! %#! $3.0#>! #! C.A#$! 0.! m3.! A3A! 2.(-#\#A!
A.%./-*2#A! A,(! N#(*6*.A-#A?! kE,$! m3d! (,! D#! 0.! D#+.$! #$#Q#A! $,0#0#A! ,! /#+$#A! ,!
.%.6#(-.A!0.A%*Xh(0,A.!A,+$.!$3.0#A!C,$!%#A!#3-,C*A-#Al!c#!$.AC3.A-#!NhA!.2*0.(-.!
.A! m3.! D#A-#! D#/.! N3F! C,/,! -*.NC,! (,! .B*A-5#(! %#A! #3-,C*A-#A?! c#A! $3.0#A! A.!
.NC%.#$,(!F!A.!.NC%.#(!/3#(0,!A.!0*AC,(.!0.!A3C.$6*/*.A!#0./3#0#A!#!.%%#A?!",N,!
.%! C%#(.-#! L*.$$#! .A! 3(! %3'#$! D.-.$,'d(.,>! f#+,%%#0,g>! /,(! C,/#A! X,(#A! %%#(#A>! (,!
D#+5#!2.(-#\#!#%'3(#!.(!0.A#$$,%%#$!F!C.$6.//*,(#$!%#!$3.0#?!E,0.N,A!*N#'*(#$!,-$,!
C%#(.-#!/,(!.(,$N.A!A3C.$6*/*.A!/3+*.$-#A!0.!%#2#>!A3C.$6*/*.A!%%#(#A>!A3#2.A>!.(!%#A!
m3.! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! $,0#0,A! A.#(! #+3(0#(-.A?! 9%! 6#%%./*0,! #$-*A-#! D,%#(0dA! K?! "?!
9A/D.$!0*A.Q4!3(!,$'#(*AN,!C#$./*0,!#!3(#!A#%#N#(0$#!m3.!.(/#\#$5#!N3F!+*.(!.(!
A.N.\#(-.!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.?!

!
Animalillos-cachivache, litografa de Maurits Cornelis Escher de 1951.

c#! .2,%3/*4(! 0.! %#! 2*0#! .(! %#! L*.$$#! .A! 3(! C$,03/-,! 0.! #/,(-./*N*.(-,A! #X#$,A,A>!
N3-#/*,(.A! /#A3#%.A! F! 0.! .-#C#A! .2,%3-*2#A! .(! .AC./*.A! #*A%#0#Ao! %#A! C.m3.Q#A! F!
C$*N.$#A!0*6.$.(/*#A!.(!%#!.2,%3/*4(!0.!%#!2*0#!NhA!-#$0.!.\.$/.(!.(,$N.!*(6%3.(/*#!
.(! %#! N*AN#! .2,%3/*4(?! &*! /,N.(XhA.N,A! #! 6,$N#$! %#! L*.$$#! (3.2#N.(-.! F!
0.\h$#N,A!m3.!,C.$#A.(!A4%,!%,A!6#/-,$.A!#%!#X#$>!/$.,!m3.!(,!(,A!C#$./.$5#N,A!.(!
#+A,%3-,! #! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A?! &*! .A-,! .A! #A5>! .A! N3/D,! N.(,A! C$,+#+%.! m3.! %,A!
,$'#(*AN,A! m3.! D#(! .2,%3/*,(#0,! *(0.C.(0*.(-.N.(-.! .(! 3(! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! C,$!
/,NC%.-,!0*A-*(-,!0.!,-$,!C%#(.-#!0.!3(#!%.\#(5A*N#!.A-$.%%#!D#F#(!0.!C#$./.$A.!#!%,A!
A.$.A!D3N#(,A?!
@A5! C3.A>! %#A! ,+$#A! 0.! /*.(/*#O6*//*4(! m3.! -$#-#(! 0.%! #N,$! A.B3#%! .(-$.! 3(! A.$!
D3N#(,!F!3(!D#+*-#(-.!0.!,-$,!C%#(.-#!*'(,$#(>!.(!.%!A.(-*0,!NhA!63(0#N.(-#%>!%#A!
$.#%*0#0.A! +*,%4'*/#A?! P,D(! "#$-.$! C,05#! #N#$! #! 1.\#D! LD,$*A>! C.$,>! #! C.A#$! 0.! %,!
m3.! /$.5#! 90'#$! =*/.! )3$$,3'DA>! A3! #N,$! (,! C,05#! /,(A3N#$A.?! J! #3(! /3#(0,!
C30*.$#>!(,!A.$5#!C,A*+%.!%#!0.A/.(0.(/*#?!1.!%#!N*AN#!N#(.$#>!%#!/#-.',$5#!0.!3(#!
D*A-,$*#!0.!/,(-#/-,!A.B3#%!.(-$.!D3N#(,A!F!A#3/.$*#(,A>!N3F!0.!N,0#!.(!#%'3(,A!
.(-3A*hA-*/,A!/5$/3%,A!;R<:>!F!0.A/$*C-,!$./*.(-.N.(-.!.(!3(#!$.2*A-#!A.N#(#%!/,(!.%!
N,0.A-,!-5-3%,M!
Hicimos el amor con una rubia de un platillo volante!
0.+.!$.%.'#$A.!#%!$.*(,!0.!%#!*NC$,+#+%.!6#(-#A5#?!L#%.A!#N,$.A!F!f/$3/.Ag!A,(!-#(!
$#X,(#+%.A!/,N,!.%!/$3/.!.(-$.!3(!D,N+$.!F!3(#!C.-3(*#?!
H(#!6$#A.!N3F!C,C3%#$!n#C#$./.!#!N.(30,!.(!%,A!%*+$,A!A,+$.!%,A!C%#(.-#An!.AM!
la vida, tal y como la conocemos
c..N,A! m3.! %#! vida tal y como la conocemos! .A! *NC,A*+%.! .(! dA-.! ,! #m3.%!
C%#(.-#?!E.$,>!km3d!.A!%#!2*0#!-#%!F!/,N,!%#!/,(,/.N,Al!1.C.(0.!.(-.$#N.(-.!0.!
m3*d(! A.#! .%! nosotros?! H(#! C.$A,(#! C,/,! 2.$A#0#! .(! )*,%,'5#>! m3.! (,! C3.0#!
#C$./*#$! %#A! (3N.$,A#A! #0#C-#/*,(.A! F! 2#$*.0#0.A! 0.! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! -.$$.A-$.A>!
-.(0$h! 3(#! *0.#! N3F! C,+$.! #/.$/#! 0.! %#! .B-.(A*4(! F! #%/#(/.! 0.! %,A! C,A*+%.A!
habitats! +*,%4'*/,A?! :(/%3A,! D#F! 0*A/3A*,(.A! .(-$.! 6#N,A,A! /*.(-56*/,A! m3.! 0#(! %#!
*NC$.A*4(!0.!m3.!3(!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!m3.!.A!*(/4N,0,!C#$#!N*!#+3.%#!.A!*NC,A*+%.!
C#$#!%#!2*0#?!
9(!/*.$-#!dC,/#!A.!C.(A4!m3.!A.!D#+5#!0.-./-#0,!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!0.!K#$-.!4B*0,!0.!
(*-$4'.(,?! &.! C3+%*/4! 3(! 0,/3N.(-,! ,! /,N3(*/#/*4(! /*.(-56*/#! A,+$.! .A-.! A3C3.A-,!
D#%%#X',?! c,A! #3-,$.A! 0.! %#! /,N3(*/#/*4(! #%.'#+#(! m3.>! C,$! -#(-,>! %#! 2*0#! .$#!
*NC,A*+%.! .(! K#$-.! C,$m3.! %,A! 4B*0,A! 0.! (*-$4'.(,! A,(! '#A.A! 2.(.(,A,A?! E,$! %,!
N.(,A>! .B*A-.(! 0,A! ,+\./*,(.A! #! .A-.! #$'3N.(-,?! 9(! C$*N.$! %3'#$>! %,A! 4B*0,A! 0.!
(*-$4'.(,!A,(!'#A.A!-4B*/,A!A4%,!C#$#!#%'3(,A!,$'#(*AN,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!9(!A.'3(0,!
%3'#$>! km3d! /#(-*0#0! 0.! 4B*0,A! 0.! (*-$4'.(,! A.! A3C,(.! D#! A*0,! 0.A/3+*.$-#! .(!
K#$-.l! "3#(0,! /#%/3%d! %#! /#(-*0#0>! $.A3%-4! m3.! .$#! *(6.$*,$! #! %#! m3.! /,N,! -d$N*(,!
N.0*,! 6%,-#! A,+$.! c,A! @('.%.A?! c,A! 4B*0,A! 0.! (*-$4'.(,! A,(! *NC,$-#(-.A!
/,NC,(.(-.A!0.%!fC3$d!0.!'3*A#(-.Ag?!c#!2*0#!.(!c,A!@('.%.A!C3.0.!A.$!0*65/*%>!C.$,!
#G(! (,! .A! *NC,A*+%.?! c#! N*AN#! /,(/%3A*4(! A.! C3.0.! #C%*/#$! #! K#$-.?! 9%! C$,+%.N#!
6*(#%! 0.! .A-#A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! C#$-*/3%#$.A! .A! m3.! N3F! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! A.#(!
.m3*2,/#0#A?! E,$! .\.NC%,>! %,A! G%-*N,A! .A-30*,A! F! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! D./D,A! C,$! L,+*#A!
;r.(! F! C,$! N5! /,(! .%! ;+A.$2#-,$*,! @A-$,(4N*/,! ;$+*-#(-.! D#(! 0.N,A-$#0,! m3.! (,!
.B*A-.(!4B*0,A!0.!(*-$4'.(,!.(!K#$-.?!
L#N+*d(! .A! N3F! /,$$*.(-.! .%! /D#32*(*AN,! 0.%! ,B5'.(,?! &*! 3(! C%#(.-#! /#$./.! 0.!
,B5'.(,>! A.! 0*/.! m3.! .A! *(D#+*-#+%.?! 9A-.! C3(-,! 0.! 2*A-#! *'(,$#! .%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! %#!
2*0#!A3$'*4!.(!%#!L*.$$#!+#\,!3(#!-,-#%!6#%-#!0.!,B5'.(,?!1.!D./D,>!.%!/D#32*(*AN,!0.%!
,B5'.(,>!A*!A.!#/.C-#>!0.N3.A-$#!%4'*/#N.(-.!m3.!%#!2*0#!.(!/3#%m3*.$!,-$,!%3'#$!.A!
*NC,A*+%.?!9(!C$*(/*C*,>!.%!,B5'.(,!.A!3(!'#A!-4B*/,?!s35N*/#N.(-.!A.!/,N+*(#!/,(!F!
0.A-$3F.! %#A! N,%d/3%#A! ,$'h(*/#A! m3.! /,NC,(.(! %#! 2*0#! -.$$.A-$.?! I#F! N3/D,A!
,$'#(*AN,A!.(!%#!L*.$$#!m3.!(,!(./.A*-#(!,B5'.(,!F!,-$,A!N3/D,A!m3.!A.!*(-,B*/#(!
/,(!d%?!
L,0,A!%,A!C$*N*-*2,A!,$'#(*AN,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!(,!3A#$,(!,B5'.(,!N,%./3%#$!;`?!9(!3(!
+$*%%#(-.!/,(\3(-,!0.!#0#C-#/*,(.A!.2,%3-*2#A>!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!/,N,!*(A./-,A>!$#(#A!F!
C./.A>!#0.NhA!0.!%#A!C.$A,(#A>!#C$.(0*.$,(!(,!A4%,!#!A,+$.2*2*$!.(!%#!C$.A.(/*#!0.!
.A-.! '#A! -4B*/,>! A*(,! #! 3A#$%,! C#$#! #3N.(-#$! %#! .6*/#/*#! /,(! %#! /3#%! N.-#+,%*X#N,A!
%,A!#%*N.(-,A?!E.$,!.A-,!(,!0.+.!,/3%-#$(,A!.%!/#$h/-.$!63(0#N.(-#%N.(-.!-4B*/,!0.!
.A-.! '#A?! c#! #3A.(/*#! 0.! ,B5'.(,! .(! 3(! %3'#$! /,N,! PGC*-.$! .A>! C,$! -#(-,>! 3(!
#$'3N.(-,!0*65/*%!0.!N#(-.(.$!.(!/,(-$#!0.!%#!2*0#!.(!-#%.A!C%#(.-#A?!
L#N+*d(! D#F! /D#32*(*A-#A! .(! .%! -.$$.(,! 0.! %#! %3X! 3%-$#2*,%.-#?! @! /#3A#! 0.%! ,B5'.(,!
C$.A.(-.!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!-.$$.A-$.>!.(!%#A!#%-#A!/#C#A!0.!%#!N*AN#!A.!C$,03/.!3(#!
2#$*.0#0!0.!N,%d/3%#!0.!,B5'.(,!%%#N#0#!,X,(,!];V_>!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!#!3(,A!b7!
qN!A,+$.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.?!9A-#!/#C#!0.!,X,(,!#+A,$+.!%,A!$#F,A!3%-$#2*,%.-#!0.!%,('*-30!
0.!,(0#!N.0*#!0.%!&,%>!*NC*0*d(0,%.A!m3.!#%/#(/.(!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#?!
9A-,A!$#F,A!A,(!'.$N*/*0#A?!&.!.N*-.(!N.0*#(-.!%hNC#$#A!3%-$#2*,%.-#!(,$N#%N.(-.!
3A#0#A! C#$#! .A-.$*%*X#$! *(A-$3N.(-,A! m3*$G$'*/,A?! c,A! 63.$-.A! $#F,A! 3%-$#2*,%.-#! 0.%!
&,%!/,(A-*-3F.(!3(!C.%*'$,!A3N#N.(-.!'$#2.!C#$#!3(#!'$#(!C$,C,$/*4(!0.!6,$N#A!0.!
2*0#! .(! %#! L*.$$#?! E.$,! .A-,! A.! 0.+.! #! m3.! %#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! -#%.A! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#!
-.$$.A-$.!A.!0.A#$$,%%#$,(!.(!#3A.(/*#!0.!3(#!.%.2#0#!$#0*#/*4(!3%-$#2*,%.-#?!
9A! 6h/*%! *N#'*(#$! #0#C-#/*,(.A! C#$#! C$,-.'.$! #! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! /,(-$#! %#! %3X!
3%-$#2*,%.-#?!1.!D./D,>!%#A!m3.N#03$#A!0.%!&,%!F!%#!N.%#(,0.$N*#!A,(!#0#C-#/*,(.A!
.(!.A-.!A.(-*0,?!<,!D#(!*0,!N3F!%.\,A!.(!%#!N#F,$!C#$-.!0.!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!-.$$.A-$.A!
C,$m3.! %#! #/-3#%! $#0*#/*4(! 3%-$#2*,%.-#! (,! .A! N3F! .%.2#0#?! 9(! 3(! %3'#$! /,N,! K#$-.!
0,(0.! D#F! C,/,! ,X,(,>! %#! %3X! 3%-$#2*,%.-#! 0.! A3! A3C.$6*/*.! .A! .B-$.N#0#N.(-.!
*(-.(A#?! E.$,! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! N#$/*#(#! /3.(-#! /,(! 3(! N#-.$*#%! m3.! #+A,$+.!
*(-.(A#N.(-.!%#!%3X!3%-$#2*,%.-#!n/,N,!%,!D#/.(!%#!N#F,$!C#$-.!0.%!A3.%,!F!%#A!$,/#An!
F!C,0.N,A!*N#'*(#$!6h/*%N.(-.!,$'#(*AN,A!2#'#(0,!0.!#/h!C#$#!#%%h!/,(!C.m3.Q,A!
.A/30,A! ,C#/,A! #(-*3%-$#2*,%.-#! .(! A3A! .AC#%0#AM! -,$-3'#A! N#$/*#(#A?! ;>! m3*XhA>!
,$'#(*AN,A! N#$/*#(,A! /#$'#0,A! /,(! C#$#A,%.A! 3%-$#2*,%.-#?! K3/D#A! N,%d/3%#A!
,$'h(*/#A! -#N+*d(! C,0$5#(! 3A#$A.! .(! %#A! /#C#A! .B-.$*,$.A! 0.! ,$'#(*AN,A!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!C#$#!C$,-.'.$%,A!/,(-$#!%#!%3X!3%-$#2*,%.-#?!
;-$,! /D#32*(*AN,M! %#! -.NC.$#-3$#?! &.! 0*/.! m3.! %#A! -.NC.$#-3$#A! A3N#N.(-.! +#\#A!
m3.! $.*(#(! .(! C%#(.-#A! /,N,! PGC*-.$! ,! &#-3$(,>! .(! .%! .B-.$*,$! 0.%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$>!
D#/.(!#%%5!*NC,A*+%.!-,0#!/%#A.!0.!2*0#>!C.$,!.A-#A!+#\#A!-.NC.$#-3$#A!(,!A.!#C%*/#(!
#! -,0#A! %#A! X,(#A! 0.%! C%#(.-#?! &.! $.6*.$.(! G(*/#N.(-.! #! %#A! /#C#A! 0.! (3+.A! NhA!
.B-.$*,$.A>! %#A! /#C#A! m3.! A,(! #//.A*+%.A! #! %,A! -.%.A/,C*,A! *(6$#$$,\,A! m3.! C3.0.(!
N.0*$! -.NC.$#-3$#A?! &*(! 030#! #%'3(#>! A*! C30*dA.N,A! *(A-#%#$! .A-.! -.%.A/,C*,! .(! %#!
2./*(0#0! 0.! PGC*-.$! ,$*.(-h(0,%,! D#/*#! %#! L*.$$#>! 0.03/*$5#N,A! m3.! .(! %#! L*.$$#! %#A!
-.NC.$#-3$#A! A,(! N3F! +#\#A?! 9A-#$5#N,A! $.'*A-$#(0,! %#! -.NC.$#-3$#! 0.! %#A! (3+.A!
A3C.$*,$.A!F!(,!%#A!0.!%#!N3/D,!NhA!/h%*0#!A3C.$6*/*.!-.$$.A-$.?!9(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0!.A-h!
6*$N.N.(-.!.A-#+%./*0,>!-#(-,!-.4$*/#N.(-.!/,N,!N.0*#(-.!%#!,+A.$2#/*4(!C,$!$#0*,!
0.! .A-,A! C%#(.-#A>! m3.>! #! N.0*0#! m3.! C.(.-$#N,A! +#\,! %#A! (3+.A! 2*A*+%.A>! %#A!
-.NC.$#-3$#A!2#(!.(!#3N.(-,?!I#F!A*.NC$.!3(#!$.'*4(!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!0.!PGC*-.$>!
&#-3$(,>! H$#(,! F! <.C-3(,>! m3.! ',X#! 0.! -.NC.$#-3$#A! $.#%N.(-.! /4N,0#A>! 0.!
#/3.$0,!/,(!%#A!(,$N#A!-.$$.A-$.A!.(!.A-.!A.(-*0,?!
E.$,>!kC,$!m3d!.A!(./.A#$*,!-.(.$!-.NC.$#-3$#A!/,N,!dA-#A!.(!%#!L*.$$#>!/,(!,+\.-,!
0.! m3.! #A5! C$,%*6.$.! %#! 2*0#l! H(! A.$! D3N#(,! A.! A*.(-.! '$#2.N.(-.! #6./-#0,! A*! %#!
-.NC.$#-3$#! 0.! A3! /3.$C,! 2#$5#! .(! `7}! D#/*#! #$$*+#! ,! D#/*#! #+#\,?! k@/#A,! ,/3$$.!
.A-,!C,$m3.!2*2*N,A!C,$!#//*0.(-.!.(!3(!C%#(.-#!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$>!/3F#!A3C.$6*/*.!
N#(-*.(.! 3(#! -.NC.$#-3$#! *0.#%! .(! /3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$.! #! %#! +*,%,'5#l! k;! .A! m3.!
(3.A-$#!m35N*/#!A.!D#!#0#C-#0,!0.%*/#0#N.(-.!#!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#!0.%!C%#(.-#!.(!m3.!
D.N,A! .2,%3/*,(#0,l! "$.,! m3.! dA-.! .A! .%! /#A,?! ;-$#A! -.NC.$#-3$#A>! ,-$#A!
+*,m35N*/#A?!
<3.A-$#A!N,%d/3%#A!+*,%4'*/#A!A.!A*-G#(>!C,$!#A5!0./*$%,>!.(!/,NC%.\#A!0*AC,A*/*,(.A!
-$*0*N.(A*,(#%.A?! 9%! 63(/*,(#N*.(-,! 0.! .A-#A! N,%d/3%#A>! C#$-*/3%#$N.(-.! %#A!
.(X*N#A>!A.!#/-*2#!,!0.A#/-*2#!#%-.$#(0,!.A-#!0*AC,A*/*4(!-$*0*N.(A*,(#%?!9%!'$#0,!0.!
#6*(*0#0! m35N*/#! m3.! C$,03/.(! .A-#A! 0*AC,A*/*,(.A! 0.+.! A.$! A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! 0d+*%!
/,N,! C#$#! *(-.$$3NC*$A.! /,(2.(*.(-.N.(-.! #! -.NC.$#-3$#A! {(,$N#%.A|! -.$$.A-$.A! F>!
#%! N*AN,! -*.NC,>! %,! +#A-#(-.! A4%*0,! C#$#! (,! 0.AD#/.$A.! C,$! /,NC%.-,! A*! A.! %.! 0.\#!
A4%,!03$#(-.!/,$-,A!C.$5,0,A!0.!-*.NC,?!H(!.(%#/.!m35N*/,!/,(,/*0,!/,N,!enlace de
hidrgeno!C,A..!%#!#0./3#0#!.(.$'5#!*(-.$N.0*#!.(-$.!.A-#A!#%-.$(#-*2#A!*(.A-#+%.A?!
9%! enlace de hidrgeno! .A-h! 5(-*N#N.(-.! $.%#/*,(#0,! /,(! %#! +*,m35N*/#!
-$*0*N.(A*,(#%!0.!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!-.$$.A-$.A?!
9(! 3(! C%#(.-#! N3/D,! NhA! /#%3$,A,>! /,N,! R.(3A>! (3.A-$#A! N,%d/3%#A! +*,%4'*/#A!
m3.0#$5#(! 0.A-$,X#0#A?! 9(! 3(! C%#(.-#! N3/D,! NhA! 6$5,>! .(! .%! .B-.$*,$! 0.%! &*A-.N#!
&,%#$>! (3.A-$#A! N,%d/3%#A! +*,%4'*/#A! #0,C-#$5#(! 3(! .A-#0,! $5'*0,! F! (3.A-$#A!
$.#//*,(.A!m35N*/#A!(,!#/-3#$5#(!0.!(*('3(#!6,$N#!G-*%?!&*(!.N+#$',>!.A!C,A*+%.!m3.!
3(,A!.(%#/.A!N3/D,!NhA!63.$-.A!.(!R.(3A!F!,-$,A!N3/D,!NhA!0d+*%.A!.(!.%!.B-.$*,$!
0.%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! 0.A.NC.Q.(! .%! N*AN,! C#C.%! m3.! $.C$.A.(-.(! .(! %#! L*.$$#! %,A!
enlaces de hidrgeno?! 9A! N3F! C$,+#+%.! m3.! (,A! D#F#N,A! N,A-$#0,! 0.N#A*#0,!
-#\#(-.A! #%! $./D#X#$! %#! 2*0#! #! -.NC.$#-3$#A! N3F! 0*6.$.(-.A! 0.! %#A! m3.! .B*A-.(! .(!
(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#?!<,!A.!/,(,/.(!N3/D#A!$.#//*,(.A!m35N*/#A!m3.!A.!0.A#$$,%%.(!/,(!
5(0*/.A!G-*%.A!#!-.NC.$#-3$#A!N3F!+#\#A!/,N,!%#A!m3.!C,0$5#(!.B*A-*$!.(!E%3-4(!0.!V7!
4!a7}!A,+$.!.%!/.$,!#+A,%3-,! *!?!E.$,!-#N+*d(!D#F!N3F!C,/,A!%#+,$#-,$*,A!m35N*/,A!
.(! %#! L*.$$#! 0,(0.! A.! D#F#(! $.#%*X#0,! .BC.$*N.(-,A! #! V7! 4! a7~! A,+$.! .%! /.$,!
#+A,%3-,?!",(!3(#A!C,/#A!.B/.C/*,(.A>!-#%.A!.BC.$*N.(-,A!(,!A.!D#(!$.#%*X#0,!.(!
(*('G(!N,N.(-,?!

*! ! E%3-4(! 63.! 0.A/3+*.$-,! .(! .%! #Q,! 8TV7! C,$!"%F0.! L,N+#3'D?! &3! 0*A-#(/*#! N.0*#! 0.%! &,%>! .A! 0.!
b?T77! N*%%,(.A! 0.! q*%4N.-$,A! F! .%! C.$5,0,! ,$+*-#%! .A! /#A*! 0.! `aW! #Q,A?! c#! 4$+*-#! 0.! E%3-4(! .A! -#(!
.B/d(-$*/#!]7>`aW_>!m3.!A.!#/.$/#!#G(!NhA!#%!&,%!m3.!<.C-3(,?!E,$!.A-#!$#X4(>!/3#(0,!A.!.(/3.(-$#!
.(!%#!$.'*4(!0.%!C.$*D.%*,!]/,A#!m3.!,/3$$*4!.(!8TWT_!0.\#!0.!A.$!.%!C%#(.-#!NhA!.B-.$(,?!9%!#3-,$!0.!
La conexin csmica! D#+%#! 0.! %#! -.NC.$#-3$#! m3.! C,0$5#! .B*A-*$! .(! E%3-4(! 0.! nV7! 4! na7}>! C.$,>! #%!
C#$./.$>! .B*A-.(! N3/D#A! 030#A! A,+$.! -#%! -.NC.$#-3$#>! D#A-#! .%! C3(-,! 0.! m3.! %#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! %,A!
-.B-,A!%#!N.(/*,(#(!/,(!3(#!l~?!<,-#!0.%!L$#03/-,$?!

@A5! C3.A>! (,A! D#%%#N,A! #! N.$/.0! 0.! %#! A.%.//*4(! C,$! ,+A.$2#/*4(?! 9B#N*(#N,A!
A,%#N.(-.! 3(#! C.m3.Q#! 6$#//*4(! 0.! %#! C,A*+%.! '#N#! 0.! /#A,A! 0.+*0,! #! 3(#!
*(/,(A/*.(-.! C$.6.$.(/*#! ,! C$.0*AC,A*/*4(>! F! .(-,(/.A! /,(/%3*N,A! m3.! -,0,A! %,A!
/#A,A! /,(/.+*+%.A! 0.+.(! #\3A-#$A.! #! %,A! m3.! (,! D#(! 6,$X#0,! (3.A-$#A!
C$./,(/.C/*,(.A?!
;-$,!/D#32*(*AN,!N3F!/,NG(!nm3.!0*/D,!A.#!0.!C#A,!/,NC#$-,!.(!/*.$-#!N.0*0#n!
.A! .%! 0.%! /#$+,(,?! H(! /,(,/*0,! /D#32*(*A-#! .(! .A-.! -.$$.(,! N#(-*.(.! m3.! %,A!
A*A-.N#A! +*,%4'*/,A! 0.! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$,! %3'#$! 0.%! H(*2.$A,! .A-#$h(! 6,$N#0,A! C,$!
/,NC3.A-,A!0.!/#$+,(,>!/,N,!%#!2*0#!0.!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#?!I#F!#%-.$(#-*2#A!C,A*+%.AM!
h-,N,A! /,N,! .%! A*%*/*,! ,! .%! '.$N#(*,! C3.0.(! *(-.$2.(*$! .(! #%'3(#A! 0.! %#A! N*AN#A!
/%#A.A! 0.! $.#//*,(.A! m35N*/#A! m3.! .%! /#$+,(,?! L#N+*d(! .A! /*.$-,! m3.! A.! D#!
C$.A-#0,!NhA!#-.(/*4(!#!%#!m35N*/#!,$'h(*/#!0.%!/#$+,(,!m3.!#!%#!m35N*/#!,$'h(*/#!
0.%! A*%*/*,! ,! 0.%! '.$N#(*,>! .(! C#$-.>! C$*(/*C#%N.(-.>! C,$m3.! %#! N#F,$5#! 0.! %,A!
+*,m35N*/,A!m3.!/,(,/.N,A!A.!0.0*/#(!NhA!#%!/#$+,(,!m3.!#!%#!2#$*.0#0!0.%!A*%*/*,!
,!'.$N#(*,?!&*(!.N+#$',>!F!C,$!%,!m3.!A#+.N,A!A,+$.!%#A!#%-.$(#-*2#A!m35N*/#A!.(!
.A-.! A.(-*0,>! C#$./.! .2*0.(-.! m3.! n.B/.C-,! .(! N.0*,A! #N+*.(-.A! 0.! -.NC.$#-3$#A!
N3F! +#\#An! .B*A-.! 3(#! 2#$*.0#0! N3/D,! NhA! #NC%*#! 0.! /,NC3.A-,A! /,NC%.\,A! m3.!
A.!C3.0.(!6,$N#$!0.%!/#$+,(,!m3.!0.!%#A!,-$#A!#%-.$(#-*2#A!*!?!

*!!@m35!.%!#3-,$!$#X,(#!+*.(?!K.!C.$N*-,!#Q#0*$!m3.>!C,$!j,!m3.!D#A-#!#D,$#!A#+.N,A>!.%!/#$+,(,!.A!
.%! .%.N.(-,! NhA! #0./3#0,>! C,$! A3A! C$,C*.0#0.A! F! /#$#/-.$5A-*/#A>! C#$#! 6,$N#$>! /,N,! 0*/.! .%! A.Q,$!
&#'#(>! N,%d/3%#A! /,NC%.\#A>! F! .A! N3F! C$,+#+%.! m3.>! A*! .B*A-.(! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#! .(! ,-$,A! C%#(.-#A>!
A.#(! N3F! C#$./*0#A! #! %#A! -.$$.A-$.A>! A*! (,! .(! A3! 6,$N#>! #%! N.(,A! .(! A3! /,(A-*-3/*4(?! <,! ,+A-#(-.>!
.(-$.! %,A! $.A-#(-.A! .%.N.(-,A! -#N+*d(! .%! A*%*/*,! -*.(.! C,A*+*%*0#0.A! 0.! 6,$N#$! .A-$3/-3$#A! +#A-#(-.!
/,NC%.\#A>!C,$!%,!/3#%!(,!A.!C3.0.!.B/%3*$!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!m3.>!.(!#%'G(!C%#(.-#!/,(,/*0,>!.B*A-#(!
6,$N#A!0.!2*0#!+#A#0#A!.(!.%!A*%*/*,?!;-$#!C,A*+*%*0#0!]A*NC%.!D*C4-.A*A!#2.(-3$#0#!F!0.!(*('G(!N,0,!
C$.2*A*4(! /*.(-56*/#_! A.$5#! m3.! 3(#! 2*0#! ,$'h(*/#! +#A#0#! .(! .%! /#$+,(,! #! +#\#! -.NC.$#-3$#! C30*.A.!
A3+A*A-*$! .(! 3(#! #-N4A6.$#! .(! %#! m3.! .%! C#C.%! 0.%! #'3#! %,! 0.A.NC.Q#$#! .%! #N,(5#/,! %5m3*0,?! &*! A.!
-*.(.(! .(! /3.(-#! %#A! /,(0*/*,(.A! #N+*.(-#%.A! 0.! PGC*-.$! F! &#-3$(,>! .A-#! D*C4-.A*A! #0m3*.$.! /*.$-,!
*(-.$dA?!<?!0.%!L??!

E,$!#Q#0*03$#>!%#!#+3(0#(/*#!/4AN*/#!0.!/#$+,(,!.B/.0.!#!%#!0.%!A*%*/*,>!'.$N#(*,!3!
,-$#A! #%-.$(#-*2#A?! 9(! /3#%m3*.$#! ,-$#! C#$-.! 0.%! H(*2.$A,>! A,+$.! -,0,! .(! N.0*,A!
#N+*.(-.A! C%#(.-#$*,A! C$*N*-*2,A! .(! %,A! /3#%.A! A.! .A-d! 0#(0,! ,$*'.(! #! %#! 2*0#>! D#F!
A*NC%.N.(-.! NhA! /#$+,(,! m3.! h-,N,A! #%-.$(#-*2,A! C#$#! 6,$N#$! N,%d/3%#A!
/,NC%.\#A?! E,$! %,A! .BC.$*N.(-,A! 0.! %#+,$#-,$*,! .(! %,A! m3.! A.! A*N3%#! %#! C$*N*-*2#!
#-N4A6.$#!0.!%#!L*.$$#!,!%,A!#/-3#%.A!N.0*,A!#N+*.(-.A!0.!PGC*-.$>!#A5!/,N,!-#N+*d(!
N.0*#(-.! %,A! .A-30*,A! $#0*,#A-$,(4N*/,A! 0.%! N.0*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$>! 2.N,A! .B*A-.! 3(#!
C$,63A*4(! 0.! N,%d/3%#A! ,$'h(*/#A! A*NC%.A! F! /,NC%.\#A! C$,03/*0#A! C,$! 3(#! #NC%*#!
2#$*.0#0! 0.! 63.(-.A! 0.! .(.$'5#?! E,$! .\.NC%,>! .(! 3(,! 0.! (3.A-$,A! .BC.$*N.(-,A! .%!
C#A,!0.!3(#!A,%#!,(0#!0.!/D,m3.!#!#%-#!C$.A*4(!#!-$#2dA!0.!3(#!N.X/%#!0.!N.-#(,!
]"Ia_>!.-#(,!]"`I[_>!#N,(5#/,!]<IV_!F!#'3#!]I`;_!/,(2*$-*4!.%!VW!!0.%!#N,(5#/,!
.(! #N*(,h/*0,A>! /*N*.(-,A! 0.! %#A! C$,-.5(#A?! <,! A.! ,+-32*.$,(! .(,$N.A! /#(-*0#0.A!
0.!,-$#A!/%#A.A!0.!N,%d/3%#A!,$'h(*/#A?!
@A5!C3.A>!%,A!h-,N,A!F!%#A!N,%d/3%#A!A*NC%.A!0.!m3.!.A-#N,A!6,$N#0,A!.A!C$,+#+%.!
m3.! A.#(! /,N3(.A! #! ,$'#(*AN,A! 0.! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$,! %3'#$! 0.%! H(*2.$A,?! E.$,! %#!
N#(.$#! .AC./56*/#! .(! m3.! .A-#A! N,%d/3%#A! A.! \3(-#! F! %#A! 6,$N#A! .AC./56*/#A! F!
6*A*,%4'*/#A! 0.! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! C3.0.(! A.$! A3N#N.(-.! 0*6.$.(-.A! 0.!
%,!m3.!.A!/,$$*.(-.!.(!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#>!#!/#3A#!0.!A3A!0*6.$.(-.A!D*A-,$*#A!.2,%3-*2#A?!
@%! /,(A*0.$#$! /3h%.A! D#(! 0.! A.$! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! #! .A-30*#$! F! .B#N*(#$! +3A/#(0,!
C,A*+%.A!A.Q#%.A!0.!$#0*,!0*$*'*0#A!#!(,A,-$,A>!3A3#%N.(-.!A.!C$.A-#!N3/D#!#-.(/*4(!
#! .A-$.%%#A! /,N,! (3.A-$,! &,%?! &.! D#! #%.'#0,>! /,(! $#X4(>! m3.! %#! +GAm3.0#! .!
*(2.A-*'#/*,(.A!0.+.(!*(*/*#$A.!/,(!3(!-*C,!0.!.A-$.%%#!.(!%#!m3.!A.C#N,A!D#F!2*0#>!
#%!N.(,A!.(!3(,!0.!A3A!C%#(.-#A>!$.C*-,!m3.!C$*(/*C#%N.(-.!.A-$.%%#A!/,N,!(3.A-$,!
/,(,/*0,!&,%?!9(!.%!E$,F./-,!;XN#>!C$*N.$!*(-.(-,!0.!+GAm3.0#!0.!A.Q#%.A!0.!$#0*,>!
%#A!0,A!.A-$.%%#A!.B#N*(#0#A>!L#3!".-*!F! wCA*%,(!9$*0#(*>!.$#(! #N+#A!.A-$.%%#A!/,(!
N#A#>!$#0*,>!.0#0!F!/,NC,A*/*4(!N3F!C#$./*0#A!#!(3.A-$,!&,%>!m3.!%,A!#A-$4(,N,A!
%%#N#$,(! ZO;! enanas?! 1.! D./D,>! .$#(! %#A! 0,A! .A-$.%%#A! NhA! /.$/#(#A! F! NhA!
C#$./*0#A!#%!&,%?!
E.$,>!kD.N,A!0.!%*N*-#$!(3.A-$#!#-.(/*4(!#!.A-$.%%#A!C#$./*0#A!#%!&,%l!"$.,!m3.!(,?!
9A-$.%%#A! /,(! N#A#! %*'.$#N.(-.! N.(,$! F! 0.! %3N*(,A*0#0! -#N+*d(! *(6.$*,$! m3.! %#! 0.!
(3.A-$,! &,%! -*.(.(! .B*A-.(/*#! NhA! #(-*'3#?! 9A-#A! .A-$.%%#A! %%#N#0#A! enanas! u! F! K!
C3.0.(!-.(.$!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!NhA!m3.!.%!&,%?!&*!A3C,(.N,A!m3.!/3#(-,!
NhA!%#$'#!A.#!%#!2*0#!0.!3(!C%#(.-#>!NhA!*(-.%*'.(-.A!A.$h(!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!m3.!.(!d%!
A.!D#(!0.A#$$,%%#0,>!.(-,(/.A!0.+.N,A!0*$*'*$!(3.A-$#!#-.(/*4(!#!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!u!F!K!
F! .2*-#$! .%! /D#32*(*AN,! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#! Z?! E3.0.! ,+\.-#$A.! m3.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! 0.! %#A!
.A-$.%%#A! u! F! K! A,(! N3/D,! NhA! 6$5,A! m3.! %#! L*.$$#>! F! m3.! %#! 2*0#! .(! .%%,A! .A! N3F!
C,/,! C$,+#+%.?! c#! C$.N*A#! 0.! .A-#! ,+\./*4(! (,! C#$./.! A.$! N3F! 2h%*0#?! L#%.A!
C%#(.-#A!C#$./.(!.A-#$!NhA!/.$/#!0.!A3A!.A-$.%%#A!m3.!%,A!/,$$.AC,(0*.(-.A!C%#(.-#A!
0.! (3.A-$,! &*A-.N#! &,%#$>! F! F#! D.N,A! D#+%#0,! 0.! %#! 6#%A.0#0! ,! 6#%#/*#! 0.%!
/D#32*(*AN,!0.!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#?!E,$!,-$#!C#$-.>!-#N+*d(!D#F!N3/D#A!NhA!.A-$.%%#A!u!
F!K!m3.!.A-$.%%#A!Z?!
k9B*A-.! 3(! /D#32*(*AN,! C%#(.-#$*,l! c#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! %#! 2*0#! A3$'.! F! $.A*0.! .(!
C%#(.-#A>!k,!#/#A,!C30*.$#!D#+.$!,$'#(*AN,A!m3.!D#+*-#(!.(!%#A!C$,63(0*0#0.A!0.%!
.AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$>! A3C.$6*/*.A! ,! *(-.$*,$.A! 0.! .A-$.%%#A>! ,! *(/%3A,! ,-$,A! ,+\.-,A!
/4AN*/,A!*(/%3A,!NhA!.B4-*/,Al!
=.A3%-#! N3F! 0*65/*%! $.AC,(0.$! #! .A-#A! C$.'3(-#A! 0#0,! (3.A-$,! #/-3#%! .A-#0,! 0.!
*'(,$#(/*#?!c#!0.(A*0#0!0.!%#!N#-.$*#!.(!.%!.AC#/*,!*(-.$.A-.%#$!.A!-#(!+#\#!m3.!#%%5>!
A*NC%.N.(-.>! 3(! ,$'#(*AN,! (,! C3.0.! #0m3*$*$! A36*/*.(-.! N#-.$*#%! C#$#! $.#%*X#$! 3(#!
/,C*#!0.!A5!N*AN,!.(!/3#%m3*.$!C.$5,0,!0.!-*.NC,!$#X,(#+%.?!&*(!.N+#$',>!.A-,!(,!
.A! /*.$-,! .(! /3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$.! #! %#A! 0.(A#A! (3+.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A>! C.$,! -#%.A! (3+.A!
2*2.(! 03$#(-.! /,$-,A! C.$5,0,A! 0.! -*.NC,>! /,(0.(Ah(0,A.! C#$#! 6,$N#$! .A-$.%%#A! F!
C%#(.-#A?!9(!.%!C$,/.A,!A.!/#%*.(-#(!-#(-,!m3.!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!A.!0.A-$3F.!/3#%m3*.$!
/,NC3.A-,!,$'h(*/,!m3.!/,(-.('#(?!
E,0$5#N,A! *N#'*(#$! ,$'#(*AN,A! 0.A#$$,%%h(0,A.! .(! C%#(.-#A! /,(! #-N4A6.$#A! m3.!
%.(-#N.(-.! 2#F#(! #%.\h(0,A.! .(! .j! .AC#/*,>! C.$N*-*.(0,! m3.! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! A.!
2#F#(! #0#C-#(0,! '$#03#%N.(-.! #! 3(#A! /,(0*/*,(.A! /#0#! 2.X! NhA! 03$#A>! F>! C,$!
G%-*N,>! #/%*N#-h(0,A.! #! %,! m3.>! .(! .6./-,>! .A! 3(! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! *(-.$.A-.%#$?! c,A!
,$'#(*AN,A! m3.! #+#(0,(#(! -#%.A! C%#(.-#A! nm3*Xh! N.0*#(-.! C$.A*4(! 0.! $#0*#/*4(!
.%./-$,N#'(d-*/#>! ,! C,$! 2*.(-,! A,%#$! 0.%! A,%! %,/#%n! C,0$5#(! C,+%#$! .%! .AC#/*,!
*(-.$.A-.%#$>!C.$,!#3(!#A5!-.(0$5#(!m3.!.(6$.(-#$A.!/,(!*(A,%3+%.A!C$,+%.N#A!0.!N#%#!
(3-$*/*4(?!
I#F! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0*6.$.(-.! 0.! ,$'#(*AN,! *(-.$.A-.%#$! N3/D,! NhA! C$,+#+%.M! A.$.A!
*(-.%*'.(-.A! m3.! (#/.(! .(! C%#(.-#A! /,N,! (,A,-$,A>! C.$,! m3.! D#(! -$#A%#0#0,! A3!
/#NC,!0.!#/-*2*0#0!#%!2,%3N.(!N3/D,!NhA!2#A-,!0.%!.AC#/*,!*(-.$.A-.%#$?!c,A!A.$.A>!
.(! (3.A-$,! %.\#(,! 63-3$,! -./(,%4'*/,>! 0.+.$h(! C,A..$! /#C#/*0#0.A! m3.! D,F! 05#! (*!
A*m3*.$#! C,0.N,A! *N#'*(#$?! <,! C3.0.! 030#$A.! m3.! -#%.A! A,/*.0#0.A! 0.+.$h(!
0,N*(#$!%#!N#-.$*#!F!.(.$'5#!0.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!F!'#%#B*#A!/,(!,+\.-,!0.!C,(.$%#A!#!A3!
A.$2*/*,?! @A5! /,N,! (,A,-$,A! A,N,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! m3.! G(*/#N.(-.! (,A! A.(-*N,A! f.(!
/#A#g! /3#(0,! C*A#N,A! -*.$$#>! #3(m3.! D#F#N,A! .2,%3/*,(#0,! 0.%! N#$>! .%! H(*2.$A,!
C3.0.! C,+%#$A.! /,(! A,/*.0#0.A! m3.! (#X/#(! .(! C%#(.-#A>! C.$,! m3.! G(*/#N.(-.! A.!
A*.(-#(!/4N,0,A!.(!%#A!C$,63(0*0#0.A!0.%!.AC#/*,!*(-.$.A-.%#$?!
!
7. La exploracin del espacio como empresa humana - 1. El inters cientfico
!

!
Fotografa compuesta de cmaras all-sky de nuestra galaxia Va Lactea. Cortesa del Dr. Bart
Bok y del Lund Observatory.

!
I#F!3(!%3'#$!/,(!/3#-$,!A,%.A!.(!.%!/*.%,M!$,\,>!+%#(/,>!#X3%>!F!#N#$*%%,o!0,A!0.!.%%,A!
.A-h(!-#(!/.$/#!3(,!0.%!,-$,!m3.!A.!-,/#(>!F!.(-$.!.%%,A!A.!.B-*.(0.(!%#A!.A-$.%%#A?!
",(,X/,!3(!N3(0,!/,(!3(!N*%%4(!0.!%3(#A?!
",(,X/,!3(!A,%!m3.!-*.(.!.%!-#N#Q,!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!3(!A,%!/,(!0*#N#(-.A?!
I#F!(G/%.,A!#-4N*/,A!0.!8?[77!N!0.!#(/D,!m3.!'*$#(!-$.*(-#!2./.A!C,$!A.'3(0,?!
I#F! 0*N*(3-,A! '$#(,A! .(-$.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A>! /,(! .%! -#N#Q,! F! /,NC,A*/*4(! #-4N*/#! 0.!
%#A!+#/-.$*#A?!
I#F!+#/-.$*#A!m3.!#+#(0,(#(!%#!R5#!ch/-.#?!
I#F!*(N.(A#A!(3+.A!0.!'#A!m3.!C.(.-$#(!.(!%#!R5#!ch/-.#?!
I#F! C%#AN#A! -3$+3%.(-,A! m3.! A.! $.-3.$/.(! /,(! C,0.$,A#A! .BC%,A*,(.A! .A-.%#$.A! F!
/,(!$#F,A!z!F!'#NN#?!
I#F>!m3*Xh>!%3'#$.A!63.$#!0.!(3.A-$,!H(*2.$A,?!
!
9%!H(*2.$A,!.A!2#A-,!F!C#2,$,A,!F!C,$!2.X!C$*N.$#!.A-#N,A!6,$N#(0,!C#$-.!0.!d%?!
c,A!C%#(.-#A!F#!(,!A,(!%3/.A!m3.!2#'#(!C,$!.%!6*$N#N.(-,!(,/-3$(,?!13$#(-.!A*'%,A>!
.%! D,N+$.! 2*2*4! .(! 3(! H(*2.$A,! m3.! C#$./5#! A.'3$,! F! #'$#0#+%.>! *(/%3A,! %*NC*,?! c#!
L*.$$#!.$#!.%!+%#(/,!0.!%#! /$.#/*4(!F!.%!D,N+$.>!.%!C*(h/3%,!0.!%#!2*0#!N,$-#%?!E.$,!
.A-#A!(,/*,(.A!#%.(-#0,$#A!F!0.!#$/#*/#!+.%%.X#!(,!A,C,$-#$,(!%#!C$3.+#!0.%!-*.NC,?!
@D,$#!A#+.N,A!m3.!2*2*N,A!.(!3(!0*N*(3-,!-$,X,!0.!$,/#!F!N.-#%>!.(!3(!C%#(.-#!NhA!
C.m3.Q,!m3.!#%'3(#A!0.!%#A!$.%#-*2#N.(-.!N.(,$.A!N#(/D#A!0.!PGC*-.$>!F!#%',!m3.!
$.A3%-#!/#A*!*(A*'(*6*/#(-.!/3#(0,!%,!/,NC#$#N,A!/,(!3(#!A.(/*%%#!N#(/D#!0.%!&,%?!
<3.A-$#!.A-$.%%#>!.%!&,%>!.A!C.m3.Q#>!6$.A/#!F!C,/,!*(A*(3#(-.>!3(,!0.!%,A!0,A/*.(-,A!
N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!A,%.A!m3.!6,$N#(!%#!R5#!ch/-.#?!9A-#N,A!A*-3#0,A!-#(!%.\,A!0.%!/.(-$,!
0.!%#!R5#!ch/-.#>!m3.!%#!%3X!-#$0#!3(,A!V7?777!#Q,A!.(!%%.'#$!#!(,A,-$,A!0.A0.!#%%5!
2*#\#(0,! #! 3(#! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.! 3(,A! V77?777! qN! C,$! A.'3(0,?! 9A-#N,A! .(! %,! m3.!
C,0$5#N,A!%%#N#$!/#A*!.%!+,$0.!0.!%#!'#%#B*#!0,(0.!(,!.B*A-.!#//*4(!#%'3(#?!c#!R5#!
ch/-.#! .A! -,-#%N.(-.! *(A*'(*6*/#(-.>! F#! m3.! (,! .A! NhA! m3.! 3(#! '#%#B*#! NhA! .(-$.!
N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! ,-$#A! '#%#B*#A! .AC#$/*0#A! C,$! %#! *(N.(A*0#0! #-.$$#0,$#! 0.%!
.AC#/*,?!
El Mundo! F#! (,! A.! C3.0.! -$#03/*$! C,$! El Universo?! R*2*N,A! .(! 3(! N3(0,!
*(N.$A,!.(-$.!%#!*(N.(A*0#0!0.!,-$,A?!
c#A!*0.#A!0.!"D#$%.A!1#$r*(!A,+$.!%#!A.%.//*4(!(#-3$#%!D#(!0.N,A-$#0,!m3.!(,!D#F!
A.(0.$,A! .2,%3-*2,A! m3.! /,(03X/#(! *(6#%*+%.N.(-.! 0.A0.! %#A! 6,$N#A! A*NC%.A! #%!
D,N+$.o! NhA! +*.(>! %#! .2,%3/*4(! C$,/.0.! 0.! 3(! N,0,! /,(23%A*2,>! A*(! 3(! C%#(!
0.-.$N*(#0,>!F!%#!N#F,$!C#$-.!0.!%#A!6,$N#A!0.!2*0#!/,(03/.(!#!/#%%.\,(.A!A*(!A#%*0#!
.(!%#!.2,%3/*4(?!&,N,A!.%!C$,03/-,!0.!3(#!%#$'#!A.$*.!0.!#//*0.(-.A!+*,%4'*/,A?!9(!
%#!C.$AC./-*2#!/4AN*/#!(,!D#F!$#X4(!#%'3(#!C#$#!C.(A#$!m3.!A.#N,A!%,A!C$*N.$,A>!
%,A!G%-*N,A>!,!%,A!N.\,$.A?!
9A-#A! /,(/.C/*,(.A! 0.! ",Cd$(*/,! F! 0.! 1#$r*(! A,(! .2*0.(-.N.(-.! N3F! C$,63(0#Ao!
C#$#! #%'3(,A>! .(! /*.$-#! N.0*0#>! *(m3*.-#(-.A?! E.$,! %%.2#(! /,(A*',! *0.#A! m3.!
C,0$5#N,A! /#%*6*/#$! 0.! /,NC.(A#-,$*#A?! <,A! 0#N,A! C.$6./-#! /3.(-#! 0.! (3.A-$#!
/,(.B*4(!/,(!,-$#A!6,$N#A!0.!2*0#!-#(-,!A*NC%.A!/,N,!/,NC%.\#A?!&#+.N,A!m3.!%,A!
h-,N,A! m3.! (,A! 6,$N#(! 63.$,(! A*(-.-*X#0,A! .(! %,A! *(-.$*,$.A! 0.! '.(.$#/*,(.A!
#(-.$*,$.A! 0.! .A-$.%%#A! N,$*+3(0#A?! <,! *'(,$#N,A! -#NC,/,! (3.A-$#! 5(-*N#! $.%#/*4(!
/,(!.%!$.A-,!0.%!H(*2.$A,>!-#(-,!.(!%#!6,$N#!/,N,!.(!%#!N#-.$*#?!9%!",AN,A!m3.!(,A!
D#(!$.2.%#0,!%,A!(3.2,A!#2#(/.A!.(!#A-$,(,N5#!F!+*,%,'5#!.A!N3/D,!NhA!'$#(0*,A,!
F! NhA! C#2,$,A,! -#N+*d(! m3.! .%! 0*N*(3-,! K3(0,! 0.! (3.A-$,A! #(-.C#A#0,A?! J!
.A-#N,A! 6,$N#(0,! C#$-.! 0.! d%>! 0.%! ",AN,A! -#%! F! /,N,! .A! F! (,! 0.%! ",AN,A! 0.!
(3.A-$,A!0.A.,A?!
@D,$#! N*AN,>! %#! I3N#(*0#0! A.! .(/3.(-$#! #(-.! 2#$*#A! .(/$3/*\#0#A! 0.! /#$h/-.$!
D*A-4$*/,?! <,A! D#%%#N,A! .(! .%! 3N+$#%! 0.! 3(! $./,(,/*N*.(-,! C$.%*N*(#$! 0.%! ",AN,A?!
E,$!C$*N.$#!2.X!.(!%#!I*A-,$*#>!.%!D,N+$.!.A!/#C#X!0.!.(2*#$!A3A!*(A-$3N.(-,A!F!#!A5!
N*AN,>! C.$A,(#%N.(-.>! 63.$#! 0.! A3! C%#(.-#OD,'#$! C#$#! .BC%,$#$! .%! H(*2.$A,! m3.! %.!
$,0.#?!
E.$,! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! 0.%! .AC#/*,! A.! D#! \3A-*6*/#0,>! C$*(/*C#%N.(-.! .(! -d$N*(,A! 0.!
'$#(0.A!/,(A*0.$#/*,(.A!0.!C$.A-*'*,!(#/*,(#%>!-#(-,!.(!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A!/,N,!.(!
%#! H(*4(! &,2*d-*/#o! .(! -d$N*(,A! 0.! N.\,$#! 0.! /#C#/*0#0.A! -./(,%4'*/#A>! .(! 3(#!
dC,/#!.(!%#!m3.!N3/D#A!C.$A,(#A!/,(A*0.$#(!.%!0.A#$$,%%,!0.!%#!-./(,%,'5#!/,N,!0.!
0.A#A-$,A#A! /,(A./3.(/*#Ao! .(! -d$N*(,A! 0.! 3(#! 6#%A#! (./.A*0#0! N*%*-#$>! .(! 3(#!
dC,/#! .(! %#! m3.! %#! '.(-.! 0.! -,0,! .%! N3(0,! %,! m3.! NhA! 0.A.#! .A! 3(#! -,-#%!
0.AN*%*-#$*X#/*4(!0.!%#!A,/*.0#0?!
9(! .A-#A! /*$/3(A-#(/*#A! (,! $.A3%-#! A,$C$.(0.(-.! m3.! A.! D#'#(! C$.'3(-#A! 03$#A!
#/.$/#!0.!%,A!'#A-,A!.AC#/*#%.A>!/3#(0,!.B*A-.(!(./.A*0#0.A!3$'.(-.A!F!2*A*+%.A!.(!
/3#(-,!A.!$.6*.$.!#!6,(0,A!C#$#!/,$$.'*$!*(\3A-*/*#A!F!N.\,$#$!%#!A,/*.0#0!F!%#!/#%*0#0!
0.! %#! 2*0#! .(! %#! L*.$$#?! 92*0.(-.N.(-.>! .A-#A! C$.'3(-#A! A,(! *04(.#A?! &*! %,A!
/*.(-56*/,A!(,!C3.0.(!0#$!#%!D,N+$.!0.!%#!/#%%.!3(#!.BC%*/#/*4(!A#-*A6#/-,$*#!A,+$.!%,A!
'#A-,A!.(!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.%!.AC#/*,>!(,!.A!%4'*/,!(*!N,$#%!m3.!A.!0.A-*(.(!6,(0,A!
CG+%*/,A!#!-#%.A!#2.(-3$#A?!
9%! *(-.$dA! 0.! 3(! /*.(-56*/,! C,$! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! .AC#/*#%! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! ,+.0.X/#! #!
0.A.,A!N3F!C.$A,(#%.A>!#%',!m3.!%.!0.A,$*.(-#>!#%',!m3.!%.!*(-$*'#>!#%',!m3.!C,A..!
*NC%*/#/*,(.A! m3.! %.! .B/*-#(?! E.$,! (,! C,0.N,A! C.0*$! #%! CG+%*/,! m3.! '#A-.! '$#(0.A!
A3N#A! A4%,! C#$#! A#-*A6#/.$! %#! /3$*,A*0#0! 0.%! /*.(-56*/,?! &*(! .N+#$',>! /3#(0,!
C$,63(0*X#N,A!NhA!.(!.%!*(-.$dA!C$,6.A*,(#%!0.!3(!/*.(-56*/,>!#!N.(30,!D#%%#N,A!3(!
6,/,!0.!C$.,/3C#/*4(!m3.!.(!'$#(!C#$-.!%%.'#!#!#-$#.$A.!.%!*(-.$dA!CG+%*/,?!
H(! h$.#! 63(0#N.(-#%! 0.! *(-.$dA! /,NG(! .A! .%! C$,+%.N#! 0.! %#! C.$AC./-*2#?! c#!
.BC%,$#/*4(! 0.%! .AC#/*,! (,A! C.$N*-.! 2.$! #! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#! F! #! (,A,-$,A! N*AN,A!
0.A0.!3(#!(3.2#!%3X?!&,N,A!/,N,!%*('e*A-#A!.(!3(#!$.N,-#!*A%#!0,(0.!A4%,!A.!D#+%#!
3(! G(*/,! *0*,N#?! E,0.N,A! /,(A-$3*$! -.,$5#A! '.(.$#%.A! A,+$.! *0*,N#A>! C.$,! (,!
0*AC,(.N,A! NhA! m3.! 0.! 3(! A,%,! .\.NC%,! C#$#! .B#N*(#$%,?! 9A! *NC$,+#+%.! m3.!
(3.A-$#! /,NC$.(A*4(! 0.%! *0*,N#! C,A.#! %#! '.(.$#%*0#0! m3.! $.m3*.$.! 3(#! N#03$#!
/*.(/*#!0.!%*('e5A-*/#!D3N#(#?!
I#F! N3/D#A! $#N#A! 0.! %#! /*.(/*#! 0,(0.! (3.A-$,! /,(,/*N*.(-,! .A! *'3#%N.(-.!
C$,2*(/*#%! F! C3.+%.$*(,>! $.A-$*('*0,! #! 3(! A*NC%.! F! A,%,! .\.NC%,! .(-$.! 3(#! 2#A-#!
N3%-*-30! 0.! C,A*+%.A! /#A,A?! (*/#N.(-.! .B#N*(#(0,! .%! 5(0*/.! 0.! /#A,A! #A.m3*+%.A!
.(!-,0#A!C#$-.A>!A.!C3.0.!*0.#$!,!C$,F./-#$!3(#!#NC%*#!/*.(/*#!'.(.$#%?!
c#!/*.(/*#!m3.!A*(!030#!'#(#!NhA!/,(!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!C%#(.-#$*#!.A!%#!)*,%,'5#?!9(!3(!
A.(-*0,!N3F!63(0#N.(-#%>!%,A!+*4%,',A!-#(!A4%,!D#(!.A-#0,!.A-30*#(0,!3(#!6,$N#!0.!
2*0#!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!@!C.A#$!0.!%#!N#(*6*.A-#!0*2.$A*0#0!0.!6,$N#A!0.!2*0#!-.$$.A-$.>!A,(!
*0d(-*/#A! .(! .%! NhA! C$,63(0,! 0.! %,A! A.(-*0,A?! L#(-,! %,A! -*+3$,(.A! F! %#A! +.',(*#A!
/,N,!%#A!+#/-.$*#A!F!%#A!+#%%.(#A!3A#(!h/*0,A!(3/%.*/,A!C#$#!#%N#/.(#$!F!-$#(AN*-*$!
*(6,$N#/*4(! D.$.0*-#$*#?! L,0,A! 3-*%*X#(! C$,-.5(#A! C#$#! /#-h%*A*A! F! /,(-$,%?! L,0,A! %,A!
,$'#(*AN,A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>! m3.! A.C#N,A>! .NC%.#(! .%! N*AN,! /40*',! '.(d-*/,?! c#!
.A-$3/-3$#!-$#(A2.$A#%!0.!%#!/d%3%#!0.%!.AC.$N#-,X,*0.!D3N#(,!.A!/#A*!*0d(-*/#!#!%#!
0.%!/*%*,!0.!C#$#N./*,?!c#!/%,$,6*%#>!D.N,'%,+*(#!F!%#A!A3+A-#(/*#A!$.AC,(A#+%.A!0.!
%#!/,%,$#/*4(!0.!N3/D,A!#(*N#%.A!A,(!.A.(/*#%N.(-.!%#!N*AN#!N,%d/3%#?!
9A!0*65/*%!.A/#C#$!#!%#!/,(/%3A*4(!nm3.!.(!/*.$-,!A.(-*0,!.A-h!*NC%5/*-#!.(!%#!A.%.//*4(!
(#-3$#%! 0.! 1#$r*(n! 0.! m3.! %#! 2*0#! .(! %#! L*.$$#! A.! D#! 0.A#$$,%%#0,! C#$-*.(0,! 0.! 3(!
A,%,!.\.NC%,!0.!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#?!&*!.A-,!.A!/*.$-,>!-*.(.!+#A-#(-.!A.(-*0,!.%!m3.!.%!
+*4%,',! (,! C3.0#! 0*A-*('3*$! %,! (./.A#$*,! 0.! %,! A3C.$6%3,! ,! .2.(-3#%>! .A! 0./*$!
0*6.$.(/*#$!#m3.%%,A!#AC./-,A!0.!%#!2*0#!m3.!/3#%m3*.$!,$'#(*AN,!.(!/3#%m3*.$!%3'#$!
0.%! H(*2.$A,! 0.+.! C,A..$! A*NC%.N.(-.! C#$#! .A-#$! 2*2,>! 0.! #m3.%%,A! #AC./-,A! 0.! %#!
2*0#! m3.! A,(! $.A3%-#0,! 0.! %#! -,$-3,A#! .2,%3/*4(! 0.+*0#! #! C.m3.Q#A! #0#C-#/*,(.A!
,C,$-3(*A-#A?!
c#! C$,03//*4(! 0.! N,%d/3%#A! ,$'h(*/#A! A*NC%.A! ]+#A#0#A! .(! .%! /#$+,(,_! .(!
/,(0*/*,(.A! C%#(.-#$*#A! C$*N*-*2#A! F! A*N3%#0#A! .A! D,F! 05#! -.N#! 0.! #/-*2#!
*(2.A-*'#/*4(! 0.! %#+,$#-,$*,?! ",N,! F#! D.N,A! 2*A-,! #(-.$*,$N.(-.>! %#A! N,%d/3%#A! 0.!
m3.!.A-#N,A!D./D,A!A.!C3.0.(!C$,03/*$!/,(!/*.$-#!6#/*%*0#0>!.(!#3A.(/*#!0.!2*0#!F!
.(! /,(0*/*,(.A! C%#(.-#$*#A! C$*N*-*2#A! .(! '.(.$#%?! E.$,! (,! .A! C,A*+%.! %%.2#$! #! /#+,!
.BC.$*N.(-,A! 0.! %#+,$#-,$*,! (*! A*m3*.$#! A,+$.! %#A! C$*N.$#A! .-#C#A! 0.! %#! .2,%3/*4(!
+*,%4'*/#M! %#A! .A/#%#A! 0.! -*.NC,! A,(! 0.N#A*#0,! %#$'#A?! &4%,! .B#N*(#(0,! A*A-.N#A!
0.! 2*0#! 0.! ,-$,A! %3'#$.A! C3.0.(! 0.-.$N*(#$! %,A! +*4%,',A! /3h%.A! A,(! %#A! 0.NhA!
C,A*+*%*0#0.A!m3.!.B*A-.(?!
E,$!.A-#!$#X4(>!.%!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,!0.!*(/%3A,!3(!,$'#(*AN,!.B-$.N#0#N.(-.!A*NC%.!
.(!K#$-.!D3+*.A.!-.(*0,!C$,63(0,!A*'(*6*/#0,!+*,%4'*/,?!E,$!,-$#!C#$-.>!A*!K#$-.!.A-h!
N3.$-,>!(,!/#+.!%#!N.(,$!030#!0.!m3.!A.!D#!%%.2#0,!#!/#+,!3(!.BC.$*N.(-,!(#-3$#%!
.(!(3.A-$,!+.(.6*/*,M!0,A!C%#(.-#A>!.(!N3/D,A!#AC./-,A!C#$./*0,A>!C.$,!.(!3(,!A.!
D#! 0.A#$$,%%#0,! %#! 2*0#! F! .(! .%! ,-$,! (,?! ",NC#$#(0,! .%! C%#(.-#! /,(-$,%! /,(! .%!
.BC.$*N.(-#%>! C3.0.! 0.A/3+$*$A.! N3/D,! A,+$.! .%! ,$*'.(! 0.! %#! 2*0#?! 1.! %#! N*AN#!
N#(.$#>! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! C$,03/-,A! m35N*/,A! ,$'h(*/,A! F! C$.+*,%4'*/,A! .(! %#! c3(#>!
K#$-.>! ,! PGC*-.$! -*.(.! 3(#! '$#(! *NC,$-#(/*#! C#$#! /,NC$.(0.$! %,A! C#A,A! m3.!
/,(03/.(!#%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#?!
",N,! ,-$,! .\.NC%,! 0.! %#! C.$AC./-*2#! C$,C,$/*,(#0#! C,$! %,A! .A-30*,A! C%#(.-#$*,A>!
/,(A*0.$.N,A!%#!N.-.,$,%,'5#?!c,A!C$,+%.N#A!0.%!6%3\,!-3$+3%.(-,!F!%#!0*(hN*/#!6%3*0#!
6*'3$#(! .(-$.! %,A! NhA! 0*65/*%.A! 0.! %#! p5A*/#?! &.! D#(! %,'$#0,! #%'3(,A! 0#-,A! .! *0.#A!
A,+$.! .%! -*.NC,! .(! %#! L*.$$#! .A-30*#(0,! %#! C,A*/*4(! 0.! %#A! /,$$*.(-.A! 0.! #*$.>!
.B#N*(#(0,! %#A! 6,-,'$#65#A! 0.! %,A! A#-d%*-.A! N.-.,$,%4'*/,A! F! %#! /*$/3%#/*4(! 0.! %#!
#-N4A6.$#! -.$$.A-$.?! @! C.A#$! 0.! -,0,>! %#! -.,$5#! N.-.,$,%4'*/#! C#$#! %#! L*.$$#! .A! D,F!
/#C#X! 0.! C$.0*//*,(.A! /%*Nh-*/#A! 0.! %#$',! #%/#(/.>! C.$,! A4%,! A,+$.! h$.#A!
'.,'$h6*/#A! N3F! .B-.(A#A>! .(! /,(0*/*,(.A! .(! m3.! C3.0#(! /,(A*0.$#$A.! 2h%*0#A! %#A!
A3C,A*/*,(.A!A*NC%*6*/#0,$#A>!!F!/*$/3(A/$*+*d(0,A.!#!3(!/,$-,!C%#X,!.(!.%!63-3$,?!c,A!
.A-30*,A! 0.! %#+,$#-,$*,! A,+$.! %#! /*$/3%#/*4(! #-N,A6d$*/#! C,A..(! #%/#(/.! %*N*-#0,o!
/%hA*/#N.(-.!A.!%%.2#(!#!/#+,!.(!C*%#A!0.!6$.'#$!C%#-,A!-$#(A6,$N#0#A?!
&.$5#! #'$#0#+%.! $.#%*X#$! 3(! .BC.$*N.(-,! fP,AD3#g>! *NC.0*$! 03$#(-.! 3(! $#-,! m3.! %#!
L*.$$#! '*$#A.?! 9%! /#N+*,! .(! %#! /*$/3%#/*4(! C$,C,$/*,(#$5#! /,(,/*N*.(-,A! A,+$.! .%!
C#C.%!0.!%#!$,-#/*4(!0.!%#!L*.$$#!.(!0.-.$N*(#$!%#!/*$/3%#/*4(!]C$*(/*C#%N.(-.!#!-$#2dA!
0.! %#A! 63.$X#A! 0.! ",$*,%*A_?! E.$,! -#%! .BC.$*N.(-,! .A! -./(,%4'*/#N.(-.! N3F! 0*65/*%?!
@A*N*AN,! C$,03/.! .6./-,A! A./3(0#$*,A! C,/,! 0.A.#+%.A?! E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.>! .%! C%#(.-#!
R.(3A>! /,(! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! %#! N*AN#! N#A#! F! $#0*,! m3.! %#! L*.$$#>! -*.(.! 3(!
N,2*N*.(-,!0.!$,-#/*4(!0,A/*.(-#A!/3#$.(-#!2./.A!N.(,$?!c#!#-N4A6.$#!0.!R.(3A!.A!
N3/D,! NhA! 0.(A#! m3.! %#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! c#! <#-3$#%.X#>! C3.A>! D#! 0*AC3.A-,! 3(!
.BC.$*N.(-,!(#-3$#%!C#$#!%,A!N.-.,$4%,',A?!
PGC*-.$!'*$#!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!/#0#!0*.X!D,$#A!A,+$.!A3!.\.o!3(!.(,$N.!C%#(.-#!m3.!
%,!D#/.!N3/D,!NhA!$hC*0#N.(-.!m3.!%#!L*.$$#?!c,A!.6./-,A!0.!%#!$,-#/*4(!0.+.(!0.!
A.$! N3/D,! NhA! *NC,$-#(-.A! m3.! A,+$.! %#! L*.$$#>! .! *(030#+%.N.(-.! PGC*-.$! 0#! %#!
*NC$.A*4(! 0.! C,A..$! 3(#! #-N4A6.$#! -3$+3%.(-#! F! -.$$*+%.N.(-.! #'*-#0#o! A3A! 6#\#A! F!
/*(-3$,(.A! #-N,A6d$*/,A! /*.$-#N.(-.! A,(! 3(#! C$3.+#! 0.! A3! $hC*0#! $,-#/*4(?! H(#!
+3.(#! /,NC$.(A*4(! 0.! %#! /*$/3%#/*4(! 0.! %#A! 0.(A#A! #-N4A6.$#A! 0.! R.(3A! F! PGC*-.$!
N.\,$#$h>! A*(! 030#>! (3.A-$,A! /,(,/*N*.(-,A! #/.$/#! 0.! %#! /*$/3%#/*4(! ,/.h(*/#! F!
#-N,A6d$*/#!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!
;! 6*\dN,(,A! .(! .%! C%#(.-#! K#$-.?! I.! #m35! 3(! C%#(.-#! /,(! .%! N*AN,! C.$5,0,! 0.!
$,-#/*4(!F!%#!N*AN#!*(/%*(#/*4(!0.!A3!.\.!0.!$,-#/*4(!#!A3!C%#(,!,$+*-#%!m3.!%#!L*.$$#?!
E.$,! A3! #-N4A6.$#! A,%#N.(-.! #%/#(X#! #%! 8! ! 0.! %#! (3.A-$#>! /#$./.! 0.! ,/d#(,A! F!
-#NC,/,!-*.(.!#'3#!%5m3*0#?!K#$-.!.A!3(!.BC.$*N.(-,!0.!/,(-$,%!A,+$.!%#!*(6%3.(/*#!
0.!%,A!,/d#(,A!F!#'3#!%5m3*0#!.(!%#!/*$/3%#/*4(!#-N,A6d$*/#?!
I#A-#!D#/.!N3F!C,/,!-*.NC,>!.%!'.4%,',!A4%,!A.!D#+5#!%*N*-#0,!#!3(!-*C,!0.!.A-30*,M!
.%! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! 9$#! *(/#C#X! 0.! 0./*0*$! m3d! C$,C*.0#0.A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! A,(!
63(0#N.(-#%.A! #! -,0#A! %#A! A3C.$6*/*.A! C%#(.-#$*#A! F! /3h%.A! A,(! C./3%*#$.A! #! %#A!
/*$/3(A-#(/*#A!G(*/#A!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!E,$!.\.NC%,>!%#A!,+A.$2#/*,(.A!A*AN,'$h6*/#A!0.!
%,A!-.$$.N,-,A!D#(!$.2.%#0,!%#!.A-$3/-3$#!*(-.$*,$!0.!%#!L*.$$#!F!A3!0*2*A*4(!.(!/,$-.X#>!
N#(-,>!/.(-$,!0.!N.-#%!6%3*0,!F!(G/%.,!*(-.$*,$!A4%*0,?!E.$,!%#!$#X4(!0.!.A-#!0*2*A*4(!
A*'3.!A*.(0,!N3F!,+A/3$#?!k9(!#%'3(#!dC,/#!'.,%4'*/#!.B304!%#!L*.$$#!A3!/,$-.X#!
C#$-*.(0,! 0.%! N#(-,l! k"#F4! 0.! %,A! /*.%,A! 03$#(-.! #%'G(! -.NC$#(,! #/,(-./*N*.(-,!
/#-#A-$46*/,l! k@/#A,! .%! (G/%.,! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! A.! 6,$N4! '$#03#%N.(-.! 03$#(-.! 3(#!
dC,/#! '.,%4'*/#! N.0*#(-.! .%! D3(0*N*.(-,! ,! C.(.-$#/*4(! 0.%! D*.$$,! #! -$#2dA! 0.%!
N#(-,l! k;! A.! 6,$N4! 0.! 6,$N#! 0*A/,(-*(3#>! m3*XhA>! .(! 3(#! L*.$$#! .(! 63A*4(! .(! %#!
dC,/#! .(! m3.! A.! ,$*'*(4! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#l! L#%.A! C$,+%.N#A! A.! C3.0.(! .B#N*(#$!
.6./-3#(0,! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! A*AN,Nd-$*/#A! A,+$.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! ,-$,A! C%#(.-#A>! F!
C,0$5#(! $.A3%-#$! C,/,! /,A-,A,A! A*! A.! $.#%*X#$#(! #3-,Nh-*/#N.(-.! /,(! %,A!
*(A-$3N.(-,A!0.!m3.!0*AC,(.N,A!D,F!05#?!
@/-3#%N.(-.! A.! 0*AC,(.! 0.! C$3.+#A! /,(2*(/.(-.A! 0.! m3.! .B*A-.! 3(! N,2*N*.(-,! 0.!
0.$*2#! /,(-*(.(-#%?! 9%! N,2*N*.(-,! 0.! y6$*/#! F! @Nd$*/#! #%.\h(0,A.! 3(! /,(-*(.(-.! 0.!
,-$,!.A!.%!.\.NC%,!NhA!/,(,/*0,!D#A-#!%#!6./D#?!@%'3(#A!-.,$5#A!N.(/*,(#(!.%!D./D,!
0.!m3.!%#!63.$X#!0.!*NC3%A,!0.!%#!0.$*2#!/,(-*(.(-#%!F!0.!%#!.2,%3/*4(!0.%!*(-.$*,$!0.!
(3.A-$,! C%#(.-#! A.! D#%%#(! /,$$.%#/*,(#0#A>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! N.0*#(-.! /,$$*.(-.A! 0.!
0*63A*4(! 0.! /#%,$! m3.! /*$/3%#(! %.(-#N.(-.! .(-$.! .%! (G/%.,! F! %#! /,$-.X#! .(! .%! N#(-,?!
L#%.A! /,(.B*,(.A! .(-$.! '.,%,'5#! 0.! A3C.$6*/*.! F! .%! *(-.$*,$! 0.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! .A-h(!
.NC.X#(0,! #! 0.A-#/#$! .(! .%! .A-30*,! 0.! ,-$,A! #A-$,A?! E,(.N,A! #! C$3.+#! (3.A-$#!
/,NC$.(A*4(! 0.! -#%.A! $.%#/*,(.A! 0.N,A-$#(0,! A*! C3.0.(! #C%*/#$A.! #! ,-$,! %3'#$!
/3#%m3*.$#?!
c#A!C.$AC./-*2#A!m3.!A.!D#(!/,(A.'3*0,!.(!.A-#!/%#A.!0.!.A-30*,A!C$,C,$/*,(#(!3(#!
#NC%*#! '#N#! 0.! /,(A./3.(/*#A! C$h/-*/#A?! H(#! '.(.$#%*X#/*4(! 0.! %#! /*.(/*#!
N.-.,$,%4'*/#! C3.0.! /,(03/*$! #! '$#(0.A! N.\,$#A! .(! .%! C$,(4A-*/,! 0.%! -*.NC,?!
:(/%3A,! C,0$5#! /,(03/*$! #! %#! N,0*6*/#/*4(! 0.%! -*.NC,?! 9%! .A-30*,! 0.! %#! #-N4A6.$#! 0.!
R.(3A! F#! D#! 0#0,! %3'#$! #! %#! -.,$5#! 0.! m3.! #%%5! .A-h! -.(*.(0,! %3'#$! 3(! .6./-,! 0.!
invernadero! 0.A/,(-$,%#0,>! 3(! .m3*%*+$*,! *(.A-#+%.! .(! .%! /3#%! 3(! #3N.(-,! 0.! %#!
-.NC.$#-3$#!C$,2,/#!3(!#3N.(-,!0.%!/,(-.(*0,!0.!2#C,$!0.!#'3#!#-N,A6d$*/,>!m3.!#!
A3!2.X!C$,2,/#!#+A,$/*4(!*(6$#$$,\#!0.!%#!$#0*#/*4(!-d$N*/#!0.%!C%#(.-#!%%.2#(0,!#!3(!
*(/$.N.(-,!#G(!N#F,$!.(!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.>!F!#A5!A3/.A*2#N.(-.?!&*!%#!
L*.$$#! D3+*.A.! *(*/*#0,! A3! $./,$$*0,! %*'.$#N.(-.! NhA! /.$/#! 0.%! &,%! 0.! %,! m3.! %,! D#!
D./D,>! %,A! /h%/3%,A! -.4$*/,A! C$.%*N*(#$.A! *(0*/#(! m3.! D#+$5#N,A! -.$N*(#0,! C,$! A.$!
,-$,!N#$/D*-,!F!#',A-#0,!R.(3A?!E.$,!2*2*N,A!3(#!dC,/#!.(!%#!m3.!%#!#-N4A6.$#!0.!
%#! L*.$$#! .A-h! A*.(0,! 63.$-.N.(-.! N,0*6*/#0#! C,$! .%! D,N+$.?! 9A! 0.! C$*N,$0*#%!
*NC,$-#(/*#!/,NC$.(0.$!%,!m3.!D#!A3/.0*0,!#!R.(3A>!/,(!,+\.-,!0.!C,0.$!.2*-#$!3(#!
$.C$,03//*4(!#//*0.(-#%!.(!%#!L*.$$#!0.%!*(2.$(#0.$,!0.A/,(-$,%#0,!0.!R.(3A?!
c,A! .A-30*,A! 0.! %#A! A3C.$6*/*.A! .! *(-.$*,$.A! 0.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! C3.0.(! 0#$! %3'#$!
$.#%N.(-.! #! +.(.6*/*,A! C$h/-*/,A! .(! .%! C$,(4A-*/,! 0.! -.$$.N,-,A! #A5! /,N,>! #! %#$',!
C%#X,>!.(!%#A!C$,AC.//*,(.A!'.,%4'*/#A!0.!N*(.$#%.A!2#%*,A,A!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!
c#!$.2,%3/*4(!m3.!.(!.%!C%#(,!+*,%4'*/,!A3C,(0$5#!.%!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,!0.!2*0#!(#-3$#%!
.(! ,-$,A! %3'#$.A! -#N+*d(! C$,C,$/*,(#$5#! 3(#A! .(,$N.A! C,A*+*%*0#0.A! 0.!
*(A,AC./D#0,A! +.(.6*/*,A! C$h/-*/,A>! C#$-*/3%#$N.(-.! .(! %,! /,(/.$(*.(-.! #! %#!
*(2.A-*'#/*4(!0.%!/h(/.$!F!0.%!.(2.\./*N*.(-,>!-.N#A!m3.!.(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0!.A-h(!NhA!
%*N*-#0,A!C,$!%#A!*0.#A!m3.!C,$!%,A!N.0*,A!./,(4N*/,A?!
9%! .A-30*,! 0.! %#! N#-.$*#! #%-#N.(-.! /,(0.(A#0#! .(! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! (.3-$,(.A! F! %#!
6#+3%,A#! C$,03//*4(! 0.! .(.$'5#! .(! %,A! /.(-$,A! 0.! '#%#B*#A! F#! D#(! /,(03/*0,! #!
A3'.$.(/*#A! A,+$.! C,A*+%.A! N,0*6*/#/*,(.A! 0.! %#A! %.F.A! 0.! %#! 65A*/#>! %.F.A! m3.! A.!
0.03/.(!.(!%#!L*.$$#!C#$#!.BC%*/#$!%,A!6.(4N.(,A!,+A.$2#0,A!.(!%#!N*AN#?!
c#! .BC%,$#/*4(! 0.%! .AC#/*,! C$,C,$/*,(#$h>! *(.2*-#+%.N.(-.>! 3(! $*/,! F! .(,$N.!
/,(\3(-,! 0.! +.(.6*/*,A! C$h/-*/,A?! E.$,! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! /*.(/*#! A3'*.$.! m3.! .%! NhA!
*NC,$-#(-.!0.!-,0,A!.%%,A!A.$h!A*.NC$.!*(.AC.$#0,>!+.(.6*/*,A!m3.>!.(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0>!
#G(!(,!A,N,A!A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!#C-,A!C#$#!C$,(,A-*/#$!,!#(-*/*C#$?!
!
8. La exploracin del espacio como empresa humana - 2. El inters pblico
!
9%! *(-.$dA! /*.(-56*/,! 0*$./-,! C,$! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! 0.%! .AC#/*,! F! %#A! /,(A./3.(/*#A!
C$h/-*/#A!m3.!A.!C3.0.(!*N#'*(#$!/,N,!$.A3%-#0,!0.!-#%.A!.BC%,$#/*,(.A!(,!A,(!0.!
*(-.$dA!'.(.$#%!F>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!-#NC,/,!C$*(/*C#%>!C#$#!.%!D,N+$.!0.!%#!/#%%.!,!C#$#!
.%! C$,6#(,! .(! -#%.A! N#-.$*#A?! I,F! 05#! n/3#(0,! %#A! #(-*'3#A! /$..(/*#A! .A-h(!
0./%*(#(0,n! D#F! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! D#N+$.! 6*%,A46*/#>! ,>! NhA! +*.(>! 0*$5#! F,>! m3.! 3(#!
(./.A*0#0!0.!A#+.$!m3*d(.A!A,N,A!F!/4N,!D.N,A!%%.'#0,!#m35?!I#F!3(#!+GAm3.0#!
/,(A-#(-.>!#!N.(30,!*(/,(A/*.(-.>!0.!3(#!C.$AC./-*2#!/4AN*/#!C#$#!%#!I3N#(*0#0?!
9A-,!A.!C3.0.!,+A.$2#$!.(!*((3N.$#+%.A!6,$N#A>!C.$,!N3/D,!NhA!/%#$#N.(-.!.(!%,A!
campus! 0.! %#A! H(*2.$A*0#0.A?! @m35! A.! D#/.! .2*0.(-.! .%! .(,$N.! *(-.$dA! D#/*#! 3(#!
#NC%*#! '#N#! 0.! -4C*/,A! CA.30,/*.(-56*/,A! ,! A.N*/*.(-56*/,A! n#A-$,%,'5#>! .A-30*,! 0.!
;R<:&>! *(2.A-*'#/*4(! 0.! %,A! -$#+#\,A! 0.! :NN#(3.%! R.%*q,2Aq*>! .! *(/%3A,! .A-30*,! 0.!
#%'3(,A! A3C.$Dd$,.A! 0.! /*.(/*#O6*//*4(n>! -,0,! %,! /3#%! $.C$.A.(-#! 3(! *(-.(-,>! 0.A0.!
N*!C3(-,!0.!2*A-#>!#+A,%3-#N.(-.!*(6$3/-3,A,>!0.!C$,C,$/*,(#$!C.$AC./-*2#!/4AN*/#!#!
%#!I3N#(*0#0?!9%!C$,6.A,$!Z.,$'.!t#%0>!0.!I#$2#$0>!A*(!030#!C*.(A#!.(!.A-.!#(D.%,!
0.!C.$AC./-*2#!/4AN*/#>!/3#(0,!.A/$*+.M!
De cualquier modo que sea, tenemos que hallar nuestro camino de regreso a los
valores humanos. Incluso dira que a la religin. Opino que no hay nada que sea
sobrenatural. La Naturaleza es mi religin y con ella tengo bastante... lo que quiero
decir es: Que necesitamos compartir unos puntos de vista mucho ms amplios sobre
el lugar del hombre en el Universo.
9%! %*+$,! NhA! 2.(0*0,! .(! %#A! /,N3(*0#0.A! 0.! .A-30*#(-.A>! 0.A0.! "#N+$*0'.>!
K#AA#/D3A.--A>!D#A-#!).$q.%.F>!"#%*6,$(*#>!.(!%,A!G%-*N,A!#Q,A!A.!-*-3%4!Catlogo de
toda la Tierra>! m3.! A.! /,(A*0.$4! /,N,! 25#! 0.! #//.A,! #! %,A! *(A-$3N.(-,A! C#$#! %#!
/$.#/*4(! 0.! #%-.$(#-*2#A! /3%-3$#%.A?! c,! m3.! .$#! A,$C$.(0.(-.! 63.! .%! (GN.$,! 0.!
-$#+#\,A!C3+%*/#0,A!.(!.%! Catlogo!m3.!A.!$.%#/*,(#+#(!/,(!C.$AC./-*2#A!/4AN*/#A!
/*.(-56*/#A?!:+#(!0.A0.!.%!Atlas de Galaxias>!0.!I3++%.>!D#A-#!+#(0.$#A!F!C,A-.$A!0.!
6,-,'$#65#A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!.(!A3!6#A.!C$*N*-*2#?!9%!-5-3%,!0.!Catlogo de toda la Tierra!A.!
0.$*2#! 0.%! #(A*#! 0.! A3! 63(0#0,$! 0.! 2.$! 3(#! 6,-,'$#65#! 0.! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#! /,N,!
/,(\3(-,?!c#!.0*/*4(!0.!8TU7!#3N.(-4!.A-#!C.$AC./-*2#!N,A-$#(0,!3(#!6,-,'$#65#!0.!
-,0#!%#!R5#!ch/-.#?!
@A*N*AN,>!D#F!3(#!-.(0.(/*#!A.N.\#(-.!-#(-,!.(!.%!#$-.!/,N,!.(!%#!NGA*/#!rockM!
Cosmo's Factory>! C,$! Creedence Clearwater Revivalo! Starship>! C,$! %#! Jefferson
Airplaneo!Mr. Spaceman!F!CTA 102>!C,$!%,A!Byrdso!Mr. Rocket Man>!0.!9%-,(!P,D(>!F!
N3/D,A!,-$,A?!
L#%! *(-.$dA! (,! m3.0#! %*N*-#0,! #! %,A! \42.(.A?! 9B*A-.! .(! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A! 3(#!
-$#0*/*4(! m3.! #C,F#! %#! #6*/*4(! CG+%*/#! #! %#! #A-$,(,N5#?! c#A! /,N3(*0#0.A! %,/#%.A!
*(/%3A,!D#(!/,(A-$3*0,!#!A3!/,A-#!+3.(,A!,+A.$2#-,$*,A!/3F,!C.$A,(#%!-#N+*d(!.A-h!
C#'#0,! C,$! %,A! +,%A*%%,A! 0.! %,A! /*30#0#(,A>! A*.NC$.! A,+$.! 3(#! +#A.! -,-#%N.(-.!
2,%3(-#$*#?! R#$*,A! N*%%,(.A! 0.! C.$A,(#A! 2*A*-#(! C%#(.-h$*3NA! /#0#! #Q,! -#(-,! .(!
@Nd$*/#!/,N,!.(!Z$#(!)$.-#Q#?!
9%! #/-3#%! $.A3$'*N*.(-,! 0.%! *(-.$dA! C,$! %#! ./,%,'5#! 0.%! C%#(.-#! L*.$$#! -#N+*d(! .A-h!
5(-*N#N.(-.! $.%#/*,(#0,! /,(! .A-.! #(D.%,! 0.! C.$AC./-*2#! /4AN*/#?! 9(! 3(! C$*(/*C*,!
N3/D,A! 0.! %,A! 0*$*'.(-.A! 0.%! N,2*N*.(-,! ./,%4'*/,! .(! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A! A.!
A*(-*.$,(!.A-*N3%#0,A!#!#/-3#$!#!/#3A#!0.!%#A!6,-,'$#65#A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!-,N#0#A!0.A0.!
.%!.AC#/*,>!.Bm3*A*-#N.(-.!A.(A*+%.!#!%#A!0.C$.0#/*,(.A!0.%!D,N+$.>!3(#!C$#0.$#!.(!
N.0*,!0.%!/*.%,?!
",N,!%,A!$.A3%-#0,A!0.!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!.AC#/*#%!F!A3A!(3.2#A!C.$AC./-*2#A!A,+$.!%#!
L*.$$#! F! A3A! D#+*-#(-.A! /#%#(! C$,63(0#N.(-.! .(! (3.A-$#! A,/*.0#0>! 0.+.(>! /$.,! F,>!
-.(.$!/,(A./3.(/*#A!.(!%#!%*-.$#-3$#!F!C,.A5#>!.(!%#A!#$-.A!2*A3#%.A!F!.(!%#!NGA*/#?!9%!
0*A-*('3*0,!65A*/,!#N.$*/#(,!=*/D#$0!p.F(N#(!.A/$*+.M!
No se hace ningn dao al misterio por saber un poco sobre l. Pues muchsimo
ms maravillosa es la verdad que todo cuanto hayan podido imaginar los artistas del
pasado. Por qu los poetas actuales no hablan de ese misterio para nada? Los que
son poetas, podran hablar de Jpiter si fuese un hombre, pero como es una
inmensa esfera giratoria de metano y amonaco deben guardar silencio? *

*!!=*/D#$0!p.F(N#(M!Introduction to Physics>!R,%?!:>!@00*A,(!t.A%.F?!
E.$,! %#! A*NC%.! .BC%,$#/*4(! '.(.$#%! -,0#25#! (,! C$,2,/#! 3(! 0./*0*0,! *(-.$dA! CG+%*/,!
C,$!.%!.AC#/*,?!E#$#!N3/D,A>!%#A!$,/#A!m3.!A.!D#(!-$#50,!0.!%#!c3(#!/,(A-*-3F.$,(!
3(#! .(,$N.! 0./.C/*4(?! &.! /,(A*0.$#$,(! /,N,! A*NC%.A! $,/#A?! 9%! C#C.%! m3.! D#F#(!
C,0*0,!$.C$.A.(-#$!.(!%#!/$,(,%,'5#!0.!%,A!05#A!0.!/$.#/*4(!0.%!A*A-.N#!L*.$$#Oc3(#!
#G(!(,!A.!D#!.BC%*/#0,!#0./3#0#N.(-.!#%!CG+%*/,?!
1,(0.!.%!*(-.$dA!0.%!CG+%*/,!C,$!.%!.AC#/*,!C#$./.!N,A-$#$A.!/,(!N#F,$!*(-.(A*0#0!
.A!.(!%,A!-.$$.(,A!0.!%#!/,AN,%,'5#!F!+GAm3.0#!0.!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!-4C*/,A!m3.!
D#/.(! A,(#$! /3.$0#A! *NC,$-#(-.A! .(! 3(#! A*'(*6*/#-*2#! 6$#//*4(! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0?! 9%!
D./D,! 0.! m3.! A.! 0.0*m3.! N3/D,! NhA! .AC#/*,! .(! %,A! C.$*40*/,A! #! %#! N3F! 6,$-3*-#!
D*C4-.A*A!0.!%#!.B,+*,%,'5#!m3.!#!N3/D,A!0.!%,A!NhA!*NC,$-#(-.A!$.A3%-#0,A!.(!,-$,A!
/#NC,A>! .A>! A*(! 030#! #%'3(#>! /%#$#! $.2.%#/*4(! 0.%! %3'#$! #0,(0.! #C3(-#! .%! *(-.$dA!
CG+%*/,?!9%!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,!0.!%5(.#A!0.!N*/$,,(0#A!*(-.$.A-.%#$.A!0.!6,$N#%0.D50,!F!
/*#(3$,! 0.! D*0$4'.(,! D#! A*0,! 0.A/$*C-,! #NC%*#N.(-.! .(! %#! E$.(A#! /,N,! #%',!
$.%#/*,(#0,>!#!-$#2dA!0.!3(#!%#$'#!A.$*.!0.!/,(/#-.(#/*,(.A>!/,(!-.N#A!+*,%4'*/,A?!
@3(m3.!.A!2.$0#0!m3.!.%!D,N+$.!0.!%#!/#%%.>!,!%#!C.$A,(#!C$,6#(#!.(!-#%.A!N#-.$*#A>!
C*.(A#!.(!-d$N*(,A!0.!0*6.$.(-.A!2#$*#(-.A!0.!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!/3#(0,!A.!%.!C$.'3(-#!
m3.!*N#'*(.!%#!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!-#N+*d(!.A!2.$0#0!m3.!.%!*(-.$dA>!*(/%3A,!C,$!%,A!
N*/$,+*,A!N#$/*#(,A>!.A!N3/D,!N#F,$!m3.!.(!,-$#A!h$.#A!0.!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!.AC#/*#%?!
c#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! 2*0#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.! C,0$5#! A.$! %#! /%#2.! 0.%! #C,F,! CG+%*/,! #! %,A!
.BC.$*N.(-,A! .AC#/*#%.A>! .BC.$*N.(-,A! ,$*.(-#0,A! -#(-,! D#/*#! .%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$!
/,N,!#!N3/D,!NhA!#%%h!0.!d%?!
I#F! N3/D,A! C,A*+%.A! C3(-,A! 0.! 2*A-#! A,+$.! %,A! /,A-,A! #/-3#%.A! F! 0.! 3(! 63-3$,!
C$4B*N,! .(! /3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$.! #! %#! #A-$,(,N5#! F! /*.(/*#! .AC#/*#%?! ",N,! %,A! /,A-.A!
#(3#%.A! 0.! %#! #A-$,(,N5#! /,(A-*-3F.(! A4%,! 3(! C.m3.Q,! -#(-,! C,$! /*.(-,! 0.! %,A!
C$.A3C3.A-,A! 0.! -,0,! .%! C$,'$#N#! /*.(-56*/,! .AC#/*#%>! N.! %*N*-#$d! #! .A-.! G%-*N,?! &.!
#/,A-3N+$#! #! /,NC#$#$! %,A! '#A-,A! #(3#%.A! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A! .(! .%! C$,'$#N#!
.AC#/*#%! /,(! %,! m3.! .NC%.#! %#! (#/*4(! .(! #%/,D,%! .-5%*/,>! /D*/%.! ,! /,ANd-*/#?!
E.$A,(#%N.(-.!/,(A*0.$,!NhA!G-*%!/,NC#$#$!0*/D,A!/,A-.A!/,(!%,A!0.%!1.C#$-#N.(-,!
0.! 1.6.(A#! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A?! =./3$$*.(0,! #! 3(! *(6,$N.! 0.! %#! Z.(.$#%!
@//,3(-*('!;66*/.!0.%!Z,+*.$(,!]Times!0.!<.r!J,$q>!8T!0.!\3%*,!0.!8TU7_>!A#+.N,A!
m3.!.%!/,A-.!/#%/3%#0,!0.!#(-.N#(,!C#$#!m3.!%#!N*A*4(!Viking!#/#+.!6.%*XN.(-.!.(!
K#$-.>!.(!8TU[>!#A/*.(0.!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!#!%#!N*-#0!0.%!/,A-.!0.%!%%#N#0,!A*A-.N#!
0.! C$,F./-*%.A! #(-*+#%5A-*/,A! Safeguard! C#$#! .%! #Q,! 6*A/#%! 0.! 8TU7?! 9%! /,A-.! 0.! 3(#!
.BC%,$#/*4(!Grand Tour!0.!-,0,A!%,A!C%#(.-#A!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$!.B-.$*,$!]/#(/.%#0#!
C,$! 6#%-#! 0.! 6,(0,A_! .A! /,NC#$#+%.! #%! C$.A3C3.A-,! 0.! 8TU7! C#$#! .%! A*A-.N#!
Minuteman! :::o! .%! /,A-.! 0.! 3(! .(,$N.! -.%.A/,C*,! 4C-*/,! .(! .%! .AC#/*,! /#C#X! 0.!
$.#%*X#$! .A-30*,A! 0.6*(*-*2,A! A,+$.! %,A! ,$5'.(.A! 0.%! H(*2.$A,>! A.! C3.0.! /,NC#$#$! #%!
0.%!Minuteman!::!C#$#!8TU7o!F!3(!C$,'$#N#!'.(.$#%!A,+$.!A#-d%*-.A!m3.!*(2.A-*'3.(!
%,A! $./3$A,A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>! C$,'$#N#! m3.! *NC%*/#$5#! 2#$*,A! #Q,A! 0.! 0.-#%%#0#!
*(AC.//*4(! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! F! -*.NC,! #-N,A6d$*/,! 0.! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#>! /,A-#$5#!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!%,!N*AN,!m3.!.%!2.D5/3%,!.AC#/*#%!EOV"!C#$#!8TU7?!H(!C$,'$#N#!
0.! 3(#! 0d/#0#! 0.! 03$#/*4(! 0.0*/#0,! #! %#! *(2.A-*'#/*4(! A*A-.Nh-*/#! 0.! -,0,! .%!
&*A-.N#! &,%#$! /,A-#$5#! -#(-,! /,N,! %,A! .$$,$.A! /,(-#+%.A! /,N.-*0,A! .(! 3(! A,%,!
A*A-.N#! 0.! defensa! F! .(! 3(! A,%,! #Q,?! 9%! C$,'$#N#! .AC#/*#%! /*.(-56*/,! .A! /#N+*,!
/D*/,!.(!/,NC#$#/*4(!/,(!%,A!.$$,$.A!/,N.-*0,A!.(!.%!C$.A3C3.A-,!0.%!1.C#$-#N.(O
-,!0.!1.6.(A#?!
;-$,! C3(-,! 0.! 2*A-#! m3.! .A! C$./*A,! /,(A*0.$#$! .A! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! .AC#/*#%! /,N,!
.(-$.-.(*N*.(-,?!H(!Viking!C,0$5#!A.$!6*(#(/*#0,!-,-#%N.(-.!N.0*#(-.!%#!2.(-#!#!/#0#!
#N.$*/#(,!0.!3(!A,%,!.\.NC%#$!0.!3(#!$.2*A-#!m3.!/,(-32*.$#!6,-,'$#65#A!-,N#0#A!.(!
%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!K#$-.!C,$!.%!Viking?!c#A!6,-,'$#65#A!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!%#!c3(#>!%,A!C%#(.-#A!
F! '#%#B*#A! .(! .AC*$#%! .! *$$.'3%#$.A>! A,(! 6,$N#A! /#$#/-.$5A-*/#A! 0.%! #$-.! 0.! (3.A-$#!
dC,/#?! p,-,'$#65#A! -#(! *NC$.A*,(#(-.A! /,N,! %#A! 0.%! Lunar Orbiter! 0.%! *(-.$*,$! 0.%!
/$h-.$! ",Cd$(*/,! F! %#A! .(2*#0#A! C,$! .%! Mariner! T! 0.! %,A! 2,%/#(.A! N#$/*#(,A>!
-,$N.(-#A!0.!2*.(-,>!%3(#A!F!/#Am3.-.A!C,%#$.A!0.!D*.%,>!*(AC*$#(!#!%#!2.X!#A,N+$,!F!
A.(-*0,! #$-5A-*/,?! "3#%m3*.$! 2.D5/3%,! N./h(*/,>! (,! N#(.\#0,! C,$! .%! D,N+$.>! F!
.(2*#0,! #! K#$-.>! C,0$5#! A.$! 6*(#(/*#0,! N.0*#(-.! 3(! A*A-.N#! 0.! A3A/$*C/*4(!
-.%.2*A*2#?!E,$!,-$#!C#$-.>!km3*d(!030#!0.!m3.!3(!0*A/,!'$#+#0,!/,(!%,A>!#%!C#$./.$>!
.B-$#Q,A!$3*0,A!m3.!A.!,F.(!.(!K#$-.!(,!A.!2.(0.$5#!#!.A/#%#!N3(0*#%l!
<,! 0.A.,! 0*A/3-*$! #m35! 0.! A*! D#(! 0.! .(2*#$A.! ,! (,! D,N+$.A! #%! .AC#/*,! C#$#! m3.!
$.#%*/.(!.BC%,$#/*,(.A!C%#(.-#$*#A>!C.$,!.A!C,A*+%.!m3.!D#F#!N3F!+3.(#A!$#X,(.A!(,!
/*.(-56*/#A! C#$#! N#(0#$! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! #%! .AC#/*,?! s3*XhA! D#F#! /#A,A! *(-.$N.0*,A!
.(-$.!.BC%,$#/*,(.A!%%.2#0#A!#!/#+,!C,$!.%!D,N+$.!F!,-$#A!.(!%#A!m3.!6#%-.!.%!D,N+$.>!
/,A#!m3.!N3F!+*.(!C,0$5#N,A!2.$!.(!%#A!C$4B*N#A!0d/#0#A?!E,$!.\.NC%,>!.A!C,A*+%.!
m3.!A.!%%.'3.!#!.(2*#$!*('.(*,A!#!,-$,!C%#(.-#!-$*C3%#0,A!C,$!$,+,-A>!C.$,!/,(-$,%#0,A!
C,$! 3(! A.$! D3N#(,! .(! 4$+*-#?! L#N+*d(! .A! C$,+#+%.! m3.! #m3.%%,A! C%#(.-#A! /,(!
N.0*,A! #N+*.(-.A! D,A-*%.A! 0,(0.! .B*A-#! 3(! '$#(! C.%*'$,! 0.! /,(-#N*(#/*4(! C,$!
N*/$,,$'#(*AN,A! -.$$.A-$.A! A.#(! .BC%,$#0,A! C,$! D,N+$.A! N.-*0,A! .(! '$#(0.A!
Nhm3*(#A>! Nhm3*(#A! .AC./*#%.A! m3.! #NC%5.(! %#! C.$/.C/*4(! A.(A,$*#%! F! %#A!
/#C#/*0#0.A!N3A/3%#$.A!0.%!,C.$#0,$!D3N#(,?!
@C#$-.!0.!-,0,A!.A-,A!D*C,-d-*/,A!*(2.(-,A>!.A!.2*0.(-.!m3.!.%!C.$6.//*,(#N*.(-,!0.!
0*AC,A*-*2,A! C#$#! %%.2#$! #! /#+,! 3(#! .BC%,$#/*4(! C%#(.-#$*#! A*(! C$.A.(/*#! D3N#(#!
C$./*A#$h!0.!%#!N*AN#!-./(,%,'5#!*04(.#!#!%#!6#+$*/#/*4(!0.!G-*%.A!$,+,-A!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!
H(! 2.D5/3%,! .AC#/*#%! m3.! #-.$$*/.! .(! K#$-.! C#$#! .%! #Q,! 8TW7>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! A.$h!
/#C#X! 0.! sentir! A3! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! N3/D,! N.\,$! m3.! %,! C3.0#(! D#/.$! %,A! A.$.A!
D3N#(,Ao! .B#N*(#$! /3*0#0,A#N.(-.! .%! C#*A#\.>! %%.2#$! #! %#! C$h/-*/#! 0./*A*,(.A!
C$,'$#N#0#A>! +#A#0#A! .(! *(6,$N#/*4(! #0m3*$*0#! in situ>! .-/d-.$#?! <,! /#+.! 030#! 0.!
m3.!A.N.\#(-.!$,+,-!F!A3A!C$*N,A!NhA!/.$/#(,A>!m3.!A.!C$,03/*$5#(!.(!N#A#>!A.$5#(!
A3N#N.(-.!G-*%.A!#m35>!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!9A-,F!C.(A#(0,!.(!.A-.!N,N.(-,!.(!#m3.%%#A!
,C.$#/*,(.A!m3.!.(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0!A,(!0.!*NC,A*+%.!$.#%*X#/*4(>!/,N,>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!%#!
.BC%,$#/*4(! F! ,C.$#/*,(.A! A,+$.! %,A! 6,(0,A! A3+N#$*(,A! #+*A#%.A>! C.$,! -#N+*d(!
C*.(A,! .(! $,+,-A! *(03A-$*#%.A! m3.! 0.A.NC.Q.(! -#$.#A! C,/,! *(-.$.A#(-.A! ,!
N,(4-,(#A! .(! %#A! .NC$.A#A>! #A5! /,N,! $,+,-A! 0,NdA-*/,A! m3.! %*+.$.(! #%! #N#! 0.!
/#A#!0.!3(#!2*0#!0.!C.(,A,!-$#+#\,?!
c#!.BC.$*.(/*#!0.!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!.AC#/*#%!(,!(,A!C$,C,$/*,(#!3(#!G(*/#!6*%,A,65#>!.(!
/*.$-#!N.0*0#>!/#0#!'$3C,!-*.(0.!#!2.$!A3A!C$,C*,A!C3(-,A!0.!2*A-#!6*%,A46*/,A!D./D,A!
$.#%*0#0!F!(,!A*.NC$.!N.0*#(-.!3(#!#3-d(-*/#!%4'*/#M!<*q*-#!u$3A/D.2!N#(*6.A-4!/,(!
N3/D,! d(6#A*A! m3.! 03$#(-.! .%! 23.%,! .AC#/*#%! 0.! J3$*! Z#'#$*(! (,! A.! D#+5#(!
0.A/3+*.$-,! h('.%.A! 3! ,-$,A! A.$.A! A,+$.(#-3$#%.Ao! F! .(! /#A*! C.$6./-#! /,(-$#C#$-*0#>!
%,A! #A-$,(#3-#A! 0.%! @C,%,! W! %.F.$,(! .(! %#! 4$+*-#! %3(#$! %#! /,AN,',(5#! +#+*%4(*/#!
'3#$0#0#!/,N,!$.%*m3*#!.(!.%!/#C5-3%,!0.%!Zd(.A*A>!/,N,!A*!*(-.(-#$#(!#A.'3$#$!#!A3!
CG+%*/,! #N.$*/#(,! m3.! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! 0.! %#! c3(#! (,! A.! D#%%#! .(! /,(-$#0*//*4(! /,(!
(*('3(#! /$..(/*#! $.%*'*,A#?! E.$,! .A! A,$C$.(0.(-.! /4N,! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! .AC#/*#%!
/,(03/.!0*$./-#N.(-.!#!-.N#A!F!C$,+%.N#A!6*%,A46*/,A!F!$.%*'*,A,A?!
"$.,!m3.!.%!/,(-$,%!N*%*-#$!0.!%,A!23.%,A!.AC#/*#%.A!/,(!C$.A.(/*#!D3N#(#>!m3.!F#!A.!
C$#/-*/#!.(!%#!H(*4(!&,2*d-*/#!nF!.A!-.N#!0.!0.+#-.!.(!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,An!.A!3(!
C#A,! m3.! 0.+.(! #C,F#$! -,0,A! %,A! m3.! A.! -*-3%#(! 0.6.(A,$.A! 0.! %#! C#X?! K.! -.N,!
N3/D,! m3.! %#A! ,$'#(*X#/*,(.A! N*%*-#$.A! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A! F! 0.! %#! H(*4(!
&,2*d-*/#!A,(!,$'#(*X#/*,(.A!/,(!6,$N*0#+%.A!*(-.$.A.A!/$.#0,A!.(!/3#(-,!A.!$.6*.$.!
#!%#!'3.$$#?!9A-h(!N*(3/*,A#N.(-.!6,$N#0#A!.!*(A-$3*0#A!C#$#!%#!'3.$$#o!.(!-*.NC,A!
0.!'3.$$#!A.!C$,03/.(!$hC*0,A!#A/.(A,A>!#3N.(-,A!.(!%#A!C#'#A!F!,C,$-3(*0#0.A!0.!
0.N,A-$#$!3(!2#%,$!m3.!.(!-*.NC,A!0.!C#X!(,!A.!0#(?!9A!%4'*/,!m3.!N*.(-$#A!.B*A-#(!
'.(-.A! #(A*,A#A! 0.! '3.$$.#$! A*.NC$.! A.$h! N3/D,! N#F,$! %#! C$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.! m3.!
.A-#%%.!*(-.(/*,(#0#N.(-.!,!#//*0.(-#%N.(-.!3(!/,(6%*/-,?!9(!2*$-30!0.!A3!6,$N#/*4(!
F! -.NC.$#N.(-,>! %,A! N*%*-#$.A>! N3F! #! N.(30,>! (,! A.! A*.(-.(! *(-.$.A#0,A! C,$! ,-$,A!
-*C,A! 0.! .NC%.,! 3! ,-$#! /%#A.! 0.! *(m3*.-30.A?! K3F! C,/,A! A,(! %,A! 0.NhA! N.0*,A! 0.!
2*0#!m3.!C,A.#(!%,A!N.0*,A!0.!C,0.$!F!63.$X#!0.%!\.6.!N*%*-#$?!&*!estalla!%#!C#X>!%,A!
/3.$C,A! N*%*-#$.A>! /,(! A3A! A.$2*/*,A! m3.! F#! (,! A,(! (./.A#$*,A>! A.! A*.(-.(!
C$,63(0#N.(-.!0.A/,(/.$-#0,A>!/,N,!A*!#%'3*.(!%.A!D3+*.A.!0.$$,-#0,?!
9%!E$*N.$!K*(*A-$,!u$3A/D.2!3(#!2.X!*(-.(-4!0#$!-$#+#\,!#!3(!'$#(!(GN.$,!0.!,6*/*#O
%.A! F! \.6.A! 0.%! 9\d$/*-,! =,\,! 0.A-*(h(0,%.A! #! 0*$*'*$! /.(-$#%.A! .%d/-$*/#A! F! ,-$,A!
.A-#+%./*N.(-,A! A*N*%#$.A?! 9A-,! (,! %.A! #'$#04! .(! #+A,%3-,>! F! #%! /#+,! 0.! 3(! #Q,! %#!
N#F,$5#! 0.! .%%,A! D#+5#(! 23.%-,! #! A3A! /3#$-.%.A?! 1.! D./D,>! %#A! ,$'#(*X#/*,(.A!
N*%*-#$.A! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A! F! 0.! %#! H(*4(! &,2*d-*/#! 0.+.(! A3A! .NC%.,A! #! A5!
N*AN,A>! #! %,! m3.! C,0$5#N,A! %%#N#$! #3-,'.A-*4(! F>! .(! /,(A./3.(/*#>! .A! %4'*/,! m3.!
6,$N.(!3(#!#%*#(X#!(#-3$#%!/,(-$#!.%!$.A-,!0.!(,A,-$,A?!
@%! N*AN,! -*.NC,>! .B*A-.(! .(,$N.A! *(03A-$*#A! F! 63.$X#A! %#+,$#%.A! 0.0*/#0#A! #! %#!
.%./-$4(*/#>! m35N*/#! F! 6#+$*/#/*4(! 0.! N*A*%.A! m3.! *'3#%N.(-.! .A-h(! %*'#0#A! #!
6,$N*0#+%.A! *(-.$.A.A! /$.#0,A! C#$#! N#(-.(.$! .A-#! A*-3#/*4(! 0.! C$.C#$#/*4(! C#$#! %#!
'3.$$#?! 1.A./D#(0,! #%'3(,A! -4C*/,A! m3.! N3/D#A! C.$A,(#A! /#%*6*/#(! 0.! $#X,(#+%.A!
.(! /3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$.! #! .A-.! .A-#0,! 0.! /,A#A>! F,! C$.'3(-,>! k.A! m3.! (,! D#F! #%'3(#!
6,$N#! 0.! m3.! -,0,! .A-.! .(,$N.! /,(\3(-,! 0.! *(-.$.A.A! C30*.$#! ,$*.(-#$A.! D#/*#!
#/-*2*0#0.A! NhA! C#/56*/#Al! c#! .BC%,$#/*4(! .AC#/*#%! (./.A*-#! .B#/-#N.(-.! .A-#!
/,N+*(#/*4(!0.!-#%.(-,A!F!/#C#/*0#0.A?!E$./*A#!'$#(!+#A.!-d/(*/#!.(!-#%.A!-.$$.(,A>!
/,N,! .%! 0.! %#! .%./-$4(*/#>! -./(,%,'5#! 0.! /,NC3-#0,$.A>! N#m3*(#$*#! 0.! C$./*A*4(! F!
.A-$3/-3$#A! #.$,.AC#/*#%.A?! =.m3*.$.! #%',! N3F! C#$./*0,! #! %#! ,$'#(*X#/*4(! N*%*-#$!
C#$#!N#(-.(.$!#!3(!'$#(!(GN.$,!0.!.NC$.A#A!'.,'$h6*/#N.(-.!0*AC.$A#A!0*$*'*0#A!
D#/*#!3(!,+\.-*2,!/,NG(?!
c#!D*A-,$*#!0.!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!%#!L*.$$#!D#!A*0,!C$*(/*C#%N.(-.!3(#!
D*A-,$*#!N*%*-#$>!.(!C#$-.!C,$m3.!.A!3(#!#C%*/#/*4(!*04(.#!0.!%#A!-$#0*/*,(.A!N*%*-#$.A!
0.!,$'#(*X#/*4(!F!2#%,$!C.$A,(#%?!&,(!%#A!$.A-#(-.A!-$#0*/*,(.A!N*%*-#$.A!%#A!m3.!C#$#!
(,A,-$,A!$.C$.A.(-#(!D,F!05#!3(!C.%*'$,?!E$,+#+%.N.(-.>!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.%!&*A-.N#!
&,%#$! A.#! 3(#! #%-.$(#-*2#! F! .NC%.,! D,(,$#+%.! C#$#! %,A! *(-.$.A.A! /$.#0,A! .(-$.! %,A!
N*%*-#$.A!F!%#!*(03A-$*#?!E3.0,!*N#'*(#$!%#!-$#(A*/*4(!D#/*#!3(#!0*AC,A*/*4(!.(!%#!m3.!
3(#!*NC,$-#(-.!F!A*'(*6*/#-*2#!C$,C,$/*4(!0.!N*%*-#$.A!0.!/#$$.$#>!-#(-,!0.!%,A!9A-#0,A!
H(*0,A! /,N,! 0.! %#! H(*4(! &,2*d-*/#>! C3.0#! 0.0*/#$A.! #! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! .AC#/*#%?! @%!
N.(,A>!F!.(!C#$-.>!0.+*0,!#!A3A!/,(A*0.$#+%.A!/#C#/*0#0.A!D#F!3(!+3.(!(GN.$,!0.!
N*%*-#$.A! .NC%.#0,A! C,$! %#! @0N*(*A-$#/*4(! 9AC#/*#%! F! @.$,(h3-*/#! <#/*,(#%! .(!
#/-*2*0#0.A! /,(! C,/,! ,! (*('G(! A*'(*6*/#0,! N*%*-#$?! J>! C,$! A3C3.A-,>! %#! '$#(! N#F,$5#!
0.! %,A! #A-$,(#3-#A! F! /,AN,(#3-#A! D#(! A*0,! \.6.A! N*%*-#$.A?! L,0,! .A-,! C3.0.! A.$!
+3.(,o!/3#(-,!NhA!A.!.(-$.-.('#(!#%%h!#$$*+#>!N.(,A!A.!,/3C#$h(!#m35!#+#\,?!
@! C.A#$! 0.! %,A! N3/D,A! /,N3(*/#0,A! 0.! %#! <@&@! #! %#! E$.(A#>! '$#(! C#$-.! 0.%!
C$,'$#N#! .AC#/*#%! F! /#A*! -,0#! A3! /*.(/*#! F! C$,'$#N#! 0.! #C%*/#/*,(.A! /#$./.(! 0.!
C.$AC./-*2#A!#!%#$',!C%#X,?!E,$!A3C3.A-,>!/,NC#$-.(!/,(!%#!A,/*.0#0!#N.$*/#(#!3(#!
/,N3(*0#0!0.!*(-.$.A.A!D3N#(,A>!6*%,A46*/,A!F!.BC%,$#-,$*,A>!*(/%3A,!/,(!.A-#N.(-,A!
A,/*#%.A! m3.! .A-h(! .(! /,NC%.-,! 0.A#/3.$0,?! 9%! /,A-.! 0.! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! .AC#/*#%!
C#$./.!N3F!N,0.A-,!A*!A.!/,NC#$#!/,(!A3A!C,-.(/*#%.A!$./,NC.(A#A?!
!
9. La exploracin del espacio como empresa humana - 3. El inters histrico
!

!
Huellas humanas en la Luna. La fiesta ha terminado, y se han marchado los invitados. Las
huellas dejadas por la tripulacin del Apolo 15 durarn un milln de aos. A lo lejos se ve el
Monte Hadley.

!
@!%#!%#$'#>!.%!N#F,$!A*'(*6*/#0,!0.!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!.AC#/*#%!.A!m3.!#%-.$#$h!%#!D*A-,$*#!
0.!N#(.$#!*$$.2.$A*+%.?!",N,!F#!D.N,A!N.(/*,(#0,!.(!.%!/#C5-3%,!C$*N.$,>!.%!'$3C,!
/,(! .%! /3#%! .%! D,N+$.! A.! *0.(-*6*/#! A.! D#! *0,! #NC%*#(0,! '$#03#%N.(-.! 03$#(-.! %#!
D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0?! I,F! 05#>! .%! 2,%3N.(! 0.! %#! C,+%#/*4(! N3(0*#%! -*.(.! #%!
N.(,A! 3(#! *0.(-*6*/#/*4(! C.$A,(#%! C$*(/*C#%5A*N#! /,(! A3C.$.A-#0,A! (#/*,(#%.A?!
@3(m3.!.%!C$,'$.A,!(,!D#F#!A*0,!A3#2.>!F!.B*A-.(!,/#A*,(#%.A!$.2.$A*,(.A>!A.!-*.(0.!
/%#$#N.(-.!D#/*#!3(#!*0.(-*6*/#/*4(!0.!'$3C,!/,(!%#!I3N#(*0#0!/,N,!/,(\3(-,?!c,A!
#A-$,(#3-#A! F! /,AN,(#3-#A! D#(! D./D,! 0./%#$#/*,(.A>! C$,63(0#N.(-.! A.(-*0#A>!
A,+$.! %#! +.%%.X#! F! A.$.(*0#0! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! /,(-.NC%#0#! 0.A0.! .%! .AC#/*,?! E#$#!
N3/D,A!0.!.%%,A>!3(!23.%,!C,$!.%!.AC#/*,! 63.!3(#!.BC.$*.(/*#!$.%*'*,A#!m3.!/#N+*4!
-,-#%N.(-.! A3A! 2*0#A?! 9(! %#A! 6,-,'$#65#A! m3.! 0.A0.! .%! .AC#/*,! A.! D#(! D./D,! 0.! %#!
L*.$$#>! (,! A.! 0*A-*('3.(! 6$,(-.$#A! (#/*,(#%.A?! ",N,! @$-D3$! "?! "%#$q.! 0*\,! .(! #%'G(!
%3'#$>!.A!0*65/*%!*N#'*(#$>!*(/%3A,!C#$#!.%!NhA!6.$2*.(-.!0.!%,A!(#/*,(#%*A-#A>!.%!D./D,!
0.!(,!$.2*A#$!0.!(3.2,!A3A!C3(-,A!0.!2*A-#!#%!2.$!/4N,!%#!L*.$$#!A.!2#!#%.\#(0,!C,/,!
#! C,/,! D#A-#! /,(2.$-*$A.! .(! 3(! 0*N*(3-,! C3(-,! 0.! %3X! C.$0*0,! .(-$.! N*%%,(.A! 0.!
.A-$.%%#A?!
c#!.BC%,$#/*4(!.AC#/*#%!(,A!,+%*'#!#!$./-*6*/#$!N3/D#A!/,A#A!A,+$.!.%!A*'(*6*/#0,!0.!
(3.A-$,! 0*N*(3-,! C%#(.-#! C.$0*0,! .(! 3(! H(*2.$A,! .(,$N.! F! 0.A/,(,/*0,?! c#!
+GAm3.0#! 0.! 2*0#! .(! ,-$,A! %3'#$.A! A.'3$#N.(-.! C$,2,/#$h! m3.! %#! '.(-.! $.6%.B*,(.!
#/.$/#!0.!%#!A*('3%#$*0#0!0.%!D,N+$.M!.%!A.(0.$,!A.$C.#(-.>!*(A.'3$,>!*NC$,+#+%.!F!
.2,%3-*2,! m3.! (,A! D#! -$#50,! #! 0,(0.! .A-#N,Ao! F! %#! *NC$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.! .(/,(-$#$! n
*(/%3A,! .(! 3(! H(*2.$A,! C,+%#0,! C,$! ,-$#A! *(-.%*'.(/*#An! #! #%'3*.(! /,(! 6,$N#! N3F!
C#$./*0#! #! %#! (3.A-$#?! 9(! .A-#! C.$AC./-*2#>! %#A! A*N*%*-30.A! .(-$.! %,A! D,N+$.A! A.!
0.A-#/#$h(!0.!6,$N#!#+$3N#0,$#!/,(-$#!(3.A-$#A!0*6.$.(/*#A?!
I#F!3(!'.,/.(-$*AN,!C$h/-*/,>!.(!(3.A-$#!2*0#!0*#$*#?!L,0#25#!D#+%#N,A!0.%!&,%!m3.!
A#%.!F!A.!C,(.>!.(!%3'#$!0.!D#+%#$!0.!3(#!L*.$$#!m3.!'*$#?!L,0#25#!C.(A#N,A!.(!3(!
H(*2.$A,! ,$'#(*X#0,! C#$#! (3.A-$,! +.(.6*/*,! F! C,+%#0,! -#(! A4%,! C,$! (,A,-$,A?! c#!
.BC%,$#/*4(!0.%!.AC#/*,>!.(!.A-.!A.(-*0,>!(,A!D#$h!A.$!3(!C,/,!NhA!D3N*%0.A?!
I#$,%0!H$.F!A.!D#!$.6.$*0,>!0.!N#(.$#!C.$/.C-*+%.>!#%!C$,'$#N#!.AC#/*#%!/,N,!3(#!
.AC./*.! 0.! /,(A-$3//*4(! /,(-.NC,$h(.#! 0.! C*$hN*0.A?! R*A-,! .(! .%! /,(-.B-,! 0.%!
9'*C-,! 6#$#4(*/,>! %#! #(#%,'5#! C#$./.! A.$! C#$-*/3%#$N.(-.! *04(.#>! F#! m3.! %#A!
C*$hN*0.A! 63.$,(! 3(! *(-.(-,! 0.! -$#-#$! %,A! C$,+%.N#A! 0.! %#! /,AN,%,'5#! F! %#!
*(N,$-#%*0#0?! 1.A0.! 3(#! C.$AC./-*2#! D*A-4$*/#! #! %#$',! C%#X,>! .A-,! .A! %,! m3.!
C$./*A#N.(-.! A.$h! .%! C$,'$#N#! .AC#/*#%?! c#A! D3.%%#A! 0.! C*.A! 0.\#0#A! C,$! %,A!
#A-$,(#3-#A!.(!%#!c3(#!A,+$.2*2*$h(!3(!N*%%4(!0.!#Q,A>!F!%,A!0*2.$A,A!*(A-$3N.(-,A!F!
.N+#%#\.A!m3.!#%%5!m3.0#$,(!C3.0.(!03$#$!-#(-,!/,N,!.%!&,%?!
E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.>! %#A! C*$hN*0.A! A,(! N,(3N.(-#%.A! F! D,F! 05#! /$..N,A! m3.! D#(! A*0,!
*(G-*%.A! .A63.$X,A! C#$#! #A.'3$#$! %#! A3C.$2*2.(/*#! -$#A! %#! N3.$-.! 0.! 3(! D,N+$.>! .%!
6#$#4(?! s3*XhA! D#F#! 3(#! N.\,$! #(#%,'5#! .(! %,A! X*'3$#-A>! %#A! -,$$.A! 0,-#0#A! 0.!
-.$$#X#A! 0.! %,A! A3N.$*,A! F! +#+*%,(*,A>! %,A! %3'#$.A! 0,(0.! %,A! 0*,A.A! +#\#+#(! #! %#!
L*.$$#! F! %#! C,+%#/*4(! /,N,! /,(\3(-,! *(-.$2.(5#! .(! %#! 2*0#! 0*#$*#?! <,! /#+.! 030#! 0.!
m3.!D#F!3(!C,/,!0.!C*$hN*0.!.(!%,A!'$#(0.A!/,D.-.A!m3.!A.!.(25#(!#%!.AC#/*,>!C.$,!
/$.,! m3.! A3! A*'(*6*/#0,! .A.(/*#%>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.>! A.#! .%! 0.! 3(,A! X*'3$#-A!
/,(-.NC,$h(.,A?!
H(#! A,/*.0#0! *(N.$A#! .(! 3(#! $.%#-*2#N.(-.! N,0.A-#>! C#/56*/#! .! *(-.%./-3#%N.(-.!
A*'(*6*/#-*2#!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.!/3#(-,!%.!$,0.#>!C,A..>!A*(!030#!#%'3(#>!C,A*+*%*0#0.A!0.!
#%/#(X#$! %#! '$#(0.X#?! 9A! 0*65/*%! 0.N,A-$#$! .A-,! m3.! C,0$5#N,A! %%#N#$! .A%#+,(.A!
/#3A#%.A>! .>! D*A-4$*/#N.(-.>! (,! .B*A-.! /,$$.%#/*4(! #%'3(#! .(-$.! 3(,A! F! ,-$,A?! E.$,!
$.A3%-#! A,$C$.(0.(-.! .%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! %#A! (#/*,(.A! F! dC,/#A! /#$#/-.$*X#0#A! C,$! 3(!
'$#(! 6%,$./*N*.(-,! 0.! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(>! -#N+*d(! .A-h(! N#$/#0#A! C,$! 3(! .(,$N.!
0.A#$$,%%,! /3%-3$#%?! 9(! C#$-.>! .A-,! A.! 0.+.! #%! /,(-#/-,! /,(! %#A! /,A#A! (3.2#A>! /,(!
(3.2#A! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#! F! -#N+*d(! /,(! N,0.$(,A! /#N*(,A! 0.! C.(A#N*.(-,!
0.A/,(,/*0,A!C#$#!3(#!/3%-3$#!/.$$#0#>!/,(!A3A!2#A-#A!.(.$'5#A!*(-$,AC./-*2#A?!
I#F! .\.NC%,A! m3.! C3.0.(! -,N#$A.! 0.%! +5+%*/,! ;$*.(-.! K.0*,>! 0.! %#A! @-.(#A! 0.!
E.$*/%.A! F! 0.! ,-$#A! dC,/#A>! C.$,! N.! A*.(-,! NhA! #-$#50,>! .(! .A-.! A.(-*0,>! C,$! %#!
dC,/#!0.!%#A!.BC%,$#/*,(.A!.3$,C.#A!F!A3A!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,A?!c#A!%.('3#A!2.$(h/3%#A!
0.! p$#(/*#>! :('%#-.$$#! F! %#! E.(5(A3%#! :+d$*/#! D#%%#$,(! 0.6*(*-*2#! .BC$.A*4(! %*-.$#$*#! #%!
N*AN,! -*.NC,! m3.! A.! .NC$.(05#(! %,A! C$*N.$,A! 2*#\.A! -$#A#-%h(-*/,A! 0.!
0.A/3+$*N*.(-,A?! =#+.%#*A! F! K,(-#*'(.>! .(! p$#(/*#o! &D#q.AC.#$.>! K*%-,(! F! %,A!
-$#03/-,$.A! 0.! %#! )*+%*#! 0.%! $.F! P#*N.! .(! :('%#-.$$#o! ".$2#(-.A! F! c,C.! 0.! R.'#>! .(!
9AC#Q#o! "#N,.(A>! .(! E,$-3'#%>! -,0,A! 0#-#(! 0.! %#! N*AN#! dC,/#?! @! \3X'#$! C,$! %,A!
.A/$*-,A!0.!p$#(/*A!)#/,(>!$.A3%-#!.2*0.(-.!m3.!.%!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,!0.!(3.2#A!C#$-.A!
0.%! N3(0,! -32*.$,(! 3(#! C$,63(0#! *(6%3.(/*#! A,+$.! .%! C.(A#N*.(-,! 0.! #m3.%%,A!
-*.NC,A?! 9A-.! C.$5,0,! /,(-.NC%4! %#! *(2.(/*4(! 0.! *(A-$3N.(-,A! -#(! 63(0#N.(-#%.A!
/,N,!.%!-.%.A/,C*,>!.%!N*/$,A/,C*,>!.%!-.$N4N.-$,>!.%!+#$4N.-$,!F!.%!$.%,\!0.!Cd(03%,?!
L#N+*d(!63.!.(!%#!dC,/#!0.!Z#%*%.,!]8b[aO8[a`_>!m3*.(>!#3(m3.!(,!$.A*05#!.(!3(#!0.!
%#A! (3.2#A! (#/*,(.A! .BC%,$#0,$#A>! .A-#+#! N3F! 2*(/3%#0,! #! I,%#(0#>! /3#(0,! A.!
*(2.(-4! .%! -.%.A/,C*,! m3.! d%! N.\,$4?! K3/D#A! 0.! %#A! ,+$#A! 0.! .BC$.A*4(! '$h6*/#! 0.!
.A-#!dC,/#!nC,$!.\.NC%,>!%#A!0.!I*.$,(FN3A!),A/D!F!9%!Z$./,On!$.6%.\#(!.%!.AC5$*-3!
0.!/#N+*,!m3.!/#%4!.(!%#!dC,/#?!p3.!%#!.$#!0.!%#!*(A-*-3/*4(!0.!%#!65A*/#!N,0.$(#!C,$!
:A##/! <.r-,(?! 1.A/#$-.A>! I,++.A! F! &C*(,X#! n'.(*,A! +hA*/,A! 0.! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#!
6*%,A,65#n!6%,$./*.$,(!#A*N*AN,!.(!-#%.A!N,N.(-,A?!9%!-*.NC,!.(!m3.!A.!0.A#$$,%%#$,(!
%#A! #/-*2*0#0.A! F! .A/$*-,A! 0.! c.,(#$0,! 0#! R*(/*>! Z*%+.$->! Z#%*%.,! F! )#/,(>! -#N+*d(!
/,$$.AC,(0.!#%!,$*'.(!0.%!Nd-,0,!.BC.$*N.(-#%!.(!%#!/*.(/*#?!
H(!/#A,!D*A-4$*/,>!N3F!*(-.$.A#(-.!.(!.A-.!A.(-*0,>!(,A!%,!C$,C,$/*,(#!I,%#(0#>!C#5A!
m3.! D#! /,(-$*+3*0,! 0.! N,0,! (,-#+%.! #! %#! /3%-3$#! ,//*0.(-#%! /,(! A3! #C,$-#/*4(! 0.!
*(0*2*03,A! $.#%N.(-.! '.(*#%.A?! &*! D3+,! 3(! C.$5,0,! 0.! 6%,$./*N*.(-,! /3%-3$#%! .(!
I,%#(0#>! 63.! .%! /,NC$.(0*0,! .(! %#! A.'3(0#! N*-#0! 0.%! A*'%,! zR::?! c,A! C3.$-,A!
.AC#Q,%.A!A.!D#%%#+#(!/.$$#0,A!F!$.A3%-#+#(!*(#//.A*+%.A!#!%#!$.CG+%*/#!D,%#(0.A#!#!
/#3A#!0.!%#!'3.$$#!.(-$.!p$#(/*#!F!9AC#Q#?!;+%*'#0#!#!.(/,(-$#$!A3A!C$,C*#A!63.(-.A!
/,N.$/*#%.A>!I,%#(0#!63(04!%#!Dutch East!F!West India Companies?!&.!0.0*/4!
.(-,(/.A!3(#!+3.(#!C#$-.!0.!%,A!$./3$A,A!(#/*,(#%.A!#!%#!*(2.$A*4(!.(!H%-$#N#$>!F!%#!
/,(A./3.(/*#!63.!m3.!I,%#(0#!A.!/,(2*$-*4>!C,$!3(#!A,%#!2.X!.(!A3!D*A-,$*#>!.(!3(#!
C,-.(/*#!N3(0*#%?!@!/#3A#!0.!.%%,>!D,F!05#!A.!D#+%#!D,%#(0dA!.(!:(0,(.A*#!F!2#$*,A!
*(0*2*03,A! 0.! #A/.(0.(/*#! D,%#(0.A#! #%/#(X#$,(! %#! C$.A*0.(/*#! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A!
H(*0,A?! K3/D,! NhA! *NC,$-#(-.! .A! .%! D./D,! 0.! m3.>! 03$#(-.! .%! N*AN,! C.$5,0,! 0.!
-*.NC,>! 6%,$./*.$#(>! .(! I,%#(0#>! R.$N..$! F! =.N+$#(0->! &C*(,X#! F! R#(!
c..3r.(D,.q?! 9$#! 3(#! A,/*.0#0! .A-$./D#N.(-.! 3(*0#M! R#(! c..3r.(D,.q! 63.>! 0.!
D./D,>! .%! #%+#/.#! 0.! %,A! +*.(.A! 0.! R.$N..$?! I,%#(0#! .$#! %#! (#/*4(! NhA! %*+.$#%! F!
N.(,A!#3-,$*-#$*#!0.!93$,C#!.(!#m3.%%#!dC,/#?!
9(!-,0#!%#!D*A-,$*#!0.!%#!I3N#(*0#0>!G(*/#N.(-.!D#+$h!3(#!A,%#!'.(.$#/*4(!m3.!A.#!
%#!C$*N.$#!.(!.BC%,$#$!.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$>!3(#!'.(.$#/*4(!C#$#!%#!/3#%>!.(!%#!*(6#(/*#>!
%,A!C%#(.-#A!A,(!0*A/,A!/%#$,A!F!0*A-#(-.A!m3.!A.!N3.2.(!#!-$#2dA!0.%!/*.%,!(,/-3$(,>!
F!C#$#!%#!m3.>!.(!%#!2.\.X>!%,A!C%#(.-#A!A.#(!%3'#$.A>!0*2.$A,A!(3.2,A!N3(0,A!.(!.%!
/3$A,!0.!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!#G(!(,!#/#+#0#?!
I#+$h! 3(! N,N.(-,! .(! (3.A-$#! 63-3$#! D*A-,$*#! .(! .%! m3.! A.! .BC%,$#$h! F! D#+*-#$h! .%!
&*A-.N#! &,%#$?! L#(-,! C#$#! .A#! '.(.$#/*4(! m3.! #(-.A! D.! N.(/*,(#0,! /,N,! C#$#!
-,0,A!%,A!m3.!2.('#(!0.-$hA!0.!(,A,-$,A>!.%!N,N.(-,!#/-3#%!A.$h!*NC,$-#(-5A*N,!.(!
%#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0?! <,! D3+,! N3/D#A! '.(.$#/*,(.A! #! %#A! m3.! A.! %.A! D#F#!
/,(/.0*0,!3(#!,C,$-3(*0#0!-#(!*NC,$-#(-.!/,N,!dA-#?!c#!,C,$-3(*0#0!.A!(3.A-$#!A*!
(,!%#!0.\#N,A!C.$0.$?!@m35!C,0$5#N,A!C#$#6$#A.#$!#!u?!9?!LA*,%q,2Aq*>!63(0#0,$!0.!%#!
#A-$,(h3-*/#M!
La Tierra es la cuna de la Humanidad, pero no podemos vivir para siempre en la
cuna.
H(#! /$*#-3$#! D3N#(#>! 0.A0.! N3F! C.m3.Q#>! /,N*.(X#! #! #0m3*$*$! N#03$.X! N.0*#(-.!
%,A! 0.A/3+$*N*.(-,A! .BC.$*N.(-#%.A! 0.! m3.! d%! (,! .A! -,0,! .%! H(*2.$A,?! c,! N*AN,!
C3.0.!0./*$A.!0.!A,/*.0#0.A!0.0*/#0#A!#!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.!-,0,!/3#(-,!%#A!$,0.#?!
c#!C.$AC./-*2#!m3.!0.+.!C$,2,/#$!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!.AC#/*#%!C3.0.!#/.%.$#$!%#!N#03$.X!
0.!%#!I3N#(*0#0>!3(#!N#03$.X!m3.!(,!C3.0.!%%.'#$!0.N#A*#0,!C$,(-,?!
!
 !
Les mystres des Infinis de Grandville, 1844.

!
Segunda parte: El Sistema Solar
!
!
Hubo una poca y muy reciente en la que se consider insensata la idea de la
posibilidad de estudiar la composicin de los cuerpos celestes, idea que tambin
consideraban carente de sentido comn incluso los pensadores y prominentes
cientficos. Ese tiempo, esa poca, ya ha pasado. La idea de la posibilidad de
estudiar el Universo, desde mucho ms cerca, y ms directamente, es algo que hoy
da, creo yo, adquiere mayor primaca e importancia en las mentes de todos
nuestros congneres, e incluso en las de nuestros nuevos pensadores y
prominentes cientficos. Pisar el suelo de los asteroides, alzar con una mano una de
las piedras de la Luna, moverse de ac para all en estaciones situadas en el
espacio y establecer crculos vivos alrededor de la Tierra, la Luna y el Sol, para
observar a Marte desde una distancia de varias decenas de 2.$A-#A, aterrizar en sus
satlites e incluso en la superficie de Marte, qu podra ser ms fantstico! Sin
embargo, slo con el advenimiento de vehculos a reaccin ser posible iniciar una
nueva era en la Astronoma, la poca de un cuidadoso estudio del cielo... El motivo
primordial de mi vida es hacer algo til para la gente... sa es la razn de que me
haya interesado por cosas que no dan pan ni fuerza. Aunque espero que mis
estudios, quiz pronto o acaso en un futuro lejano, proporcionen a la sociedad
montaas de grano y de poder ilimitado.
K. E. Tsiolkovski
8T8`!
!
10. Sobre la enseanza de primer grado
!

!
Fotografa de la Tierra llena, tomada desde un Apolo. Cortesa de la NASA.

!
H(! #N*',>! #%3N(,! 0.! C$*N.$! '$#0,>! N.! C*0*4! m3.! D#+%#$#! .(! A3! /%#A.>! /3F,A!
N*.N+$,A>!A.'G(!N.!#A.'3$4>!(,!A#+5#(!(#0#!A,+$.!#A-$,(,N5#>!C.$,!m3.!#(A*#+#(!
#C$.(0.$?! ",(! %#! #C$,+#/*4(! 0.%! C$,6.A,$>! %%.'3d! #! A3! .A/3.%#! .(! K*%%! R#%%.F>!
"#%*6,$(*#>!C$,2*A-,!0.!2.*(-.!,!-$.*(-#!0*#C,A*-*2#A!.(!/,%,$!0.!,+\.-,A!#A-$,(4N*/,AM!
%#! L*.$$#! 2*A-#! 0.A0.! .%! .AC#/*,>! %#! c3(#>! %,A! C%#(.-#A>! .A-$.%%#A! .BC%,A*2#A>!
(.+3%,A#A! '#A.,A#A>! '#%#B*#A! F! 0.NhA>! m3.! /$.5! C,0$5#(! #A,N+$#$>! *(-$*'#$! F>!
C$,+#+%.N.(-.>!*(/%3A,>!.03/#$!.(!/*.$-#!N.0*0#?!
E.$,! #(-.A! 0.! /,N.(X#$! %#! C$,F.//*4(! 0.! 0*#C,A*-*2#A! #! -,0,A! #m3.%%,A! $,A-$,A!
*(6#(-*%.A! /3F,A! ,\,A! +$*%%#+#(! #(A*,A#N.(-.>! m3*A.! .BC%*/#$! m3.! .B*A-.! 3(#! '$#(!
0*6.$.(/*#! .(-$.! .A-#+%./.$! %,! m3.! %#! /*.(/*#! D#! 0.A/3+*.$-,! F! .%! D./D,! 0.! 0.A/$*+*$!
/4N,!%,A!/*.(-56*/,A!%,!#2.$*'3#$,(!,!0.A/3+$*.$,(?!9A!6h/*%!$.A3N*$!%#A!/,(/%3A*,(.A?!
9A!0*65/*%!$.%#-#$!-,0,A!%,A!.$$,$.A>!C*A-#A!6#%A#A!.!*'(,$#0#A>!0.0*/#/*4(>!03$,!-$#+#\,!
F!C.(,A,!#+#(0,(,!0.!*(*/*#%.A!C3(-,A!0.!2*A-#!m3.!6,$N#(!C#$-.!0.%!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,!
,$*'*(#%!0.!#%',!*(-.$.A#(-.?!
",N.(/d!0*/*.(0,M!
Todos habis odo decir que la Tierra es redonda. Todo el mundo /$.. que la Tierra
es redonda. Pero, C,$!m3d creemos que la Tierra es redonda? Alguno de vosotros,
puede pensar o imaginar alguna prueba de que la Tierra sea redonda?
13$#(-.! %#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0>! A*.NC$.! A.! A,A-32,! 0.!
N#(.$#!$.2.$.(-.!m3.!%#!L*.$$#!.A!%%#(#>!/,N,!$.A3%-#!C.$6./-#N.(-.!.2*0.(-.!C#$#!
#%'3*.(! m3.! D#F#! .A-#0,! .(! C*.! A,+$.! 3(! /#NC,! 0.! -$*',! 0.! <.+$#Aq#! 03$#(-.! %#!
dC,/#!0.!%#!A*.N+$#?!9%!/,(/.C-,!0.!3(#!L*.$$#!%%#(#!-,0#25#!C$.0,N*(#!.(!(3.A-$,!
%.('3#\.!.(!6$#A.A!/,N,! los cuatro rincones de la Tierra?!"$.5!m3.!#A,N+$#$5#!#!
N*A! C.m3.Q,A! #%3N(,A! .2.(-3#%.A! F! m3.! %3.',! %.A! .BC%*/#$5#! %,! 0*65/*%! m3.! D#+5#!
$.A3%-#0,!/,(A.'3*$!m3.!-,0,!.%!'d(.$,!D3N#(,!.(-.(0*.$#!%#!.A6.$*/*0#0!0.!(3.A-$,!
C%#(.-#?!&*(!.N+#$',>!D#+5#!A3+.A-*N#0,!#%!C$*N.$!'$#0,!0.!K*%%!R#%%.F?!
n)*.(!nC$.'3(-4!3(!/D*/,!2.A-*0,!/,(!3(!mono!0.!-$#+#\,!/,N,!.%!3A#0,!C,$!%,A!
,+$.$,A!0.%!6.$$,/#$$*%n>!km3d!D#F!0.!.A.!#A3(-,!0.!3(!+#$/,!m3.!A.!#%.\#!0.!3(,!F!
m3.!%#!G%-*N#!/,A#!m3.!0.!d%!A.!2.!.A!.%!NhA-*%>!,!/,N,!A.!%%#N.!.A,!m3.!A,A-*.(.!%#!
2.%#l!k<,!A*'(*6*/#!.A,!m3.!.%!,/d#(,!.A-h!/3$2#0,l!
nks3d!,/3$$.!/3#(0,!D#F!3(!eclipse!0.!c3(#l!9A,!.A!/3#(0,!.%!&,%!.A-h!0.-$hA!0.!
(,A,-$,A! F! %#! A,N+$#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! .A-h! A,+$.! %#! c3(#>! k(,! .A! #A5l! )3.(,>! F,! 2*! 3(!
eclipse?! 9A#! A,N+$#! .$#! $.0,(0#! F! (,! $./-#?! @A5! C3.A>! %#! L*.$$#! -*.(.! m3.! A.$!
$.0,(0#?!
nI#F!N.\,$.A!C$3.+#A>!C$3.+#A!N3/D,!N.\,$.A!n,6$./*4!,-$,n?!kJ!.A.!*(0*2*03,!m3.!
(#2.'4! alrededor! 0.%! K3(0,l! &.! %%#N#+#! K#\.%%,>! k(,l! E3.A! (,! A.! C3.0.! 2*#\#$!
alrededor!0.%!N3(0,!A*!dA-.!(,!.A!$.0,(0,>!k(,l!J!%#!'.(-.>!D,F>!(#2.'#!alrededor!
0.%! N3(0,! F! 23.%#! alrededor! 0.%! N3(0,! -,0,! .%! -*.NC,?! k"4N,! A.! C3.0.! 2,%#$!
alrededor!0.%!N3(0,!A*!(,!.A!$.0,(0,l!
ni9D>!N3/D#/D,Aj!n.B/%#N4!,-$,n?!k<,!A#+d*A!m3.!D#F!6,-,'$#65#A!0.!%#!L*.$$#l!c,A!
#A-$,(#3-#A!.A-32*.$,(!.(!.%!.AC#/*,!F!-,N#$,(!6,-,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!E,0d*A!N*$#$%#A!F!
2.$d*A! m3.! -,0#A! A,(! $.0,(0#A?! <,! -.(d*A! C,$! m3d! .NC%.#$! -,0#A! .A#A! $#X,(.A?!
E,0d*A!2.$!m3.!%#!L*.$$#!.A!$.0,(0#?!
J! 0.AC3dA>! #! N,0,! 0.! coup de grce>! 3(#! N3/D#/D*-#! /,(! 0.%#(-#%! /#A.$,! m3.!
$./*.(-.N.(-.! D#+5#! #/30*0,! #! 2*A*-#$! .%! K3A.,! 0.! "*.(/*#A! 0.! &#(! p$#(/*A/,! .(!
3(#!.B/3$A*4(!.A/,%#$>!C$.'3(-4!/,(!-,(,!0.!*(0*6.$.(/*#M!
nkJ!m3d!N.!0./5A!0.%!.BC.$*N.(-,!0.%!Cd(03%,!0.!p,3/#3%-l!
p3.!3(!N3F!A.$*,!F!'$#2.!/,(6.$.(/*#(-.!.%!m3.!A*'3*4!0.A/$*+*.(0,!%,A!D#%%#X',A!0.!
%#! #A-$,(,N5#! N,0.$(#?! 9A-,A! (*Q,A! (,! .$#(! %#! C$,%.! 0.! #A-$4(,N,A! C$,6.A*,(#%.A>!
C$,6.A,$.A! 0.! /,%.'*,>! 65A*/,A>! F! 0.NhA?! 92*0.(-.N.(-.>! .$#(! (*Q,A! (,$N#%.A! 0.!
C$*N.$!'$#0,?!@%+.$',!%#!'$#(!.AC.$#(X#!0.!m3.>!A*!C3.0.(!A,+$.2*2*$!#!0,/.!,!2.*(-.!
#Q,A!0.!educacin!N.-40*/#>!C3.0#(!0#$A.!C$*A#!C#$#!/$./.$!F!/,N.(X#$!#!0*$*'*$!
%#A!/,A#A?!
c#! #A-$,(,N5#! (,! A.! .(A.Q#! .(! %#A! .A/3.%#A! CG+%*/#A>! #%! N.(,A! .(! @Nd$*/#?! ",(!
N3F! C,/#A! .B/.C/*,(.A>! .B/.C/*,(.A! (,-#+%.A! C,$! A3C3.A-,>! 3(! .A-30*#(-.! C3.0.!
C#A#$! 0.%! C$*N.$! '$#0,! #%! 03,0d/*N,! A*(! D#+.$A.! .(6$.(-#0,! C#$#! (#0#! /,(! %,A!
D#%%#X',A! ,! 0.A/3+$*N*.(-,A! m3.! (,A! 0*/.(! 04(0.! .A-#N,A! .(! .%! H(*2.$A,>! /4N,!
%%.'#N,A!#m35!F!#!04(0.!*$.N,A!C$,+#+%.N.(-.>!F!#A*N*AN,!A*(!D#+.$A.!.(6$.(-#0,!
.(!#+A,%3-,!/,(!%#!C.$AC./-*2#!/4AN*/#?!
c,A!#(-*'3,A!'$*.',A!/,(A*0.$#+#(!%#!#A-$,(,N5#!/,N,!3(,!0.!%#!N.0*#!0,/.(#>!,>!
#A5>! 0.! -.N#A! (./.A#$*,A! #! %#! .03/#/*4(! 0.! %,A! D,N+$.A! %*+$.A?! 9(/3.(-$,! m3.>! .(!
%#A! /D#$%#A! F! 0*A/3A*,(.A! m3.! D.! A,A-.(*0,! /,(! #%3N(,A! 0.! C$*N.$! '$#0,>! /,(!
/,N3(*0#0.A!hippies>!/,(!N*.N+$,A!0.%!",('$.A,>!F!D#A-#!/,(!-#B*A-#A>!.B*A-.!3(#!
.(,$N.!$.A.$2#!0.!*(-.$dA!F!.N,/*4(!C,$!%#A!/,A#A!#A-$,(4N*/#A?!c#!N#F,$!C#$-.!0.!
%,A!C.$*40*/,A!#N.$*/#(,A!C3+%*/#(!/#0#!05#!3(#!/,%3N(#!0.0*/#0#!#!%#!#A-$,%,'5#?!
k"3h(-,A! C.$*40*/,A! ,! $.2*A-#A! D#F! m3.! 0.0*m3.(! 0*#$*#N.(-.! 3(#! /,%3N(#! #! %#!
#A-$,(,N5#!,!#!%#!/*.(/*#l!
c#! #A-$,%,'5#! C$.-.(0.! 0.A/$*+*$! 3(#! *(6%3.(/*#! m3.! %%.(.! %#A! 2*0#A! 0.! %#A! '.(-.A?!
E.$,! .A! 3(#! 6#$A#?! 9A! %#! /*.(/*#! %#! m3.! 0.! 2.$0#0! *(6%3F.! .(! %#A! 2*0#A! 0.! %#A!
C.$A,(#A>!#3(m3.!.(!A.(-*0,!0*$./-,!%*'.$#N.(-.!N.(,$?!c#!.(,$N.!C,C3%#$*0#0!0.!
%#! /*.(/*#O6*//*4(! F! 0.! C.%5/3%#A! /,N,! 2001: Una odisea espacial! A,(! C$3.+#A! 0.!
.A-.!.(-3A*#AN,!/*.(-56*/,!m3.!.A-h!A*(!.BC%,-#$?!<,!/#+.!%#!N.(,$!030#!0.!m3.!-#(-,!
%#! /*.(/*#! /,N,! %#! -./(,%,'5#! ',+*.$(#(>! /,(-$,%#(! F! N,%0.#(! (3.A-$#A! 2*0#A>! C#$#!
+*.(! F! C#$#! N#%?! 1.+.$5#N,A! $.#%*X#$! 3(! N#F,$! .A63.$X,! C,$! #C$.(0.$! #%',! A,+$.!
.%%#A?!
!
11. Los legendarios dioses de la antigedad
!

!
Britannia, la diosa en la cara principal del antiguo penique britnico.

!
c#! /%#A.! 0.! C$,+%.N#A! /*.(-56*/,A! m3.! N.! ,/3C#(! n.%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! 0.! ,-$,A!
C%#(.-#A>!.%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#>!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!m3.!D#F#!2*0#!.(!,-$,A!N3(0,An!A,(!
0.! *(-.$dA! C,C3%#$?! 9A-,! (,! .A! #//*0.(-#%?! "$.,! m3.! -,0,A! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! A.!
A*.(-.(! *NC$.A*,(#0,A! C,$! .A-,A! C$,+%.N#A! 63(0#N.(-#%.A>! F! ,C*(,! m3.! A,F! %,!
A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!#6,$-3(#0,!/,N,!C#$#!2*2*$!.(!3(#!dC,/#!.(!%#!m3.!.A!C,A*+%.!%%.2#$!
#!/#+,!%#!*(2.A-*'#/*4(!/*.(-56*/#!0.!.A-,A!C$,+%.N#A?!
H(!$.A3%-#0,!0.!.A.!*(-.$dA!C,C3%#$!.A!m3.!$./*+,!'$#(!/#(-*0#0!0.!/,$$.,>!/#$-#A!0.!
-,0#A! /%#A.A>! #%'3(#A! N3F! #'$#0#+%.A>! /,N,! %#A! 0.! '.(-.! m3.! .A/$*+*4! C,.N#A! F!
A,(.-,A!A,+$.!%#!C%#/#!0.%!Pioneer!87o!#%'3(#A!A,(!0.!.A/,%#$.A!m3.!0.A.#(!m3.!%.A!
A,%3/*,(.! A3A! 0.+.$.A! 0.! %#! A.N#(#>! ,-$#A! 0.! C.$A,(#A! .B-$#Q#A! m3.! N.! C*0.(!
0*(.$,! C$.A-#0,o! #%'3(#A! 0.! *(0*2*03,A! m3.! 0.A.#(! m3.! /,NC$3.+.! F! .B#N*(.! #%!
0.-#%%.! A3A! C%#(,A! A,+$.! *(2.(-,A! m3.! 2#(! 0.A0.! #$N#A! m3.! %#(X#(! $#F,A!
.AC./*#%.A>!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A>!D#A-#!Nhm3*(#A!0.!N,2*N*.(-,!/,(-*(3,?!L#N+*d(!D#F!
/#$-#A! 0.! C.$A,(#A! m3.! #+,'#(! C,$! 0*2.$A#A! 0*A/*C%*(#A! N*A-.$*,A#A>! /,N,! %#!
#A-$,%,'5#>! $.%#-,A! 0.! /,(-#/-,A! /,(! A.$.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A>! 6*//*4(! .AC./3%#-*2#! 0.!
R,(! 1#(*q.(>! +$3\.$5#>! m3*$,N#(/*#>! 6$.(,%,'5#>! (#*C.A! 0.! L#$,->! .%! :O"D*('>!
N.0*-#/*4(!-$#A/.(0.(-#%>!F!.BC.$*.(/*#A!CA*/,0d%*/#A?!L#N+*d(>!0.!2.X!.(!/3#(0,>!
#C#$./.(!D*A-,$*#A!NhA!-$*A-.A>!/,N,!%#!0.!3(#!N3\.$!m3.!$./*+*4!3(!N.(A#\.!2.$+#%!
0.!%,A!D#+*-#(-.A!0.!R.(3A!#!-$#2dA!0.!%#!$.'#0.$#!0.!A3!03/D#>!,!%#!0.!3(!D,N+$.!
m3.!*(-.(-4!0.(3(/*#$!#!%#!",N*A*4(!0.!9(.$'5#!@-4N*/#!C,$!A.'3*$!/#0#!3(,!0.!A3A!
N,2*N*.(-,A! /,(! rayos atmicos?! I#F! /*.$-,! (GN.$,! 0.! C.$A,(#A! m3.! .A/$*+.(!
0*/*.(0,! m3.! C3.0.(! $./,'.$! A.Q#%.A! *(-.%*'.(-.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! 0.! $#0*,! #! -$#2dA!
0.!%,A!.NC#A-.A!0.!A3A!N3.%#A>!,!A4%,!/,(/.(-$h(0,A.!.(!0.+*0#!6,$N#?!
E.$,! #%! /#+,! 0.! 2#$*,A! #Q,A! D#F! 3(#! /#$-#! m3.! A*.NC$.! $./3.$0,! /,N,! %#! NhA!
N,$0#X! F! .(/#(-#0,$#! 0.! .A-#! /%#A.?! c%.'4! C,$! /,$$.,! ,$0*(#$*,?! &.! -$#-#! 0.! 3(#!
/#$-#!0.!,/D.(-#!F!/*(/,!6,%*,A!.A/$*-,A!#!N#(,!/,(!+,%5'$#6,!2.$0.>!C$,/.0.(-.!0.!
3(!/#+#%%.$,!*(-.$(#0,!.(!3(!D,AC*-#%!CA*m3*h-$*/,!0.!;--#r#?!I#+5#!%.50,!3(!#$-5/3%,!
.(! 3(! C.$*40*/,! %,/#%! .(! .%! m3.! F,! 0./5#! m3.! /$.5#! C,A*+%.! .B*A-*.A.! 2*0#! .(! ,-$,A!
C%#(.-#Ao! .%! #3-,$! 0.! %#! /#$-#! 0.A.#+#! #A.'3$#$N.! m3.! F,! -.(5#! -,0#! %#! $#X4(! 0.%!
N3(0,>!0#0#!A3!.BC.$*.(/*#!F!/,(,/*N*.(-,A!C.$A,(#%.A?!
E#$#!#F30#$N.!#!.(-.(0.$!F!C.(.-$#$!.(!%#!63.(-.!0.!A3A!/,(,/*N*.(-,A>!C.(A4!m3.!
N.! #'$#0#$5#! /,(,/.$! #%',! 0.! A3! D*A-,$*#! C.$A,(#%>! %,! /3#%! .BC%*/#! %#! .(,$N.!
.B-.(A*4(! 0.! %#A! ,/D.(-#! F! /*(/,! Ch'*(#A! 0.! %#! N*A*2#?! "3#(0,! .$#! -,0#25#! 3(!
D,N+$.! \,2.(! .(! ;--#r#>! C$4B*N,! F#! #! .A-#%%#$! %#! &.'3(0#! Z3.$$#! K3(0*#%>! 2*,! 3(!
/#$-.%!0.!$./%3-#N*.(-,!N*%*-#$!0.!%#A!p3.$X#A!@$N#0#A!(,$-.#N.$*/#(#AM!.%!/%hA*/,>!
.%! m3.! A.! D*X,! -#(! 6#N,A,>! .%! m3.! N,A-$#+#! #! 3(! A3\.-,! A.Q#%#(0,! /,(! 3(! 0.0,! #%!
2*.(-$.!0.!3(,!0*/*.(0,M!
El To Sam te necesita.
9%! D,N+$.! A.! A*(-*4! -#(! *NC$.A*,(#0,! C,$! .%! #-$#/-*2,! $,A-$,! 0.%! L5,! &#N>! m3.!
*(N.0*#-#N.(-.!0./*0*4!/,(,/.$%.?!9%!D,N+$.!-,N4!3(!#3-,+GA!C#$#!"#%*6,$(*#>!%3'#$!
m3.>!.(!A3!,C*(*4(>!0.+5#!A.$!.%!C3(-,!0.!$.A*0.(/*#!NhA!C%#3A*+%.!C#$#!.%!L5,!&#N?!
H(#! 2.X! .(! .%! /.(-$,! 0.! $./%3-#N*.(-,>! C$.'3(-4! 04(0.! C,0$5#! D#%%#$! #%! L5,! &#N?!
L$#A!#%'3(#!/,(63A*4(!A,+$.!#C.%%*0,A>!.%!D,N+$.!63.!$./*+*0,!/,(!N*$#0#A!N3F!C,/,!
#'$#0#+%.A?! @%! /#+,! 0.! 2#$*,A! 05#A! 0.! .(-3A*hA-*/#! +GAm3.0#>! (#0*.>! .(! "#%*6,$(*#>!
C30,!.BC%*/#$%.!.%!C#$#0.$,!0.%!L5,!&#N?!
=.'$.A4! #! ;--#r#! C$,63(0#N.(-.! 0.C$*N*0,! -$#A! D#+.$! 6$#/#A#0,! .(! A3! .NC$.A#?!
E.$,!/#A*!*(N.0*#-#N.(-.>!/,N,!A*!A.!-$#-#$#!0.!%#!/.'#0,$#!%3X!0.!3(!6%#AD>!C.$/*+*4!
%#!%#+,$!0.!A3!2*0#?!&.!-$#-#+#!0.!D#%%#$!los legendarios dioses de la Antigedad>!
6$#A.!m3.!#C#$./.!$.C.-*0#!N3/D#A!2./.A!.(!%#!/#$-#?!9%!D,N+$.!-.(5#!%#!*(-.$.A#(-.!
*0.#! 0.! m3.! %,A! 0*,A.A! A,%#N.(-.! A,+$.2*2.(! N*.(-$#A! 0*AC,(.(! 0.! #0,$#0,$.A?!
9(-,(/.A>!km3d!,/3$$.!/,(!%,A!0*,A.A!.(!%,A!m3.!(#0*.!/$..>!/,N,>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!%,A!
0*,A.A!0.!%#!#(-*'3#!Z$./*#!,!=,N#l!)*.(>!/,(/%35#!.%!D,N+$.>!m3.0#(!$.03/*0,A!#%!
.A-#0,!0.!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!/,$$*.(-.A>!A*(!0*A6$3-#$!C#$#!(#0#!0.!%,A!'#\.A!F!C,0.$.A!
0.!%#!0*2*(*0#0?!L*.(.(!m3.!-$#+#\#$!C#$#!2*2*$>!/,N,!-,0,!.%!N3(0,?!E,$!,-$#!C#$-.>!.%!
D,N+$.!/$.5#!m3.!-#%.A!0*,A.A!0.+5#(!N,A-$#$A.!3(!-#(-,!$.A.$2#0,A!#/.$/#!0.!A3A!
0.A'$#/*#0#A! /*$/3(A-#(/*#A>! C.$,! m3.>! #! 2./.A>! A.! m3.\#+#(! 0.! -.(.$! m3.! $.#%*X#$!
%#+,$.A!A.$2*%.A!/3#(0,!.(!,-$,!-*.NC,! /.(#+#(! .(! .%! ;%*NC,?!=#X,(#+#!m3.!-#%.A!
0.*0#0.A! $.-*$#0#A! 0.+5#(! A.$! *(-.$(#0#A! .(! .A-#+%./*N*.(-,A! C#$#! 0.N.(-.A?! E,$!
-#(-,>! .%! Nd-,0,! NhA! $#X,(#+%.! 0.! %,/#%*X#$! #! .A-,A! 0*,A.A! A*(! -G(*/#A! .$#!
.(/#$/.%#$A.! #! A5! N*AN,! .(! %#! *(A-*-3/*4(! CA*m3*h-$*/#! 0.! %#! %,/#%*0#0>! /,A#! m3.! (,!
-#$04!.(!D#/.$?!
@3(m3.!C,0#N,A!(,!.A-#$!N3F!0.!#/3.$0,!/,(!#%'3(,A!C3(-,A!0.!A3!$#X,(#N*.(-,>!
C$,+#+%.N.(-.!A5!%,!.A-#$.N,A!.(!m3.!6*(#%N.(-.!D*X,!%,!N.\,$!m3.!C,05#!D#/.$?!
K*! *(6,$N#(-.! 0./*0*4! .(-,(/.A! m3.! +3A/#$! #! -,0,A! %,A! %.'.(0#$*,A! 0*,A.A! 0.! %#!
@(-*'e.0#0! A.$5#! -#$.#! $.#%N.(-.! #',-#0,$#?! J! #A5! A.! 6*\4! -#(! A4%,! .(! 3(,A! C,/,AM!
PGC*-.$>! K.$/3$*,>! F! .(! %#! 0*,A#! m3.! #C#$./.! .(! .%! #(2.$A,! 0.%! #(-*'3,! C.(*m3.!
+$*-h(*/,M! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! %#! .%.//*4(! (,! 63.! N3F! *04(.#! .(-$.! %,A! 0*,A.A! NhA!
*(-.$.A#(-.A>! C.$,! A.'3$,! m3.! .%! -$5,! .$#! N3F! $.C$.A.(-#-*2,?! @(-.! A3! #A,N+$,! ]F!
#(-.!.%!N5,_!.(/,(-$4!*(-.$(#0,A>!.(!.%!N*AN,!A#(#-,$*,!.(!m3.!d%!%,!D#+5#!D./D,>!#!
PGC*-.$>! K.$/3$*,! F! #! %#! 0*,A#! 0.%! C.(*m3.! +$*-h(*/,?! 9A-,A! 0*,A.A! #0N*-*.$,(!
*(N.0*#-#N.(-.!A3!*0.(-*0#0!F! %.!/,(-#$,(!D*A-,$*#A!A,+$.!%,A!2*.\,A!-*.NC,A!.(!%,A!
m3.!6%35#!%*+$.N.(-.!.%!(d/-#$!F!%#!#N+$,A5#?!
J>! #/-,! A.'3*0,>! N*! /,$$.AC,(A#%! #%/#(X4! 3(! dB*-,! m3.! A,+$.C#A#+#! #! -,0#A! A3A!
.AC.$#(X#A! *(*/*#%.A?! H(! 05#>! \3(-,! #! 3(#! 63.(-.! 0.! /.$.X#A>! .(/,(-$4! #! Dios
Todopoderoso!,>!#%!N.(,A>!#!#%'3*.(!m3.!A.!%.!C#$./5#!N3/D,>!F#!m3.!%,!/*.$-,!63.!
m3.! .%! C.$A,(#\.! m3.! %.! ,6$./*4! %#A! /.$.X#A! .(! #m3.%! N,N.(-,! $./,(,/*4>!
N,0.A-#N.(-.>! A.$! 1*,A! L,0,C,0.$,A,?! E3.A! +*.(>! .%! 1*,A! L,0,C,0.$,A,>! C,$!
6,$-3(#>!-.(5#!3(#!C.m3.Q#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%!.(!%,A!-.$$.(,A!0.%!A#(#-,$*,!F!A.!,6$./*4!
C#$#! %%.2#$! #! N*! *(6,$N#(-.! #! 0#$! 3(! C#A.,! C,$! .%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$>! /,A#! m3.! %%.24! #!
/#+,!.(!3(!#+$*$!F!/.$$#$!0.!,\,A?!
Y as, doctor Sagan, es como puedo asegurarle que los planetas estn habitados.
c#!/#$-#!-.$N*(#+#!NhA!,!N.(,A!#A5M!
Pero todo este asunto acerca de la vida en otros lugares se presta a mucha
especulacin y no vale la pena de que un cientfico como usted le preste un serio
inters. Por qu no orienta sus esfuerzos a solucionar un problema realmente
importante como la construccin de un ferrocarril transcanadiense en latitudes muy
al Norte?
J! #! /,(-*(3#/*4(! #C#$./5#! 3(! 0.-#%%#0,! C%#(,! A,+$.! %#! $3-#! m3.! 0.+5#! A.'3*$! -#%!
6.$$,/#$$*%>!NhA!%#!.BC$.A*4(!0.!A3A!+3.(,A!0.A.,A!D#/*#!N*!C.$A,(#?!
E,$!A3C3.A-,>!#C#$-.!0.!(,!C.(A#$!.(!-$#+#\#$!A,+$.!3(!6.$$,/#$$*%!-$#(A/#(#0*.(A.!
.(! $3-#A! 0.! A.N.\#(-.! %#-*-30>! %#! 2.$0#0! .A! m3.! (3(/#! C30.! C.(A#$! .(! 0#$! 3(#!
$.AC3.A-#!#0./3#0#!#!.A-#!/#$-#?!
!
12. La historia detectivesca de Venus
!

!
Mapa de radar de la superficie de Venus, invisible para el ojo humano a causa de la densa
atmsfera y de la cubierta de nubes del planeta. Cortesa del Arecibo Observatory, Cornell
University.

!
H(#!0.!%#A!$#X,(.A!C,$!%#A!/3#%.A!.(!(3.A-$,A!05#A!%#!#A-$,(,N5#!C%#(.-#$*#!A.!D#!
/,(2.$-*0,! .(! 3(#! #3-d(-*/#! 0.%*/*#>! .A! m3.! $.A3%-#! C,A*+%.! #2.$*'3#$! %,! m3.! .A!
$.#%N.(-.! /,$$./-,! ,! .B#/-,?! 9(! ,-$#A! dC,/#A>! 3(,! C,05#! *(-3*$! ,! C$,(,A-*/#$! #! A3!
'3A-,! A,+$.! 3(! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! C%#(.-#$*,>! C,$! N3F! *NC$,+#+%.A! m3.! 63.A.(! -#%.A!
/h%/3%,A>!/,(!%#!A.'3$*0#0!0.!m3.!(#0*.!*+#!#!0.N,A-$#$!m3.!A.!.A-#+#!.m3*2,/#0,?!
I,F!05#>!%#A!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A!3!,-$,A!*('.(*,A!A*N*%#$.A>!/3.%'#(!/,N,!.AC#0#A!0.!
1#N,/%.A! A,+$.! /#0#! D*C4-.A*A! .N*-*0#! C,$! %,A! -.4$*/,A! C%#(.-#$*,A>! F! A.! C3.0.!
,+A.$2#$!#!%,A!-.4$*/,A!.(!/3$*,A#!#N#%'#N#!0.!.AC.$#(X#A!F!-.N,$.A!/#0#!2.X!m3.!
(,A!%%.'#!#!%#!L*.$$#!(3.2#!*(6,$N#/*4(!C$,C,$/*,(#0#!C,$!%,A!*('.(*,A!.AC#/*#%.A?!
@(-*'3#N.(-.>! /3#(0,! %,A! #A-$4(,N,A! 0*AC,(5#(! 0.! -.%.A/,C*,A>! ,\,A>! F! N3F! C,/,!
NhA!C#$#!C$.A-#$!#F30#!#!A3A!,+A.$2#/*,(.A>!R.(3A!.$#!3(!N3(0,!D.$N#(,?!@!6*(.A!
0.%!A*'%,!z:z!A.!A3C,!m3.!R.(3A!-.(5#!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!%#!N*AN#!N#A#!F!$#0*,!m3.!
%#!L*.$$#?!R.(3A!.A!.%!C%#(.-#!NhA!/.$/#(,!#!%#!L*.$$#>!F!.$#!(#-3$#%!m3.!A.!C.(A#$#!
.(!d%!/,N,!#%',!N3F!C#$./*0,!,!*'3#%!#!%#!L*.$$#>!#%!N.(,A!.(!/*.$-,A!#AC./-,A?!
:NN#(3.%! u#(-! *N#'*(4! .(! R.(3A! #! 3(#! $#X#! 0.! A.$.A! -*.$(,A! F! #C#A*,(#0,A>! /#A*!
D3N#(,A?! 9NN#(3.%! &r.0.(+,$'! F! @((*.! ).A#(->! 3(#! 63(0#0,$#! 0.! %#! -.,A,65#>!
.(/,(-$#$,(! nC,$! Nd-,0,A! 0.A/$*C-,A! /,N,! 2*#\.A! .AC*$*-3#%.A! F! C$,F.//*4(! #A-$#%n!
/$*#-3$#A! N3F! C#$./*0#A! #! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! A*-3h(0,%#A! .(! R.(3A?! 9(! #Q,A! NhA!
$./*.(-.A>!#%'3(,A!0.!%,A!$.%#-,A!NhA!#30#/.A!$.%#/*,(#0,A!/,(!%,A!C%#-*%%,A!2,%#(-.A!
nC,$! .\.NC%,>! %,A! 0.! Z.,$'.! @0#NAq*n! C,+%#$,(! R.(3A! /,(! 3(#! $#X#! 0.! A.$.A!
C,0.$,A,A! F! +.(*'(,A>! N3/D,A! 0.! %,A! /3#%.A! #C#$./.(! /,(! %#$',A! /#+.%%,A! F!
-#N+*d(!/,(!%#$',A!2.A-*0,A!+%#(/,A>!/%#$,!A*N+,%*AN,>!.(!%#!@Nd$*/#!C$.2*#!#!8T[V>!
0.!3(#!*(-.(/*4(!C$,63(0#N.(-.!.AC*$*-3#%?!I#F!3(#!%#$'#!D*A-,$*#!0.!h2*0,A!/#N*(,A!
0.! C.(A#N*.(-,>! .AC./3%#/*4(! N.0*-#-*2#! F! 6$#30.! /,(A/*.(-.! ,! *(/,(A/*.(-.>! m3.!
C$,03\,! .BC./-#/*4(! C,C3%#$! A,+$.! .%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! (3.A-$,! NhA! /.$/#(,! 2./*(,!
C%#(.-#$*,!.A-d!D#+*-#0,!C,$!A.$.A!D3N#(,A>!NhA!+*.(!C#$./*0,A!#!(,A,-$,A>!,!m3.!
A.#!3(!%3'#$!D#+*-#+%.!C#$#!%,A!-.$$5/,%#A?!
E,$!-#(-,>!A.!C$,03\,!/,(A*0.$#+%.!A,$C$.A#!F!F,!0*$5#!m3.!*(/%3A,!N,%.A-*#>!/3#(0,!
6*(#%N.(-.! A.! $./*+*.$,(! %#A! C$*N.$#A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! 0.! $#0*,! A,+$.! R.(3A?! 9A-#A!
N.0*/*,(.A! %%.2#0#A! #! /#+,! C,$! "?! I?! K#F.$! F! A3A! /,%.'#A>! .(! 8Tb[>! .(! .%!
c#+,$#-,$*,!0.!:(2.A-*'#/*4(!<#2#%!0.!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A>!0.A/3+$*.$,(!m3.!R.(3A!
.$#!3(#!63.(-.!0.!.N*A*4(!0.!$#0*,!N3/D,!NhA!*(-.(A#!0.!%,!m3.!A.!D#+5#!A3C3.A-,?!
@!\3X'#$!C,$!%#!0*A-#(/*#!m3.!D#F!0.A0.!R.(3A!#%!&,%!F!%#!/#(-*0#0!0.!%3X!A,%#$!m3.!
0.23.%2.!#%!.AC#/*,>!.%!C%#(.-#!0.+5#!A.$!6$5,!,!6$.A/,?!",N,!R.(3A!0.23.%2.!.(!A3!
$.6%.\,!-#(-#!%3X!#%!.AC#/*,>!A3!-.NC.$#-3$#!0.+5#!A.$!*(/%3A,!*(6.$*,$!#!%#!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!
#!C.A#$!0.!A3!C$,B*N*0#0!#%!&,%?!9%!'$3C,!0.!K#F.$!D#%%4!m3.!R.(3A>!.(!3(#!%,('*-30!
0.! ,(0#! 0.! $#0*,! 0.! V! /N>! C$,C,$/*,(#+#! -#(-#! $#0*#/*4(! /,N,! A*! 63.$#! 3(! /3.$C,!
/#%*.(-.! #! 3(#! -.NC.$#-3$#! 0.! 3(,A! V8b! }"?! E,A-.$*,$.A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! $.#%*X#0#A!
/,(! (3N.$,A,A! $#0*,-.%.A/,C*,A! #! N3/D#A! F! 0*6.$.(-.A! 6$./3.(/*#A! 0.! $#0*,!
/,(6*$N#$,(!%#!/,(/%3A*4(!'.(.$#%!0.!m3.!R.(3A!C,A.5#!3(#!temperatura brillante!
0.!.(-$.!%,A!V8b!"!F!%,A!a`b!"!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.?!
&*(! .N+#$',>! D3+,! 3(#! '$#(! $.(3.(/*#! .(! %#! /,N3(*0#0! /*.(-56*/#! #! /$..$! m3.! %#!
.N*A*4(! 0.! $#0*,! C$,/.05#! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A?! H(! ,+\.-,! /#%*.(-.! .N*-.!
$#0*#/*4(! .(! N3/D#A! %,('*-30.A! 0.! ,(0#?! kE,$! m3d! R.(3A! A4%,! C#$./5#! /#%*.(-.! .(!
%,('*-30.A!0.!,(0#!0.!$#0*,l!k"4N,!C,05#!N#(-.(.$A.!-#(!/#%*.(-.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!
R.(3Al!J>!6*(#%N.(-.!nC3.A-,!m3.!%,A!6#/-,$.A!CA*/,%4'*/,A!C3.0.(!A.$!0,N*(#(-.A>!
/,(A/*.(-.! ,! *(/,(A/*.(-.N.(-.>! *(/%3A,! .(! %#! /*.(/*#n>! 3(! C%#(.-#! R.(3A! /#%*.(-.>!
N3/D,!NhA!/#%*.(-.!m3.!3(!D,$(,!/#A.$,>!.$#!C.$AC./-*2#!N.(,A!#'$#0#+%.!m3.!.%!
R.(3A! C,+%#0,! C,$! A.$.A! '$#/*,A,A! /,(! *(/%*(#/*,(.A! #N,$,A#A! ,! .AC*$*-3#%.A>!
A*'3*.(0,!%#!%#$'#!-$#0*/*4(!0.A0.!u#(-!D#A-#!@0#NAq*?!
9A-.!C$,+%.N#!0.%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!.N*A*4(!0.!$#0*,!0.!R.(3A!63.!C#$-.!C$*(/*C#%!0.!N*!
-.A*A!0,/-,$#%?!9A/$*+5!3(,A!2.*(-.!0,/3N.(-,A!/*.(-56*/,A!A,+$.!.%!-.N#!.(-$.!8T[8!F!
8T[W>! /3#(0,! 6*(#%N.(-.! .%! C$,+%.N#! A.! /,(A*0.$4! A,%3/*,(#0,?! K*$,! D#/*#! #-$hA! F!
/,(-.NC%,!/,(!C%#/.$!.A-.!C.$5,0,!0.!-*.NC,?!c#!D*A-,$*#!0.!$#0*,!0.!R.(3A!.A!N3F!
A*N*%#$! #! 3(! $.%#-,! 0.-./-*2.A/,! .(! /3F#A! Ch'*(#A! D#F! '$#(! /#(-*0#0! 0.! C,A*+%.A!
C*A-#A?! @%'3(#A! A,(! 2*-#%.A! C#$#! %#! A,%3/*4(o! ,-$#A! A,(! 6#%A#A! F! /,(03/.(! #! 3(#!
0*$.//*4(!.$$4(.#?!@%'3(#A!2./.A!C3.0.!0.03/*$A.!%#!2.$0#0.$#!$.AC3.A-#!-.(*.(0,!
.(!/3.(-#!-,0,A!%,A!D./D,A!C$*(/*C#%.A!F!$./3$$*.(0,!#!3(!$#X,(#N*.(-,!C%#3A*+%.!F!
%4'*/,?!
I#+5#! 2#$*#A! /,A#A! m3.! F#! /,(,/5#N,A! #/.$/#! 0.! R.(3A?! &#+5#N,A! /4N,! 2#$*#+#!
/,(! %#! $#0*,6$./3.(/*#! %#! temperatura brillante?! &#+5#N,A! /4N,! R.(3A! $.6%.\#+#!
A,+$.!%#!L*.$$#!,(0#A!0.!$#0*,!.(2*#0#A!N.0*#(-.!'$#(0.A!-.%.A/,C*,A!/,(!$#0#$?!c#!
C$*N.$#! C$3.+#! /,(! dB*-,! 0.%! D,N+$.! n.%! Mariner! `! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,An!
0.A/3+$*4>!.(!8T[`>!m3.!R.(3A!.$#!NhA!+$*%%#(-.!.(!%,('*-30.A!0.!,(0#!0.!$#0*,!.(!
A3!C#$-.!/.(-$#%!m3.!.(!A3A!+,$0.A?!
I#+5#! 2#$*#A! -.,$5#A! .(! /,(-$#! 0.! -#%.A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A?! E,05#(! #'$3C#$A.! .(! 0,A!
/#-.',$5#A!'.(.$#%.AM!9%!N,0.%,!0.!A3C.$6*/*.!/#%*.(-.>!.(!.%!/3#%!%#!.N*A*4(!0.!$#0*,!
C$,/.05#!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!A4%*0#!0.%!C%#(.-#>!F!.%!N,0.%,!0.!A3C.$6*/*.!6$5#>!.(!.%!/3#%!
0*/D#! .N*A*4(! C$,2.(5#! 0.! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$,! %3'#$>! 0.A0.! 3(#! /#C#! *,(*X#0#! .(! %#!
#-N4A6.$#!2.(3A*(#>!0.!0.A/#$'#A!.%d/-$*/#A!.(-$.!',-*-#A!.(!%#A!(3+.A!0.!R.(3A>!,!
0.! 3(! D*C,-d-*/,! '$#(! /*(-3$4(! 0.! C#$-5/3%#A! /#$'#0#A! .%d/-$*/#N.(-.! m3.! A.! N,25#!
/,(!A3N#!$#C*0.X!#%$.0.0,$!0.!R.(3A!]/,N,!%#A!m3.>!0.!D./D,>!$,0.#(!#!%#!L*.$$#!F!
#! PGC*-.$_?! 9A-#A! G%-*N#A! D*C4-.A*A! C.$N*-5#(! m3.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! A.! N#(-32*.$#! 6$5#>!
A*-3#(0,!%#!*(-.(A#!.N*A*4(!0.!$#0*,!A,+$.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.?!&*!0.A.h+#N,A!%#!C$.A.(/*#!
0.! +3m3.A! .(! R.(3A>! .(-,(/.A! (,A! /,(2.$-5#N,A! .(! 0.6.(A,$.A! 0.%! N,0.%,! 0.!
A3C.$6*/*.!6$5#?!
&*! /,NC#$#N,A! A*A-.Nh-*/#N.(-.! %,A! N,0.%,A! 0.! A3C.$6*/*.! 6$5#! /,(! %#A!
,+A.$2#/*,(.A! D./D#A>! D#%%#N,A! m3.! -,0,A! -$,C.X#+#(! /,(! '$#2.A! 0*6*/3%-#0.A?! 9%!
N,0.%,! ,! D*C4-.A*A! .(! .%! /3#%! %#! .N*A*4(! 0.! $#0*,! C$,/.05#! 0.! %#! *,(,A6.$#>! C,$!
.\.NC%,>! C$,(,A-*/#+#! m3.! R.(3A! (,! 0.+5#! $.6%.\#$>! .(! #+A,%3-,>! ,(0#A! 0.! $#0*,?!
E.$,! %,A! -.%.A/,C*,AO$#0#$! D#+5#(! 0.A/3+*.$-,! ,(0#A! 0.! $#0*,! $.6%.\#0#A! 0.A0.!
R.(3A! /,(! 3(#! .6*/*.(/*#! 0.%! 87! 4! `7! ?! E#$#! ,+2*#$! -#%.A! 0*6*/3%-#0.A>! %,A! m3.!
#+,'#+#(! C,$! .%! N,0.%,! *,(,A6d$*/,! /,(A-$3F.$,(! D*C4-.A*A! N3F! A,6*A-*/#0#A! .(! %#A!
m3.!.B*A-5#(!N3/D#A!/#C#A!*,(*X#0#A!/,(!,$*6*/*,A!.AC./*#%.A!.(!.%%#A!C#$#!C.$N*-*$!
.%!C#A,!0.%!$#0#$!#!-$#2dA!0.!%#!*,(,A6.$#>!-,/#$!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!R.(3A!F!$.'$.A#$!#!%#!
L*.$$#?!@%!N*AN,!-*.NC,>!(,!C,05#(!.B*A-*$!0.N#A*#0,A!,$*6*/*,A>!F#!m3.!0.!A.$!#A5!%#!
.N*A*4(! 0.! $#0*,! (,! A.$5#! -#(! *(-.(A#! /,N,! A.! ,+A.$2#+#?! 9A-,A! N,0.%,A! N.!
C#$./*.$,(!.B/.A*2#N.(-.!0.-#%%#0,A!F!#$+*-$#$*,A!.(!A3A!/*$/3(A-#(/*#A?!
E,/,! #(-.A! 0.! %#A! (,-#+%.A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! 0.! 8T[W! D./D#A! C,$! 3(#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%>!
#/.$/#!0.!R.(3A>!.(-$.'3d!3(!0,/3N.(-,!#!Nature>!$.2*A-#!/*.(-56*/#!+$*-h(*/#>!.(!.%!
/3#%! $.A3N5#! .A-#A! /,(/%3A*,(.A! F! 0.03/5#! m3.! A4%,! .%! N,0.%,! ,! D*C4-.A*A! 0.! %#!
A3C.$6*/*.!/#%*.(-.!.$#!.%!m3.!N.\,$!A.!#\3A-#+#!#!-,0#A!%#A!C$3.+#A?!@(-.A!0.!.A-,>!
F#! D#+5#! C$,C3.A-,! 3(#! -.,$5#! .AC./56*/#>! .(! -d$N*(,A! 0.%! .6./-,! %%#N#0,!
invernadero>! C#$#! .BC%*/#$! /4N,! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A! C,05#! $.'*A-$#$! -#(!
.%.2#0#A! -.NC.$#-3$#A?! E.$,! N*A! /,(/%3A*,(.A! .(! /,(-$#! 0.! %,A! N,0.%,A! 0.!
A3C.$6*/*.!6$5#>!.(!8T[W>!(,!0.C.(05#(!0.!%#!2#%*0.X!0.!%#!.BC%*/#/*4(!invernaderoM!
A3/.05#! m3.! 3(#! A3C.$6*/*.! /#%*.(-.! .BC%*/#+#! %,A! 0#-,A! F! 3(#! A3C.$6*/*.! 6$5#! (,?! @!
/#3A#! 0.! N*! *(-.$dA! C,$! %#! .B,+*,%,'5#>! D3+*.A.! C$.6.$*0,! 3(! R.(3A! D#+*-#+%.>! C.$,!
%,A! D./D,A! N.! /,(03\.$,(! #! ,-$#! C#$-.?! 9(! 3(! -$#+#\,! C3+%*/#0,! .(! 8T[`>! F,!
/,(/%35#>! C,$! C$3.+#A! *(0*$./-#A>! m3.! %#! -.NC.$#-3$#! C$,N.0*,! .(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! .(!
R.(3A! .$#>! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.>! 0.! a`b! "! F! %#! C$.A*4(! #-N,A6d$*/#! C$,N.0*,! .(! %#!
A3C.$6*/*.!.$#!3(#A!/*(/3.(-#!2./.A!N#F,$!m3.!.(!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!
9(! 8T[W>! 3(#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! #N.$*/#(#>! .%! Mariner! b>! 2,%4! /.$/#! 0.! R.(3A>! F! 3(#!
(#2.!.AC#/*#%!A,2*d-*/#>!.%!R.(.$#!a>!C.(.-$4!.(!A3!#-N4A6.$#?!9(!8TUa>!F#!D#+5#(!
.(-$#0,! .(! %#! #-N4A6.$#! 0.! R.(3A! /*(/,! /hCA3%#A! A,2*d-*/#A! /,(! *(A-$3N.(-,A?! c#A!
-$.A! G%-*N#A! 0.A/.(0*.$,(! A,+$.! .%! C%#(.-#! F! .(2*#$,(! 0#-,A! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.%!
C%#(.-#?! 9$#(! %,A! C$*N.$,A! #$-*6*/*,A! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0! m3.! A.! C,A#+#(! .(! %#!
A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! ,-$,! C%#(.-#?! 9%! C$,N.0*,! 0.! %#! -.NC.$#-3$#! 0.! R.(3A! .$#!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! 0.! b77! "o! .%! C$,N.0*,! 0.! C$.A*4(! .(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! .$#! 0.!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! (,2.(-#! #-N4A6.$#A?! K*A! /,(/%3A*,(.A! *(*/*#%.A! .$#(! +#A-#(-.!
/,$$./-#A>!#3(!/3#(0,!3(!-#(-,!/,(A.$2#0,$#A?!
9A! *(-.$.A#(-.>! #D,$#! m3.! /,(,/.N,A! C,$! N.0*/*,(.A! 0*$./-#A! %#A! 2.$0#0.$#A!
/,(0*/*,(.A! 0.! R.(3A>! %..$! #%'3(#A! 0.! %#A! /$5-*/#A! D./D#A! #%! N,0.%,! 0.! A3C.$6*/*.!
/#%*.(-.!m3.!A.!C3+%*/#$,(!.(!%#!0d/#0#!0.!%,A!A.A.(-#?!H(!#Q,!0.AC3dA!0.!D#+.$!
$./*+*0,! .%! -5-3%,! 0.! 0,/-,$! .(! p*%,A,65#>! D3+,! 3(! 6#N,A,! #A-$4(,N,! C%#(.-#$*,! m3.!
N.! D*X,! 3(#! #C3.A-#! 0.! 0*.X! /,(-$#! 3(,>! #A.'3$#(0,! m3.! %#! C$.A*4(! A,+$.! %#!
A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A! (,! .$#! 0*.X! 2./.A! A3C.$*,$! #! %#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! Z3A-,A#N.(-.!
.(-$.'3d!N*A!0*.X!04%#$.A!/,(-$#!A3A!/*.(-,>!F!D.!0.!/,(6.A#$!.(!D,(,$!A3F,!m3.!N.!
C#'4! %,A! /*.(! 04%#$.A>! /3#(0,! -32*N,A! .(! %#! N#(,! %,A! $.A3%-#0,A! 0.! %#A!
,+A.$2#/*,(.A!D./D#A!.(!%,A!#-.$$*X#\.A!A,2*d-*/,A?!
c#! -.,$5#! F! %,A! #$-*6*/*,A! .AC#/*#%.A! ,+$#(! $./5C$,/#N.(-.! .(! ,-$#A! 6,$N#A?! E,$!
.\.NC%,>!.%!Venera!a!$#0*4!A3!G%-*N#!-.NC.$#-3$#>!,>!N.\,$!0*/D,>!A3!G%-*N,!C3(-,!0.!
C$.A*4(O-.NC.$#-3$#! #! `V7! "! F! 2.*(-.! #-N4A6.$#A?! c,A! /*.(-56*/,A! A,2*d-*/,A!
/,(/%3F.$,(! m3.! dA-#A! .$#(! %#A! /,(0*/*,(.A! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A?! E.$,! %,A!
0#-,A!0.!$#0*,!F#!D#+5#(!0.N,A-$#0,!m3.!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!-.(5#!m3.!
A.$!N3/D,!NhA!.%.2#0#?!",N+*(#(0,!.%!$#0#$!/,(!%,A!0#-,A!0.%!Mariner!b>!A3C*N,A!
m3.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A! A.! D#%%#+#! N3/D,! NhA! #+#\,! 0.! 0,(0.! %,A! /*.(-56*/,A!
A,2*d-*/,A! D#+5#(! /,(/%3*0,! m3.! .%! Venera! a! A.! D#+5#! C,A#0,?! @D,$#! C#$./.!
0.N,A-$#0,!m3.!%,A!0*A.Q#0,$.A!0.!%#!C$*N.$#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%!Venera>!/$.F.(0,!m3.!
.$#(! $.#%.A! %,A! N,0.%,A! 0.! A3C.$6*/*.! 6$5#! 0.! %,A! -.4$*/,A>! /,(A-$3F.$,(! 3(#! (#2.!
.AC#/*#%! $.%#-*2#N.(-.! 6$h'*%! m3.! m3.04! #C%#A-#0#! C,$! .%! C.A,! 0.! %#! #-N4A6.$#! 0.!
R.(3A! N3F! C,$! .(/*N#! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.>! %,! N*AN,! m3.! 3(! A3+N#$*(,! (,! /,(A-$3*0,!
C#$#!'$#(0.A!C$,63(0*0#0.A!$.A3%-#$5#!#C%#A-#0,!.(!.%!6,(0,!0.%!,/d#(,?!

9(!%#!$.3(*4(!0.!%#!";&E@=! *!>!/.%.+$#0#!.(!L,q*,!.(!8T[W>!F,!.N*-5!%#!,C*(*4(!0.!
m3.! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! Venera! a! D#+5#! 0.\#0,! 0.! 63(/*,(#$! #! 3(,A! V7! qN! 0.! #%-3$#!
A,+$.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.?!K*!/,%.'#!.%!C$,6.A,$!@?!1?!u3XN*(>!0.%!:(A-*-3-,!p5A*/,!c.+.0.2!
0.!K,A/G>!#%.'4!m3.!%#!(#2.!D#+5#!#-.$$*X#0,!.(!%#!A3C.$6*/*.?!"3#(0,!%.!$.+#-5!m3.!
%,A! 0#-,A! 0.%! $#0#$! F! %#! $#0*,! (,! A*-3#+#(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! #! %#! #%-3$#! 0.03/*0#! C#$#! .%!
#-.$$*X#\.!0.%!Venera!a>!.%!0,/-,$!u3XN*(!$.AC,(0*4!m3.!.%!Venera!a!D#+5#!-,/#0,!%#!
/*N#! 0.! 3(#! #%-#! N,(-#Q#?! @/-,! A.'3*0,>! $.C%*m3d! m3.! %,A! .A-30*,A! 0.! $#0#$!
$.#%*X#0,A!.(!R.(3A!N,A-$#+#(!N,(-#Q#A!/,(!3(#!#%-3$#!NhB*N#!0.!`?777!N!F!m3.>!
.(! /,(A./3.(/*#>! .$#! *NC$,+#+%.! m3.! .%! Venera! a! D3+*.A.! #-.$$*X#0,! A,+$.! 3(#!
N,(-#Q#! 0.! V7?777! N! 0.! #%-3$#! .(! R.(3A>! #3(m3.! C30*.$#! .B*A-*$! A.N.\#(-.!
N,(-#Q#?! 9%! C$,6.A,$! u3XN*(! N.! /,(-.A-4! C$.'3(-h(0,N.! m3d! ,C*(#+#! A,+$.! %#!
C$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.! m3.! %#! C$*N.$#! +,N+#! #%.N#(#! %#(X#0#! A,+$.! c.(*('$#0,>! .(! %#!
&.'3(0#!Z3.$$#!K3(0*#%>!D3+*.A.!%*m3*0#0,!#%!G(*/,!.%.6#(-.!m3.!D#+5#!.(!.%!C#$m3.!
X,,%4'*/,!0.!%#!/*30#0?!@0N*-5!m3.!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!.$#!N3F!C.m3.Q#>!A*(!030#!#%'3(#?!
9%! C$,6.A,$! $.AC,(0*4! -$*3(6#%N.(-.! /,(! %#! *(6,$N#/*4(! 0.! m3.! dA-.! D#+5#! A*0,>! .(!
$.#%*0#0>!.%!0.A-*(,!0.%!.%.6#(-.!0.!c.(*('$#0,?!

*!!!",N*A*4(!0.!:(2.A-*'#/*4(!F!9A-30*,A!9AC#/*#%.A?!<?!0.%!L??!
c,A!0*A.Q#0,$.A!0.!%#A!A*'3*.(-.A!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A!A,2*d-*/#A>!#!C.A#$!0.%!/#A,!0.%!
X,,%4'*/,!0.!c.(*('$#0,>!-32*.$,(!A3N,!/3*0#0,!.(!#3N.(-#$!%#!63.$X#!N#-.$*#%!0.!
%#A!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A!C#$#!A3/.A*2#A!N*A*,(.A?!9%!Venera!U!C30,!A,C,$-#$!C$.A*,(.A!
/*.(-,! ,/D.(-#! 2./.A! A3C.$*,$.A! #! %#A! m3.! $.*(#(! .(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>!
N#$'.(!#0./3#0,!C#$#!%#A!$.#%.A!/,(0*/*,(.A!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!R.(3A?!L$#(AN*-*4!
0#-,A! 0.A0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A! 03$#(-.! 2.*(-.! N*(3-,A! #(-.A! 0.! m3.0#$!
#+$#A#0#?!9%!Venera!W>!.(!8TU`>!-$#(AN*-*4!03$#(-.!/3#$.(-#!N*(3-,A?!c#!C$.A*4(!0.!
%#!A3C.$6*/*.!(,!.A!0.!2.*(-.!#-N4A6.$#A!F!.%!.AC./-#/3%#$!N,(-.!u3XN*(!(,!.B*A-.?!
c#!C$*(/*C#%!/,(/%3A*4(!#/.$/#!0.%!Nd-,0,!/*.(-56*/,!m3.!A#m3d!0.!.A-#!D*A-,$*#!.A!%#!
A*'3*.(-.M!@3(m3.!%#!-.,$5#!.A!G-*%!.(!%,A!C$,F./-,A!,!0*A.Q,A!0.!.BC.$*N.(-,A>!A4%,!
%#A! .BC.$*.(/*#A! 0*$./-#A! /,(2.(/.$h(! #! /3#%m3*.$#?! )#Ah(0,A.! G(*/#N.(-.! .(! N*A!
/,(/%3A*,(.A! *(0*$./-#A>! D,F! 05#! D#+$5#! N3/D#! '.(-.! m3.! (,! /$..$5#! .(! 3(! C%#(.-#!
R.(3A! /#%*.(-.?! ",N,! $.A3%-#0,! 0.! %#A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! 0.%! Venera>! -,0,! .%! N3(0,!
#/.C-#! %#A! -.$$*+%.A! C$.A*,(.A! 0.! R.(3A>! /#%,$! 6#(-hA-*/,>! .A/#A#! *%3N*(#/*4(! F!
.B-$#Q,A!.6./-,A!4C-*/,A?!
9%!D./D,!0.!m3.!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#!D.$N#(,!A.#!-#(!0*6.$.(-.!#!%#!L*.$$#!.A!C$,+%.N#!
/*.(-56*/,! 0.! C$*N.$! ,$0.(>! F! %,A! .A-30*,A! 0.! R.(3A! A,(! 0.! A3N,! *(-.$dA! C#$#!
/,NC$.(0.$!%#!NhA!-.NC$#(#!D*A-,$*#!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!E,$!#Q#0*03$#>!#F30#!#!/#%*+$#$!%#!
A.'3$*0#0! 0.! %#! C$,F.//*4(! #A-$#%! F! 2*#\.! .AC*$*-3#%! C,C3%#$*X#0,A! C,$! 9NN#(3.%!
&r.0.(+,$'>! @((*.! ).A#(->! .! *((3N.$#+%.A! *N*-#0,$.A! #/-3#%.A>! (*('3(,! 0.! %,A!
/3#%.A!/#C-#$,(!0.-#%%.!#%'3(,!0.!%#!2.$0#0.$#!(#-3$#%.X#!0.!R.(3A?!
!
13. Venus es el Infierno
!

!
Esquema del vehculo espacial Venera 8, que aterriz sobre la superficie de Venus en 1972. De
Tass.

!
9%!C%#(.-#!R.(3A!6%,-#!A.$.(,!F!+.%%,!.(!.%!/*.%,!0.!%#!L*.$$#!/,N,!+$*%%#(-.!C3(-,!0.!
%3X!+%#(/,#N#$5%%.(-#?!R*A-,!,!6,-,'$#6*#0,!#!-$#2dA!0.!3(!-.%.A/,C*,>!A.!0*A-*('3.!3(!
0*A/,! A*(! $#A',A! /#$#/-.$5A-*/,Ao! 3(#! /#C#! 0.! (3+.A! .(,$N.>! .(*'Nh-*/#! F! /.$$#0#!
,/3%-#!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!#!(3.A-$#!2*A-#?!<*('G(!,\,!D3N#(,!D#!2*A-,!.%!A3.%,!0.!(3.A-$,!
NhA!/.$/#(,!2./*(,!C%#(.-#$*,?!
E.$,! #D,$#! A#+.N,A! N3/D#A! /,A#A! A,+$.! R.(3A?! E,$! %#A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! 0.!
$#0*,-.%.A/,C*,!F!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A>!A#+.N,A!m3.!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!.A!
0.!#%$.0.0,$!0.!b77}!"?!c#!C$.A*4(!#-N,A6d$*/#!.(!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!R.(3A!.A!(,2.(-#!
2./.A!A3C.$*,$!#!%#!m3.!.BC.$*N.(-#N,A!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!",N,!%#!'$#2.0#0!0.%!C%#(.-#!
.A! -#(! C,0.$,A#! /,N,! %#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>! D#F! (,2.(-#! 2./.A! NhA! N,%d/3%#A! .(! %#!
#-N4A6.$#! 0.! R.(3A! m3.! .(! %#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! 9A-#! 0.(A#! #-N4A6.$#! #/-G#! /,N,! 3(#!
.AC./*.!0.!N#(-#!#*A%#(-.>!N#(-.(*.(0,!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!/#%*.(-.!N.0*#(-.!.%!.6./-,!0.!
invernadero! F! A3#2*X#(0,! 0*6.$.(/*#A! 0.! -.NC.$#-3$#! 0.! 3(! %3'#$! #! ,-$,?! 9A!
C$,+#+%.!m3.!.%!C,%,!0.!R.(3A!(,!A.#!A*'(*6*/#-*2#N.(-.!NhA!6$5,!m3.!A3!./3#0,$>!F!
.(!R.(3A!D#/.!-#(-,!/#%,$!#!N.0*,05#!/,N,!#!N.0*#(,/D.?!
@!W7!qN!A,+$.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!A.!.B-*.(0.!%#!.AC.A#!/#C#!0.!(3+.A!m3.!2.N,A!0.A0.!
%#!L*.$$#?!I#A-#!6./D#!N3F!$./*.(-.!(#0*.!/,(,/5#!%#!/,NC,A*/*4(!0.!.A-#A!(3+.A?!J,!
D#+5#!A3'.$*0,!m3.!m3*XhA!.A-32*.$#(!6,$N#0#A>!.(!C#$-.>!C,$!#'3#>!3(!N#-.$*#%!N3F!
#+3(0#(-.! /4AN*/#N.(-.>! %,! m3.! C,0$5#! #+,(#$! N3/D#A>! C.$,! (,! -,0#A>! C,$!
A3C3.A-,>!0.!%#A!C$,C*.0#0.A!,+A.$2#0#A!.(!%#A!(3+.A!0.!R.(3A?!E.$,!-#N+*d(!A.!
A3'.$5#(!,-$,A!N#-.$*#%.A>!.(-$.!.%%,A!/%,$3$,!0.!#N,(*,>!2#$*,A!A*%*/#-,A>!A,%3/*,(.A!
0.! h/*0,! /%,$D50$*/,>! /%,$3$,! 6d$$*/,! D*0$#-#0,>! D*0$,/#$+3$,A>! A*.(0,! A3'.$*0,! .A-.!
G%-*N,! C$,03/-,! C,$! :NN#(3.%! R.%*q,2Aq*>! .(! A3! (,2.%#! Mundos en colisin>! C#$#!
C$,C,$/*,(#$!N#(h!#!%,A!*A$#.%*-#A!.(!A3A!/3#$.(-#!#Q,A!0.!2#'#$!C,$!.%!0.A*.$-,?!c,A!
,-$,A! N#-.$*#%.A! m3.! A.! *(A*(3#$,(! C*A#+#(! -.$$.(,! NhA! 6*$N.?! &*(! .N+#$',>! /#0#!
3(,!0.!.%%,A!.(-$#+#!.(!/,(6%*/-,!/,(!3(#!,!NhA!0.!%#A!,+A.$2#/*,(.A!$.#%*X#0#A?!
E.$,>!$./*.(-.N.(-.>!A.!D#!A3'.$*0,!3(!N#-.$*#%!m3.!C#$./.!#\3A-#$A.!#!%#!C.$6.//*4(!
#!-,0#!N.0*/*4(?!9%!#A-$4(,N,!#N.$*/#(,!@(0$.r!L?!J,3('!D#!0.N,A-$#0,!m3.!%#A!
(3+.A!0.!R.(3A!.A!C$,+#+%.!m3.!A.#(!3(#!A,%3/*4(!/,(/.(-$#0#!0.!h/*0,!A3%6G$*/,?!
H(#!A,%3/*4(!0.%!Ub!!0.!I`&;a!A.!#\3A-#!#%!5(0*/.!0.!$.6$#//*4(!0.!%#A!(3+.A!0.!
R.(3A! 0.-.$N*(#0,! C,$! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! C,%#$*Nd-$*/#A! .6./-3#0#A! 0.A0.! %#! L*.$$#?!
<*('3(,! 0.! %,A! ,-$,A! N#-.$*#%.A! A.! #/.$/#! #! .A-.! /h%/3%,?! L#%! A,%3/*4(! .A! %5m3*0#! #!
%#A! -.NC.$#-3$#A! F! C$.A*,(.A! $.*(#(-.A! .(! %#A! (3+.A! 0.! R.(3A?! 9%! h/*0,! A3%6G$*/,!
C,A..!3(#!/#$#/-.$5A-*/#!0.!#+A,$/*4(!0.-.$N*(#0#!C,$!.%!.AC./-$,A/,C*,!*(6$#$$,\,>!
.(! 3(#! %,('*-30! 0.! ,(0#! 0.! 88>`! N*/$,(.A?! 1.! -,0,A! %,A! N#-.$*#%.A! C$,C3.A-,A! ,!
A3'.$*0,A>! -#(! A4%,! .%! I`&;a! C,A..! -#%! /#$#/-.$5A-*/#! 0.! #+A,$/*4(?! c#! A.$*.!
A,2*d-*/#! 0.! %,A! Venera! .(/,(-$4! '$#(0.A! /#(-*0#0.A!0.! 2#C,$! 0.! #'3#! C,$! 0.+#\,!
0.!%#A!(3+.A!2*A*+%.A!0.!R.(3A?!c#A!,+A.$2#/*,(.A!m3.!A.!D#(!D./D,!.(!+3A/#!0.!
#'3#! N.0*#(-.! C$,/.0*N*.(-,A! .AC./-$,A/4C*/,A! D#(! D#%%#0,! A,%#N.(-.! 3(#!
*(A*'(*6*/#(-.! /#(-*0#0! 0.! 2#C,$! 0.! #'3#! .(! %#A! (3+.A! 0.! R.(3A?! c#A! 0,A!
,+A.$2#/*,(.A!.A-#$h(!0.!#/3.$0,!.(!.%!/#A,!0.!m3.!.(-$.!.A-#A!0,A!$.'*,(.A!D#F#!
3(!.6*/#X!#'.(-.!A./#0,$?!9%!h/*0,!A3%6G$*/,!.A!-#%!#'.(-.?!
9(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!0.!%#!L*.$$#!D#F!',-*-#A!0.!#'3#!#!'$#(!#%-3$#!F!2#C,$!0.!#'3#!.(!%#A!
/#C#A!#-N,A6d$*/#A!NhA!*(6.$*,$.A?!1.!%#!N*AN#!N#(.$#!.(!R.(3AM!&*!D#F!',-*-#A!0.!
h/*0,!A3%6G$*/,!.(!%#A!(3+.A!#%-#A>!0.+.!D#+.$!NhA!#+#\,!h/*0,!A3%6G$*/,!'#A.,A,>!#!
3(#! /,(/.(-$#/*4(! $.%#-*2#N.(-.! .%.2#0#! /.$/#! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.?! c,A! #A-$4(,N,A!
-#N+*d(! D#(! D#%%#0,! C$3.+#A! *(.m352,/#A! 0.! %#! .B*A-.(/*#! 0.! h/*0,A! /%,$D50$*/,! F!
6%3,$D50$*/,!/,N,!'#A.A!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!A3C.$*,$!0.!R.(3A?!L#N+*d(!0.+.(!.B*A-*$!#!
.%.2#0#!/,(/.(-$#/*4(>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!.(!%#A!C$,C,$/*,(.A!$.%#-*2#A!0.%!smog!.(!.%!#*$.!
0.!c,A!@('.%.A>!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!NhA!+#\#!0.!R.(3A?!9A-,A!-$.A!h/*0,A!/,(A-*-3F.(!
3(#! N.X/%#! A3N#N.(-.! /,$$,A*2#?! "3#%m3*.$! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! m3.! D#F#! 0.! A,+$.2*2*$!
.(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A! (,! A,%#N.(-.! 0.+.! .A-#$! C$,-.'*0#! /,(-$#! %#A! #%-#A!
C$.A*,(.A>!A*(,!-#N+*d(!/,(-$#!%#!#-N4A6.$#!/,$$,A*2#?!
9(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0>!%#!H(*4(!&,2*d-*/#!A.!D#%%#!*(N.$A#!.(!3(!C$,'$#N#!N3F!#/-*2,!0.!
.BC%,$#/*4(!0.!R.(3A>!A*(>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!C$.A.(/*#!D3N#(#!.(!-#%.A!.BC%,$#/*,(.A?!
@D,$#!A#+.N,A!m3.!#!N.0*,05#!D#F!A36*/*.(-.!%3X!.(!R.(3A!C#$#!D#/.$!6,-,'$#65#A?!
c%.'#$h!.%!05#>!m3*Xh!0.(-$,!0.!#%'3(,A!#Q,A>!(,!N3/D,A>!.(!m3.!C,0#N,A!-.(.$!%#A!
C$*N.$#A! 6,-,'$#65#A! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A?! k"4N,! A.$h! .A-#! A3C.$6*/*.l!
E,0.N,A!D#/.$!C$.0*//*,(.A!.(!/*.$-#!N.0*0#?!
@!/#3A#!0.!%#!#-N4A6.$#!N3F!0.(A#!0.!R.(3A>!A.!C$,03/.(!#%'3(,A!.6./-,A!4C-*/,A!
N3F! *(-.$.A#(-.A?! 9%! NhA! *NC,$-#(-.! 0.! -,0,A! A.! 0.+.! #! %#! 0*AC.$A*4(! =#F%.*'D>!
%%#N#0#! #A5! .(! D,(,$! 0.%! *('%dA! c,$0! =#F%.*'D?! "3#(0,! %#! %3X! 0.%! &,%! -,/#! %#!
#-N4A6.$#! /%#$#! F! %*NC*#! 0.! C,%2,! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>! 0*/D#! %3X! A.! 0*AC.$A#?! c,A! 6,-,(.A!
/D,/#(!/,(!%#A!N,%d/3%#A!0.!%#!#-N4A6.$#!-.$$.A-$.!F!$.+,-#(?!E3.0.(!0#$A.!N3/D,A!
0.!-#%.A!$.+,-.A?!E.$,!/,N,!%#A!N,%d/3%#A!0.!#*$.!A,(!N3/D,!NhA!C.m3.Q#A!m3.!%#!
%,('*-30!0.!,(0#!0.!%#!%3X>!$.A3%-#!m3.!%#A!%,('*-30.A!0.! ,(0#!/,$-#!A.!0*AC.$A#(!,!
$.+,-#(!N.0*#(-.!%#A!N,%d/3%#A!0.!#*$.!NhA!.6*/#XN.(-.!m3.!%#A!%,('*-30.A!0.!,(0#!
%#$'#A?!c#!%3X!#X3%!A.!0*AC.$A#!N3/D,!N.\,$!m3.!%#!%3X!$,\#?!wA-.!.A!3(!D./D,!m3.!F#!
/,(,/5#! c.,(#$0,! 0#! R*(/*>! m3*.(! C*(-#+#! %,A! C#*A#\.A! %.\#(,A! ,! 0.! 6,(0,! /,(! 3(!
C$*N,$,A,!#X3%!/.$G%.,?!E,$!.A,!D#+%#N,A!0.!N,(-#Q#A!#X3%.A>!F!C,$!.A,!.%!/*.%,!.A!
#X3%?!c#!%3X!0.%!&,%!A.!0*AC.$A#!,!.B-*.(0.!C,$!-,0#!(3.A-$#!#-N4A6.$#>!C#$-.!0.!.%%#!
A.!0*AC.$A#!D#/*#!#$$*+#!F!D#/*#!#63.$#!0.!(3.2,>!C.$,!,-$#A!6$#//*,(.A!0.!%3X!A,%#$!
A.! 0*AC.$A#(! N.0*#(-.! %#A! N,%d/3%#A! 0.! (3.A-$#! #-N4A6.$#! F! .(-,(/.A>! A*'3*.(0,!
3(#! 0*$.//*4(! /,NC%.-#N.(-.! 0*A-*(-#! #! %#! 0.%! &,%>! 23.%2.! #! (3.A-$,A! ,\,A?! 9(!
#3A.(/*#! 0.! #-N4A6.$#>! /,N,! .(! %#! c3(#>! .%! /*.%,! .A! (.'$,?! "3#(0,! N*$#N,A! 3(#!
C3.A-#! 0.! &,%! .A-#N,A! 2*.(0,! #%! &,%! #! -$#2dA! 0.! 3(! A.(0.$,! NhA! %#$',! .(! %#!
#-N4A6.$#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! m3.! /3#(0,! %,! /,(-.NC%h+#N,A! #! N.0*,05#?! c#! %3X! #X3%! D#!
#+#(0,(#0,!.A-.!A.(0.$,>!0.\#(0,!m3.!%#!%3X!$,\#!-,m3.!(3.A-$,A!,\,A?!c#!+.%%.X#!0.!
%#A! C3.A-#A! 0.! &,%>! 0.%! /*.%,! F! 0.! %,A! 0*A-*(-,A! C#*A#\.A! A.! 0.+.! #! %#! 0*AC.$A*4(!
=#F%.*'D?!
kJ!m3d!D#F!0.!%#!0*AC.$A*4(!=#F%.*'D!.(!R.(3Al!",N,!%#!#-N4A6.$#!.A!N3/D,!NhA!
0.(A#>!#%%5!.A!N3/D,!NhA!*NC,$-#(-.!%#!0*AC.$A*4(!=#F%.*'D?!&*!C30*dA.N,A!A3C$*N*$!
%#A!(3+.A!0.!R.(3A>!#G(!A.$5#N,A!*(/#C#/.A!0.!2.$!A3!A3C.$6*/*.!0.A0.!#$$*+#?!9(!%#!
#-N4A6.$#!0.!R.(3A!A.!0*AC.$A#$5#!%#!%3X! 0.!-,0,A!%,A!/,%,$.A!-#(-#A!2./.A!m3.!(,!
A.! C,0$5#! 0*A-*('3*$! (*('G(! 0.-#%%.! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.%! C%#(.-#?! ",(! %,('*-30.A! 0.!
,(0#! NhA! %#$'#A! #! %#A! m3.! .A! A.(A*+%.! .%! ,\,! D3N#(,>! A.! C,0$5#! 2.$! %#! A3C.$6*/*.!
0.A0.!#$$*+#>!C.$,!D#F!(3+.A?!c#A!,(0#A!0.!$#0*,!C.(.-$#(!.(!%#A!(3+.A!F!#-N4A6.$#!
0.! R.(3A>! F! #A5! A.! .A-h(! /,(6.//*,(#(0,! %,A! C$*N.$,A! N#C#A! 0.! $#0#$! 0.! R.(3A?!
1.(-$,!0.!N3F!C,/,A!#Q,A>!.%!'$#(!-.%.A/,C*,!@$./*+,>!0.!%#!",$(.%%!H(*2.$A*-F>!.(!
E3.$-,!=*/,>!/,N.(X#$h!#!-$#X#$!.%!N#C#!0.!R.(3A>!C,$!$#0#$>!/,(!N#F,$!C$./*A*4(!
m3.!%,A!N#C#A!m3.!A.!D#(!D./D,!4C-*/#N.(-.!0.!%#!c3(#?!J#!A.!-*.(.(!*(0*/*,A!0.!
m3.!.(!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!.A-.!.(*'Nh-*/,!C%#(.-#!D#F!/#0.(#A!N,(-#Q,A#A!F!.(,$N.A!
/$h-.$.A?!
9(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A>! %#! 0*AC.$A*4(! =#F%.*'D! C$,03/.! -#N+*d(! ,-$,!
*NC,$-#(-5A*N,!.6./-,?!@A5!/,N,!(,!C,0.N,A!2.$!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!.(!%3X!2*A*+%.!0.A0.!%#!
C#$-.! A3C.$*,$! 0.! R.(3A>! -#NC,/,! C,0.N,A! 2.$! .%! &,%>! .(! %3X! 2*A*+%.>! 0.A0.! %#!
A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A>! #3(m3.! A.! #+$*.A.! 3(! .(,$N.! /%#$,! .(! %#A! (3+.A?! E,$! ,-$#!
C#$-.>! A*! D3+*.A.! 2*0#! *(-.%*'.(-.! .(! R.(3A>! %#! #A-$,(,N5#! A.! 0.A#$$,%%#$5#! N3F!
%.(-#N.(-.>! A*.(0,! #A5! m3.! A3$'*$5#! C$*N.$,! %#! $#0*,#A-$,(,N5#?! c#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%!
Venera! W! D#%%4! m3.! %#! %3X! A,%#$! #%/#(X#! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A! 03$#(-.! .%! 05#>! C.$,!
m3.0#! -#(! #-.(3#0#! C,$! A3! C#A,! .(-$.! %#A! (3+.A! F! #-N4A6.$#! m3.>! *(/%3A,! #!
N.0*,05#>!(,!.A!NhA!+$*%%#(-.!.(!R.(3A!m3.!.(!C%.(,!/$.CGA/3%,!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!c#!%3X!
A,%#$!A.$5#!#A5!3(!+$3N,A,!F!/,(63A,!$.-#X,!0.!%3X!0.!/,%,$!$3+5!,+A/3$,>!/3F#!A#%*0#!
F!C3.A-#!C,0$5#(!0.-.$N*(#$A.!N3F!2#'#N.(-.?!
&*!C30*d$#N,A!D#%%#$(,A!A,+$.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!R.(3A!2.A-*0,A!/,(!-$#\.!C$,-./-,$!F!
%,A!,\,A!/3+*.$-,A!C,$!'#6#A!0.!&,%!/,%,$!2*,%.-#>!(,!A.!2.$5#!(#0#!.(!#+A,%3-,!NhA!
#%%h! 0.! 3(,A! /3#(-,A! N.-$,A?! c#! 0*AC.$A*4(! =#F%.*'D! .(! %3X! #X3%! .A! -#(! 63.$-.! .(!
R.(3A! m3.! %#! 2*A*+*%*0#0! .(! .%! /,%,$! 2*,%.-#! .A! N3F! C.m3.Q#?! E.$,! /,N,! %#! %3X! 0.!
%#$'#! %,('*-30! 0.! ,(0#! A.! 0*AC.$A#! N.(,A! m3.! %#! #X3%>! .(! .%! 6*(#%! $,\,! 0.%! .AC./-$,!
2*A*+%.! n,\,A! /3+*.$-,A! /,(! '#6#A! 0.! &,%! /,%,$! $,\,n>! %#! 2*A*+*%*0#0! C$,+#+%.N.(-.!
C,0$5#! #%/#(X#$! %,A! `77! 4! V77! N.-$,A?! 9(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A>! -,0,! 0.+.! .A-#$!
+#Q#0,!C,$!3(#!,+A/3$*0#0!0.!C$,63(0,!/,%,$!$,\,?!
E.$/*+*$5#N,A!.%!/,%,$>!C.$,!-#(!A4%,!0.!#m3.%%,A!,+\.-,A!m3.!.A-32*.A.(!N3F!/.$/#!
0.! (,A,-$,A?! L,0,! %,! 0.NhA>! -,0,! /3#(-,! (,A! $,0.#$#>! #C#$./.$5#! /,N,! 3(! +,$$4(!
$,A#0,?!
@A5!C3.A>!R.(3A!C#$./.!A.$!3(!%3'#$!/,NC%.-#N.(-.!0*6.$.(-.!#!%#!L*.$$#!F>!#0.NhA>!
N3F!C,/,!#-$#/-*2,M!-.NC.$#-3$#A!0.!2.$0#0.$#!C#$$*%%#>!C$.A*,(.A!#C%#A-#(-.A>!'#A.A!
/,$$,A*2,A!F!N#%A#(,A>!,%,$.A!#!#X36$.>!F!3(!C#*A#\.!*(N.$A,!.(!,+A/3$*0#0!$,\*X#?!
=.A3%-#! /3$*,A,>! C.$,! D#F! 3(! %3'#$! #A,N+$,A#N.(-.! C#$./*0,! #! dA-.! .(! %#A!
%.F.(0#A>!6,%q%,$.!F!A3C.$A-*/*4(!0.!%,A!D,N+$.A?!c.!%%#N#N,A!:(6*.$(,?!9(!%#!#(-*'3#!
/$..(/*#! nC,$! .\.NC%,>! %#! 0.! %,A! '$*.',An>! .$#! .%! %3'#$! #! 0,(0.! 2*#\#+#(! -,0#A! %#A!
#%N#A!D3N#(#A!0.AC3dA!0.!%#!N3.$-.?!9(!%#!dC,/#!/$*A-*#(#>!A.!C*.(A#!.(!.%!:(6*.$(,!
/,N,!0.A-*(,!post mortem!C#$#!3(#!0.!%#A!0,A!/#-.',$5#A!0.!C.$A3#A*4(!N,$#%?!E.$,!
.B*A-.(!C,/#A!030#A!0.!m3.!.%!C3(-,!0.!2*A-#!A,+$.!.%!:(6*.$(,>!.(!/3#(-,!/,(/*.$(.!
#%!*(0*2*03,!N.0*,!n#X36$.>!/,%,$!$,\,>!%%#N#A>!.-/?n!A.!#\3A-#>!.(!-,0,>!#!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!
0.!R.(3A?!
@3(m3.! %#A! N,%d/3%#A! +*,%4'*/#A! -.$$.A-$.A! $hC*0#N.(-.! A.! D#$5#(! C.0#X,A! .(!
R.(3A>!D#F!N,%d/3%#A!,$'h(*/#A!nC,$!.\.NC%,>!#%'3(#A!/,(!3(#!/,NC%.\#!.A-$3/-3$#!
/*$/3%#$n!m3.!A.!N#(-.(0$5#(!.A-#+%.A!.(!%#A!/,(0*/*,(.A!0.!R.(3A?!9A!0*65/*%!.B/%3*$!
%#! 2*0#! #%%5>! C.$,! /*.$-#N.(-.! C,0.N,A! 0./*$! m3.! A.$5#! C,$! /,NC%.-,! 0*6.$.(-.! #! %#!
m3.!C#$#!(,A,-$,A!.A!6#N*%*#$?!"3#%m3*.$!/$*#-3$#!m3.!2*2#!#%%5!A*(!030#!#%'3(#!D#!0.!
C,A..$! C*.%! N3F! /,$$.,A#?! @! /#3A#! 0.! %#A! #%-#A! -.NC.$#-3$#A! #-N,A6d$*/#A>! *(/%3A,!
A.$5#! (,$N#%! m3.! -#N+*d(! 0*AC3A*.$#! 0.! C.m3.Q#A! #%#A>! /,$-#A! F! $5'*0#A>! m3.!
%%.2#A.(!#%!m3.!%#A!C,A.F.$#!0.!3(!%#0,!#!,-$,!.(!#%.-.,!.B/.C/*,(#%N.(-.!.(d$'*/,!
F!#/-*2,?!H(!0*#+%,!.A!3(!C.$6./-,!N,0.%,!n.B/.C-,!.(!A3!#AC./-,!0.!N#/D,!/#+$5,!F!
D3N#(,n!C#$#!3(!D#+*-#(-.!0.!R.(3A?!K*%-,(!.!:A#5#A!%%#N#$,(!#!c3/*6.$!Hijo de la
maana>!0.!%#!.A-$.%%#!0.!%#!N#Q#(#?!13$#(-.!N*%.A!0.!#Q,A>!R.(3A!F!.%!:(6*.$(,!A.!
D#(!*0.(-*6*/#0,?!
E,$!A3C3.A-,>!m3.!dA-#!(,!.A!NhA!m3.!3(#!/3$*,A#!/,*(/*0.(/*#!F!(,!/$.,!m3.!C3.0#!
A.$!#%',!NhA!m3.!.A,?!@m35>!.%!0.-#%%.!C$*(/*C#%!.A!m3.!.(!-,0#A!%#A!%.F.(0#A!3(,!A.!
2#!#%!:(6*.$(,!D#/*#!#+#\,!F!(,!D#/*#!#$$*+#?!9%!N3(0,!/%hA*/,!0.!Z$./*#!F!=,N#!F!.%!
#(-*'3,!;$*.(-.!E$4B*N,!.A-#+#!A#X,(#0,!0.!2,%/#(.A!.(!#/-*2*0#0?!9A-,A!-.$$.(,A!
2,%/h(*/,A>! /,N,! .(! %#A! :A%#(0*#! F! I#r#*! /,(-.NC,$h(.#A>! A,(! %3'#$.A! 0.A,%#0,A>!
0.A(30,A>!#3(m3.!-#N+*d(!C#*A#\.A!0.!C#2,$,A#!+.%%.X#?!1.!%,A!/$h-.$.A!2,%/h(*/,A!
A3$'.(!'#A.A!A3%63$,A,Ao!63.(-.A!F!$5,A!0.!%#2#!-*Q.(!%,A!#%$.0.0,$.A!0.!$,\,?!I#/.!
N3/D,!/#%,$?!H(,!A.!/D#N3A/#!%#A!/.\#A!F!C.A-#Q#A!A*!A.!#/.$/#!0.N#A*#0,!#!3(#!
A#%*0#!0.!%#2#?!J!-,0,!.A-.!/#%,$>!/,%,$!$,\,!F!N#%,A!,%,$.A!2*.(.(!0.!#+#\,?!<,!63.!
N3F! 0*65/*%! C#$#! (3.A-$,A! #(-.C#A#0,A! *N#'*(#$! m3.! %,A! -.$$.(,A! 2,%/h(*/,A! .$#(!
#+.$-3$#A!m3.!0#+#(!C#A,!#!3(!N3(0,!.(!%%#N#A!/,NC%.-#N.(-.!0*6.$.(-.>!m3.!A.!
%%#N#+#!:(6*.$(,?!
9%!*(-.$*,$!0.!%#!L*.$$#!F!.%!.B-.$*,$!0.!R.(3A!A,(!C#$./*0,A>!C.$,!(,!*0d(-*/,A?!c,A!
0,A! A,(! %3'#$.A! 0.A#'$#0#+%.A! C#$#! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A>! C.$,! #! %#! 2.X! #N+,A!
C,A..(! .B-$.N#0,! *(-.$dA! /*.(-56*/,>! %3'#$.A! m3.! 2#%.! %#! C.(#! 2*A*-#$>! F#! m3.! (,!
%3'#$.A!0,(0.!$.A*0*$?!1#(-.!A#+5#!N3/D,!A,+$.!.A-,?!
!
14. Ciencia e Inteligencia
!

!
Variado grupo de agregados militares extranjeros agrupados para ver el lanzamiento del
Apollo 15. Fotografa del autor.
!
E#Ad!%,A!C$*N.$,A!0,A!#Q,A!0.AC3dA!0.!0,/-,$#$N.!.(!%#!H(*2.$A*0#0!0.!"#%*6,$(*#>!
).$q.%.F>! 0,(0.>! .(-$.! ,-$#A! /,A#A>! N.! C$.,/3C4! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! 2*0#! .(! ,-$,A!
%3'#$.A!F!%#!.A-.$*%*X#/*4(!0.!2.D5/3%,A!.AC#/*#%.A!0.A-*(#0,A!#!%3'#$.A!/,N,!K#$-.>!
C3.A! (,! 0.A.h+#N,A! /,(-#N*(#$! .%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! N#$/*#(,! /,(! N*/$,+*,A! 0.! %#!
L*.$$#?!
9(!3(!+$*%%#(-.!05#!0.!C$*N#2.$#>!$./*+5!3(#!%%#N#0#!-.%.64(*/#!0.!3(!'.(.$#%!0.!%#A!
p3.$X#A! @d$.#A! #! m3*.(! D#+5#! /,(,/*0,! F! .(/,(-$#0,! .(! 2#$*#A! $.3(*,(.A! 0.!
/#$h/-.$!/*.(-56*/,?!9%!'.(.$#%!D#+5#!-$#+#\#0,!C$*(/*C#%N.(-.!.(!%#!N.0*/*(#!#C%*/#0#!
#! %#! @2*#/*4(?! c.! %%#N#$d! #m35! )#$-! 1,CC.%'#('.$?! 9%! '.(.$#%! 1,CC.%'#('.$! N.!
*(6,$N4!m3.!A.!.(/,(-$#+#!.(!c,A!@('.%.A!/,(!-$.A!/*.(-56*/,A!A,2*d-*/,A>!3(,!0.!%,A!
/3#%.A! .A-#+#! .(/#$'#0,! 0.%! .A63.$X,! A,2*d-*/,! 0.! /,(A-$3*$! *(A-$3N.(-,A! C#$#!
*(2.A-*'#$!%#!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.?!&3!(,N+$.!.$#!@%.B#(0$!@%.B#(0$,2*/D!:NAD.(.-Aq*!
](,!D#F!$#X4(!#%'3(#!C#$#!/#N+*#$!A3!(,N+$.o!#!0*6.$.(/*#!0.!,-$,A>!.(!.A-.!$.%#-,>!
(,!-*.(.!(#0#!0.!m3.!#2.$',(X#$A._?!9$#!%#!C$*N.$#!2*A*-#!m3.!D#/5#!:NAD.(.-Aq*!#!
%,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A?! &5>! C,$! A3C3.A-,! m3.! N.! *(-.$.A#+#! /,(,/.$%.?! k"3h(0,l! c#!
$.AC3.A-#!63.M!f:(N.0*#-#N.(-.?g!@A5!m3.!C#$-5!.(!#3-,N42*%!D#/*#!.%!#.$,C3.$-,!0.!
&#(! p$#(/*A/,>! 2,%d! #! c,A! y('.%.A>! 0,(0.! -,Nd! 3(! -#B*! C#$#! 0*$*'*$N.! #! 3(#!
0*$.//*4(!m3.!N.!D#+5#!6#/*%*-#0,!(3.A-$,!'.(.$#%!1,CC.%'#('.$?!
9$#!.%!D,'#$!0.!3(!6*A*4%,',!N3F!/,(,/*0,!C$,6.A*,(#%N.(-.>!3(!+3.(!/.$.+$,!0.!%#!
H"c@?!9(!%#!A#%#!0.!.A-#$>!#!N*!%%.'#0#>!A.!.(/,(-$#+#!.%!6*A*4%,',>!,-$,A!.BC.$-,A!.(!
N.0*/*(#! C#$#! %#! @2*#/*4(! 0.! %#! H"c@>! .%! '.(.$#%! 1,CC.%'#('.$>! -$.A! /*.(-56*/,A!
A,2*d-*/,A! ]0,A! .BC.$-,A! .(! N.0*/*(#! .AC#/*#%! F! .%! #/#0dN*/,! :NAD.(.-Aq*_! F! 3(!
*(-d$C$.-.?! c%#N#$d! #%! *(-d$C$.-.! :',$! =,',2*(o! .$#! 3(! .NC%.#0,! #N.$*/#(,! 0.! %#!
)*+%*,-./#!0.%!",('$.A,!0.A-*(#0,!#!A.$2*$!0.!*(-d$C$.-.!C#$#!%,A!-$.A!$3A,A!03$#(-.!
A3!2*A*-#!#!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A?!c#!G(*/#!/,A#!m3.!N.!A,$C$.(0*4!/,N,!#%',!C./3%*#$!
63.! m3.! .%! *('%dA! 0.! %,A! -$.A! $3A,A! .$#! $.#%N.(-.! .B/.%.(-.?! 9(-,(/.A>! kC#$#! m3d!
(./.A*-#+#(!3(!*(-d$C$.-.l!
L,0,!.%!N3(0,!#C#$./5#!#%.'$.>!A.!/#N+*#$,(!6$#A.A!0.!A3N#!/,$-.A5#!F!/*$/3%#$,(!
+.+*0#A! ]:',$! -#N+*d(! -,N4! C#$-.! .(! .A-,_?! <,! D#+5#! /,(2.$A#/*4(! .(! %#! /3#%! d%!
.A-32*.$#! #3A.(-.! 03$#(-.! NhA! 0.! /*(/,! N*(3-,A?! 9A-#+#! N3F! #-#$.#0,>! /,N,! 3(#!
#+.\#!N#(5#/#!m3.!,+A.A*2#N.(-.!$.2,%,-.#$#!0.!6%,$!.(!6%,$?!
@%!/#+,!0.!3(!$#-,>!-,0,A!#/,$0#N,A!-$#A%#0#$(,A!#%!#.$,C3.$-,!*(-.$(#/*,(#%!0.!c,A!
@('.%.A>!0,(0.!%,A!$3A,A!NhA!-#$0.!-,N#$5#(!3(!#2*4(?!E.$,>!#(-.A!0.!.NC$.(0.$!.%!
2*#\.>!/.(#$5#N,A!\3(-,A?!L,0,A!(,!/#+5#N,A!.(!3(!A,%,!/,/D.>!C,$!%,!/3#%!=,',2*(!
(,!C,05#!2*#\#$!.(!0,A!2.D5/3%,A!#!%#!2.X?!:NAD.(.-Aq*>!#%'3(,A!,-$,A!F!F,!A3+*N,A!#!
3(!/,/D.>!F!=,',2*(!F!%,A!0.NhA!-,N#$,(!3(!A.'3(0,!#3-,N42*%?!13$#(-.!%,A!2.*(-.!
,! -$.*(-#! N*(3-,A! m3.! 03$4! .%! 2*#\.>! :NAD.(.-Aq*! F! F,! *(-.$/#N+*#N,A! *(-.$.A#(-.A!
C3(-,A! 0.! 2*A-#! A,+$.! Nd-,0,A! 0.! 0.-.//*4(! 0.! 2*0#! F! .A-.$*%*X#/*4(! 0.! 2.D5/3%,A!
.AC#/*#%.A! F! A3! -./(,%,'5#?! 9$#! .%! C$*N.$,! 0.! %,A! /,(-#/-,A! m3.! F,! -.(5#! /,(! 3(!
/*.(-56*/,!A,2*d-*/,?!
c%.'#N,A! #%! #.$,C3.$-,>! 0,(0.! $.'*A-$#$,(! %#A! N#%.-#Ao! %3.',! %,A! A,2*d-*/,A! A.!
.B/3A#$,(! C#$#! *$! #%! %#2#+,?! K*.(-$#A! %.A! .AC.$#+#! .(! .%! .B-.$*,$>! N.! .(/,(-$d! #!
A,%#A! /,(! :',$! =,',2*(>! m3*.(! *(N.0*#-#N.(-.! N.! 0*\,>! D#+%#(0,! C,$! 3(#! 0.! %#A!
/,N*A3$#A!0.!%#!+,/#!F!/,(!.%!-,(,!C$,C*,!0.!3(!P#N.A!"#'(.F!,!I3NCD$.F!),'#$-M!
nks3d!D#F!N3/D#/D,l!ks3d!D#A!#2.$*'3#0,l!
",N,! (,! .A-#+#! N3F! #%! /,$$*.(-.! 0.! %,A! Nd-,0,A! F! /,A-3N+$.A! N3(0#(#A>! F!
A*(-*d(0,N.! N3F! /,NC%#/*0,! C,$! %#! *(6,$N#/*4(! m3.! :NAD.(.-Aq*! F! F,! D#+5#N,A!
*(-.$/#N+*#0,>!$hC*0#N.(-.!$.A3N5!%,!m3.!D#+5#!#C$.(0*0,?!
nK3F!+3.(,>!N3/D#/D,?!kE#$#!m3*.(!-$#+#\#Al!
nE#$#! %#! H(*2.$A*0#0! 0.! "#%*6,$(*#>! .(! ).$q.%.F! n$.C%*m3d! .(! -,(,! 0.! A3N#!
A#-*A6#//*4(?!
n<,>!(,>!N3/D#/D,o!%#!-#C#0.$#!(,?!
E,/,!#!C,/,!N.!63*!0#(0,!/3.(-#!0.!/3h%!.$#!%#!,/3C#/*4(!0.!:',$!=,',2*(>!F#!m3.!
(,!0.!A3!*0.(-*0#0?!",(!/$./*.(-.!/4%.$#>!%.!.BC%*m3d!m3.!A*!.$#!C,A*+%.!A,A-.(.$!3(#!
/,(2.$A#/*4(! /,(! 3(! /*.(-56*/,! A,2*d-*/,>! -#%! /,(2.$A#/*4(! $.03(0#$5#! NhA! .(!
+.(.6*/*,!0.!%#!/*.(/*#!m3.!.(!+.(.6*/*,!0.!%,A!A.$2*/*,A!#N.$*/#(,A!0.!:(6,$N#/*4(!
K*%*-#$?! @(-.A! 0.! m3.! =,',2*(! C30*.A.! 0./*$! #%',>! A#%*.$,(! 0.%! %#2#+,! (3.A-$,A!
*(2*-#0,A!A,2*d-*/,A!F!-,0,A!(,A!63*N,A!#!/.(#$?!
@3(m3.! N.! D#%%#+#! A.(-#0,! \3(-,! #! :NAD.(.-Aq*! N.! A.(-5! *(/#C#X! 0.! D#+%#$! 0.!
(3.2,! /,(! d%! #/.$/#! 0.! /3#%m3*.$! -.N#! m3.! A.! C#$./*.$#! #! %#! /*.(/*#?! L,0#25#!
$./3.$0,! m3.! (3.A-$,A! C$*(/*C#%.A! -.N#A! 0.! /,(2.$A#/*4(! 63.$,(! %#A! C.%5/3%#A!
#N.$*/#(#A! F! %,A! C,.-#A! A,2*d-*/,A?! L$#A! D#+.$! +.+*0,! #%'3(#A! /,C#A>! @%.B#(0$!
@%.B#(0$,2*/D!:NAD.(.-Aq*!0./%#$4!m3.!t*%%*#N!&D#q.AC.#$.!.$#!.%!C,.-#!NhA!%.50,!
.(!=3A*#!F!m3.!%#A!C.%5/3%#A!#N.$*/#(#A!0.!2#m3.$,A!.$#(!.B/.A*2#N.(-.!2*,%.(-#A?!
L$#(A/3$$*.$,(! 2#$*#A! D,$#A! 03$#(-.! %#A! /3#\.A! A4%,! D#+%#N,A! A,+$.! .A-,A! 0,A!
-.N#A?!
"3#(0,!%,A!$3A,A!C#$-*.$,(!D#/*#!A3!C#5A>!F,!$.'$.Ad!#!).$q.%.F?!
@!%#!N#Q#(#!A*'3*.(-.!.B#N*(d!%#A!Ch'*(#A!0.!%#!'35#!-.%.64(*/#!0.!&#(!p$#(/*A/,!F>!
+#\,! fZ,+*.$(,! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,Ag>! .(/,(-$d! 3(#! A.//*4(! N#$/#0#! f".(-$#%!
:(-.%%*'.(/.!@'.(/Fg?!@%!N#$/#$!.%!(GN.$,!.(!/3.A-*4(>!3(#!2,X!0.!-,(,!#%.'$.!0*\,!
#%',!C#$./*0,!#!fJ3q,(!aO`8aVg?!
ni;*'#j!k9A!%#!"@l!nC$.'3(-d?!
nk9(!m3d!C,0.$(,A!A.$2*$%.>!A.Q,$l!
ns3*.$,!C$.A.(-#$!3(#!m3.\#?!KhA!+*.(!D#/.$!3(#!$./%#N#/*4(?!
nH(!N,N.(-,>!A.Q,$o!%.!C,(0$d!/,(!.%!1.C#$-#N.(-,!0.!=./%#N#/*,(.A?!
9A-,!,/3$$*4!C,/,!0.AC3dA!0.%!.C*A,0*,!0.!%#!)#D5#!0.!%,A!",/D*(,A!F!A3C,(',!m3.!
%#!"@!.A-#+#!$./*+*.(0,!N,(-#Q#A!0.!$./%#N#/*,(.A!F!m3.\#A?!
"3#(0,>!C,$!6*(>!%,'$d!m3.!N.!C3A*.$#(!/,(!.%!1.C#$-#N.(-,!0.!=./%#N#/*,(.A>!N.!
%#(/d!$hC*0#N.(-.!#!D#/.$!3(!$.A3N.(!0.!N*!.(/3.(-$,!,>!NhA!+*.(>!/D,m3.!/,(!.%!
A.Q,$!=,',2*(>!C.$,!#%!/#+,!0.!3(,A!A.'3(0,A!N.!A*%.(/*#$,(!#%.'#(0,!m3.!#m3d%!
(,! .$#! -.N#! #0./3#0,! C#$#! -$#-#$! C,$! -.%d6,(,?! c#! 2,X! m3.! N.! *NC3A,! A*%.(/*,! (,!
%%.'#+#!#!N*A!,50,A!C,$!%#!N*AN#!%5(.#?!&.'3$#N.(-.!%#!%5(.#!.A-#+#!*(-.$2.(*0#?!9(!
/,(A./3.(/*#>! .A-#+%./*N,A! 3(#! /*-#! C#$#! NhA! -#$0.! .(! #m3.%! N*AN,! 05#! F! .(! N*!
0.AC#/D,?!
E,$! A3C3.A-,>! F! #! %#! D,$#! C$.A/$*C-#>! %%.'#$,(! 0,A! D,N+$.A! \42.(.A>! N3F! +*.(!
2.A-*0,A>! m3.! N.! N,A-$#$,(! 0,A! -#$\.-#A! 0.! *0.(-*6*/#/*4(! /,(! %#! 6*$N#! 0.! P,D(!
K/",(.>!m3*.(!$./*.(-.N.(-.!D#+5#!A*0,!(,N+$#0,!0*$./-,$!0.!%#!"@?!L$#A!.BC$.A#$!
N*! .A-#0,! 0.! h(*N,>! N,%.A-,! A*(! 030#! #%'3(#>! N.0*#(-.! 3(! 0.-#%%#0,! .A/$3-*(*,! 0.!
A3A!-#$\.-#A!0.!*0.(-*6*/#/*4(>!/,N.(/d!#!$.%#-#$!N*!D*A-,$*#?!R*!m3.!.(!A3A!$,A-$,A!A.!
$.6%.\#+#! 3(#! /$./*.(-.! C$.,/3C#/*4(?! @%! 6*(#%! 0.! N*! $.%#-,>! N.! .BC%*/#$,(! m3.! .%!
/,NC,$-#N*.(-,!0.!=,',2*(!(,!C,05#!A.$!0.!(*('3(#!N#(.$#!.%!m3.!/,$$.AC,(05#!#!
3(! .NC%.#0,! 0.! f%#! @'.(/*#g?! &.! N,A-$#$,(! N3F! C$.,/3C#0,A! C,$! N*! $.%#-,>!
C#$-*/3%#$N.(-.!#!/#3A#!0.!%#!fN#%#!C$.(A#g!m3.!.A-#+#(!A36$*.(0,!0.AC3dA!0.!%,!
0.!%#!)#D5#!0.!%,A!",/D*(,A?!I#$5#(!-,0,!%,!C,A*+%.!C,$!#$$.'%#$!%#A!/,A#A>!A*!F,!(,!
N,%.A-#+#! #! %#! @'.(/*#! 0#(0,! NhA! C3+%*/*0#0! #! %#! D*A-,$*#! .(! /3.A-*4(?! @/.C-d!
'3#$0#$!A*%.(/*,!03$#(-.!3(!-*.NC,>!F!%,A!0,A!D,N+$.A!#+#(0,(#$,(!N*!0.AC#/D,?!
H(#!A.N#(#!NhA!-#$0.!N.!%%#N#$,(!C,$!-.%d6,(,M!
n1,/-,$! &#'#(>! A,F! .%! A.Q,$! &N*-D>! .%! m3.! .A-32,! /D#$%#(0,! /,(! 3A-.0! .(! A3!
0.AC#/D,!%#!A.N#(#!C#A#0#?!k=./3.$0#!.%!#A3(-,!m3.!.(-,(/.A!-$#-#N,Al!
&,AC./Dd!m3.!.%!-.%d6,(,!-#N+*d(!.A-#!2.X!A.!D#%%#+#!*(-.$2.(*0,?!
nI.N,A!C,0*0,!.A-#+%./.$!m3.!%#!C#$-.!.(!/3.A-*4(!nkA#+.!#!m3*d(!N.!$.6*.$,ln!(,!
-$#+#\#! C#$#! (,A,-$,Ao! +*.(>! C#$#! (3.A-$#! ,$'#(*X#/*4(>! /,(! .A.! (,N+$.?! 1.A0.!
%3.',>! .A-#N,A! +3A/#(0,! ,-$,A! (,N+$.A! F! %.! *$.N,A! #! 2.$! -#(! C$,(-,! /,N,!
C,0#N,A?!
c.A!D#+5#!/,A-#0,!3(#!A.N#(#!.A-30*#$!%#!(4N*(#!C.$A,(#%!0.!%#!"@?!;!%#!(4N*(#!
.$#!N3F!%#$'#!,!N3F!A./$.-#?!
@%'3(,A!05#A!NhA!-#$0.>!F!.NC%.#(0,!3(!%.('3#\.!*'3#%N.(-.!2.%#0,>!N.!%%#N#$,(!F!
N.! 0*\.$,(! n.(! 3(! -,(,! 0.! 2,X! m3.! C#$./5#! $.6%.\#$! A3N#! C$.,/3C#/*4(n! m3.! :',$!
=,',2*(! (,! -$#+#\#+#! C#$#! %#! "@! /,(! (*('G(! ,-$,! (,N+$.! F! m3.>! .(! -#%.A!
/*$/3(A-#(/*#A>! (#-3$#%N.(-.! A.(-5#(! N3/D#! /3$*,A*0#0! C,$! A#+.$! C#$#! m3*d(! %,!
D#/5#?!
L$#(A/3$$*4! ,-$#! A.N#(#?! 9(-,(/.A! %#! "@! 0.A.4! D#+%#$! /,(N*',! 0.! (3.2,! .(! N*!
0.AC#/D,?! c%.'#$,(! %,A! 0,A! /#+#%%.$,A! m3.! F#! N.! D#+5#(! 2*A*-#0,! #(-.$*,$N.(-.! F>!
3(#! 2.X! NhA>! N.! .(A.Q#$,(! %#A! 0,A! -#$\.-#A! 0.! *0.(-*6*/#/*4(! 6*$N#0#A! C,$! P,D(!
K/",(.?!K.!*(6,$N#$,(!m3.>!-$#A!6#-*',A#A!*(2.A-*'#/*,(.A>!D#+5#(!0.A/3+*.$-,!m3.!
:',$!=,',2*(!.$#!.(!$.#%*0#0!3(!#'.(-.!0.%!&.$2*/*,!&./$.-,!0.!%#A!p3.$X#A!@d$.#A?!
1.! (3.2,! N.! #A.'3$#$,(! m3.! (*('G(! $.C$.A.(-#(-.! 0.! A3! @'.(/*#! A.! D3+*.A.!
/,NC,$-#0,!0.!-#%!N#(.$#>!F!#/-,!A.'3*0,>!A.!63.$,(?!c,!m3.!A5!m3.0#+#!/%#$#N.(-.!
.A-#+%./*0,! .$#! m3.! #! %#! "@! %.! D#+5#! /,A-#0,! 0,A! A.N#(#A! 0.-.$N*(#$! %#!
C.$A,(#%*0#0! 0.! 3(! N*.N+$,! 0.! 3(#! ,$'#(*X#/*4(! C#$#%.%#! 0.! 3(! 1.C#$-#N.(-,! 0.!
:(6,$N#/*4(!0.!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A?!
c#!D*A-,$*#!-*.(.!3(#!/,(-*(3#/*4(?!H(!#Q,!,!0,A!NhA!-#$0.>!A.!$.3(5#!.(!p%,$.(/*#>!
:-#%*#>! %#! ,$'#(*X#/*4(! *(-.$(#/*,(#%! .AC#/*#%! ";&E@=?! ",N,! .AC%d(0*0,! $.'#%,! #!
-#%.A! $.3(*,(.A>! A.! #+$*4! %#! Z#%.$5#! H66*X*! 3(#! -#$0.>! .AC./*#%N.(-.! C#$#! m3.!
C30*.$#(! 2.$%#! %#A! 0.%.'#/*,(.A! ";&E@=! 0.! 2#$*#A! (#/*,(.A?! L.(5#! m3.! 0#$A.! %#!
/#A3#%*0#0! 0.! m3.! F,! .A-32*.$#! /,(! @%.B#(0$! @%.B#(0$,2*/D! :NAD.(.-Aq*! /3#(0,!
.(-$#N,A!.(!3(#!A#%#!.(,$N.!#C#$.(-.N.(-.!0.A*.$-#>!C.$,!*(3(0#0#!0.!),--*/.%%*?!J!
#%%5>!.(!.%!,-$,!.B-$.N,!0.!%#!'#%.$5#!D#+5#!3(#!6*'3$#!D3N#(#!m3.!A.!0*A-*('35#!/,(!
/*.$-#! 0*6*/3%-#0?! <,-d! /4N,! :NAD.(.-Aq*! A.! .(2#$#+#?! p,$X#(0,! 3(! -#(-,! %,A! ,\,A>!
C30.! 2.$! .%! $,A-$,! 0.! :',$! =,',2*(>! $,A-$,! 0*A6$#X#0,! /,(! C,+%#0#! +#$+#?! &*(! 030#!
2*#\#+#!0.!*(/4'(*-,?!:NAD.(.-Aq*!A.!*(/%*(4!D#/*#!N5!F!N3A*-4M!
nk<,!.A!dA.!.%!*(0*2*03,!m3.!.A-32,!/,(!(,A,-$,A!.(!c,A!y('.%.Al!
"3#(0,!#A.(-5!/,(!3(!N,2*N*.(-,!0.!/#+.X#>!:NAD.(.-Aq*!N3$N3$4M!
ni9A-GC*0,!*(0*2*03,j!
9%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! =,',2*(! -$#+#\#$#! C#$#! .%! &.$2*/*,! 0.! :(6,$N#/*4(! 0.! %#A! p3.$X#A!
@d$.#A>!N*$#(0,!#D,$#!#%!C#A#0,>!(,!.$#!(#0#!A,$C$.(0.(-.>!C3.A-,!m3.!.%!'.(.$#%!
1,CC.%'#('.$! N.! D#+5#! *(2*-#0,! #! c,A! @('.%.A?! E.$,! A*! .A! N3F! A,$C$.(0.(-.! m3.!
%#A! p3.$X#A! @d$.#A! A.! A*(-*.$#(! *(-.$.A#0#A! C,$! %,A! C%#(.A! A,2*d-*/,A! .(! %,! m3.! A.!
$.6.$5#! #! %#! 0.-.//*4(! 0.! 2*0#! .(! ,-$,A! C%#(.-#A! F! #! %#! .A-.$*%*X#/*4(! 0.! (#2.A!
.AC#/*#%.A?! J! .%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! %,A! &.$2*/*,A! 0.! :(6,$N#/*4(! #N.$*/#(,A! *(-.(-#$#(!
.NC%.#$! #! *(,/.(-.A! F! \42.(.A! /*.(-56*/,A! ]F,! -.(5#! .(-,(/.A! 2.*(-*A*.-.! #Q,A! F!
C,%5-*/#N.(-.! .$#! #AdC-*/,_! C#$#! %%.2#$! #! /#+,! -#%.A! C$,C4A*-,A>! .A! $.#%N.(-.!
A,$C$.(0.(-.?!@%!N.(,A>!#!N5!N.!#A,N+$#?!
I#F! ,-$#A! N3/D#A! D*A-,$*#A! .(! %#A! m3.! .A-h(! *NC%*/#0#A! %#A! ,$'#(*X#/*,(.A! 0.!
.AC*,(#\.!A,2*d-*/#A!F!#N.$*/#(#A?!9%!.6./-,!'.(.$#%!0.!-#%.A!*(/*0.(-.A!.A!0*AN*(3*$!
%#! 2.$,A*N*%*-30! 0.%! *(-.$/#N+*,! /*.(-56*/,! .(-$.! %,A! .BC.$-,A! 0.! 0*6.$.(-.A! C#5A.A?!
L#%.A! *(-.$/#N+*,A! A,(! A3N#N.(-.! (./.A#$*,A! .(! 3(#! dC,/#! .(! %#! m3.! .B*A-.! .%!
C.%*'$,!0.!3(#!D./#-,N+.!(3/%.#$!F!.(!%#!/3#%!%,A!/*.(-56*/,A!-*.(.(!#//.A,!#!%3'#$.A!
N3F! /.$/#(,A! #! %,A! C,%5-*/,A! m3.! .A-h(! .(! .%! C,0.$?! 9%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! -#%.A!
#/-*2*0#0.A! 0.! .AC*,(#\.! A.! C$#/-*m3.(! 0.! 6,$N#! .(-.$#N.(-.! $.'3%#$! .! *(2#$*#+%.!
C,$!C#$-.!A,2*d-*/#!(,!0.+*%*-#>!.(!N*!,C*(*4(>!.A-.!$#X,(#N*.(-,?!c#!*(-$,N*A*4(!0.%!
.AC*,(#\.! .(! %,A! *(-.$/#N+*,A! /*.(-56*/,A! *(-.$(#/*,(#%.A! 0.! .A-#! /%#A.! .A>! A.#! /3#%!
63.$.!A3!,+\.-*2,!6*(#%>!C,/,!,!(#0#!*(-.%*'.(-.?!
!
15. Las lunas de Barsoom
!
13$#(-.! N*! #0,%.A/.(/*#! -32.! %#! A3.$-.! 0.! -$,C.X#$! /,(! 3(#! A.$*.! 0.! (,2.%#A!
#NC3%,A#N.(-.! .A/$*-#A! /,(! -5-3%,A! /,N,M! Thuvia, maid of Mars>! The chessman of
Mars>!The princess of Mars>!The warlords of Mars>!F!#A5!A3/.A*2#N.(-.?!<*!m3.!0./*$!
-*.(.>!A.!-$#-#+#!0.!(,2.%#A!A,+$.!K#$-.?!E.$,!(,!#/.$/#!0.!(3.A-$,!K#$-.>!.%!K#$-.!
$.2.%#0,!C,$!.%!Mariner!T?!

!
 !

!
 !
Portadas de los primeros seis libros de la serie de Edgar Rice Burroughs sobre Barsoom.

E,$!%,!N.(,A>!(,!/$.,!m3.!(3.A-$,!K#$-.!A.#!/,N,!.%!0.!.A-#A!(,2.%#A!.A/$*-#A!C,$!
90'#$!=*/.!)3$$,3'DA>!.%!/$.#0,$!0.!Tarzn?!&3!K#$-.!.$#!.%!0.!E.$/*2#%!c,r.%%>!3(!
C%#(.-#! 0.! #(-*'3,A! 6,(0,A! N#$*(,A>! /#(#%.A! F! .A-#/*,(.A! 0.! +,N+.,>! +.A-*#A! /,(!
A.*A!C#-#A!F!D,N+$.A!]#%'3(,A!A*(!/#+.X#_!0.!-,0,A!%,A!/,%,$.A>!*(/%3F.(0,!.%!2.$0.?!
L.(5#(!(,N+$.A!/,N,!L#$A!L#$q#A?!

!
Mapa de Barsoom de Larry Ivie que apareci en The readers guide to Barsoom and Amtor.
E$,+#+%.N.(-.>!%#!D*C4-.A*A!NhA!(,-#+%.!C$,C3.A-#!C,$!)3$$,3'DA!.(!.A-#A!(,2.%#A!
.$#! m3.! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! F! %,A! D#+*-#(-.A! 0.! K#$-.! C,05#(! -.(.$! 0.A/.(0.(/*#>!
C$,%.>! C$,C,A*/*4(! +*,%4'*/#N.(-.! *NC,A*+%.! A*! %,A! N#$/*#(,A! F! (,A,-$,A! -.(.N,A!
,$5'.(.A!+*,%4'*/#N.(-.!0*A-#(-.A?!)3$$,3'DA!.A/$*+*4!N3F!D,(.A-#N.(-.!#/.$/#!0.!
%#! *(-.$6.$-*%*0#0! 0.! 3(! 2*$'*(*#(,>! N*%#'$,A#N.(-.! -$#(AC,$-#0,! #! K#$-.>! F! 0.! 1.\#D!
LD,$*A>!%#!C$*(/.A#!0.!3(!$.*(,!/,(!.%!*NC$,+#+%.!(,N+$.!0.!I.%*3N?!<,!-.(',!030#A!
0.!m3.!.%!C$./.0.(-.!0.!3(!$.*(,!%%#N#0,!I.%*3N!/,(03\.$#!0*$./-#N.(-.!#%!C%#(.-#!
%%#N#0,! u$FC-4(>! C#-$*#! 0.! Superman>! .%! C$,-#',(*A-#! 0.! 3(#! D*A-,$*.-#! C#$#! (*Q,A?!
I#F!#m35!3(#!$*/#!2.(#!0.!N#-.$*#%!%*-.$#$*,!m3.!#G(!(,!A.!D#!.BC%,-#0,!+#A-#(-.?!9%!
63-3$,! C3.0.! N,A-$#$! C%#(.-#A>! .A-$.%%#A>! ,! *(/%3A,! '#%#B*#A! /,NC%.-#A>! %%#N#0#A!
<.4(>!@$'4(>!z.(4(>!F!=#04(>!'#A.A!(,+%.A?!
E.$,!.%!(,N+$.!*0.#0,!C,$!)3$$,3'DA>!m3.!#!-$#2dA!0.!%,A!#Q,A!N.!D#!,+A.A*,(#0,>!
.A!.%!m3.!*N#'*(4!m3.!%,A!N#$/*#(,A!0*.$,(!#!K#$-.M!Barsoom?!J!63.!3(#!6$#A.!A3F#!
NhA!m3.!(*('3(#!,-$#!/,A#!%#!m3.!A.!'$#+4!.(!N*!C.(A#N*.(-,M!
Las violentas lunas de Barsoom.
E3.A>! A*(! 030#>! K#$-.! .A! 3(! N3(0,! /,(! 0,A! %3(#A>! A*-3#/*4(! m3.! C#$./.$5#!
/,NC%.-#N.(-.! (#-3$#%! C#$#! %,A! D#+*-#(-.A! 0.! 0*/D,! C%#(.-#! /,N,! C#$#! (,A,-$,A! %,!
.A!/,(-#$!/,(!3(#!A,%#!c3(#?!&#+.N,A!/4N,!A.!C$.A.(-#!(3.A-$,!A,%*-#$*,!A#-d%*-.!#!
A*NC%.!2*A-#!0.A0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!E.$,>!0.A0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!K#$-.>!km3d!
#AC./-,! -*.(.(! %#A! %3(#A! 0.! )#$A,,Nl! 9A-#! C$.'3(-#! m3.>! 0.! 2.X! .(! /3#(0,>! N.!
C$.,/3C#+#! .(! N*! #0,%.A/.(/*#>! (,! *+#! #! -.(.$! $.AC3.A-#! D#A-#! .%! #Q,! 8TU8! F! .%!
2*#\.!0.%!Mariner!T?!
c#A!%3(#A!0.!K#$-.!63.$,(!/$.#/*4(!0.!P,D#((.A!u.C%.$>!.%!0.A/3+$*0,$!0.!%#A!%.F.A!
0.%!N,2*N*.(-,!C%#(.-#$*,!F!D,N+$.!0.!.A/#A#!-#%%#!*(-.%./-3#%?!E.$,!2*2*4!.(!.%!A*'%,!
zR:>! .(! 3(! /%*N#! *(-.%./-3#%! N3F! 0*6.$.(-.! 0.%! #/-3#%?! ",(6.//*,(#+#! D,$4A/,C,A!
C#$#!C,0.$!/,N.$o!%#!#A-$,(,N5#!.$#!A3!C#A*4(!NhA!m3.!A3!,/3C#/*4(?!&3!N#0$.!63.!
\3X'#0#! F! /,(0.(#0#! C,$! +$3\#?! "3#(0,! u.C%.$! A.! .(-.$4! 0.%! 0.A/3+$*N*.(-,! 0.!
Z#%*%.,>! /,(! 3(,! 0.! %,A! C$*N.$,A! -.%.A/,C*,A! #A-$,(4N*/,A>! 0.! %#A! /3#-$,! '$#(0.A!
%3(#A!0.!PGC*-.$>!d%!*(N.0*#-#N.(-.!/,(/%3F4!m3.!K#$-.!-.(5#!0,A!%3(#A?!kE,$!m3dl!
E,$m3.!K#$-.!A.!D#%%#+#!#!3(#!0*A-#(/*#!*(-.$N.0*#!0.%!&,%>!.(-$.!%#!L*.$$#!F!PGC*-.$?!
&*(! 030#>! C#$./5#! .2*0.(-.! m3.! 0.+5#! C,A..$! 3(! (GN.$,! *(-.$N.0*,! 0.! %3(#A?! c#A!
,+A.$2#/*,(.A! C#$./5#(! 0.N,A-$#$! m3.! R.(3A! /#$./5#! 0.! %3(#A>! %#! L*.$$#! /,(-#+#!
/,(! 3(#! F! PGC*-.$! /,(! /3#-$,! ].%! 2.$0#0.$,! (GN.$,! m3.! D,F! 05#! /,(,/.N,A! .A! 0.!
0,/._?! u.C%.$! C30,! D#+.$! 0.03/*0,! 0,A! ,! -$.A! %3(#A! C#$#! K#$-.>! C.$,! %#! C#A*4(! 0.!
-,0#! 3(#! 2*0#! C,$! %#A! C$,'$.A*,(.A! '.,Nd-$*/#A! %.! %%.24! #! .%.'*$! 0,A?! 9%!
$#X,(#N*.(-,>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!.A!6#%A,?!c#A!0*.X!%3(#A!0.!&#-3$(,>!%#A!/*(/,!0.!H$#(,!
F! %#A! 0,A! 0.! <.C-3(,! (,! .(/#\#(! .(! .A-.! .Am3.N#>! m3.! (,! .A! /*.(-56*/,>! A*(,! NhA!
+*.(!.A-d-*/,?!
E.$,! .%! C$.A-*'*,! 0.! u.C%.$! .$#! *(N.(A,>! C#$-*/3%#$N.(-.! 0.AC3dA! 0.! m3.! %#A! %.F.A!
0.%! N,2*N*.(-,! C%#(.-#$*,! A.! 0.$*2#A.(! 0.! %#! -.,$5#! 0.! %#! '$#2*-#/*4(! 0.! :A##/!
<.r-,(o!F!#A5>!%#A!#%3A*,(.A!%*-.$#$*#A!#!%#A!0,A!%3(#A!0.!K#$-.!C.$03$#$,(!#!%,!%#$',!
0.! %,A! A*'%,A?! 9(! %#! 3(! -#(-,! %#$'#! D*A-,$*#! /,$-#! 0.! R,%-#*$.>! Micromegas>! 3(!
/*30#0#(,! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#! &*$*,! A.! 0#! /3.(-#>! C,$! /#A3#%*0#0>! /3#(0,! 2*#\#+#! C,$!
(3.A-$,! &*A-.N#! &,%#$>! 0.! m3.! K#$-.! -.(5#! 0,A! %3(#A?! I#F! 3(#! $.6.$.(/*#! NhA!
6#N,A#!#!%#A!0,A!%3(#A!N#$/*#(#A!.(!%#!Ah-*$#!0.!P,(#-D#(!&r*6-!0.!8U`[>!Viajes de
Gulliver>!(,!.(!%#A!C#$-.A!0.!%,A!%*%*C3-*.(A.A>!(*!.(!%#!0.!%,A!'*'#(-.A!,!.(!%#!0.!%,A!
/#+#%%,A! *(-.%*'.(-.A>! A*(,! .(! %#! N.(,A! %.50#! 0.! -,0#A>! %#! m3.! A.! $.6*.$.! #! %#! *A%#!
6%,-#(-.! F! #d$.#! 0.! c#C3-#?! 9%! .C*A,0*,! .A>! A*(! 030#>! 3(#! /$5-*/#! 0.A/#$#0#N.(-.!
$#X,(#0#!0.!%#A!-.(A#A!$.%#/*,(.A!D*AC#(,O+$*-h(*/#A!.(!%#!dC,/#!0.!&r*6->!C,$m3.!la
puta!.A!3(#!C#%#+$#!.AC#Q,%#!m3.!.m3*2#%.!#!C$,A-*-3-#?!c#A!N.-h6,$#A!C,%5-*/#A!A,(!
,+A/3$#A>! #%! N.(,A! C#$#! N5?! 1.! -,0,A! N,0,A>! &r*6-! #(3(/*#! /#A3#%N.(-.! m3.! %,A!
#A-$4(,N,A! 0.! c#C3-#! D#(! 0.A/3+*.$-,! 0,A! %3(#A! 0.! K#$-.>! %#A! /3#%.A! C,A..(!
$hC*0,A!N,2*N*.(-,A!F!D#(!C$,C,$/*,(#0,!*(6,$N#/*4(!A,+$.!A3!0*A-#(/*#!#!K#$-.!F!
A3A! C.$5,0,A! 0.! -$#A%#/*4(! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! K#$-.>! *(6,$N#/*4(! m3.! .A! *(/,$$./-#>! C.$,!
m3.! .A! *(-.%*'.(-.! /,N,! *(-3*/*4(?! 9B*A-.(! -,0#! 3(#! A.$*.! 0.! C3+%*/#/*,(.A! A,+$.!
/4N,!.$#!C,A*+%.!m3.!&r*6-!/,(,/*.$#!%#A!%3(#A!0.!K#$-.>!*(/%3F.(0,!%#!A3'.$.(/*#!
0.!m3.!&r*6-!.$#!N#$/*#(,?!&*(!.N+#$',>!%#A!C$3.+#A!0.N3.A-$#(!m3.!&r*6-!(,!.$#!
N#$/*#(,!F!m3.!A3!/,(,/*N*.(-,!A,+$.!%#A!0,A!%3(#A>!A*(!030#>!C3.0.!0.+.$A.!#!%#A!
.AC./3%#/*,(.A!0.!u.C%.$?!
9%!2.$0#0.$,!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,!0.!%#A!0,A!%3(#A!0.!K#$-.!A.!D*X,!0.A0.!%#A!#63.$#A!0.!
t#AD*('-,(!1?"?>!.(!8WUU?!9%!;+A.$2#-,$*,!<#2#%!0.!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A!#/#+#+#!0.!
-.$N*(#$! 3(! '$#(! -.%.A/,C*,! $.6$#/-,$?! 9%! #A-$4(,N,! 0.%! ,+A.$2#-,$*,>! @A#CD! I#%%>!
*(-.(-4! #2.$*'3#$! A*! %#A! %3(#A! 0.! K#$-.>! .(A#%X#0#A! .(! /#(/*,(.A! F! .(! %#! %*-.$#-3$#>!
.B*A-5#(!$.#%N.(-.?!&3A!C$*N.$#A!(,/D.A!0.!,+A.$2#/*4(!/,(A-*-3F.$,(!3(!6$#/#A,>!F!
0.!N#%!D3N,$!*(/%3A,!#(3(/*4!#!A3!.AC,A#!m3.!A.!C$,C,(5#!#+#(0,(#$!%#!+GAm3.0#?!
c#! A.Q,$#! I#%%! (,! #0N*-*4! .A-,! F! #(*N4! #! A3! N#$*0,! #! m3.! -$#+#\#$#! 3(#A! /3#(-#A!
(,/D.A! NhA! /,(! .%! -.%.A/,C*,>! D#A-#! m3.! .%! D,N+$.! -32,! #! A3! #%/#(/.! %,A! A#-d%*-.A!
N#$/*#(,A?! 13$#(-.! 3(! /,$-,! C.$5,0,! 0.! -*.NC,! C.(A4! m3.! D#+5#! D#%%#0,! -$.A!
A#-d%*-.A>!C,$m3.!.%!*(-.$*,$!A.!N,25#!-#(!$hC*0#N.(-.!m3.!.(!3(#!(,/D.!%.!2*,!#!3(!
%#0,! 0.! K#$-.! F! #! %#! (,/D.! A*'3*.(-.! .(! .%! ,-$,?! I#%%! +#3-*X4! #! %#A! %3(#A! /,(! %,A!
(,N+$.A!0.!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A>!/,N,!%,A!/#+#%%,A!m3.!#$$#A-$#+#(!%#!/3#0$*'#!0.%!0*,A!
0.!%#!'3.$$#!.(!%#!N*-,%,'5#!'$*.'#o!A*'(*6*/#(>!$.AC./-*2#N.(-.>!-.N,$!F!-.$$,$?!]c,A!
#0\.-*2,A!#0./3#0,A!*NC%*/#(!#%'3(,A!C$,+%.N#AM!kI#+%#N,A!0.!4$+*-#A!64+*/#A!F!0.!
(,/D.A!0.*N4(*/#Al_!&*!#%'G(!05#!A.!0.A/3+$.!,-$#!%3(#!0.!K#$-.>!.AC.$,!m3.!A.!%#!
+#3-*/.!/,(!3(!(,N+$.!N.(,A!6.$,X!F!NhA!,C-*N*A-#>!/,N,>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!Paz?!
L#N+*d(!/,(65,!.(!m3.!/3#(0,!A.!6*\.(!0.6*(*-*2#N.(-.!%#A!/#$#/-.$5A-*/#A!0.!p,+,A!F!
1.*N,A!C,$!C#$-.!0.!%#!H(*4(!@A-$,(4N*/#!:(-.$(#/*,(#%>!3(#!0.!.%%#A!A.!%%#N.!/,N,!
%#! A.Q,$#! I#%%?! E.$,! /,N,! %#! ,-$#! A.'3$#N.(-.! A.$h! %%#N#0#! /,N,! @A#CD! I#%%>!
-.(0$.N,A!3(!C$,+%.N#M!0,A!/$h-.$.A!%%#N#0,A!I#%%!A.$5#(!#%',!C.$-3$+#0,$?!9(!3(#!
/D#$%#!m3.!0*!.(!I#$2#$0>!A,+$.!#A-$,(,N5#!/,N.(-d!m3.!.%!C$,+%.N#!A.!$.A,%2.$5#!
A*!/,(,/*dA.N,A!.%!(,N+$.!0.!A,%-.$#!0.!%#!A.Q,$#!I#%%?!K*!#N*',!;r.(!Z*('.$*/D>!
C$,6.A,$! 0.! I*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! "*.(/*#! .(! I#$2#$0>! *(N.0*#-#N.(-.! A.! C3A,! .(! C*.!
$.C%*/#(0,M! f@('.%*(#! &-*/q(.Fg! @A5! C3.A>! /3#(0,! %%.'3.! .%! N,N.(-,>! .AC.$,! m3.!
D#+$h!3(!f&-*/q(.Fg!.(!3(#!0.!%#A!%3(#A!0.!)#$A,,N?!
9%!A3+A*'3*.(-.!.A-30*,!0.!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A!%%.2#0,!#!/#+,!.(-$.!8WUU!F!8TU8!-*.(.!
3(#! /3$*,A#! D*A-,$*#?! c#A! %3(#A! 0.! K#$-.! A,(! -#(! C.m3.Q#A! m3.! #C#$./.(>! *(/%3A,!
/,(-.NC%#0#A! /,(! %,A! N.\,$.A! -.%.A/,C*,A>! /,N,! A*NC%.A! C3(-,A! 0.! %3X?! &,(!
.B/.A*2#N.(-.!C.m3.Q#A!C#$#!D#+.$!A*0,!,+A.$2#0#A!/,(!%,A!-.%.A/,C*,A!#(-.$*,$.A!
#! 8WUU?! &3A! 4$+*-#A! C3.0.(! /#%/3%#$A.! #(,-#(0,! A3A! C,A*/*,(.A! .(! 2#$*,A! -*.NC,A?!
9(! 8Taa>! .(! .%! ;+A.$2#-,$*,! <#2#%! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A! ]0,(0.! A*(! 030#! 0.+*4!
0.A#$$,%%#$A.!3(!/,NC$.(A*+%.!*(-.$dA!C,$!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A_>!)?!E?!&D#$C%.AA!$.3(*4!
-,0#A!%#A!,+A.$2#/*,(.A!m3.!-.(5#!#!A3!0*AC,A*/*4(!C,$!.(-,(/.A!C#$#!0.-.$N*(#$!%#A!
4$+*-#A!/,(!%#!N#F,$!C$./*A*4(?!I#%%4!nA*(!030#!/,(!.(,$N.!A,$C$.A#n!m3.!%#!4$+*-#!
0.!p,+,A!C#$./5#!0./#.$!.(!%,!m3.!%,A!#A-$4(,N,A!%%#N#+#(!#/.%.$#/*4(!A./3%#$?!9(!
%#$',A!C.$5,0,A!0.!-*.NC,>!.%!A#-d%*-.!C#$./5#!.A-#$!#C$,B*Nh(0,A.!/#0#!2.X!NhA!#!
K#$-.>!#!%#!2.X!m3.!A.!N,25#!-#N+*d(!N3/D,!NhA!$hC*0#N.(-.?!9A-.!6.(4N.(,!(,A!
.A!N3F!6#N*%*#$!D,F!05#?!c#A!4$+*-#A!0.!%,A!A#-d%*-.A!#$-*6*/*#%.A!0./#.(!03$#(-.!-,0,!
.%! -*.NC,! .(! %#! #-N4A6.$#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! :(*/*#%N.(-.! A.! $.03/.(! #! /#3A#! 0.! %#A!
/,%*A*,(.A! /,(! %#A! 0*63A#A! /#C#A! A3C.$*,$.A! 0.! %#! #-N4A6.$#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>! C.$,!
N.0*#(-.!%#A!%.F.A!0.!u.C%.$!.%!$.A3%-#0,!(.-,!.A!3(!N,2*N*.(-,!NhA!$hC*0,?!
c#!/,(/%3A*4(!0.!&D#$C%.AA>!0.!3(#!A./3%#$!#/.%.$#/*4(!C#$#!p,+,A>!/,(-*(34!A*.(0,!
3(#!/3$*,A*0#0!A*(!.BC%*/#$!F!/#A*!A*(!.B#N*(#$>!D#A-#!m3.!#%$.0.0,$!0.!8T[7!%#!-32,!
.(!/3.(-#!.%!#A-$,65A*/,!A,2*d-*/,!:?!&?!&Dq%,2Aq***?!wA-.!C.(A4!.(!3(#!#NC%*#!'#N#!0.!
D*C4-.A*A! .(! /3#(-,! A.! $.6.$5#! #! %#! #/.%.$#/*4(! A./3%#$>! .(-$.! .%%#A! %#! *(6%3.(/*#! 0.%!
&,%>!%#!0.!3(!/#NC,!N#'(d-*/,!0.!K#$-.!F!%#!0.!%#!'$#2.0#0!0.!.A-.!C%#(.-#?!I#%%4!
m3.!(*('3(#!0.!.A-#A!D*C4-.A*A!.(/#\#+#!/,(!.B#/-*-30?!9(-,(/.A!2,%2*4!#!/,(A*0.$#$!
%#! C,A*+*%*0#0! 0.%! #$$#A-$.! #-N,A6d$*/,?! 9(! %,A! 05#A! #(-.$*,$.A! #! %#! *(2.A-*'#/*4(! 0.!
K#$-.!/,(!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A>!A.!/,(,/5#!.A/#A#!.!*(0*$./-#N.(-.!.%!-#N#Q,!.B#/-,!
0.!%,A!A#-d%*-.A!N#$/*#(,A>!C.$,!A.!A#+5#!m3.!p,+,A!-.(5#!3(,A!`7!qN!0.!0*hN.-$,?!
c#! #%-*-30! 0.! p,+,A! A,+$.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! K#$-.! -#N+*d(! A.! /,(,/5#?! &Dq%,2Aq**! F!
,-$,A! #(-.A! m3.! d%! 0.A/3+$*.$,(! m3.! %#! 0.(A*0#0! 0.! %#! #-N4A6.$#! N#$/*#(#! .$#!
0.N#A*#0,!+#\#!C#$#!C$,03/*$!.%!#$$#A-$.!*(0*/#0,!C,$!&D#$C%.AA?!p3.!C$./*A#N.(-.!
.(!.A-.!N,N.(-,!/3#(0,!&Dq%,2Aq**!D*X,!3(#!#30#X!F!+$*%%#(-.!A3C,A*/*4(?!
L,0,A! %,A! /h%/3%,A! .6./-3#0,A! C#$#! 0.N,A-$#$! m3.! (,! .B*A-5#! #$$#A-$.! #-N,A6d$*/,!
D#+5#(!C$.A3C3.A-,!m3.!p,+,A!.$#!3(!,+\.-,! 0.!0.(A*0#0!/,$$*.(-.?!E.$,>!kF!A*!A3!
0.(A*0#0!.$#!N3F!+#\#l!@!C.A#$!0.!A3!.(,$N.!-#N#Q,>!.(-,(/.A!A3!N#A#!A.$5#!N3F!
C.m3.Q#>! F! A3! 4$+*-#! C,0$5#! $.A3%-#$! #6./-#0#! C,$! %#! .($#$./*0#! A3C.$*,$! #-N4A6.$#!
N#$/*#(#?!
&Dq%,2Aq**!/#%/3%4!%#!C$./*A#!0.(A*0#0!0.!p,+,A!F!D#%%4!3(!2#%,$!m3.!#%/#(X#+#!#!3(#!
N*%dA*N#!C#$-.!0.!%#!0.(A*0#0!0.%!#'3#?!<*('G(!,+\.-,!(#-3$#%!,!A3+A-#(/*#!-*.(.!3(#!
0.(A*0#0!-#(!+#\#o!D#F!3(#!N#0.$#!m3.!-*.(.!%#!N*-#0!0.!%#!0.(A*0#0!0.%!#'3#?!@A5!
C3.A>!/,(!0.(A*0#0!-#(!+#\#!A4%,!m3.0#+#!3(#!/,(/%3A*4(!C,A*+%.M!p,+,A!-.(5#!m3.!
.A-#$! D3./,?! H(! ,+\.-,! .(,$N.! F! D3./,>! /,(! `7! qN! 0.! 0*hN.-$,>! (,! C,05#! /$.#$A.!
N.0*#(-.!C$,/.A,A!(#-3$#%.A?!E,$!-#(-,>!&Dq%,2Aq**!/,(/%3F4!m3.!D#+5#!A*0,!/$.#0,!
C,$! 3(#! #2#(X#0#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! N#$/*#(#?! :(030#+%.N.(-.>! 3(! A#-d%*-.! #$-*6*/*#%! 0.! `7!
qN!0.!0*hN.-$,!$.m3*.$.!3(#!-./(,%,'5#!N3/D,!NhA!#2#(X#0#!m3.!%#!(3.A-$#?!
",N,!(,!D#+5#!A.Q#%.A!0.!-#%!/*2*%*X#/*4(!#2#(X#0#!.(!K#$-.>!&Dq%,2Aq**!A3C3A,!m3.!
p,+,A! nF! C,A*+%.N.(-.! 1.*N,An! D#+5#(! A*0,! %#(X#0,A! #%! .AC#/*,! .(! 3(! %.\#(5A*N,!
C#A#0,! C,$! 3(#! 0.A#C#$./*0#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! N#$/*#(#?! ]9%! %./-,$! m3.! A.! A*.(-#!
*(-.$.A#0,! C,$! .A-.! -.N#! D#%%#$h! NhA! 0.-#%%.A! 0.! .A-.! (,-#+%.! $#X,(#N*.(-,! 0.!
&Dq%,2Aq**! .(! .%! %*+$,! Vida inteligente en el Universo>! .A/$*-,! .(! /,%#+,$#/*4(! C,$!
&Dq%,2Aq**! F! C,$! N5! {&#(! p$#(/*A/,>! I,%0.(O1#F>! 8T[[o! <.r! J,$q>! 1.%-#! ),,qA>!
8T[U|?_! @! /,(-*(3#/*4(! 0.! %,A! C$*N.$,A! -$#+#\,A! 0.! &Dq%,2Aq**! A,+$.! .%! -.N#>! %,A!
N,2*N*.(-,A! 0.! %#A! %3(#A! 0.! K#$-.! 63.$,(! .B#N*(#0,A! .(! :('%#-.$$#! C,$! Z?! @?!
t*%q*(A>!m3*.(!N#(*6.A-4!m3.!.$#!C$,+#+%.!(,!.B*A-*.$#!#/.%.$#/*4(!A./3%#$?!E.$,!(,!
C,05#!.A-#$!A.'3$,?!
c#!.B-$#,$0*(#$*#!A3'.$.(/*#! 0.!&Dq%,2Aq**!.(!.%!A.(-*0,!0.!m3.!%#A!%3(#A!0.!K#$-.!
C,0$5#(! A.$! #$-*6*/*#%.A! .A! 3(#! 0.! %#A! -$.A! D*C4-.A*A! m3.! D#F! A,+$.! A3! ,$*'.(?! c#A!
,-$#A! 0,A! n*(-.$.A#(-.A! C,$! 0.$./D,! C$,C*,>! C.$,! A*(! 030#! N3F! *(.BC$.A*2#A! .(!
/,NC#$#/*4(! /,(! %#! D*C4-.A*A! 0.! &Dq%,2Aq**n! A,(M! 8_! m3.! %#A! %3(#A! A,(! #A-.$,*0.A!
/#C-3$#0,A>!,!`_!m3.!A,(!3(#!.AC./*.!0.!$.A-,A!m3.!m3.0#$,(!#%%5!/3#(0,!A.!6,$N4!
K#$-.?!c,A!#A-.$,*0.A!A,(!C.0#X,A!0.!$,/#!F!N.-#%!m3.!'*$#(!#%$.0.0,$!0.%!&,%!.(-$.!
%#A! 4$+*-#A! 0.! K#$-.! F! PGC*-.$?! <,! .A! C$,+#+%.>! #3(m3.! -.4$*/#N.(-.! C,A*+%.>! m3.!
A.#(!.A/.(#$*,A!.(!%,A!/3#%.A!%#!'$#2.0#0!0.!K#$-.!C3.0#!/#C-3$#$!#!3(!#A-.$,*0.!
m3.!C#A.!#!A3!#%/#(/.?!
9(!%#!D*C4-.A*A!0.!f$.A-,A!N#$/*#(,Ag!A.!/,(A*0.$#!m3.!-$,X,A!0.!$,/#!0.!0*2.$A,A!
-#N#Q,A! A.! 3(*.$,(! C#$#! 6,$N#$! K#$-.o! m3.! %#! G%-*N#! '.(.$#/*4(! 0.! -#%.A! C*.X#A!
C$,03\,!%,A!.(,$N.A!F!#(-*'3,A!/$h-.$.A!A,+$.!K#$-.>!F!m3.!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A!A,(>!C,$!
/#A3#%*0#0>!%,A!G(*/,A!$.A-,A!m3.!#G(!C.$03$#(!0.!%#!C$*N*-*2#!D*A-,$*#!/#-#A-$46*/#!0.!
K#$-.?!
9A!.2*0.(-.!m3.!.%!D./D,!0.!/,(6*$N#$!#%'3(#!0.!.A-#A!D*C4-.A*A>!/3#%m3*.$#!0.!%#A!
-$.A>! A,+$.! .%! ,$*'.(! 0.! %#A! %3(#A! 0.! K#$-.>! A.$5#! 3(! %,'$,! 0.! A3N#! *NC,$-#(/*#!
/*.(-56*/#?!
c#!N*A*4(!0.%!Mariner!A,+$.!K#$-.>!.(!8TU8>!.(!%#!/3#%!-32.!.%!C%#/.$!0.!-$#+#\#$>!.(!
C$*(/*C*,!*NC%*/#+#!.%!.NC%.,! 0.!0,A!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A>!.%!Mariner!W!F!.%!Mariner!T?!
:+#(!#!A*-3#$A.!.(!4$+*-#A!0*6.$.(-.A!-#N+*d(!/,(!0*A-*(-,A!C$,C4A*-,A!.(!.%!.A-30*,!0.!
K#$-.?!"3#(0,!6*(#%N.(-.!D3+,!#/3.$0,!#/.$/#!0.!.A-#A!4$+*-#A!N.!C.$/#-d!0.!m3.!
(,!.A-#+#(!%,!A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!%.\,A!0.!%#A!4$+*-#A!0.!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A?!L#N+*d(!N.!
C#$./*4! m3.! %#A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! $.#%*X#0#A! C,$! -.%.2*A*4(! F! /,(! ,-$,A! N.0*,A! A,+$.!
p,+,A!F!1.*N,A>!C,$!%#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%!Mariner>!C,0$5#(!C.$N*-*$(,A!0.-.$N*(#$!C#$-.!
0.!A3!,$*'.(!F!(#-3$#%.X#?!E,$!-#(-,>!A,%*/*-d!C.$N*A,!#!%,A!63(/*,(#$*,A!0.!%#!<@&@!
m3.! ,$'#(*X#+#(! F! 0*$*'5#(! %#! N*A*4(>! C#$#! C$,'$#N#$! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! 0.! p,+,A! F!
1.*N,A?! @3(! /3#(0,! %,A! 0*$./-,$.A! 0.! %#! N*A*4(! .(! .%! P.-! E$,C3%A*,(! c#+,$#-,$F>!
2.$0#0.$#!,$'#(*X#/*4(!,C.$#-*2#>!(,!A.!N,A-$#$#(!N3F!/,(-$#$*,A!#!%#!*0.#>!#%'3(,A!
63(/*,(#$*,A!0.!%#!<@&@!A.!,C,(5#(!#!.%%#?!E,$!A3C3.A-,>!.B*A-5#!3(!C%#(!0.!%#!N*A*4(!
.A/$*-,! .(! 3(! '$3.A,! %*+$,! 0,(0.! A.! 0.-.$N*(#+#! -#B#-*2#N.(-.! %,! m3.! D#$5#(! %,A!
Mariner!W!F!T?!E.$,!.(!0*/D,!C%#(!(,!A.!N.(/*,(#+#!C#$#!(#0#!#!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A?!
@A5!C3.A>!F,!(,!C,05#!N*$#$!(*!,+A.$2#$!#!p,+,A!(*!#!1.*N,A?!E3$#!+3$,/$#/*#?!
:(0*m3d!m3.!N*!C$,C3.A-#!A,%#N.(-.!$.m3.$5#!N,2.$!%#A!C%#-#6,$N#A!0.!$.'*A-$,!.(!%#!
(#2.! .AC#/*#%! C#$#! m3.! %#A! /hN#$#A! C30*.A.(! ,+A.$2#$! %,A! A#-d%*-.A! N#$/*#(,A?! c#!
$.AC3.A-#>! 3(#! 2.X! NhA>! 63.! (.'#-*2#?! E,/,! -*.NC,! 0.AC3dA! C$.A.(-d! ,-$,!
0,/3N.(-,!.(!.%!m3.!0./5#!m3.>!A*!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A!.$#(!#A-.$,*0.A!/#C-3$#0,A>!.%!
D./D,!0.!.B#N*(#$%,A!0.A0.!.%!Mariner!T!.m3*2#%5#!#!.6./-3#$!3(#!N*A*4(!/#A*!,!0.%!
-,0,!'$#-3*-#!.(!.%!/*(-3$4(!0.!#A-.$,*0.A?!c#!N#(*,+$#!m3.!%.A!D#+5#!C$,C3.A-,!.(!%#!
C%#-#6,$N#!0.!%#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%!#D,$$#$5#!#!%#!<@&@!0,A/*.(-,A!N*%%,(.A!0.!04%#$.A!,!
#A5?!9(!#%'3(,A!/5$/3%,A!.A-#!C$,C3.A-#!A.!/,(A*0.$4!/,N,!NhA!#C$.N*#(-.?!@%!/#+,!
0.! 3(! #Q,! F! -$#A! N3/D,A! /#+*%0.,A>! A.! 6,$N4! 3(! '$3C,! -d/(*/,! F! A.! D*/*.$,(!
C$,F./-,A!C#$#!.B#N*(#$!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A?!9%!'$3C,!m3.!C,0$5#N,A!%%#N#$!0.!-$#+#\,!
A,+$.! #A-$,(,N5#! 0.! A#-d%*-.A>! #(-.! N*A! A3'.$.(/*#A>! %,! C$.A*0*4! .%! 0,/-,$! P#N.A!
E,%%#/q>!#(-*'3,!#%3N(,!N5,o!C.$,!3(,!0.!%,A!A*'(,A!m3.!0*,!%#!<@&@!#/.$/#!0.!A3!
N#%#! 0*AC,A*/*4(! 63.! m3.! .%! '$3C,! A.! 6,$N4! /,(! C,A-.$*,$*0#0! #%! %#(X#N*.(-,! 0.%!
Mariner! T! F! A4%,! 0,A! N.A.A! #(-.A! 0.! A3! %%.'#0#! #! K#$-.?! ]K*.(-$#A! -#(-,>! D#+5#!
6#%%#0,! .%! Mariner! W?_! "3#(0,! .%! Mariner! T! %%.'4! #! K#$-.>! .(/,(-$#N,A! 3(! C%#(.-#!
/#A*! .(-.$#N.(-.! ,+A/3$./*0,! C,$! .%! C,%2,?! E3.A-,! m3.! .(! K#$-.! D#+5#! N3F! C,/,!
m3.! ,+A.$2#$>! 0.! $.C.(-.! .A-#%%4! 3(! *(A4%*-,! .(-3A*#AN,! C,$! .B#N*(#$! p,+,A! F!
1.*N,A?! 9%! C$*N.$! C#A,! 63.! -,N#$! 6,-,'$#65#A! 0.A0.! /*.$-#! 0*A-#(/*#! /,(! ,+\.-,! 0.!
.A-#+%./.$! /,(! /*.$-#! C$./*A*4(! %#A! 4$+*-#A! F! A*-3#/*,(.A! 0.! %#A! %3(#A?! 9A-#! -#$.#! A.!
/3NC%*4! 0.! 6,$N#! C$.%*N*(#$! 0,A! A.N#(#A! 0.AC3dA! 0.! m3.! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%!
C.(.-$#$#! .(! %#! 4$+*-#! N#$/*#(#?! 9%! Mariner! T! -*.(.! 3(! C.$5,0,! ,$+*-#%! 0.!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!0,/.!D,$#A>! 0.!N#(.$#!m3.!0#+#!%#!23.%-#!#!K#$-.!0,A!2./.A!#%!
05#?!
c#A! 6,-,'$#65#A! m3.! .%! Mariner! T! .(2*4! C,$! -.%.2*A*4(! #! %#! L*.$$#! 63.$,(! $#0*#0#A! 0.!
6,$N#! N3F! C#$./*0#! #! /,N,! A.! .(25#(! .(! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#! 6,-,'$#65#A! 0.! 3(!
/,(-*(.(-.!#!,-$,!C,$!/#+%.?!c#!6,-,'$#65#!.A-h!0*2*0*0#!.(!'$#(!(GN.$,!0.!C.m3.Q,A!
C3(-,A!]C#$#!.%!Mariner!T>!2#$*,A!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!N*%.A_>!/#0#!3(,!0.!%,A!/3#%.A!/,(!
A3! C$,C*,! +$*%%,>! ,! A,N+$#! ,! '$*A>! 0.A0.! .%! (.'$,! #%! +%#(/,?! H(#! 2.X! m3.! %#! (#2.!
.AC#/*#%!D#!-,N#0,!%#!6,-,'$#65#!F!#%%5!A.!$.'*A-$#!A,+$.!/*(-#!N#'(d-*/#!A.!.(25#!#!%#!
L*.$$#! C3(-,! C,$! C3(-,?! 9(! .6./-,>! %#! /,N3(*/#/*4(! 0*/.M! E3(-,! (GN.$,! V`UU>! (*2.%!
'$*A! [bo! C3(-,! (GN.$,! V`UW>! (*2.%! '$*A! [`>! F! #A5! A3/.A*2#N.(-.?! c#! 6,-,'$#65#! A.!
f$.G(.g! C,$! N.0*,! 0.! /,NC3-#0,$#! .(! %#! L*.$$#>! .A.(/*#%N.(-.! A*'3*.(0,! %,A!
C3(-,A?!
c#!C$*N.$#!6,-,'$#65#!0.!p,+,A>!3(!C$*N.$!C%#(,!$.%#-*2#N.(-.!/%#$,>!A.!,+-32,!.(!%#!
$.2,%3/*4(! V8?! @! /,(-*(3#/*4(! A.! N3.A-$#! 3(#! 6,-,! E,%#$,*0! 0.! %#! *N#'.(! 0.%!
2*0.,N,(*-,$!0.!p,+,A!.(!%#!$.2,%3/*4(!V8>!$./*+*0#!.%!05#!V7!0.!(,2*.N+$.!0.!8TU8?!
@3(! #A5! %#! *N#'.(! .A! .B/.A*2#N.(-.! +,$$,A#! /,N,! C#$#! C,0.$! %%.'#$! #! /,(/%3A*4(!
#%'3(#?!

!
La primera imagen de Fobos vista desde el Mariner 9, sin procesar por computadora.
J#! -#$0.>! #m3.%%#! N*AN#! (,/D.>! .%! 0,/-,$! P,A.CD! R.2.$q#>! 0.! ",$(.%%>! ,-$,! #(-*'3,!
#%3N(,! N5,>! F! F,>! -$#+#\#N,A! 03$#(-.! %#! N#0$3'#0#! .(! .%! :N#'.! E$,/.AA*('!
c#+,$#-,$F!0.!PEc!C#$#!/,(A.'3*$!nN.0*#(-.!-d/(*/#A!0.!#NC%*#/*4(!F!/,(-$#A-.!C,$!
/,NC3-#0,$#n!-,0,A!%,A!0.-#%%.A!m3.!A.!C30*.A.(!%,'$#$!0.!%#!*N#'.(?!9%!$.A3%-#0,!
A.!N3.A-$#!#!/,(-*(3#/*4(?!c#!6,$N#!.A!*$$.'3%#$?!k&,(!/$h-.$.A!.A,A!N#(/D,(.Al!

!
La misma fotografa, pero ampliada por computadora y mostrando crteres.

<3.A-$#! 6,-,'$#65#! N.\,$#0#! A.! /,(A-$3F4! .(! .%! 250.,ON,(*-,$! 0.! %#! /,NC3-#0,$#>!
%5(.#!C,$!%5(.#!F!0.!#$$*+#!#+#\,?!@!N.0*0#!m3.!.N.$'*4!'$#03#%N.(-.!%,!m3.!C#$./5#!
A.$!.%!N#F,$!/$h-.$>!2*N,A!3(!C3(-,!+$*%%#(-.!.(!A3!/.(-$,o!A4%,!C,$!3(!N,N.(-,!-32.!
%#!A.(A#/*4(!0.!m3.!.A-h+#N,A!2*.(0,!3(#!.A-$.%%#!#!-$#2dA!0.!3(!.(,$N.!,$*6*/*,!.(!
p,+,A>! ,>! #G(! NhA! .N,/*,(#(-.>! m3.! .A-h+#N,A! 2*.(0,! 3(#! %3X! #$-*6*/*#%?! E.$,!
/3#(0,! C.0*N,A! #! %#! /,NC3-#0,$#! m3.! A3C$*N*.$#! -,0,A! %,A! C.m3.Q,A! .$$,$.A>! .%!
C3(-,!+$*%%#(-.!0.A#C#$./*4?!
9(!%#!$.2,%3/*4(!Va>!.%!Mariner!T!F!p,+,A!A.!#C$,B*N#$,(!N3-3#N.(-.!#!N.(,A!0.!
W?777!qN>!3(,!0.!%,A!N#F,$.A!#/.$/#N*.(-,A!.(!-,0#!%#!N*A*4(?!E,$!%#!(,/D.>!-#$0.>!
#%! $./*+*$! %#! 6,-,'$#65#>! R.2.$q#! F! F,! (,A! C3A*N,A! #! -$#+#\#$! 0.! (3.2,! /,(! %#!
/,NC3-#0,$#?!<3.A-$,A!$.A3%-#0,A!63.$,(!%,A!m3.!A.!N3.A-$#(!.(!%#!A*'3*.(-.!6*'3$#?!
<,!.A-,F!A.'3$,!0.!/3h%!.A!.%!#AC./-,!m3.!C$.A.(-#!3(!A#-d%*-.!#$-*6*/*#%!0.!`7!qN!0.!
0*hN.-$,>!C.$,!(,!C#$./.>!A.$!.A-,?!p,+,A!NhA!+*.(!A.!C#$./.!#!3(#!C#-#-#!C,0$*0#?!
1.!D./D,>!.A-h!%%.(,!0.!/$h-.$.A?!E#$#!m3.!A.!D#F#(!#/3N3%#0,!-#(-,A!/$h-.$.A!.(!
.A#! C#$-.! 0.%! A*A-.N#! A,%#$! 0.+.! 0.! A.$! N3F! 2*.\,>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! 0.! N*%.A! 0.!
N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A?!9(!A3!/,(\3(-,!p,+,A!C#$./.!A.$!3(!6$#'N.(-,!(#-3$#%!0.!3(#!$,/#!
N#F,$>! -.$$*+%.N.(-.! 2#C3%.#0#! C,$! $.C.-*0#A! /,%*A*,(.Ao! #%%5! A.! D#(! #+*.$-,! ,!
.B/#2#0,!,$*6*/*,A!F!A.!%.!D#(!#$$#(/#0,!-$,X,A>!/,N,!#!',%C.A!0.!D#/D#?!9(!p,+,A!
(,! D#F! A.Q#%! #%'3(#! 0.! -./(,%,'5#?! p,+,A! (,! .A! 3(! A#-d%*-.! #$-*6*/*#%?! "3#(0,>!
N.0*#(-.! %#! N*AN#! %#+,$! $.#%*X#0#! .(! %#! /,NC3-#0,$#>! A.! #NC%*#$,(! %#A! 6,-,A! 0.!
1.*N,A!,/3$$*4!%,!N*AN,>!F!#A5!%%.'#N,A!#!%#!N*AN#!/,(/%3A*4(?!

!
Una imagen posterior, aunque mucho ms detallada, de Fobos que muestra su verdadera
Naturaleza.

p,+,A!F!1.*N,A!A,(!%,A!C$*N.$,A!A#-d%*-.A!0.!,-$,!C%#(.-#!m3.!D#(!A*0,!6,-,'$#6*#0,A!
.(!C$*N.$!C%#(,?!L#N+*d(!A.!,+A.$2#$,(!N.0*#(-.!.%!.AC./-$4N.-$,!3%-$#2*,%.-#!F!.%!
$#0*4N.-$,! *(6$#$$,\,! #! +,$0,! 0.%! Mariner! T?! E30*N,A! 0.-.$N*(#$! A3A! -#N#Q,A! F!
6,$N#A! F! #%',! 0.! A3! /,%,$?! &,(! ,+\.-,A! .B-$.N#0#N.(-.! ,+A/3$,A>! NhA! ,+A/3$,A!
m3.! .%! N#-.$*#%! NhA! (.'$,! m3.! D#F#! .(! %#! D#+*-#/*4(! 0,(0.! #D,$#! N*AN,! .A-d!
A.(-#0,! .%! %./-,$?! E,$! A3C3.A-,>! 6*'3$#(! F#! .(-$.! %,A! ,+\.-,A! NhA! ,+A/3$,A! 0.%!
&*A-.N#! &,%#$?! ",N,! D#F! -#(! C,/,A! ,+\.-,A! /,(! .A-#! ,+A/3$*0#0! .(! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$#!
C#$-.>! .AC.$#N,A! C,0.$! %%.'#$! #! A#+.$! #%',! A,+$.! A3! /,NC,A*/*4(?! @N+,A! .A-h(!
/3+*.$-,A! #%! N.(,A! C,$! 6*(#A! /#C#A! 0.! N#-.$*#%! N3F! C3%2.$*X#0,?! E$,C,$/*,(#(!
*NC,$-#(-.A!*(0*/*,A!.(!/3#(-,!A.!$.6*.$.!#!C$,/.A,A!0.!/,%*A*4(!.(!.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$!
*(*/*#%?! "$.,! m3.! .A-#N,A! /,(-.NC%#(0,! #%! C$,03/-,! 6*(#%! 0.! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.!
A.%.//*4(! 0.! /,%*A*4(! (#-3$#%>! .(! %#! /3#%! A.! D#(! A.C#$#0,! 6$#'N.(-,A! 0.! 3(! /3.$C,!
C$*(/*C#%!N#F,$!F!.A-#N,A!2*.(0,!G(*/#N.(-.!.A,A!0,A!-$,X,A!m3.!#D5!m3.0#(!F!m3.!
A,(! p,+,A! F! 1.*N,A?! c#A! %3(#A! 0.! K#$-.! -#N+*d(! A,(! *NC,$-#(-.A! /#%*+$#0,$.A! 0.!
/,%*A*4(!C#$#!K#$-.?!E$,+#+%.N.(-.>!p,+,A>!1.*N,A!F!K#$-.!.A-32*.$,(!\3(-,A!.(!%#!
N*AN#! C#$-.! 0.%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! 03$#(-.! 3(! %#$',! C.$5,0,! 0.! -*.NC,?! 9%! (GN.$,! 0.!
/$h-.$.A>!0.!3(!-#N#Q,!0#0,>!m3.!D#F!.(!K#$-.>!.A!N3/D,!N.(,$>!.(!'.(.$#%>!m3.!
.(! p,+,A! ,! .(! 1.*N,A>! C$,C,$/*,(#(0,! #A5! *NC,$-#(-.! *(6,$N#/*4(! #/.$/#! 0.!
C$,/.A,A!0.!.$,A*4(!N#$/*#(#>!/,A#!m3.!(,!.B*A-.!.(!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A>!A*(!#*$.!F!A*(!
#'3#?!
",N,!#D,$#!C,A..N,A!3(#!+3.(#!*(6,$N#/*4(!#/.$/#!0.%!-#N#Q,!F!6,$N#!0.!.A-,A!
,+\.-,A>! F! /,N,! -#N+*d(! /,(-#N,A! /,(! +3.(#A! $#X,(.A! C#$#! C.(A#$! m3.! #N+,A!
-*.(.(! 0.(A*0#0.A! -5C*/#A! 0.! $,/#! ,$0*(#$*#>! C,0.N,A! /#%/3%#$! #%',! A,+$.! %,! m3.!
A*'(*6*/#$5#!.(/,(-$#$(,A>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!.(!p,+,A?!9(!C$*N.$!%3'#$>!K#$-.!#!N.(,A!0.!
8`?777! qN! 0.! 0*A-#(/*#! %%.(#$5#! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! %#! N*-#0! 0.%! /*.%,! 0.! p,+,A?! c#!
A#%*0#! ,! #%X#N*.(-,! 0.! K#$-.! A.$5#! 3(! #/,(-./*N*.(-,! .AC./-#/3%#$?! <,! A.$5#! N#%#!
*0.#! %#! .2.(-3#%! /,(A-$3//*4(! 0.! 3(! ,+A.$2#-,$*,! .(! p,+,A! C#$#! .B#N*(#$! K#$-.?!
&#+.N,A>!C,$!.%!Mariner!T>!m3.!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A!'*$#(!0.!%#!N*AN#!N#(.$#!m3.!%,!
D#/.!(3.A-$#!c3(#>!A*.NC$.!N,A-$#(0,!%#!N*AN#!/#$#!#!A3!C%#(.-#?!"3#(0,!p,+,A!
.A-h! C,$! .(/*N#! 0.%! D.N*A6.$*,! 0*3$(,! 0.! K#$-.>! %#! %3X! $,\*X#! 0.! .A-.! G%-*N,! A.$5#!
A36*/*.(-.!C#$#!%..$!C,$!%#!(,/D.!.(!p,+,A?!
1.+*0,!#!A3!C.m3.Q,!-#N#Q,>!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A!C,A..(!#/.%.$#/*,(.A!0.!'$#2*-#/*4(!
N3F!+#\#A?!&3A!'$#2.0#0.A!(,!#-$#.(!/,(!N3/D#!63.$X#?!c#!0.!p,+,A!.m3*2#%.!-#(!
A4%,! #! 3(#! N*%dA*N#! C#$-.! 0.! %#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! &*! .(! %#! L*.$$#! A.! 0#! 3(! A#%-,! 0.!
0*'#N,A!8!N.-$,!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.>!.A.!N*AN,!A#%-,!.(!p,+,A!#%/#(X#$5#!3(#!#%-3$#!
0.! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! W77! N.-$,A?! <,! A.! C$./*A#$5#(! N3/D,A! A#%-,A! C#$#! /*$/3N(#2.'#$!
p,+,A?! E,0$5#(! A.$! A#%-,A! .(! #$/,! '$#/*,A,A! F! %.(-,A>! m3.! -#$0#$5#(! 2#$*,A! N*(3-,A!
.(! #%/#(X#$! .%! C3(-,! NhA! .%.2#0,! 0.! %#! -$#F./-,$*#! 0.! #3-,C$,C3%A*4(>! C#$#! %3.',!
$.'$.A#$!0.%*/#0#N.(-.!#!%#!L*.$$#?!
@G(! NhA! *(-.$.A#(-.! A.$5#>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! \3'#$! 3(! C#$-*0,! 0.! +d*A+,%! .(! p,+,A?! c#!
2.%,/*0#0! (./.A#$*#! C#$#! %#(X#$! 3(! ,+\.-,! .(! 4$+*-#! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! p,+,A! .A!
A,%#N.(-.! 0.! 3(,A! a7! qN! C,$! D,$#?! H(! %#(X#0,$! #6*/*,(#0,! 0.! +d*A+,%! C,0$5#!
6h/*%N.(-.!%#(X#$!3(#!C.%,-#!.(!4$+*-#!#%$.0.0,$!0.!p,+,A?!c#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!.A/#C.!
0.! p,+,A! .A! A4%,! 0.! /.$/#! 0.! [7! qN! C,$! D,$#>! 2.%,/*0#0! #%/#(X#0#! 6h/*%N.(-.! C,$!
%,A! %#(X#0,$.A! C$,6.A*,(#%.A! 0.! +d*A+,%?! H(#! C.%,-#! 0.! +d*A+,%! m3.! .A/#C#$#! 0.!
p,+,A!,$+*-#$*#!#%$.0.0,$!0.!K#$-.>!0*N*(3-#!%3(#!%#(X#0#!C,$!.%!D,N+$.?!&*!p,+,A!
63.A.! C.$6./-#N.(-.! .A6d$*/,>! 3(! #A-$,(#3-#! A,%*-#$*,>! #6*/*,(#0,! #%! +d*A+,%>! C,0$5#!
*(2.(-#$!3(#!/3$*,A#!2.$A*4(>!#3(m3.!#%',!C.$.X,A#>!0.!.A-.!\3.',>!F#!0.!C,$!A5!3(!
-#(-,! C.$.X,A,?! E$*N.$,>! /,N,! pitcher! ,! %#(X#0,$! C,0$5#! #$$,\#$! %#! C.%,-#! 0.! %#0,>!
D#/*#!.%!D,$*X,(-.>!#!3(,A!b7!qN!C,$!D,$#?!9(-,(/.A!C,0$5#!*$A.!#!/#A#!#!#%N,$X#$>!
C,$m3.! %#! C.%,-#! -#$0#$5#! 3(! C#$! 0.! D,$#A! .(! 0#$! %#! 23.%-#! #! p,+,A?! 1.AC3dA! 0.!
#%N,$X#$>! -,N#$5#! .%! +#-.>! /#N*(#$5#! .(! 0*$.//*4(! ,C3.A-#! #! %#! 0.%! %#(X#N*.(-,>! F!
.AC.$#$5#!#!%#!C.%,-#!%#(X#0#!0,A!D,$#A!#(-.A?!@C#$-.!0.%!D./D,!0.!m3.!%,A!+3.(,A!
%#(X#0,$.A! $#$#! 2.X! A,(! +3.(,A! /,(! .%! +#-.>! C.'#$! #! .A-.! %#(X#N*.(-,! A.$5#! /,A#!
N3F!6h/*%?!",N,!%#!%3X!0.%!05#!.(!p,+,A!A4%,!03$#!/3#-$,!D,$#A>!-,0,!.%!\3.',!-.(0$5#!
m3.!N,0*6*/#$A.!C#$#!C,0.$!\3'#$!03$#(-.!.A.!/,$-,!C.$5,0,!0.!%3X?!
E$,+#+%.N.(-.>! .A-#A! C,A*+*%*0#0.A! 0.C,$-*2#A! 0.(-$,! 0.! 3(,! ,! 0,A! A*'%,A>! A.#(!
*(03A-$*#!-3$5A-*/#!C#$#!p,+,A!F!1.*N,A?!E.$,!.%!+d*A+,%>!.(!p,+,A>!A.$5#!3(!/3$*,A,!
.(-$.-.(*N*.(-,>!m3.!#A*N*AN,!C,0$5#!0*A6$3-#$A.!/#A*!.(!*0d(-*/#A!/*$/3(A-#(/*#A!.(!
%#!c3(#?!&*(!.N+#$',!.%!*(-.$dA!/*.(-56*/,!C,$!%#A!%3(#A!0.!K#$-.!nF#!A.#(!#A-.$,*0.A!
/#C-3$#0,A! ,! $.A-,A! 0.! %#! 6,$N#/*4(! 0.%! C%#(.-#n! .A! *(N.(A,?! KhA! C$,(-,! ,! NhA!
-#$0.>! C,$! A3C3.A-,! .(! 3(#! .A/#%#! 0.! A*'%,A>! D#+$h! *(A-$3N.(-,A! m3.! C.$N*-#(! #%!
D,N+$.! A,+$.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! p,+,A! /,(-.NC%#$! /,(! #A,N+$,! #%! *(N.(A,! C%#(.-#!
$,\,!m3.!%%.(#!.%!D,$*X,(-.!/#A*!C,$!/,NC%.-,?!
kJ! m3d! 0./*$! 0.%! C#(,$#N#! ,C3.A-,l! ks3d! #AC./-,! C3.0.(! -.(.$! %#A! %3(#A! 0.!
)#$A,,N!2*A-#A!0.A0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!K#$-.l!",N,!p,+,A!.A-h!-#(!/.$/#!0.!K#$-.>!
A.! 2.$5#! /,N,! 3(! 0*A/,! /%#$5A*N,>! #3(m3.! .A! 3(! ,+\.-,! 0*N*(3-,?! 1.! D./D,>! p,+,A!
#C#$./.$5#! .(! .%! .AC#/*,! /,(! .%! -#N#Q,! #C$,B*N#0,! 0.! %#! N*-#0! 0.! (3.A-$#! c3(#!
/,(-.NC%#0#! 0.A0.! %#! L*.$$#?! &#+.N,A>! C,$! .%! Mariner! T>! m3.! -#(! A4%,! 3(! %#0,! 0.!
p,+,A!.A!2*A*+%.!0.A0.!K#$-.>!#%!*'3#%!m3.!(,A!,/3$$.!.(!%#!L*.$$#!/,(!%#!c3(#?!9A#!
/#$#! 0.! p,+,A! .A>! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.>! %#! m3.! A.! N3.A-$#! .(! %#! A.'3(0#! *N#'.(! 0.!
0*/D,! A#-d%*-.?! I#A-#! m3.! A.! %%.24! #! /#+,! .%! 2*#\.! 0.%! Mariner! T>! (#0*.! n.B/.C-,! %,A!
N#$/*#(,A>!A*!%,A!D#Fn!D#!2*A-,!\#NhA!.A#!/#$#?!
E,$!,-$#!C#$-.>!/,N,!p,+,A!.A-h!-#(!/.$/#!0.!K#$-.>!%#A!%.F.A!0.!u.C%.$!%.!*NC3%A#(!
#!N,2.$A.!/,(!$#C*0.X!/,NC#$#-*2#!#%$.0.0,$!0.%!C%#(.-#?!96./-G#!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!
0,A! 4$+*-#A! F! N.0*#! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! K#$-.! .(! `a! D,$#A?! E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.! 1.*N,A! -#$0#!
-$.*(-#! D,$#A! F! 0*./*,/D,! N*(3-,A! .(! -.$N*(#$! A3! 4$+*-#! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! K#$-.?! @N+#A!
%3(#A! '*$#(! .(! A3A! 4$+*-#A! .(! %#! N*AN#! 0*$.//*4(! ,! A.(-*0,! m3.! K#$-.! .6./-G#! %#!
$,-#/*4(! A,+$.! A3! .\.?! @A5>! 1.*N,A! A#%.! C,$! .%! 9A-.! F! A.! C,(.! .(! .%! ;.A-.>! /,N,!
0.+.!D#/.$%,!-,0,!+3.(!A#-d%*-.!m3.!A.!\3X'3.! #!A5!N*AN,!/,N,!-#%?!E.$,!p,+,A!%,!
D#/.!3(#!2.X!#%$.0.0,$!0.!A3!4$+*-#!.(!N.(,A!-*.NC,!0.!%,!m3.!-#$0#!K#$-.!.(!A3!
'*$,?!9(!/,(A./3.(/*#>!p,+,A!A#%.!C,$!.%!;.A-.!F!A.!C,(.!C,$!.%!9A-.>!-#$0#(0,!/*(/,!
D,$#A! F! N.0*#! .(! C#A#$! 0.! 3(! D,$*X,(-.! #! ,-$,?! wA-.! (,! .A>! .B#/-#N.(-.>! 3(!
N,2*N*.(-,!2*,%.(-,!n.%!N,2*N*.(-,!(,!A.$5#!6h/*%N.(-.!C.$/.C-*+%.!/,(-$#!.%!/#NC,!
0.! .A-$.%%#A! 03$#(-.! 3(! N*(3-,! 0.! /,(-.NC%#/*4(n>! C.$,! -#NC,/,! .A! %.(-,?! I#+$h!
#%'3(#A!(,/D.A!.(!.%!./3#0,$!0.!K#$-.>!/3#(0,!p,+,A!A.!C,('#!C,$!.%!9A-.!03$#(-.!
%#!C3.A-#!0.!&,%!F!%3.',!A#%'#!C,$!.%!;.A-.!N3/D,!#(-.A!0.%!#N#(./.$?!
p,+,A! .A-h! -#(! /.$/#! 0.%! C%#(,! ./3#-,$*#%! 0.! K#$-.! m3.! $.A3%-#! /,NC%.-#N.(-.!
*(2*A*+%.!0.A0.!%#A!$.'*,(.A!C,%#$.A!0.%!C%#(.-#?!&*!63dA.N,A!#!*N#'*(#$!%#!C$.A.(/*#!
0.!A.$.A!*(-.%*'.(-.A!.(!K#$-.>!%#!#A-$,(,N5#!A.$5#!/,NC.-.(/*#!0.!%#A!A,/*.0#0.A!
./3#-,$*#%.A!F!(,!0.!%#A!0.!%#A!#%-#A!%#-*-30.A?!<,!.A-,F!A.'3$,!0.!A*!I.%*3N!.$#!3(!
$.*(,!./3#-,$*#%?!
p$.30! 0*/.>! .(! #%'3(#! C#$-.>! m3.! %,A! G(*/,A! D,N+$.A! 6.%*/.A! A,(! #m3.%%,A! m3.! D#(!
D./D,!$.#%*0#0!%,A!A3.Q,A!0.!A3!\32.(-30?!J,!(,!C3.0,!0./*$!m3.!A.#!dA-.!N*!/#A,!
0.%! -,0,>! C.$,! \#NhA! ,%2*0#$d! #m3.%%#A! -.NC$#(#A! D,$#A>! .(! 3(! 6$5,! (,2*.N+$.!
/#%*6,$(*#(,>!/3#(0,!P,.!R.2.$q#>!-d/(*/,!0.!%#!PEc!F!F,>!63*N,A!%,A!C$*N.$,A!A.$.A!
D3N#(,A!m3.!2*N,A!%#!/#$#!0.!p,+,A?!
9%! 9A-#0,! 0.! "#%*6,$(*#! 63.! %,! A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! #N#+%.! /,N,! C#$#! /,(/.0.$N.! 3(#!
N#-$5/3%#! #3-,N,2*%5A-*/#! $,-3%#0#! /,(! .%! (,N+$.! 0.! fEI;);&g?! K*! /,/D.! (,! .A!
0.N#A*#0,!C.$.X,A,!,!%.(-,>!C.$,!-#NC,/,!.A!/#C#X!0.!'*$#$!#%$.0.0,$!0.!(3.A-$,!
C%#(.-#!0,A!2./.A!#%!05#?!c#!N#-$5/3%#!N.!#'$#0#?!I3+*.A.!C$.6.$*0,!f)@=&;;Kg>!
C.$,! .(! "#%*6,$(*#! .B*A-.! 3(! %5N*-.! 0.! A.*A! %.-$#A! C#$#! %#A! N#-$5/3%#A! 0.! %,A!
#3-,N42*%.A?!
!
16. Las montaas de Marte - 1. Observaciones desde la Tierra
!

!
Mapa topogrfico, basado en estudios de radar, de elevaciones y altitudes medias de Marte.
Laboratorio de Estudios Planetarios, Cornell University.

!
c#A! N,(-#Q#A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! A,(! .%! C$,03/-,! 0.! dC,/#A! .(! %#A! /3#%.A! ,/3$$*.$,(!
'$#(0.A! /#-hA-$,6.A! '.,%4'*/#A?! &.! /$..! m3.! %#A! N#F,$.A! /#0.(#A! N,(-#Q,A#A! A.!
C$,03\.$,(! C,$! %#! /,%*A*4(! 0.! .(,$N.A! +%,m3.A! /,(-*(.(-#%.A! 03$#(-.! A3! 0.$*2#?! 9%!
N,2*N*.(-,! 0.! %,A! /,(-*(.(-.A! #/.$/h(0,A.! F! A.C#$h(0,A.! 3(,A! 0.! ,-$,A>!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! #! 3(,A! 0,A! /.(-5N.-$,A! C,$! #Q,! (,A! C#$./.$h>! A*(! 030#>!
A3N#N.(-.! %.(-,?! E.$,! /,N,! %#! L*.$$#! -*.(.! N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! 0.!
#(-*'e.0#0>!A.!0*AC3A,!0.!N3/D,!-*.NC,!C#$#!m3.!%,A!/,(-*(.(-.A!/D,/#A.(!.(!-,0,!
(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#?!
c#A!N,(-#Q#A!NhA!C.m3.Q#A!A.!0.+.(!#!6.(4N.(,A!2,%/h(*/,A?!c#!$,/#!63(0*0#!F!
#$0*.(-.>! %%#N#0#! %#2#>! #A/*.(0.! #! -$#2dA! 0.! -3+.$5#A! A*-3#0#A! .(! %#A! /#C#A!
A3C.$*,$.A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! n-3+.$5#A>! C,$! %%#N#$%#A! 0.! #%'3(#! N#(.$#>! 0.! 0d+*%!
.A-$3/-3$#! #! -$#2dA! 0.! %#A! /3#%.A! A.! #%*2*#! F! %*+.$#! %#! C$.A*4(! *(6.$*,$n! F! C$,03/.(!
.(,$N.A!C*%#A!0.!.A/,$*#!2,%/h(*/#!m3.!A.!.(6$5#(?!9%!,$*6*/*,!#+*.$-,!.(!%#!/*N#!0.%!
2,%/h(! n%,A! '.4%,',A! %.! %%#N#(! /#%0.$#! 0.! %#! /3N+$.n! .A! .%! /,(03/-,! #! -$#2dA! 0.%!
/3#%!A.!C$,03/.(!A3/.A*2#A!.$3C/*,(.A!0.!%#2#?!9(!%#!/#%0.$#!0.!%#!/*N#!,!/3N+$.!
0.!3(!2,%/h(!.(!#/-*2*0#0>!/,N,>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!.(!I#r#*>!C,0.N,A!2.$!#3-d(-*/#!%#2#!
63(0*0#?! 9A-#A! N,(-#Q#A! 2,%/h(*/#A! *(0*2*03#%.A! F! /#0.(#A! N,(-#Q,A#A! ,!
/,$0*%%.$#A>! m3.! A,(! $.#%N.(-.! .(-*0#0.A! A.C#$#0#A>! /,(A-*-3F.(! N3.A-$#A! 0.! m3.!
.B*A-.!3(#!L*.$$#!2*',$,A#!F!0*(hN*/#?!
kJ!m3d!D#F!0.!K#$-.l!9A!3(!C%#(.-#!NhA!C.m3.Q,!m3.!%#!L*.$$#o!A3!C$.A*4(!/.(-$#%!F!
-.NC.$#-3$#A! -#N+*d(! A,(! *(6.$*,$.Ao! C,A..>! #A*N*AN,>! 3(! C$,N.0*,! 0.! 0.(A*0#0!
*(6.$*,$! #%! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! 9A-#A! /*$/3(A-#(/*#A! C#$./.(! /,N+*(#$A.! C#$#! A3'.$*$! m3.!
K#$-.!0.+.!A.$!N.(,A!#/-*2,!'.,%4'*/#N.(-.!m3.!%#!L*.$$#!F!%#!c3(#?!E.$,!*(/%3A,!
.(! %#! c3(#>! ,+\.-,! N3/D,! NhA! C.m3.Q,! m3.! K#$-.>! /,(! -.NC.$#-3$#A! *(-.$(#A!
*(6.$*,$.A!#!%#A!0.!.A-.!C%#(.-#>!#%!C#$./.$!.B*A-.!3(#!#/-*2*0#0!2,%/h(*/#!-#%!F!/,N,!
%,!D#(!0.A/3+*.$-,!%#A!N*A*,(.A!@C,%,?!@G(!D,F!(,!/,NC$.(0.N,A!%#!/,(.B*4(!m3.!
C3.0#!D#+.$!.(-$.!.%!-#N#Q,!F!.A-$3/-3$#!0.!3(!C%#(.-#!F!%#!C$.A.(/*#!0.!N,(-#Q#A!
F! #/-*2*0#0! 2,%/h(*/#>! #3(m3.! A#+.N,A! m3.! .(! %#! c3(#! (,! D#F! *NC,$-#(-.A!
/,$0*%%.$#A?!
<3.A-$#! #/-3#%! *'(,$#(/*#! A,+$.! .A-.! -.N#>! C,$! A3C3.A-,>! /#A*! 0.\#! 0.! A.$! -#%!
/,NC#$#0#!/,(!%#!*'(,$#(/*#!0.!%,A!C$*N.$,A!#A-$4(,N,A!C%#(.-#$*,A>!m3*.(.A!D#/.!
N.(,A! 0.! 3(! A*'%,! /,(-.NC%#+#(! .%! 6*$N#N.(-,! N.0*#(-.! C.m3.Q,A! -.%.A/,C*,A!
-$#-#(0,! 0.! #2.$*'3#$! #! m3d! 0*A-#(/*#! A.! D#%%#+#! K#$-.?! H(,! 0.! %,A! C$*N.$,A!
#A-$4(,N,A! m3.! A.! C$.,/3C4! C,$! .%! -.N#! 0.! %#A! N,(-#Q#A! 0.! K#$-.>! 63.! E.$/*2#%!
c,r.%%?!wA-.!/$.5#!]2d#A.!.%!"#C5-3%,!8W_!D#+.$!D#%%#0,!C$3.+#A!0.!%#!.B*A-.(/*#!0.!
3(#! .B-.(A#! $.0! 0.! %5(.#A! $./-#A! m3.! /$3X#+#(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! N#$/*#(#! /,(! (,-#+%.!
$.'3%#$*0#0! F! 0*$.//*4(>! F! m3.! A4%,! D#+5#(! C,0*0,! A.$! C$,03/*0#A! C,$! 3(#! $#X#! 0.!
A.$.A!*(-.%*'.(-.A!.(!#m3.%!C%#(.-#?!"$.5#!m3.!.A-,A!f/#(#%.Ag!-$#(AC,$-#+#(!#'3#?!
@D,$#!A#+.N,A!m3.!.%!C$,+%.N#!,>!NhA!+*.(>!A3A!/,(/%3A*,(.A!,+.0./5#(!NhA!#!A3!
%4'*/#! C.$A,(#%! m3.! #! A3A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.Ao! (*('3(,! 0.! %,A! Mariner! (*! -#NC,/,! ,-$#A!
$./*.(-.A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! 0.! K#$-.! D#(! 0.N,A-$#0,! %#! .B*A-.(/*#! 0.! -#%.A! /#(#%.A!
%,r.%*#(,A?!
9(! %#! G%-*N#! 0d/#0#! 0.%! C#A#0,! A*'%,>! c,r.%%! A3'*$*4! m3.! K#$-.! (,! 0.+5#! -.(.$!
N,(-#Q#A>!C,$m3.!dA-#A!A.$5#(!3(!'$#2.!,+A-h/3%,!C#$#!%#!/,(A-$3//*4(!0.!/#(#%.A?!
E.$,!A.'3$#N.(-.!3(#!$#X#!m3.!C,05#!/,(A-$3*$!-#(!.(,$N.!$.0!0.!/#(#%.A!-#N+*d(!
C,0$5#!A3C$*N*$!,!.2*-#$!3(#!N,(-#Q#!N#%!A*-3#0#?!
&*(!.N+#$',>!c,r.%%!A.!D#%%#+#!.(-$.!%,A!C$*N.$,A!#A-$4(,N,A!.(!#C%*/#$!#3-d(-*/#A!
C$3.+#A! 0.! ,+A.$2#/*4(! #%! C$,+%.N#! 0.! %#! .B*A-.(/*#! 0.! N,(-#Q#A! .(! K#$-.?! K*$4!
NhA! #%%h! 0.%! %5N*-.! 0.! *%3N*(#/*4(?! 9A-.! %5N*-.! 0.! *%3N*(#/*4(! .A! %#! %5(.#! n#'30#! ,>!
NhA! +*.(>! #%',0,(,A#>! 0.C.(0*.(0,! A*.NC$.! 0.! %#! #3A.(/*#! ,! C$.A.(/*#! 0.! 3(#!
#-N4A6.$#!C%#(.-#$*#n!m3.!A.C#$#!.%!05#!0.!%#!C#$-.!(,/-3$(#!0.!3(!C%#(.-#?!9%!%5N*-.!
0.! *%3N*(#/*4(! A.! N3.2.! #%$.0.0,$! 0.%! C%#(.-#! 3(#! 2.X! #%! 05#! n.%! 05#! C%#(.-#$*,!
%,/#%n>! C.$,! A*! D#F! N,(-#Q#A! .(! .%! %#0,! ,+A/3$,! 0.%! %5N*-.! 0.! *%3N*(#/*4(>! %#A!
N,(-#Q#A! $./*+*$h(! %,A! $#F,A! 0.%! &,%! C,(*.(-.! /3#(0,! A3A! 2#%%.A! #0F#/.(-.A! .A-d(!
A3N*0,A!.(!%#!,+A/3$*0#0?!Z#%*%.,!.NC%.4!C$*N.$,!.A-#!-d/(*/#!C#$#!0.A/3+$*$!%,!m3.!
d%!%%#N4!%#A!N,(-#Q#A!0.!%#!c3(#>!#3(m3.!%#A!N,(-#Q#A!%3(#$.A!A,(!C$*(/*C#%N.(-.!
.(,$N.A! 6$#'N.(-,A! 0.! C*.0$#! m3.! /#F.$,(! 0.%! /*.%,! .(! %#A! 6#A.A! 6*(#%.A! 0.! %#!
6,$N#/*4(! 0.! %#! c3(#! NhA! m3.! N,(-#Q#A! 0.%! -*C,! -.$$.A-$.>! m3.>! /,N,! F#! D.N,A!
0*/D,>!A.!C$,03\.$,(!0.+*0,!#!3(#!#/-*2*0#0!'.,%4'*/#!*(-.$*,$?!
c,r.%%! F! A3A! /,%#+,$#0,$.A! D#%%#$,(! /#A,A! 0.! +$*%%#(-.A! C$,F.//*,(.A! NhA! #%%h! 0.%!
%5N*-.! 0.! *%3N*(#/*4(>! C$,03/*0#A! C,$! %,A! $#F,A! 0.%! &,%! C,(*.(-.?! E.$,! /3#(0,!
/#%/3%#$,(! A3A! #%-*-30.A! n-#$.#! 6h/*%! C#$#! /3#%m3*.$! .BC.$-,! .(! '.,N.-$5#! #! (*2.%! 0.!
A.'3(0#! .(A.Q#(X#n! A.! .(/,(-$#$,(! /,(! m3.! -#%.A! N,(-#Q#A! N.05#(! 0./.(#A>!
N3/D#A! 0./.(#A! 0.! N*%.A! 0.! N.-$,A! 0.! #%-3$#?! L#%.A! .%.2#/*,(.A! .(! K#$-.! %.!
C#$./*.$,(!#+A3$0#A!#!/#3A#!0.!A3!-.,$5#!0.!%,A!/#(#%.A?!@0.NhA>!#%!05#!A*'3*.(-.!n
.%! 05#! .(! K#$-.! -*.(.! .B#/-#N.(-.! *'3#%! 03$#/*4(! m3.! .(! %#! L*.$$#n! /3#(0,! -#%!
/#$#/-.$5A-*/#!A.!,+A.$24!(3.2#N.(-.>!A3!C,A*/*4(!D#+5#!/#N+*#0,?!9A-.!C$,/.0.$!,!
/,NC,$-#N*.(-,! .A! N3F! /#$#/-.$5A-*/,! .(! N,(-#Q#A! 0.! /3#%m3*.$! ,$*'.(>! F! c,r.%%!
%%.'4! #! %#! /,$$./-#! /,(/%3A*4(! 0.! m3.! D#+5#! 2*A-,! -,$N.(-#A! 0.! C,%2,! 03$#(-.! %#A!
/3#%.A!%#A!6*(#A!C#$-5/3%#A!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!N#$/*#(#!D#+5#(!#A/.(0*0,!#!N3/D5A*N,A!
N*%.A!0.!N.-$,A!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!0.!K#$-.?!
L#%.A! -,$N.(-#A! 0.! C,%2,! -#N+*d(! A.! ,+A.$2#(! /3#(0,! /,(-.NC%#N,A! #! -$#2dA! 0.%!
-.%.A/,C*,! %#! C#$-.! *%3N*(#0#! 0.! K#$-.?! @%'3(#A! 2./.A! 2.N,A! m3.! %#! /,(6*'3$#/*4(!
/#$#/-.$5A-*/#! 0.! N#$/#A! +$*%%#(-.A! F! ,+A/3$#A! .(! .%! C%#(.-#! A.! ,+A/3$./.!
-.NC,$#%N.(-.?!I#F!3(#!*(-$3A*4(!0.!N#-.$*#!+$*%%#(-.!.(!%#!X,(#!,+A/3$#!A.'3*0#!0.!
3(#! $.#C#$*/*4(! 0.! %#! #(-*'3#! /,(6*'3$#/*4(?! 9A-,A! /#N+*,A! A.! *(-.$C$.-#$,(! .(! %#!
dC,/#!0.!c,r.%%!/,N,!-,$N.(-#A!0.!C,%2,! m3.!.A-#%%#+#(!.(!%#A!X,(#A!*%3N*(#0#A>!
,+A/3$./*.(0,! -,0#25#! NhA! %#A! F#! ,+A/3$#A! h$.#A! #0F#/.(-.A?! c#! *(-.$C$.-#/*4(!
#/-3#%>! +#A#0#! .(! %#A! 0.-#%%#0#A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! 0.! %#$',! #%/#(/.! 0.%! Mariner! T>!
/,(6*$N#(!.A-.!C3(-,!0.!2*A-#!]2d#A.!.%!"#C5-3%,!8T_?!
c,r.%%!F!A3A!/,(-.NC,$h(.,A!0.(,N*(#$,(!#!%#A!h$.#A!+$*%%#(-.A!f0.A*.$-,Ag>!F!.A-,!
-#N+*d(! C#$./.! A.$! .B#/-,?! c,A! %,r.%*#(,A! A.! C$.,/3C#$,(! C,$! .%! C$,+%.N#! 0.! A*!
-#%.A! X,(#A! +$*%%#(-.A! ,! *%3N*(#0#A! -.(05#(! #! .A-#$! NhA! #%-#A! ,! NhA! +#\#A! m3.! %#A!
X,(#A! ,+A/3$#A>! #3(m3.! A.! .AC.$#+#! m3.! %#! 0*6.$.(/*#! 0.! .A-#! .%.2#/*4(! 63.A.!
.B-$.N#0#N.(-.!C.m3.Q#?!H(#!X,(#!,+A/3$#!2*A-#!.(!.%!%*N+,!*%3N*(#0,!,!+,$0.!0.%!
C%#(.-#! C#$./5#! A.$! 3(#! N3.A/#! ,! 0.C$.A*4(o! C.$,! .A-,! C,05#! .(-.(0.$A.!
A*NC%.N.(-.!.(!-d$N*(,A!0.!%#!,+A/3$*0#0!0.!%#!X,(#!,+A/3$#M!A*!.A-32*.A.!,+A/3$#!
/,(-$#!3(!/*.%,!,+A/3$,!(,!%#!2.$5#N,A!.(!#+A,%3-,?!E,0$5#N,A!,+-.(.$!%#!*NC$.A*4(!
.$$4(.#! 0.! m3.! A.! -$#-#+#! 0.! 3(#! N3.A/#! ,! 0.C$.A*4(?! c#! ,C*(*4(! C$.0,N*(#(-.!
.(-$.!%,A!#A-$4(,N,A!C#$./.!D#+.$!A*0,!m3.!%#A!X,(#A!,+A/3$#A!.A-#+#(!%*'.$#N.(-.!
NhA! +#\#A! m3.! %#A! +$*%%#(-.A! ,! *%3N*(#0#A>! C.$,! .A-#! 0*6.$.(/*#! 63.! /#%/3%#0#! C,$!
c,r.%%!/,N,!0.!A4%,!3(!q*%4N.-$,!,!N.(,A?!9(!8T[[!2,%25!#!.B#N*(#$!.A-.!C$,+%.N#!
/,(!.%!0,/-,$!P#N.A!E,%%#/q?!=./3$$*N,A!#!0,A!C$*(/*C#%.A!#$'3N.(-,A?!K#$-.!-*.(.!
.(!A3!D.N*A6.$*,!0.!*(2*.$(,!3(!'$#(!/#Am3.-.!C,%#$!m3.>!0.!2.X!.(!/3#(0,>!A.!D#!
#-$*+3*0,!#!%#!C$.A.(/*#!0.!#'3#!/,('.%#0#!,!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,!D.%#0,?!:(/%3A,!.(!
%#! #/-3#%*0#0! A.! *'(,$#! A3! /,NC,A*/*4(?! E$,+#+%.N.(-.! A.! D#%%.(! C$.A.(-.A! #N+#A!
A3+A-#(/*#A?!"3#(0,!.%!/#Am3.-.!C,%#$!A.!$.-*$#!.(!/#0#!D.N*A6.$*,!3(#!2.X!#%!#Q,>!
D#F! $.'*,(.A! 0,(0.! m3.0#! D*.%,! #-$hA?! KhA! -#$0.>! /3#(0,! .%! D*.%,! #+#(0,(#! .A-#A!
X,(#A>! $.A3%-#(! N3/D,! NhA! +$*%%#(-.A! m3.! A3A! #%$.0.0,$.A?! E,$! #(#%,'5#! /,(! %#!
L*.$$#>! C,0$5#N,A! A3C,(.$! m3.! A.#(! X,(#A! N,(-#Q,A#A! m3.! C.$N#(./.(! D.%#0#A!
/3#(0,! A.! D#(! 63(0*0,! ,! .2#C,$#0,! %#A! (*.2.A! 0.! %,A! 2#%%.A?! J>! 0.A0.! %3.',>! 3(#!
$.'*4(!C,%#$!N#$/*#(#!n%#A!%%#N#0#A!N,(-#Q#A!0.!K*-/D.%%n!A.!D#!*0.(-*6*/#0,!/,N,!
N,(-#Q,A#!A4%,!N.0*#(-.!.A-.!$#X,(#N*.(-,?!
E.$,>!kE,$!m3d!%#A!N,(-#Q#A!-.$$.A-$.A!A,(!%,A!G%-*N,A!%3'#$.A!m3.!m3.0#(!%*+$.A!0.!
(*.2.l! E,$m3.! #! N.0*0#! m3.! #A/.(0.N,A! D#/.! NhA! 6$5,>! /,N,! A#+.(! -,0,A! %,A!
N,(-#Q.$,A?! E.$,>! kC,$! m3d! %#! -.NC.$#-3$#! A.! 2#! D#/*.(0,! /#0#! 2.X! NhA! 6$5#! #!
N.0*0#! m3.! #A/.(0.N,Al! k@/#A,! C3.0.(! #C%*/#$A.! #! K#$-.! .A-,A! $#X,(#N*.(-,A!
m3.! .(! %#! L*.$$#! D#/.(! m3.! %#A! /*N#A! 0.! %#A! N,(-#Q#A! A.#(! NhA! 6$5#A! m3.! A3A!
+#A.Al!
c%.'#N,A! #! %#! /,(/%3A*4(! 0.! m3.! -,0,A! %,A! A./-,$.A! m3.! .(! %#! L*.$$#! D#/.(! m3.! .%!
6$5,! A.#! NhA! *(-.(A,! #! N.0*0#! m3.! #A/.(0.N,A>! (,! A.! C,05#(! #C%*/#$! #! K#$-.! .(!
N,0,! #%'3(,>! C$*(/*C#%N.(-.! C,$m3.! .(! K#$-.! %#! #-N4A6.$#! .A-h! N3F! .($#$./*0#?!
E.$,!%,A!2*.(-,A>!.(!K#$-.>!0.+.(!A.$!NhA!63.$-.A!.(!%#A!/*N#A!0.!%#A!N,(-#Q#A!m3.!
.(!%,A!2#%%.A>!#%!*'3#%!m3.!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!wA-#!(,!.A!3(#!/,(/%3A*4(!C,$!#(#%,'5#>!A*(,!
m3.!A.!+#A#!.(!%#!65A*/#!*04(.#?!E,$!-#(-,>!*N#'*(.N,A!m3.!%,A!63.$-.A!2*.(-,A!+#$$.(!
%#! (*.2.! .(! %#A! /*N#A! 0.! %#A! N,(-#Q#A! N#$/*#(#A! F! m3.! %#A! X,(#A! +$*%%#(-.A! m3.!
$.-*.(.(!.%!D*.%,>!.(!K#$-.>!A,(!,!.A-h(>!C,$!/,(A*'3*.(-.!NhA!+#\#A?!
<3.A-$#!A.'3(0#!%5(.#!0.!#-#m3.!A.!+#A4!.(!%#A!,+A.$2#/*,(.A!0.!K#$-.!D./D#A!C,$!
$#0#$>! %#A! /3#%.A! A.! *(*/*#$,(! #! N.0*#0,A! 0.! 8T[7?! I#+5#! 3(#! C$3.+#! m3.!
*(N.0*#-#N.(-.!(,A!%%#N4!%#!#-.(/*4(?!"3#(0,!%#!C.m3.Q#!C#$-.!/.(-$#%!0.!%#!A.Q#%!
0.%! $#0#$! A.! A*-3#+#! 0*$./-#N.(-.! A,+$.! 3(#! X,(#! ,+A/3$#! 0.! K#$-.>! G(*/#N.(-.!
$.'$.A#+#!#!%#!L*.$$#!3(#!6$#//*4(!N3F!C.m3.Q#!0.!%#!A.Q#%!0.%!$#0#$?!E.$,!/3#(0,!
3(#!X,(#!+$*%%#(-.!F!#0F#/.(-.>!#!3(!%#0,!3!,-$,!0.!.A-#!$.'*4(!,+A/3$#>!A.!A*-3#+#!
+#\,! .%! /.(-$,! 0.! %#! A.Q#%! 0.%! $#0#$>! .%! $.6%.\,! .$#! N3/D,! NhA! 63.$-.?! 9A-,! C,05#!
.(-.(0.$A.! A*! %#! X,(#! ,+A/3$#! .$#! N3/D,! NhA! #%-#! ,! N3/D,! NhA! +#\#! m3.! %#! X,(#!
+$*%%#(-.!#0F#/.(-.?!@!\3X'#$!C,$!.A-#!C$.%*N*(#$!C$3.+#!0.!$#0#$>!/,(/%3*N,A!m3.!F#!
A.! -$#-#$#! 0.! 3(#! 3! ,-$#! 0.! .A-#A! 0,A! #%-.$(#-*2#A>! %#A! X,(#A! ,+A/3$#A! -.(5#(! m3.!
D#%%#$A.!A*A-.Nh-*/#N.(-.!#%-#A!.(!K#$-.?!c%.'#N,A!#!%#!/,(/%3A*4(!0.!m3.!.B*A-5#(!
.(! K#$-.! '$#(0.A! 0*6.$.(/*#A! 0.! .%.2#/*,(.A>! .(! #%'3(,A! /#A,A! D#A-#! 8W! qN! .(-$.!
X,(#A! ,+A/3$#A! F! +$*%%#(-.A?! c#A! %#0.$#A! A4%,! N,A-$#+#(! 3(,A! C,/,A! '$#0,A! 0.!
*(/%*(#/*4(>!F!-#(-,!%#A!0*6.$.(/*#A!0.!.%.2#/*4(!/,N,!%#A!%#0.$#A!A.!C,05#(!/,NC#$#$!
/,(! %#A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>! #3(m3.! %#A! .%.2#/*,(.A! C#$./5#(! A.$! N#F,$.A! m3.! #m35?! c#!
(,/*4(!0.!m3.!%,A!0.A*.$-,A!'.(.$#%N.(-.!.$#(!-*.$$#A!+#\#A!C#$./*4!A.$!/,NC#-*+%.!
/,(! %#! (,/*4(! 0.! m3.! .(! %,A! 2#%%.A! +#\,A! %#! 6*(#! #$.(#! F! .%! C,%2,! A.! #/3N3%#+#(>!
N*.(-$#A!m3.!.(!%#A!/*N#A!0.!%#A!N,(-#Q#A!n0,(0.!%,A!2*.(-,A!.$#(!NhA!63.$-.An!(,!
D#+5#!(*('3(#!C#$-5/3%#!C.m3.Q#>!+$*%%#(-.>!,!6*(#?!
9(! %,A! C,/,A! #Q,A! m3.! A*'3*.$,(! #! (3.A-$,! #(h%*A*A>! A.! D*/*.$,(! .A-30*,A! 0.! $#0#$!
NhA! 0.-#%%#0,A>! C$*(/*C#%N.(-.! C,$! 3(! '$3C,! 0.! /*.(-56*/,A! .(! .%! I#FA-#/q!
;+A.$2#-,$F>! 0.%! :(A-*-3-,! 0.! L./(,%,'5#! 0.! K#AA#/D3A.--A>! 0*$*'*0,! C,$! .%! C$,6.A,$!
Z,$0,(!E.--.('*%%?!E,$!C$*N.$#!2.X!63.!C,A*+%.!$.#%*X#$!N.0*0#A!0.!#%-*-30!N.0*#(-.!
$#0#$! 0*$./-,?! 9(! %3'#$! 0.! .NC%.#$! (3.A-$,A! #$'3N.(-,A! *(0*$./-,A>! %#! -./(,%,'5#!
D#+5#!#%/#(X#0,!F#!3(!C3(-,!.(!.%!/3#%!.$#!C,A*+%.!N.0*$!/3h(-,!-#$0#+#!%#!A.Q#%!0.!
$#0#$! .(! %%.'#$! #! K#$-.! F! $.'$.A#$! #m35?! @m3.%%,A! %3'#$.A! 0.! K#$-.! 0.A0.! 0,(0.! %#!
A.Q#%! 0.! $#0#$! -#$0#+#! NhA! .(! $.'$.A#$! A.! D#%%#+#(! NhA! %.\,A! 0.! (,A,-$,A>! F>! C,$!
-#(-,>! NhA! C$,63(0,A?! @m3.%%#A! $.'*,(.A! 0.! K#$-.! 0.A0.! 0,(0.! %#! A.Q#%! 0.! $#0#$!
-#$0#+#! N.(,A! .(! $.'$.A#$! A.! D#%%#+#(! NhA! /.$/#! 0.! (,A,-$,A>! F>! C,$! -#(-,>! NhA!
.%.2#0#A?! 1.! .A-#! N#(.$#! A.! /,(A-$3F.$,(! %,A! C$*N.$,A! N#C#A! -,C,'$h6*/,A! 0.!
#%'3(#A! $.'*,(.A! A.%.//*,(#0#A! 0.! K#$-.?! c#A! NhB*N#A! 0*6.$.(/*#A! 0.! .%.2#/*4(! F!
%#A! C.(0*.(-.A! .$#(>! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.>! %#A! m3.! D#+5#N,A! /#%/3%#0,! (,A,-$,A! /,(!
N.0*,A!N3/D,!NhA!*(0*$./-,A?!
E.$,! %#A! X,(#A! ,+A/3$#A! (,! C#$./5#(! A.$! A*A-.Nh-*/#N.(-.! NhA! #%-#A! m3.! %#A!
*%3N*(#0#A?!E.--.('*%%!F!A3A!/,%.'#A!0.A/3+$*.$,(!m3.!3(#!$.'*4(!+$*%%#(-.!0.!K#$-.!
%%#N#0#! LD#$A*A! .$#! N3F! #%-#>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! %#! $.'*4(! NhA! #%-#! %,/#%*X#0#! .(! .%!
C%#(.-#?! H(#! X,(#! /*$/3%#$! F! +$*%%#(-.>! N#$/*#(#>! %%#N#0#! I.%#A>! m3.! .(! '$*.',!
A*'(*6*/#!Z$./*#~>!$.A3%-4!m3.!.$#!N3F!+#\#!#!\3X'#$!C,$!%#A!,+A.$2#/*,(.A!%%.2#0#A!#!
/#+,!/,(!C,A-.$*,$*0#0>!A*(!$#0#$?!&*(!.N+#$',>!,-$,!%3'#$!C#$./*0,>!%%#N#0,!9%FA*3N>!
-#N+*d(! '$#(0.! F! +$*%%#(-.>! A.! 0.A/3+$*4! m3.! .$#! #%-,?! c#! X,(#! N#$/*#(#! NhA!
,+A/3$#>!&F$-*A!K#\,$>!$.A3%-4!A.$!3(#!C.(0*.(-.!.A/#%,(#0#?!
kE,$! m3d! E,%%#/q! F! F,! -.(5#N,A! $#X4(! A4%,! C#$/*#%N.(-.l! 1.+*0,! #%! %%#N#0,!
;//#NxA!=#X,$>!C$*(/*C*,!3A#0,!/,(!6$./3.(/*#!.(!.%!-.$$.(,!0.!%#!/*.(/*#>!C.$,!m3.!
(,! .A! *(6#%*+%.?! 9%! ;//#NxA! =#X,$! $./,N*.(0#! m3.>! /3#(0,! 3(,! A.! .(6$.(-#! #! 0,A!
D*C4-.A*A! *'3#%N.(-.! +3.(#A>! 0.+.N,A! .%.'*$! %#! NhA! A.(/*%%#?! I#+5#N,A! A3C3.A-,!
m3.!%#A!X,(#A!,+A/3$#A!.$#(>!+*.(!A*A-.Nh-*/#N.(-.!#%-#A!,!A*A-.Nh-*/#N.(-.!+#\#A?!
&*!dA-.!63.$#!.%!/#A,>!%#A!X,(#A!,+A/3$#A!-.(5#(!m3.!A.$!(./.A#$*#N.(-.!#%-#A?!E.$,!
dA-.! (,! .A! .%! /#A,o! %#A! X,(#A! ,+A/3$#A! C3.0.(! A.$! ,! #%-#A! ,! +#\#A?! <3.A-$#A!
/,(/%3A*,(.A!-#(!A4%,!$.6%.\#$,(!(3.A-$#A!A3C,A*/*,(.A?!
E.$,! N.! A*.(-,! N3F! /,NC%#/*0,! 0.! m3.! D#F#N,A! C,0*0,>! N.0*#(-.! %#! %4'*/#! F! %#!
65A*/#>! #%/#(X#$! C#$-.! 0.! %#! 2.$0#0! F! 0.N,A-$#$! m3.! D#F! .(,$N.A! 0*6.$.(/*#A! 0.!
.%.2#/*4(!.(!K#$-.>!.%.2#/*,(.A!N3/D5A*N,!NhA!'$#(0.A!0.!%,!m3.!A,AC./D4!c,r.%%?!
9(/3.(-$,! NhA! 0*65/*%>! C.$,! NhA! 0*2.$-*0,>! ,+-.(.$! %#! $.AC3.A-#! /,$$./-#! N.0*#(-.!
$#X,(#N*.(-,! *(0*$./-,! F! #(-.A! 0.! m3.! -,0#A! %#A! C$3.+#A! .A-d(! .(! .%! +,%A*%%,?! 9A! %,!
m3.! D#/.! 3(! -.4$*/,! .(! %#! /*.(/*#?! E.$,! %#A! /,(/%3A*,(.A! #! m3.! A.! %%.'#(! 0.! .A-#!
6,$N#!A,(>!.2*0.(-.N.(-.>!NhA!#$$*.A'#0#A!m3.!%#A!m3.!A.!,+-*.(.(!#!-$#2dA!0.!3(#!
N.0*0#!0*$./-#>!D#A-#!.%!C3(-,!0.!m3.!%#!N#F,$5#!0.!%,A!/*.(-56*/,A!A.!$.A.$2#(!A3A!
\3*/*,A! ,! /$*-.$*,A! D#A-#! m3.! 0*AC,(.(! 0.! C$3.+#A! NhA! 0*$./-#A! F! NhA! A.'3$#A?! c#!
C$*(/*C#%! 63(/*4(! 0.! A.N.\#(-.! -#$.#! 0.-./-*2.A/#! n#C#$-.! 0.! .(-$.-.(.$! #%! -.4$*/,n!
.A>! m3*XhA>! .(/,%.$*X#$! F! N,%.A-#$! #! %,A! f,+A.$2#0,$.Ag>! C#$#! m3.! #A5! A.! 2.#(!
,+%*'#0,A>!.(!C%.(#!63$*#!0.!*(/$.03%*0#0>!#!C,(.$!.(!C$h/-*/#!N.0*0#A!/$5-*/#A?!
!
17. Las montaas de Marte - 2. Observaciones desde el espacio
!

!
Mosaico de cuatro fotografas, tomadas desde el Mariner 9, del mayor volcn conocido en el
Sistema Solar, el Nix Olmpica, visto verticalmente desde arriba. Cortesa de la NASA.

!
9%! dC*/,! 23.%,! 0.%! Mariner! T! #! K#$-.>! .(! 8TU8>! 0*,! %3'#$! #! 3(! (3.2,! /,(\3(-,! 0.!
N.0*0#A! 0*$./-#A! F! 0.6*(*-*2#A! $.%#/*,(#0#A! /,(! %#A! N,(-#Q#A! F! .%.2#/*,(.A! 0.!
K#$-.?! &.! D#(! /,(6.//*,(#0,! #%'3(,A! N#C#A! 0.! %,A! -.$$.(,A! .%.2#0,A! 0.! K#$-.>!
N#C#A! N,0.$#0#N.(-.! /,NC%.-,A>! /,N,! $.A3%-#0,! 0.! %,A! .BC.$*N.(-,A! %%.2#0,A! #!
/#+,! C,$! .%! Mariner! T! /,(! A3! .AC./-$4N.-$,! 3%-$#2*,%.-#>! .AC./-$4N.-$,! *(6$#$$,\,! F!
,-$,A! *(A-$3N.(-,A! 0.! .(,$N.! C$./*A*4(?! E.$,! %#! *(6,$N#/*4(! NhA! A,$C$.(0.(-.!
#/.$/#!0.!%#A!N,(-#Q#A!0.!K#$-.!A.!0.+.!#%!.BC.$*N.(-,!0.!%#!-.%.2*A*4(?!
c#A!C$*N.$#A!6,-,'$#65#A!m3.!.%!Mariner!T!.(2*4!0.!K#$-.>!,+-.(*0#A!*(/%3A,!#(-.A!0.!
%#! *(A.$/*4(! ,$+*-#%! .%! 8a! 0.! (,2*.N+$.! 0.! 8TU8>! N,A-$#+#(! 3(! C%#(.-#! /#A*! A*(!
$#A',A!/#$#/-.$5A-*/,A?!@C.(#A!A.!0*A-*('35#!.%!/#Am3.-.!C,%#$!A3$>!C.$,!%#A!N#$/#A!
,+A/3$#A! F! +$*%%#(-.A! m3.! A.! D#+5#(! 2*A-,! F! 0.+#-*0,! 03$#(-.! 3(! A*'%,! (,! A.!
,+A.$2#+#(! C,$! C#$-.! #%'3(#?! 9A-,! (,! .$#! 3(! 6#%%,! 0.! %#! /hN#$#! 0.! -.%.2*A*4(>! A*(,!
NhA!+*.(!.%!$.A3%-#0,!0.!3(#!.AC./-#/3%#$!-,$N.(-#!0.!C,%2,!.(!-,0,!.%!C%#(.-#>!m3.!
A.!D#+5#!*(*/*#0,!#!6*(.A!0.!A.C-*.N+$.!F!(,!/.A#$5#!D#A-#!C$*(/*C*,A!0.!.(.$,?!
c#A!C$*N.$#A!6,-,A!C$.,$+*-#%.A!F!%,A!C$*N.$,A!05#A!0.!6,-,'$#65#A!,$+*-#%.A!-#NC,/,!
N,A-$#$,(!A*'(*6*/#-*2,A!0.-#%%.A!.B/.C-,!.(!%#!$.'*4(!0.!LD#$A*A?!@m35>!D#+5#!/3#-$,!
%3'#$.A! ,+A/3$,A! F! 3(! -#(-,! *$$.'3%#$.A>! -$.A! 0.! .%%,A! A*-3#0,A! .(! %5(.#! /#A*! $./-#! F!
.B-.(0*d(0,A.! 0.A0.! .%! <,$0.A-.! #%! &30,.A-.o! .%! /3#$-,! .A-#+#! #%.\#0,! 0.! .%%,A! F!
D#/*#! .%! ;.A-.?! E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.>! /,N,! (,! D#+5#! .(! .%! C%#(.-#! (#0#! NhA! 2*A*+%.>!
0.0*m3d! #%'3(#! #-.(/*4(! #! .A-,A! %3'#$.A! .(! %#A! C$*N.$#A! 6#A.A! 0.! %#! N*A*4(>! -#(-#!
#-.(/*4(! m3.! 03$#(-.! /*.$-,! -*.NC,! 63.$,(! /,(,/*0,A! /,(! .%! (,N+$.! 0.! f"#$%A!
K#$qAg! C,$! 2#$*,A! 0.! N*A! *('.(*,A,A! /,NC#Q.$,A! 0.! *(2.A-*'#/*4(?! @! N*! 2.X>!
C$,C3A.!%%#N#$%.A!I#$C,>!Z$,3/D,>!"D*/,!F!.CC,>!C.$,!-,0,!.A-,!,/3$$*4!#(-.A!0.!
m3.!A.!.A-#+%./*.A.!A3!A*'(*6*/#0,?!
9%! %3'#$! m3.! #C#$./5#! #*A%#0,! /,$$.AC,(05#! C,$! A3! C,A*/*4(! /,(! %#! /%hA*/#!
/#$#/-.$5A-*/#!N#$/*#(#!%%#N#0#!<*B!;%FNC*/#>!.(!$./3.$0,!0.!%#A!<*.2.A!0.%!;%*NC,>!
N,$#0#! 0.! %,A! 0*,A.A?! c,A! ,-$,A! -$.A! %3'#$.A! (,! C#$./5#(! /,$$.AC,(0.$! #! (*('G(!
$#A',! /#$#/-.$5A-*/,! ,! NhA! 6#N*%*#$! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! K#$-.?! E.$,! )$#06,$0! &N*-D>!
#A-$4(,N,! 0.! %#! H(*2.$A*0#0! 0.%! 9A-#0,! 0.! <3.2,! KdB*/,>! A.Q#%4! m3.!
/,$$.AC,(05#(! ]/,N,! <*B! ;%FNC*/#_! #! %3'#$.A! .(! K#$-.! m3.! N3.A-$#(! *%3N*(#/*4(!
%,/#%! #! N.0*,05#! ,+A.$2#0,A! 0.A0.! %#! L*.$$#?! 9(! #%'3(#A! 0.! %#A! 6,-,'$#65#A!
-.%.A/4C*/#A! 0.! &N*-D>! ,+-.(*0#A! /,(! 3(! 6*%-$,! 2*,%.-#! #X3%! F! /3#(0,! (,! D#+5#!
-,$N.(-#A!0.!C,%2,!.(!K#$-.>!.A-,A!/3#-$,!%3'#$.A!#C#$./5#(!/,N,!%3'#$.A!+%#(/,A!
N3F! +$*%%#(-.A>! #3(! /3#(0,! .%! /,(-$#A-.! .(-$.! %#A! X,(#A! (,$N#%N.(-.! +$*%%#(-.A! F!
,+A/3$#A! .$#! N3F! C.m3.Q,! F! %#A! N#$/#A! /,$$*.(-.A! 0.! K#$-.! (,! A.! 0*A-*('35#(!
]A*-3#/*4(! 3A3#%! /3#(0,! A.! 2.! #! K#$-.! +#\,! %3X! 2*,%.-#! ,! #X3%! .(! %3'#$! 0.! $,\#! ,!
#(#$#(\#0#_?!k@/#A,!.A-#$5#N,A!,+A.$2#(0,!#%'3(#!.AC./*.!0.!(3+.A!,+A/3$#A!.(!
N.0*,! 0.! 3(#! -,$N.(-#! 0.! C,%2,>! .(! %3'#$.A! 0,(0.! A.! .(/,(-$#+#(! (,$N#%N.(-.!
(3+.A!+$*%%#(-.Al!
;-$,! .BC.$*N.(-#0,$>! t*%%*#N! I#$-N#((>! 0.! &/*.(/.! @CC%*/#-*,(A>! :(/?>! L3/A,(>!
@$*X,(#>! -$#+#\4! /,(! 3(#! /,NC3-#0,$#! #NC%*#(0,! F! /,(-$#A-#(0,! %#A! 6,-,'$#65#A!
,$*'*(#%.A! 0.! %,A! /3#-$,! %3'#$.A! F! .(/,(-$4! 0d+*%.A! *(0*/*,A! 0.! $.'*,(.A! /*$/3%#$.A!
/.(-$#%.A>!.(!C,$!%,!N.(,A!0,A!0.!.%%#A?! E,$!A3C3.A-,>!%#A!6,-,'$#65#A!-,N#0#A!C,$!
%,A!Mariner!![!F!U!0.!<*B!;%FNC*/#>!.(!8T[T>!N,A-$#+#(!*(0*/*,A!A*N*%#$.A?!
E,$!.(-,(/.A>!%#!.B-.(A*4(!F!'$#2.0#0!0.!%#!-,$N.(-#!0.!C,%2,!A.!D#+5#!D./D,!NhA!
m3.! .2*0.(-.! F>! .(! /,(A./3.(/*#>! D3+,! m3.! 0.N,$#$! (3.A-$#! C$,F./-#0#! N*A*4(! 0.!
-$#X#$! .%! N#C#! 0.%! C%#(.-#! N.0*#(-.! %#! #F30#! 0.%! Mariner! T?! c#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%!
0.N,A-$4!C,A..$!.(,$N.!/#C#/*0#0!C#$#!-,N#$!6,-,'$#65#A!.!*(/%3A,!C$*N.$,A!C%#(,A!
0.! %,A! /3#-$,! %3'#$.A! .(! /3.A-*4(?! 9A-,A! .BC.$*N.(-,A! 63.$,(! C,A*+%.A! C,$m3.! .%!
Mariner!T!C,A.5#>!#!%#!2.X>!6,$N*0#+%.!/#C#/*0#0!0.!#0#C-#/*4(?!c#!C%#-#6,$N#!A,+$.!
%#!/3#%!*+#(!%#A!/hN#$#A!C,05#!,$*.(-#$A.!D#/*#!/3#%m3*.$!C3(-,!m3.!A.!0.A.#$#!.(!
K#$-.>!F!.%!C.$A,(#%!-d/(*/,!0.%!P.-!E$,C3%A*4(!c#+,$#-,$F!0.%!:(A-*-3-,!0.!L./(,%,'5#!
0.!"#%*6,$(*#!C30,!/#N+*#$!A3A!C%#(.A!/,(!%#!A36*/*.(-.!$#C*0.X!C#$#!#\3A-#$A.!#!%#A!
(3.2#A!(./.A*0#0.A!/*.(-56*/#A!0.!%#!N*A*4(?!1.+*0,!#%!0*A.Q,!0.%!#$-*%3'*,!.AC#/*#%!F!
#!%#!#0#C-#+*%*0#0!0.!A3A!/,(-$,%#0,$.A>!/,N.(X#$,(!#!%%.'#$!%,A!C$*N.$,A!C%#(,A!0.!
%,A!/3#-$,!%3'#$.A?!
"#0#!3(,!0.!.%%,A!-.(5#!3(!/.(-$,!2#'#N.(-.!/*$/3%#$?!I#+5#!A.'N.(-,A!C#$#%.%,A!F!
#$m3.#0,A?! @A*N*AN,! D#+5#! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! /,(/D#?! L,0#A! .A-#A! /#$#/-.$5A-*/#A!
#C#$./5#(! 3(! -#(-,! ,+A/3$#A! 0.A-#/h(0,A.! /,(-$#! 3(,A! +$*%%#(-.A! #%$.0.0,$.A>!
/,$$.AC,(0*.(0,! #! %#! #C#$*.(/*#! ,+A/3$#! 0.! %,A! %3'#$.A! 2*A-,A! #%! C$*(/*C*,! .(! +#\#!
$.A,%3/*4(?!
c#A!6,$N#A!C#$-*/3%#$.A!m3.!D#+5#N,A!2*A-,!.(!%#A!C$*N.$#A!6,-,'$#65#A!/#$./5#(!0.!
A*'(*6*/#0,! C#$#! N5?! E.$,! N.! A.(-5! N3F! A,$C$.(0*0,! C,$! .%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! .A-,A!
$#A',A! /*$/3%#$.A! A.! 0#+#(! .(! LD#$A*A>! %#! $.'*4(! NhA! #%-#! 0.! K#$-.?! 9A-,A! $#A',A!
.$#(!/$h-.$.A?!kE,$!m3d!%.A!2.5#N,A!F!2*$-3#%N.(-.!(,!,+A.$2h+#N,A!,-$,A!$#A',A!,!
/#$#/-.$5A-*/#A! N#$/*#(#Al! E,$m3.! 0.+.(! A.$! %#A! $.'*,(.A! NhA! #%-#A! 0.! LD#$A*A>!
X,(#! F#! .(,$N.N.(-.! .%.2#0#?! c,A! /3#-$,! %3'#$.A>! C,$! -#(-,>! N.! C#$./*.$,(!
'$#(0.A! N,(-#Q#A! m3.! #A,N#+#(! #! -$#2dA! 0.%! C,%2,?! 9(-,(/.A! C$,C3A.! m3.>! #!
N.0*0#!m3.!63.$#!C#A#(0,!.%!-*.NC,!F!A.!/#%N#A.(!%#A!-,$N.(-#A!0.!C,%2,!]0.+*0,!#!
%#! .BC.$*.(/*#! /,(! ,-$#A! -,$N.(-#A! '%,+#%.A! .(! K#$-.>! .BC.$*.(/*#! /,(! 0d/#0#A! 0.!
,+A.$2#/*4(>!A#+5#N,A!m3.!%#A!-,$N.(-#A!0.!C,%2,!A.!*$5#(!/#%N#(0,!'$#03#%N.(-._>!
,+A.$2hA.N,A!/,(!NhA!#-.(/*4(!.A-#A!N,(-#Q#A>!*(/%3A,!D#A-#!A3A!+#A.A?!E,$!,-$#!
C#$-.>! %%.'3d! #! C.(A#$! .(! m3.! C,0$5#N,A! -$#X#$! N#C#A! -,C,'$h6*/,A! 0.! %#A! N*AN#A!
/3#(0,!.%!C,%2,!A.!#A.(-#$#?!E,$!0.A'$#/*#>!2*N,A!m3.!.%!#A.(-#N*.(-,!0.%!C,%2,!.$#!
,C.$#/*4(!N3F!*$$.'3%#$!F!.A-#!A3'.$.(/*#!(,!0*,!(*('G(!6$3-,?!
c,A! '.4%,',A>! N*.N+$,A! 0.%! .m3*C,! 0.! -.%.2*A*4(! 0.%! Mariner! T>! /,N,! I#$,%0!
K#A3$AqF! F! P,D(! K/"#3%.F>! 0.! %#! H?! &?! Z.,%,'*/#%! &3$2.F>! A.! .(/#$*Q#$,(!
*(N.0*#-#N.(-.! 0.! %#! forma! 0.! %,A! /$h-.$.A! F! N3F! C$,(-,! %.A! *0.(-*6*/#$,(! nC,$!
#(#%,'5#!/,(!/#$#/-.$5A-*/#A!A*N*%#$.A!0.!%#!L*.$$#n!/,N,!'$#(0.A!#N,(-,(#N*.(-,A!
2,%/h(*/,A!/,(!/#%0.$#A!.(!%#!/3N+$.?!J,!A*.NC$.!D.!0.A/,(6*#0,!0.!#$'3N.(-,A!,!
#%.'#-,A!+#A#0,A!.(!#(#%,'5#A!-.$$.A-$.A?!1.AC3dA!0.!-,0,>!K#$-.!.A!,-$,!%3'#$?!9(!
/3#(-,!#!%,!m3.!A#+5#N,A!n,>!#%!N.(,A>!.(!/3#(-,!#!%,!m3.!F,!A#+5#n>!/$.5#N,A!m3.!
#%%5! C,05#(! 0#$A.! C$,/.A,A! '.,%4'*/,A! N3F! 0*6.$.(-.A>! F! m3.! %#A! /#$#/-.$5A-*/#A!
A*N*%#$.A!#!%#A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!C,05#(!C$,03/*$A.!C,$!N3F!0*2.$A#A!/#3A#A?!
&*(! .N+#$',>! F! A*'3*.(0,! 3(#! $3-#! 0*6.$.(-.>! %%.'3d! #! %#! N*AN#! /,(/%3A*4(! m3.! %,A!
'.4%,',AM!A4%,!/,(,/.N,A!0,A!C$,/.A,A!/#C#/.A!0.!C$,03/*$!/$h-.$.AM!.%!*NC#/-,!0.!
$.A-,A!*(-.$C%#(.-#$*,A!],$*'.(>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!0.!%#!N#F,$!C#$-.!0.!%,A!/$h-.$.A!0.!%#!
c3(#_! F! .%! 23%/#(*AN,?! &.$5#! N3/D,! C.0*$! .AC.$#$! m3.! %,A! '$#(0.A! N.-.,$*-,A! ,!
C.m3.Q,A!#A-.$,*0.A!m3.!f/#2#$,(g>!C,$!#A5!0./*$%,>!/3#-$,!0.!%,A!N#F,$.A!/$h-.$.A!
0.!*NC#/-,!.(!LD#$A*A!63.$#(!%,!A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!f*(-.%*'.(-.Ag!/,N,!C#$#!/#.$!A,+$.!
%#! /*N#! 0.! %#A! /3#-$,! N,(-#Q#A! NhA! #%-#A! 0.! LD#$A*A?! K3/D,! NhA! C%#3A*+%.! .A! %#!
*0.#!0.!m3.!.%!N./#(*AN,!m3.!D*X,!%#!N,(-#Q#!D*X,!-#N+*d(!.%!/$h-.$?!9%!N./#(*AN,!
A.!%%#N#!23%/#(*AN,?!
@! N.0*0#! m3.! %#! -,$N.(-#! 0.! C,%2,! 63.! #N#*(#(0,>! A.! D*X,! N3/D,! NhA! /%#$#! %#!
#3-d(-*/#!N#'(*-30!0.!.A-#A!/3#-$,!N,(-#Q#A!2,%/h(*/#A?!c#!NhA!'$#(0.!0.!.%%#A>!%#!
<*B! ;%FNC*/#>! N*0.! a77! qN! 0.! 3(! %#0,! #! ,-$,>! N#F,$! m3.! /3#%m3*.$#! 0.!
/#$#/-.$5A-*/#A!A*N*%#$.A!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!/,N,>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!%#A!*A%#A!I#r#*?!<,!A.!D#(!
0.-.$N*(#0,! #G(! %#A! #%-3$#A! 0.! %,A! %3'#$.A! .(! /3.A-*4(>! C.$,! C#$./.(! -.(.$! .(-$.!
T?777!F!8W?777!N!A,+$.!.%!(*2.%!0.%!C%#(.-#?!]<,!C,0.N,A!D#+%#$!0.!(*2.%!0.%!N#$!.(!
K#$-.>!C,$m3.!(,!D#F!n#%!N.(,A!C,$!#D,$#n!(*('G(!N#$!#%%5?_!1.A0.!.(-,(/.A!A.!D#(!
0.A/3+*.$-,!3(#!0,/.(#!NhA!0.!2,%/#(.A!.(!,-$#A!$.'*,(.A!0.!K#$-.?!
9%! $#0*4N.-$,! *(6$#$$,\,! 0.%! Mariner! T! (,! N,A-$4! A.Q#%.A! 0.! %#! C$.A.(/*#! 0.! %#2#!
/#%*.(-.! .(! %#A! /#%0.$#A! 0.! %,A! /$h-.$.A?! E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.>! A3! #AC./-,! 6$.A/,! F! %#! /#A*!
-,-#%! #3A.(/*#! 0.! /$h-.$.A! C$,03/*0,A! C,$! N.-.,$*-,A! .(! A3A! %#0.$#A! 0.N,A-$#+#(!
A.$!,+\.-,A!N3F!\42.(.A>!'.,%4'*/#N.(-.!D#+%#(0,>!m3*Xh!(,!-.(0$5#(!NhA!0.!3(,A!
/3#(-,A!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!,!#/#A,!3(!C,/,!NhA!\42.(.A?!
c#!#A,/*#/*4(!0.!(3+.A!/,(!.A-#A!N,(-#Q#A!2,%/h(*/#A!C,05#!0.+.$A.!#!3(#!A#%*0#!
/,(-.NC,$h(.#! 0.! '#A.A! 0.! %#A! /#%0.$#A>! 2#C,$>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! .BC3%A#0,! C,$! %#A!
f-$,(.$#Ag! 2,%/h(*/#A?! E.$,! C#$./.! NhA! C$,+#+%.! m3.! %#A! (3+.A! A.! .(/3.(-$.(!
A,+$.! %#! /*N#! 0.! .A-#A! N,(-#Q#A>! C$./*A#N.(-.! C,$m3.! .A-#A! N,(-#Q#A! A,(! -#(!
#%-#A?! H(#! *N#'*(#$*#! C#$/.%#! 0.! #*$.! N#$/*#(,! m3.! #A/*.(0#! C,$! %#! %#0.$#! 0.! %#!
N,(-#Q#!A.!.B-*.(0.!F!.(6$5#?!]9%!#*$.!A.!.(6$5#!/3#(0,!#A/.(0.N,A!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!
N#$/*#(#?!E.$,>!/,N,!.%!#*$.!.A-h!-#(!.($#$./*0,!.(!K#$-.>!(,!C3.0.!/#N+*#$!+*.(!.%!
/#%,$! /,(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.o! #A5! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! (,! A.! .(6$5#! /3#(0,! #A/.(0.N,A! C,$! 3(#!
N,(-#Q#!.(!K#$-.>!/,N,!F#!D.N,A!0*/D,!#(-.$*,$N.(-.?_!"3#(0,!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#!.(!
%#! X,(#! 0.! #*$.! 0.A/*.(0.! C,$! 0.+#\,! 0.%! C3(-,! 0.! /,('.%#/*4(! 0.%! #'3#>! -,0,! .%!
2#C,$! 0.! #'3#! /,(-.(*0,! .(! .%%#! A.! /,(0.(A#! 6,$N#(0,! /$*A-#%.A! 0.! D*.%,?! c#!
/#(-*0#0!0.!2#C,$!0.!#'3#!m3.!A#+.N,A!.B*A-.!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!N#$/*#(#>!%#A!#%-3$#A!
0.! %#A! N,(-#Q#A! F! %#! /#(-*0#0! 0.! C.m3.Q,A! /$*A-#%.A! 0.! D*.%,! (./.A#$*,A! C#$#!
C$,03/*$! 3(#! (3+.! 2*A*+%.>! C#$./.(! 3(*$A.! F! 6,$N#$! 3(! /,(\3(-,! m3.! .BC%*m3.! 0.!
6,$N#!$#/*,(#%!%#A!(3+.A!m3.!D#F!A,+$.!%#A!N,(-#Q#A!0.!K#$-.?!
9%! $./*.(-.! 23%/#(*AN,! 0.! K#$-.! *NC%*/#! A#%*0#! 0.! '#A.A>! A.#(! ,! (,! A.Q#%.A! 0.! -#%!
6.(4N.(,! %#A! (3+.A! m3.! 2.N,A! .(! %#! /*N#! 0.! .A-,A! 2,%/#(.A?! "3#(0,! %#! %#2#!
/#%*.(-.! 6%3F.! #! %#! A3C.$6*/*.>! %%.2#! /,(A*',! 3(#! *NC,$-#(-.! /#(-*0#0! 0.! '#A>! .(! %#!
L*.$$#>! C$*(/*C#%N.(-.! #'3#>! C.$,! #/,NC#Q#0#! 0.! ,-$#! *NC,$-#(-.! /#(-*0#0! 0.!
0*2.$A,A!N#-.$*#%.A?!@A5>!%,A!2,%/#(.A!m3.!2.N,A!.(!K#$-.!D#(!0.+*0,!/,(-$*+3*$>!.(!
'$#(!N.0*0#>!#!%#!6,$N#/*4(!0.!%#!#-N4A6.$#!N#$/*#(#?!9(!C#$-.>!#%!N.(,A>!.%!#*$.!D#!
A#%*0,!C,$!.A-,A!,$*6*/*,A!#%!.B-.$*,$?!",N,!K#$-.!.A!D,F!-#(!6$5,>!.%!#'3#!C3.0.!.A-#$!
/,N,! #-$#C#0#! 0.! N3/D#A! 6,$N#A>! /,N,>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! .(! 6,$N#! 0.! D*.%,>! F! (,!
#+3(0#$! .(! %#! #-N4A6.$#?! 9A! C$,+#+%.! m3.! .A-,A! 2,%/#(.A! D#F#(! C$,03/*0,! N3/D,!
NhA!'#A!m3.!.%!m3.!2.N,A!D,F!05#!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!N#$/*#(#?!&*!D#F!2*0#!.(!K#$-.>!
A.'3$#N.(-.!0.+.!+#A#$A.!.(!.%!/#N+*,!0.!N#-.$*#%!/,(!%#!#-N4A6.$#>!*'3#%!m3.!.(!
%#! L*.$$#>! 0,(0.! C$.0,N*(#! .%! /*/%,! 0.! 6,-,A5(-.A*A! 0.! %#A! C%#(-#A! F! %#! $.AC*$#/*4(!
#(*N#%?! &*! D#F! 2*0#! .(! K#$-.>! .A-,A! 2,%/#(.A! C3.0.(>! #%! N.(,A! *(0*$./-#N.(-.>!
D#+.$!0.A.NC.Q#0,!3(!*NC,$-#(-.!C#C.%!.(!A3!#/-3#%!0.A#$$,%%,?!
"3#(0,! %#! -,$N.(-#! 0.! C,%2,! #N#*(4>! A.! A*-34! #%! Mariner! T! .(! 3(#! 4$+*-#! NhA! #%-#!
C#$#! 6#/*%*-#$! .%! -$#X#0,! 0.! %,A! N#C#A! '.,%4'*/,A?! c#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! -$#+#\4!
N3/D5A*N,! NhA! 0.! %,! m3.! .AC.$#+#(! A3A! 0*A.Q#0,$.A?! c,A! N#C#A! '.,%4'*/,A! #A5!
#/#+#0,A!$.2.%#(!3(#!.(,$N.!6,$N#/*4(!0.!/,$0*%%.$#A!%,('*-30*(#%.A!m3.!$,0.#(!%#!
K.A.-#!0.!LD#$A*A>!/,N,!A*!3(#!-.$/.$#!,!/3#$-#!C#$-.!0.!-,0#!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!K#$-.!
A.!D3+*.$#!m3.+$#0,!03$#(-.!#%'G(!/,%,A#%!6.(4N.(,!'.,%4'*/,!$./*.(-.!m3.!#%X4!#!
LD#$A*A?! c#! NhA! .AC./-#/3%#$! 0.! .A-#A! /#$#/-.$5A-*/#A>! /#A*! %,('*-30*(#%.A>! .A! 3(!
.(,$N.!2#%%.!m3.!.(!6,$N#!0.!m3.+$#0#!A.!D#%%#!.(!3(#!$.'*4(!%%#N#0#!",C$#-.A?!9A!
/#A*!-#(!%#$',!/,N,!%#!N#F,$!m3.+$#0#!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!%#!A*-3#0#!.(!.%!9A-.!0.!y6$*/#!F!
m3.! $./,$$.! -,0#! %#! /,A-#! #6$*/#(#! D#A-#! .%! N#$! K3.$-,?! ",N,! K#$-.! .A! 3(! C%#(.-#!
NhA!C.m3.Q,>!%#!m3.+$#0#!0.!",C$#-.A!]m3.!#%'3(,A!%%#N#(!2#%%.!0.!",C$#-.A_!.A>!
D#+%#(0,!/,NC#$#-*2#N.(-.>!3(!$#A',!N3/D5A*N,!NhA!*NC$.A*,(#(-.?!
c#!m3.+$#0#!0.%!y6$*/#!;$*.(-#%!A.!0#!C,$m3.!%,A!6,(0,A!N#$*(,A!A.!.BC#(0.(!F!C,$!
%#!%%#N#0#!0.$*2#!/,(-*(.(-#%?!c,A!/,(-*(.(-.A!#6$*/#(,!F!#A*h-*/,!.A-h(!#C#$-h(0,A.!
%.(-#N.(-.! 3(,! 0.! ,-$,>! F! .%! 2#/5,! ,! '$*.-#! m3.! 0.\#(! .A! 0*/D#! m3.+$#0#?! E.$,! %#!
0.$*2#!/,(-*(.(-#%!A.!/$..!m3.!,+.0./.!#!%#!%.(-#!/*$/3%#/*4(!0.!N#-.$*#%!.(!.%!N#(-,!
0.! %#! L*.$$#?! 9(-,(/.A>! kD.N,A! 0.! /$..$! m3.! K#$-.>! #! C.A#$! 0.! A3! -#N#Q,! NhA!
C.m3.Q,!F!-.NC.$#-3$#A!*(-.$(#A!NhA!+#\#A>!-#N+*d(!A36$.!0*63A*4(!0.!/#%,$!F!0.$*2#!
/,(-*(.(-#%l! k;! .A! C,A*+%.! m3.! 0*6.$.(-.A! C$,/.A,A! C$,2,m3.(! /#$#/-.$5A-*/#A!
A*N*%#$.A!.(!%,A!0,A!C%#(.-#Al!
&.#! /3#%! 63.$.! %#! $.AC3.A-#>! (,! (,A! m3.0#! NhA! m3.! A.'3*$! #C$.(0*.(0,! /,A#A!
$.%#/*,(#0#A! /,(! %#! #(-*'3#! /*.(/*#! -.$$.A-$.! 0.! %#! '.,%,'5#>! /,(! A3A! 0*A/*C%*(#A!
C$h/-*/#A!63-3$#A!-#%.A!/,N,!%#!C$.0*//*4(!F!.%!/,(-$,%!0.!%,A!-.$$.N,-,A>!.B#N*(#(0,!
F!.A-30*#(0,!%#!'.,%,'5#!0.!(3.A-$,!2./*(,!C%#(.-#!K#$-.?!
!
18. Los canales de Marte
!

!
Un sinuoso canal de Marte, probablemente trazado por un antiguo ro. Cortesa de la NASA.
!
9(!8WUU!]/,N,!.(!8TU8_!.%!C%#(.-#!K#$-.!A.!D#%%#+#!#!3(#!0*A-#(/*#!0.!%#!L*.$$#!0.!
TT! N*%%,(.A! 0.! q*%4N.-$,A! *! ?! c,A! #A-$4(,N,A! .3$,C.,A! /,(! -.%.A/,C*,A!
$./*.(-.N.(-.! C.$6.//*,(#0,A! A.! C$.C#$#+#(! C#$#! %,! m3.! .$#! .(-,(/.A! %#! NhA!
/3*0#0,A#!,+A.$2#/*4(!0.!(3.A-$,!2./*(,!C%#(.-#!D./D#!C,$!.%!D,N+$.?!H(,!0.!.%%,A!
.$#! Z*,2#((*! &/D*#C#$.%%*>! *-#%*#(,! 0.! K*%h(! F! C#$*.(-.! 0.%! #/-3#%! N,0*A-#! F!
C.$63N*A-#?!

*!!K#$-.!'*$#!#%$.0.0,$!0.%!&,%!#!3(#!0*A-#(/*#!N.0*#!0.!``W!N*%%,(.A!0.!q*%4N.-$,A>!C.$,>!0.+*0,!#!
%#! (,-#+%.! .B/.(-$*/*0#0! 0.! A3! 4$+*-#! ]7>7T_>! A3! 0*A-#(/*#! 2#$5#! 0.! `7U! N*%%,(.A! 0.! q*%4N.-$,A! .(! .%!
C.$*D.%*,!#!`b7!N*%%,(.A!0.!q*%4N.-$,A!.(!.%!#6.%*,o!C,$!.A-#!$#X4(>!.(!%#!,C,A*/*4(!%#!0*A-#(/*#!L*.$$#O
K#$-.! 2#$5#! /,(A*0.$#+%.N.(-.! 0.A0.! %,A! b[! N*%%,(.A! 0.! q*%4N.-$,A! D#A-#! /3#(0,! %#! ,C,A*/*4(! .A!
N.(,A!6#2,$#+%.>!TT!N*%%,(.A!0.!q*%4N.-$,A?!<?!0.%!L??!

9(!'.(.$#%>!%#!2*A-#!,!.AC./-h/3%,!m3.!,6$./5#!K#$-.!#!-$#2dA!0.!#m3.%%,A!-.%.A/,C*,A!
.$#!+,$$,A#!.!*(-.$$3NC*0#!C,$!%#!2#$*#+%.! -3$+3%.(/*#!0.!%#!#-N4A6.$#!-.$$.A-$.!m3.!
%,A! #A-$4(,N,A! %%#N#(! f2*A*4(g! {seeing|?! E.$,! D#+5#! N,N.(-,A! .(! %,A! m3.! %#!
#-N4A6.$#!0.!%#!L*.$$#!A.!#/%#$#+#!F!C#$./5#!,+A.$2#$A.!/,(!NhA!0.-#%%.!.%!0*A/,!0.!
K#$-.?!&/D*#C#$.%%*!m3.04!#-4(*-,!#%!2.$!3(#!$.0!0.!%5(.#A!6*(#A!F!$./-#A!m3.!/3+$5#(!
.%!0*A/,!0.%!C%#(.-#?!c%#N4!#!.A-#A!%5(.#A!canali>!m3.!.(!*-#%*#(,!A*'(*6*/#!f/#(#%.Ag!
{/D#((.%A|?! &*(! .N+#$',>! canali! A.! -$#03\,! #%! *('%dA! /,N,! {/#(#%A|>! C#%#+$#! m3.!
*NC%*/#+#!/%#$#!*NC3-#/*4(!0.!0*A.Q,?!
c#A! ,+A.$2#/*,(.A! 0.! &/D*#C#$.%%*! 63.$,(! #! C#$#$! #! N#(,A! 0.! E.$/*2#%! c,r.%%>!
0*C%,Nh-*/,! 0.A-*(#0,! .(! "D,A.(>! %#! #/-3#%! ",$.#?! I.$N#(,! 0.%! $./-,$! 0.! %#!
H(*2.$A*0#0!0.!I#$2#$0!F!0.!3(!C.$A,(#\.!#G(!NhA!6#N,A,>!%#!C,.-*A#!@NF!c,r.%%!
]m3*.(! -#N+*d(! .$#! 6#N,A#! C,$! 63N#$! C.m3.Q,A! /*'#$$,A! C3$,A_>! c,r.%%! 63(04! .(!
p%#'A-#66! 3(! ,+A.$2#-,$*,! C$*2#0,! C#$#! .A-30*#$! #%! C%#(.-#! K#$-.?! R*,! %,A! N*AN,A!
canali! m3.! D#+5#! ,+A.$2#0,! &/D*#C#$.%%*?! @NC%*4! A3! 0.A/$*C/*4(! F! .%#+,$4! 3(#!
.BC%*/#/*4(?!
c,r.%%!%%.'4!#!%#!/,(/%3A*4(!0.!m3.!K#$-.!.$#!3(!C%#(.-#!,!N3(0,!N,$*+3(0,>!.(!.%!
m3.!D#+5#!.B*A-*0,!2*0#!#0#C-#0#!#!%,A!C.%*'$,A!0.%!C%#(.-#!.(!/3.A-*4(?!9%!C$*(/*C#%!
0.! .A-,A! C.%*'$,A! .$#! %#! .A/#A.X! 0.! #'3#?! c,r.%%! *N#'*(#+#! m3.! %#! /*2*%*X#/*4(!
N#$/*#(#!D#+5#!/,(A-$3*0,!3(#!.B-.(A#!$.0!0.!/#(#%.A!C#$#!-$#(AC,$-#$!#'3#!0.A0.!
%,A! /#Am3.-.A! C,%#$.A! D#A-#! %,A! %3'#$.A! D#+*-#0,A! .(! X,(#A! NhA! ./3#-,$*#%.A?! 9%!
C3(-,!NhA!A4%*0,!0.%!$#X,(#N*.(-,!A.!+#A#+#!.(!%#!$./-*-30!0.!%,A!/#(#%.A>!#%'3(,A!
0.!.%%,A!0.A/$*+*.(0,!'$#(0.A!/5$/3%,A!03$#(-.!N*%.A!0.!q*%4N.-$,A?!c,r.%%!C.(A#+#!
m3.! -#%.A! /,(6*'3$#/*,(.A! '.,Nd-$*/#A! (,! A.! C,05#(! C$,03/*$! C,$! C$,/.A,A!
'.,%4'*/,A?! c#A! %5(.#A! .$#(! 0.N#A*#0,! $./-#A?! (*/#N.(-.! C,05#(! A.$! ,+$#! 0.! %#!
*(-.%*'.(/*#?!
wA-#!.A!3(#!/,(/%3A*4(!/,(!%#!/3#%!-,0,A!C,0.N,A!.A-#$!0.!#/3.$0,?!c#!0*6.$.(/*#!
.A-h!.(!/3h%!0.!%,A!0,A!%#0,A!0.%!-.%.A/,C*,!.A-#+#!%#!*(-.%*'.(/*#?!c,r.%%!/$.5#!m3.!
#m3.%%#A! %5(.#A! .$#(! #3-d(-*/,A! /#(#%.A! 0.! *$$*'#/*4(! /,(A-$3*0,A! C,$! %,A! D#+*-#(-.A!
0.! K#$-.! C#$#! /,N+#-*$! %#! .A/#A.X! 0.! #'3#?! K3/D,A! 0.! %,A! #A-$4(,N,A! NhA!
6#N,A,A! m3.! ,+A.$2#$,(! K#$-.! .(-$.! 6*(#%.A! 0.%! A*'%,! F! .%! #N#(./.$! 0.! %#! .$#!
.AC#/*#%! D#%%#$,(! m3.>! #3(! /3#(0,! C,05#(! 2.$! %,A! /#(#%.A! .(! +3.(#A! /,(0*/*,(.A!
2*A3#%.A>! A*(! A.$! .B/.%.(-.A>! .(! #%'3(,A! $#$,A! N,N.(-,A! 0.! C.$6./-#! 2*A*+*%*0#0!
C,05#(! -#N+*d(! $.A,%2.$! %#A! %5(.#A! $./-#A! .(! 3(#! N3%-*-30! 0.! N#(/D#A! F! 0.-#%%.!
*$$.'3%#$?!
9(-,(/.A! A.! 0.A/3+$*4! m3.! C,$! %,! N.(,A! %#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! %,A! /#Am3.-.A! C,%#$.A!
.$#(!0*4B*0,!0.!/#$+,(,!A4%*0,!F!(,!#'3#!D.%#0#?!c#!C$.A*4(!#-N,A6d$*/#!.$#!N3/D,!
N.(,$!m3.!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!&.!D#%%4!*NC,A*+%.!%#!.B*A-.(/*#!0.!#'3#!%5m3*0#?!&.!0.A/#$-4!
%#!*0.#!0.!m3.!D3+*.A.!6,$N#A!0.!2*0#!F!/#(#%.A!.(!K#$-.?!J!A*(!.N+#$',???!
"3#(0,! .(! 8TU8! #N#*(4! %#! -,$N.(-#! 0.! C,%2,>! .%! Mariner! T! /,N.(X4! #! 6,-,'$#6*#$!
3(#!$.'*4(!%%#N#0#!",C$#-.A!C,$!%,A!,+A.$2#0,$.A!/%hA*/,A?!",C$#-.A!.$#!3(,!0.!%,A!
'$#(0.A!canali!0.A/3+*.$-,A!C,$!c,r.%%>!&/D*#C#$.%%*!F!A3A!A.'3*0,$.A?!I#/*#!.%!6*(#%!
0.!%#!-,$N.(-#!0.!C,%2,>!",C$#-.A!$.A3%-4!A.$!3(!.(,$N.!+#$$#(/,>!NhA!m3.!3(!2#%%.>!
m3.!A.!.B-.(05#!#!%,!%#$',!0.!b?777!qN!0.!9A-.!#!;.A-.!/.$/#!0.%!./3#0,$!N#$/*#(,?!
9(! #%'3(,A! C3(-,A! N.05#! a7! qN! 0.! #(/D3$#! F! 8?W77! N! 0.! C$,63(0*0#0?! <,! .$#!
C.$6./-#N.(-.!$./-,o!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!(,!A.!-$#-#+#!0.!(*('3(#!,+$#!0.!*('.(*.$5#>!C.$,!
.$#!3(#!2#A-#!'#$'#(-#!N3/D,!NhA!'$#(0.!m3.!/3#%m3*.$!A*N*%#$!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!

!
El gran Valle de Coprates. Cortesa de la NASA.

J!/,N,!C#$-*.(0,!0.!",C$#-.A!D#+5#!$#A',A!m3.!A*(!030#!#%'3(#!.$#(!N3F!/3$*,A,A>!
A*(3,A,A! /#(#%.A! m3.! C#$./5#(! A.$C.(-.#$! #! -$#2dA! 0.! %#A! -*.$$#A! #%-#A! A,+$.! %#!
m3.+$#0#! 0.! ",C$#-.A! F! 0.! %,A! m3.! #! A3! 2.X! C#$-5#(! +,(*-,A! #6%3.(-.A?! &*! -#%.A!
/#(#%.A! A.! D3+*.$#(! 2*A-,! .(! %#! L*.$$#>! A*(! 030#! #%'3(#! A.! D3+*.A.(! #-$*+3*0,! #!
/,$$*.(-.A!0.!#'3#?!E.$,!.(!K#$-.!%#A!C$.A*,(.A!.(!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!A,(!-#(!+#\#A!m3.!.%!
#'3#! %5m3*0#! A.! .2#C,$#$5#! *(A-#(-h(.#N.(-.>! 0.%! N*AN,! N,0,! m3.>! #%! A.$! %#A!
C$.A*,(.A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!-#(!+#\#A>!.%!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,!A.!.2#C,$#!*(N.0*#-#N.(-.?!
9(!%#!L*.$$#!-.(.N,A!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,!A4%*0,!F!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,!'#A.,A,>!C.$,!
(,! #(D50$*0,! /#$+4(*/,! %5m3*0,?! 9(! K#$-.>! .A-#! #3A.(/*#! 0.! %#! 6#A.! %5m3*0#! .A! -#(!
/*.$-#!/,N,!%#!/#$.(/*#!0.!#'3#?!
E.$,! #! N.0*0#! m3.! .%! Mariner! T! /,(-*(34! $.#%*X#(0,! A3! N*A*4(! 6,-,'$h6*/#! A.!
0.A/3+$*.$,(! N3/D,A! NhA! /#(#%.A?! "#(#%.A! /,(! A*A-.N#A! -$*+3-#$*,A! 0.! A.'3(0,! F!
-.$/.$!,$0.(>!/#(#%.A!A*(!3(! /$h-.$!.(!A3!*(*/*,!,!6*(#%>!/#(#%.A!/,(!3(#!.AC./*.!0.!
*A%#A!.(!A3!C#$-.!/.(-$#%!F!/#(#%.A!/,(!6*(#%!-$.(X#0,>!/,N,!%,A!#+*.$-,A!.(!%#!L*.$$#!
N.0*#(-.!*(3(0#/*,(.A!0.!-*C,!$.'3%#$?!
9B*A-.(! F#! N3F! C,/#A! 030#A! 0.! m3.! %#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! %,A! /#(#%.A! NhA! %#$',A!
]#%'3(,A! N*0.(! /.(-.(#$.A! 0.! q*%4N.-$,A! 0.! %,('*-30_! F! N3/D5A*N,A! ,-$,A! NhA!
C.m3.Q,A!63.$,(!#+*.$-,A!C,$!#'3#!/,$$*.(-.?!E.$,!/,N,!.(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0!(,!C3.0.!
D#+.$! .(! K#$-.! #'3#! %5m3*0#>! -#%.A! /#(#%.A! 0.+*.$,(! D#+.$! A*0,! -$#X#0,A! .(! 3(#!
dC,/#! #(-.$*,$! 0.! %#! D*A-,$*#! N#$/*#(#>! /3#(0,! %#A! C$.A*,(.A! -,-#%.A! .$#(! NhA!
.%.2#0#A>!%#A!-.NC.$#-3$#A!NhA!#%-#A!F!-#N+*d(!N#F,$!%#!0*AC,(*+*%*0#0!0.!#'3#?!
c,A!/#(#%.A!$.2.%#0,A!C,$!.%!Mariner!T!D#+%#(!C,$!A5!N*AN,A!F!0.!N#(.$#!.%,/3.(-.!
0.!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!6,$N*0#+%.A! /#N+*,A!/%*Nh-*/,A!.(!K#$-.?!1.A0.!.A-.!C3(-,!0.!
2*A-#?!K#$-.!A.!.(/3.(-$#!D,F!#!N*-#0!0.!3(#!.$#!0.!D*.%,>!C.$,!.(!.%!C#A#0,!n(#0*.!
A#+.! /3h(0,n! 0*A6$3-4! 0.! /,(0*/*,(.A! N3/D,! NhA! +.(*'(#A! F! NhA! C#$./*0#A! #! %#A!
0.! %#! L*.$$#?! c#A! $#X,(.A! 0.! -#%.A! /#N+*,A! /%*Nh-*/,A! A.! 0.+#-.(! #G(! D,F! 05#!
#/#%,$#0#N.(-.?! @(-.A! 0.%! %#(X#N*.(-,! 0.%! Mariner! T! A3'.$5! m3.! -#%.A! /#N+*,A!
/%*Nh-*/,A! /,(03/.(-.A! #! .C*A,0*,A! 0.! #'3#! %5m3*0#! C,0$5#(! ,/3$$*$! .(! K#$-.?!
E,0$5#(! A.$! *NC3%A#0,A! C,$! %#! C$./.A*4(! 0.! %,A! .m3*(,//*,A>! N,2*N*.(-,! +*.(!
/,(,/*0,>! #(h%,',! #! %#! C$./.A*4(! %.(-#! F! 0.$*2#0#! 0.! 3(#! /GAC*0.! m3.! '*$#!
$hC*0#N.(-.?! c,A! C.$5,0,A! #(-.$*,$.A! .(! K#$-.! A.! #C$,B*N#(! #! %,A! /*(/3.(-#! N*%!
#Q,A?!&*!#D,$#!.A-#N,A!.(!3(!*(2*.$(,!C$./.A*,(#%>!/,(!.B-.(A,!/#Am3.-.!C,%#$!.(!.%!
<,$-.>! D#/.! 2.*(-*/*(/,! N*%! #Q,A! C3.0.! D#+.$A.! 0#0,! .%! *(2*.$(,! C$./.A*,(#%! /,(!
.B-.(A,!/#Am3.-.!C,%#$!.(!.%!&3$?!
E.$,!D#/.!0,/.!N*%!#Q,A!.A!C$,+#+%.!m3.!D#F#!A*0,!%#!dC,/#!0.!C$*N#2.$#!F!2.$#(,!
C$./.A*,(#%.A?!c#!#-N4A6.$#!0.(A#!0.!#m3.%%#!dC,/#!A.!D#%%#!#D,$#!/,N,!.(/.$$#0#!
.(!%,A!/#Am3.-.A!C,%#$.A?!I#/.!0,/.!N*%!#Q,A!m3*Xh!$.*(#$#(!.(!K#$-.!-.NC.$#-3$#A!
0.%*/*,A#A>! (,/D.A! A3#2.A! F! .%! A,(*0,! 0.%! #'3#! 0.A%*Xh(0,A.! C,$! *((3N.$#+%.A!
$*#/D3.%,A! C#$#! 3(*$A.! #! /#30#%,A,A! $5,A?! @%'3(,A! 0.! .A-,A! $5,A! C$,+#+%.N.(-.!
0.A.N+,/#$,(!.(!%#!'$#(!m3.+$#0#!0.!",C$#-.A?!
1.!A.$!#A5>!D#/.!0,/.!N*%!#Q,A!m3*XhA!D3+,!3(#!2*0#!.(!K#$-.!N3F!A*N*%#$!#!%#!0.!%#!
L*.$$#?! &*! F,! 63.A.! 3(! ,$'#(*AN,! .(! K#$-.>! %*N*-#$5#! N*A! #/-*2*0#0.A! #! %,A! 2.$#(,A!
C$./.A*,(#%.A! F! /.$$#$5#! %#! -*.(0#! .(! %,A! *(2*.$(,A! C$./.A*,(#%.A>! /,N,! %,! D#/.(!
N3/D,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! .(! %#! L*.$$#! 03$#(-.! (3.A-$,A! *(2*.$(,A! N3/D,! NhA! /,$-,A?! J,!
D#$5#! .AC,$#Ao! D#$5#! 6,$N#A! 2.'.-#-*2#Ao! N.! A3N*$5#! .(! $.C,A,! /$*C-,+*,A-h-*/,o!
*(2.$(#$5#>! 2.'.-#$5#>! D#A-#! m3.! D3+*.A.! -.$N*(#0,! .%! %#$',! *(2*.$(,?! &*! .A-,! .A!
$.#%N.(-.! %,! m3.! D#/.(! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! N#$/*#(,A>! C3.0.! m3.! .A-.N,A! %%.'#(0,! #!
K#$-.!/,(!3(#!#(-*/*C#/*4(!0.!0,/.!N*%!#Q,A>!i,!0.N#A*#0,!-#$0.j!
E.$,!D#F!3(#!N#(.$#!0.!*(-.(-#$!C$,+#$!.A-#A!*0.#A?!H(#!0.!%#A!6,$N#A!.(!m3.!%,A!
D*C,-d-*/,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! N#$/*#(,A! A#+$5#(! m3.! D#! %%.'#0,! %#! C$*N#2.$#! C$./.A*,(#%!
.A!C,$!%#!$.#C#$*/*4(!0.%!#'3#!%5m3*0#?!E,$!-#(-,>!/,N,!c*(0#!&#'#(!D#!N.(/*,(#0,>!
%#!$./.-#!C#$#!C,0.$!0.-./-#$!2*0#!.(!K#$-.!.A!f#Q#0*$!#'3#g?!J!.A-,!.A!\3A-#N.(-.!
%,! m3.! D#$h(! %,A! .BC.$*N.(-,A! +*,%4'*/,A! 0.%! Viking! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A>!
C$,'$#N#0,! C#$#! #-.$$*X#$! .(! K#$-.>! .(! +3A/#! 0.! N*/$,+*,A?! H(! +$#X,! #3-,Nh-*/,!
0.\#$h!/#.$!0,A!C.m3.Q#A!N3.A-$#A!0.%!A3.%,!N#$/*#(,!.(!#'3#!%5m3*0#?!H(#!-.$/.$#!
N3.A-$#! A.! *(A.$-#$h! .(! 3(#! /hN#$#! A*(! (*('G(! #'3#! %5m3*0#?! &*! %,A! 0,A! C$*N.$,A!
.BC.$*N.(-,A! 0#(! $.A3%-#0,A! +*,%4'*/,A! C,A*-*2,A! F! .%! -.$/.$! .BC.$*N.(-,! (,>!
.(-,(/.A! D#+$h! m3.! #C,F#$! .A-#! *0.#! 0.! m3.! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! N#$/*#(,A! .A-h(!
.AC.$#(0,!#!m3.!-.$N*(.!.%!%#$',!*(2*.$(,?!
E.$,! .A! C.$6./-#N.(-.! C,A*+%.! m3.! %,A! 0*A.Q,A! 0.! .A-,A! .BC.$*N.(-,A! D#F#(! A*0,!
0.N#A*#0,!/D#32*(*A-#A!.(!.%!#AC./-,!-.$$.(#%?!E3.0.(!.B*A-*$!,$'#(*AN,A!N#$/*#(,A!
m3.!0*A6$3-.(!/,(!.%!#/-3#%!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!F!A.!#D,'3.(~!.(!#'3#!%5m3*0#?!c#!*0.#!
0.!3(,A!,$'#(*AN,A!N#$/*#(,A!/,(!.%!#AC./-,!0.!+.%%#A!03$N*.(-.A>!.AC.$#(0,!#%',!
#A5! /,N,! 3(! +.A,! DGN.0,! 0.%! Viking>! .A! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! 3(#! *0.#! #+A3$0#! ,!
.B/.A*2#N.(-.!6#(-hA-*/#>!C.$,!(,!A.!C3.0.!(.'#$!m3.!A.#!6#A/*(#(-.?!
<,!-,0,A!%,A!/#(#%.A!/,$$.AC,(0.(!#!%#A!C,A*/*,(.A!0.!%,A!/%hA*/,A!canali!0*+3\#0,A!
C,$! c,r.%%! F! &/D*#C#$.%%*?! @%'3(,A>! /,N,! ".$#3(*3A>! C#$./.(! A.$! /#0.(#A!
N,(-#Q,A#A?! ;-$,A! A.! C$.A.(-#(! 0.N#A*#0,! +,$$,A,A! /,N,! C#$#! 0*/-#N*(#$! %,! m3.!
C3.0#(!A.$?!E.$,!D#F!#%'3(,!/,N,!",C$#-.A>!m3.!A,(!.(,$N.A!m3.+$#0#A!#+*.$-#A!
.(!.%!A3.%,!0.!K#$-.?!Hay!/#(#%.A!.(!K#$-.?!E3.0.!m3.!A3!,$*'.(!A.#!N3F!0*6.$.(-.!
#%!*N#'*(#0,!C,$!c,r.%%!,!.A!C,A*+%.!m3.!(,!'3#$0.(!$.%#/*4(!#%'3(#!/,(!%#!+*,%,'5#!
N#$/*#(#?!
c,A! /#(#%.A! 0.! c,r.%%! (,! .B*A-.(>! C.$,! %,A! canali! 0.! &/D*#C#$.%%*! #D5! .A-h(?! KhA! ,!
N.(,A>! A.! C3.0.(! 2.$?! 9A! C$,+#+%.! m3.! .(! .%! 63-3$,>! /3#%m3*.$! 05#>! A.! %%.(.(! %,A!
/#(#%.A!0.!#'3#!3(#!2.X!NhA>!.!*(/%3A,!A.!%%.(.(!0.!',(0,%.$,A!0.%!C%#(.-#!L*.$$#?!
!
19. Las fotografas perdidas de Marte
!
9%! Mariner! T>! .(! A3! N*A*4(! #! K#$-.>! .(2*4! #! %#! L*.$$#! U?`V`! 6,-,'$#65#A! m3.!
$.2,%3/*,(#$,(! (3.A-$,A! /,(,/*N*.(-,A! 0.%! C%#(.-#?! K3/D,A! /.(-.(#$.A! 0.! .A-#A!
6,-,A!A.!0.0*/#$,(!#%!.A-30*,!0.!/#$#/-.$5A-*/#A!2#$*#+%.A!F!#!%,A!/#N+*,A!0.!-*.NC,!
.(!%#A!/,(6*'3$#/*,(.A!$.%#-*2#A!0.!N#$/#A!,+A/3$#A!F!+$*%%#(-.A!.(!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.%!
C%#(.-#! m3.! #D,$#! A.! A#+.! A,(! C$,2,/#0#A! C,$! .%! C,%2,! #$$#A-$#0,! C,$! .%! 2*.(-,?!
9(/,(-$#N,A!N*%.A!0.!%5(.#A!,+A/3$#A!F!+$*%%#(-.A>!m3.!A.!*(*/*#+#(!.(!%,A!%%#N#0,A!
/$h-.$.A!C,$!*NC#/-,!F!%3.',!A.!.B-.(05#(!#!%,!%#$',!0.!0./.(#A!0.!q*%4N.-$,A!A,+$.!
%#! A3C.$6*/*.! N#$/*#(#?! L,0#A! A.Q#%#+#(! D#/*#! %#! 0*$.//*4(! 0.! %,A! 2*.(-,A!
C$.0,N*(#(-.A?!"$..N,A!m3.!A,(!C$,03/*0#A!C,$!63.$-.A!2*.(-,A>!m3.!%.2#(-#(!C,%2,!
0.!%,A!/$h-.$.A!F!0.AC3dA!%,!0.C,A*-#(!A,+$.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!NhA!#%%h!0.!%,A!-.$$#C%.(.A!
0.! -#%.A! /$h-.$.A?! 9A-#A! %5(.#A! A,(! /,N,! *(0*/#0,$.A! (#-3$#%.A! 0.! %#! 0*$.//*4(! 0.%!
2*.(-,! F>! m3*XhA>! #(.N4N.-$,A! A*-3#0,A! .(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! N#$/*#(#! C#$#! (3.A-$#!
.0*6*/#/*4(! F! 0.%*/*#?! I.N,A! 0.A/3+*.$-,! $.-#X,A! ,! N#(/D#A! ,+A/3$#A! .! *$$.'3%#$.A!
.(!.%!*(-.$*,$!0.!%,A!/$h-.$.A!m3.!-*.(0.(!#!6,$N#$A.!.(!%#A!C#$.0.A!0.!A,-#2.(-,!0.!
%,A! /$h-.$.A?! @A5>! %#A! N#(/D#A! F! %#A! %5(.#A! A.! /,(2*.$-.(! .(! *(0*/#0,$.A! 0.! %#!
0*$.//*4(!0.!%,A!2*.(-,A?!@%'3(#A!0.!%#A!N#(/D#A!0.N,A-$#$,(!A.$>!0.!#/3.$0,!/,(!
.%!Mariner!T>!.(,$N.A!/#NC,A!0.!03(#A!0.!#$.(#!C#$#%.%#A?!
@!/,(-*(3#/*4(!-$.A!6,-,'$#65#A!-,N#0#A!C,$!.%!Mariner!T!m3.!N3.A-$#(!%,A!.6./-,A!0.!
%,A!63.$-.A!2*.(-,A!/.$/#!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!N#$/*#(#M!

!
Franjas de viento que radian desde los crteres de impacto. Cada franja es una delgada capa
de polvo soplado por el viento. Cortesa de la NASA.
 !
Arriba: Manchas en el interior de los crteres. Abajo: Anlisis de una de las manchas
mostradas arriba. Cortesa de la NASA.
I.N,A! 0.A/3+*.$-,! N3/D,A! /#A,A! 0.! %5(.#A! ,+A/3$#A! F! N#(/D#A! m3.! 2#$5#(!
(,-#+%.N.(-.! .(! .B-.(A*4(! F! -$#X#0,?! c#A! C,A*/*,(.A! F! 2#$*#(-.A! 0.! .A-#A!
/#$#/-.$5A-*/#A! ,+A/3$#A! A.! /,$$.AC,(0.(! C.$6./-#N.(-.! /,(! %#A! /%hA*/#A! N#$/#A!
,+A/3$#A! 0.! K#$-.>! ,+A.$2#0#A! C,$! %,A! #A-$4(,N,A! 03$#(-.! NhA! 0.! 3(! A*'%,>!
N#(/D#A!m3.!.(-,(/.A!A.!#-$*+35#(>!C,$!A3!2#$*#/*4(>!#!/#N+*,A!.(!%#!2.'.-#/*4(!0.%!
C%#(.-#!0.+*0,A!#!%#A!.A-#/*,(.A?!
E.$,! (3.A-$,! Mariner! T>! A*(! 030#! #%'3(#>! D#! 0.N,A-$#0,! m3.! -#%.A! /#N+*,A! F!
2#$*#/*,(.A!-*.(.(!3(!,$*'.(!NhA!N.-.,$,%4'*/,!m3.!+*,%4'*/,?!
9A-,>! C,$! A3C3.A-,>! (,! .B/%3F.! %#! 2*0#! .(! K#$-.?! &*NC%.N.(-.! A*'(*6*/#! m3.>! A*! D#F!
2*0#! .(! K#$-.>! (,! .A! 6h/*%! 0.A/3+$*$%#! #! 0*A-#(/*#A! *(-.$C%#(.-#$*#A?! c,! N*AN,! A.!
C3.0.! #A.'3$#$! .(! .%! /#A,! ,C3.A-,?! c#! .2*0.(/*#! 6,-,'$h6*/#! 0.! 2*0#! .(! %#! L*.$$#!
03$#(-.!.%!05#!0.A0.!K#$-.!.A!*NC,A*+%.>!/,N,!#A5!%,!D.N,A!/,NC$,+#0,!.A-30*#(0,!
2#$*,A!N*%.A!0.!6,-,'$#65#A!,$+*-#%.A!0.!(3.A-$,!C$,C*,!C%#(.-#?!E.$,!%#A!N#(/D#A!F!
%5(.#A!m3.!-#(-,!2#$5#(!.(!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!N#$/*#(#!A,(!3(!(3.2,!6.(4N.(,!$.#%N.(-.!
.N,/*,(#(-.!m3.!.B*'.!3(!.A-30*,!N3/D,!NhA!#NC%*,?!
",N,! %,A! /#N+*,A! N#$/*#(,A! A.! 0#(! N3F! %.(-#N.(-.>! .A! C$./*A,! m3.! -$#(A/3$$#(!
%#$',A!*(-.$2#%,A!0.!-*.NC,!.(-$.!0,A!6,-,'$#65#A!0.!%#!N*AN#!$.'*4(>!/,(!,+\.-,!0.!
2.$! m3d! /#N+*,A! A.! D#(! ,C.$#0,! 03$#(-.! .A.! -*.NC,?! @%! 6*(#%! 0.! %#! N*A*4(! %#A!
/hN#$#A! 0.%! Mariner! T! D#+5#(! -,N#0,>! /,(! C%.(,! dB*-,>! m3*(/.! 6,-,'$#65#A! 0.!
$.'*,(.A>!.(!&F$-*A!F!L#$A*A>!6,-,A!N3F!*NC,$-#(-.A!C#$#!/,NC$.(0.$!%#A!2#$*#/*,(.A!
0.!-#(!%#$',!C%#X,?!E.$,!/3#(0,!%%.'4!.%!N,N.(-,!0.!,$*.(-#$!%#!#(-.(#!C$*(/*C#%!0.%!
Mariner!D#/*#!%#!L*.$$#>!C#$#!C,0.$!-$#(AN*-*$!.A-#A!6,-,'$#65#A!N.0*#(-.!%#!'$#+#0,$#!
0.!%#!A,(0#!.AC#/*#%>!A.!D#+5#!#',-#0,!F#!.%!%%#N#0,!'#A!0.!/,(-$,%!0.!C,A*/*4(?!c#!
A,(0#!.AC#/*#%!D#+5#!#',-#0,!%*-.$#%N.(-.!A3!/,N+3A-*+%.?!
H(!#Q,!#(-.A!0.!m3.!A.!*(*/*#$#!%#!N*A*4(!0.%!Mariner!T>!A.!A3'*$*4!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!
m3.!%#!A,(0#!.AC#/*#%!A.!m3.0#A.!A*(!'#A!0.!/,(-$,%!.(!#%'G(!N,N.(-,?!&.!C$,C3A,!
.(-,(/.A!3(#!A,%3/*4(M!m3.!%,A!0.C4A*-,A!0.!C$,C3%A*4(!A.!/,(./-#$#(!/,(!.%!A*A-.N#!
0.! '#A! 0.! /,(-$,%>! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! #(#A-,N,A*A! .AC#/*#%?! 9%! .B/.A,! 0.! '#A! 0.!
C$,C3%A*4(!C,0$5#!3A#$A.!C#$#!.%!/,(-$,%!0.!C,A*/*4(!.(!.%!/#A,!0.!m3.!A.!#',-#$#!.%!
(*-$4'.(,!0.!/,(-$,%?!&.!$./D#X4!.A-#!C,A*+*%*0#0>!C$*(/*C#%N.(-.!#!/#3A#!0.%!'#A-,!
m3.!*NC%*/#+#?!I3+*.A.!/,A-#0,!V7?777!04%#$.A>!C.$,!(#0*.!.AC.$#+#!m3.!.%!Mariner!
T!03$#A.!%,!A36*/*.(-.!/,N,!C#$#!#',-#$!0.%!-,0,!A3!'#A!0.!/,(-$,%!0.!C,A*/*4(?!&3!
2*0#! ,6*/*#%! .$#! 0.! (,2.(-#! 05#A>! C.$,! 03$4! /#A*! -,0,! 3(! #Q,?! c,A! *('.(*.$,A! A.!
D#+5#(! N,A-$#0,! 0.N#A*#0,! /,(A.$2#0,$.A! #%! 2#%,$#$! A3! N#'(56*/,! C$,03/-,?!
K*$#(0,!D#/*#!#-$hA>!.%!C$,+%.N#!C#$./.!C$.A.(-#$A.!/,N,!0.!3(#!6#%A#!./,(,N5#?!
",(!3(!#0./3#0,!A3N*(*A-$,!0.!'#A!0.!/,(-$,%!0.!C,A*/*4(>!%#!A,(0#!.AC#/*#%!C,0$5#!
D#+.$! 03$#0,! ,-$,! #Q,! .(! 4$+*-#! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! K#$-.?! &.! D3+*.A.(! /,NC$#0,! 8b7!
N*%%,(.A!0.!04%#$.A!0.!/*.(/*#!C,$!V7?777!04%#$.A!0.!-3+.$5#A?!&*!D3+*dA.N,A!A#+*0,!
m3.! %#! A,(0#! .AC#/*#%! N,$*$5#! C,$! 6#%-#! 0.! (*-$4'.(,>! .A-,F! /#A*! A.'3$,! 0.! m3.! %,A!
/*.(-56*/,A!C%#(.-#$*,A!m3.!-$#+#\#$,(!.(!.%%#!D#+$5#(!$.3(*0,!/,N,!63.$#!%,A!V7?777!
04%#$.A!(./.A#$*,A?!
1.!D./D,>!D#F!N3/D#A!0*6*/3%-#0.A!0.!.A-.!-*C,!.(!.%!C$,'$#N#!.AC#/*#%>!0.-#%%.A!.(!
%,A!m3.!%#!#0*/*4(!0.!3(#!C.m3.Q#!A3N#!0.!0*(.$,!C3.0.!#3N.(-#$!.(,$N.N.(-.!.%!
+.(.6*/*,!/*.(-56*/,!0.!/3#%m3*.$!N*A*4(?!E.$,!%#!<@&@>!A.$*#N.(-.!%*N*-#0#!.(!%,!m3.!
/,(/*.$(.! #! C$.A3C3.A-,A! C,$! .%! ",('$.A,>! %#! "#A#! )%#(/#! F! .%! 1.C#$-#N.(-,! 0.!
1*$.//*4(!F!E$.A3C3.A-,A>!(3(/#!0*AC,(.!0.!A.N.\#(-.A!/#(-*0#0.A!#0*/*,(#%.A?!&*!
63.A.!C,A*+%.!D#%%#$!3(!'.(.$,A,!0,(#(-.>!(,!/#+.!%#!N.(,$!030#!0.!m3.!#!-#%!#F30#!
A5!C,0$5#!%%#Nh$A.%.!6*%#(-$,C5#!C$*2#0#?!
E.$,! dA-#A! (,! 0.\#(! 0.! A.$! 2#(#A! .! *(G-*%.A! N.0*-#/*,(.A?! <,! A.! %%.24! #! /#+,!
(*('3(#!#(#A-,N,A*A!F>!.(!/,(A./3.(/*#>!(,!D3+,!C%#F+#/q!0.!%#!'$#+#0,$#?!@%%5>!.(!
.A#! '$#+#0,$#! m3.! #G(! C,A..! .%! Mariner! T>! D#F! m3*(/.! 6,-,'$#65#A! 2*-#%.A! 0.%!
C%#(.-#?! P#NhA! %%.'#$h(! #! %#! L*.$$#! #! -$#2dA! 0.%! Mariner! T?! L#N+*d(! D#! C.$0*0,! F#!
63.$X#! A,%#$?! c#! %3X! 0.%! &,%! F#! (,! A.! C3.0.! /,(2.$-*$! .(! .%./-$*/*0#0! .(! A3A! /3#-$,!
'$#(0.A!C#(.%.A!A,%#$.A>!F!(,!D#F!6,$N#!0.!$.#/-*2#$%,A?!E3.0.!m3.!\#NhA!A.C#N,A!
/3h%!.$#!.%!#AC./-,!0.!LD#$A*A!F!0.!&F$-*A!#!C$*(/*C*,A!0.!(,2*.N+$.!0.!8TU`>!2*A-,A!
0.A0.!%#!4$+*-#!N#$/*#(#?!
;!m3*Xh!A5?!9%!Mariner!T!A.!D#%%#!.(!3(#!4$+*-#!m3.!0.A/*.(0.!N3F!%.(-#N.(-.!.(!%#!
#-N4A6.$#! N#$/*#(#?! E.$,! -#%! 0.A/.(A,! .A! -#(! %.(-,! m3.! %#! A,(0#! .AC#/*#%! (,! A.!
.A-$.%%#$h!/,(-$#!K#$-.!C,$!%,!N.(,A!03$#(-.!N.0*,!A*'%,?!@(-.A!0.!.A.!N,N.(-,>!A.!
$.#%*X#$h(!23.%,A!,$+*-#%.A!0*$*'*0,A!C,$!.%!D,N+$.!#%$.0.0,$!0.!K#$-.?!:(/%3A,!.(!%#!
#/-3#%*0#0! A.! $.#%*X#(! /,(! -,0#! C3%/$*-30! N#(*,+$#A! 0.! #/.$/#N*.(-,! F!
#/,C%#N*.(-,A!.AC#/*#%.A>!F!#A5>!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!C,$!.%!#Q,!8TT7>!/3#(0,!A.!%%.2.!#!
/#+,!3(#!'$#(!.BC%,$#/*4(!D3N#(#!0.!K#$-.!D#+$h!3(#!/*-#!.AC#/*#%!/,(!.%!Mariner!
T?! c#! 2*.\#! F! 2#C3%.#0#! A,(0#! .AC#/*#%! C#A#$h! #! +,$0,! 0.! #%'3(#! (#2.! 6#+3%,A#! F!
2,%2.$h! #! %#! L*.$$#>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! C#$#! 0.A/#(A#$! .(! %#! &N*-DA,(*#(! :(A-*-3-*,(?!
s3*Xh! C#$#! *NC.0*$! m3.! %,A! N*/$,,$'#(*AN,A! -.$$.A-$.A! 0.%! Mariner! T! #%/#(/.(!
K#$-.>! C.$,! #/#A,! -#N+*d(! C#$#! $.A/#-#$! F! .A-30*#$! %#A! m3*(/.! 6,-,'$#65#A! C.$0*0#A!
.(!%#!N*A*4(!0.%!Mariner?!
!
20. La edad del hielo y la caldera
!

!
Extremos del clima en la Tierra. Arriba: Campo de dunas en el Sahara. De Sahara, C. Krger,
ed., New York, Putnam, 1969. Abajo: Grietas en el glaciar Vatnajokull, de Islandia. De The World
from above, por O. Bihalji-Merin, Hill and Wang, New York, 1966.
!
9(!(3.A-$,!0*N*(3-,!C%#(.-#>!'*$#(0,!.(!3(#!4$+*-#!/#A*!/*$/3%#$>!#!-#N+*d(!/#A*!3(#!
/,(A-#(-.!0*A-#(/*#!0.!(3.A-$#!.A-$.%%#>!.%!/%*N#!2#$5#!#%'3(#A!2./.A!$#0*/#%N.(-.!0.!
3(! %3'#$! #! ,-$,?! 9%! &#D#$#! .A! 0*6.$.(-.! 0.! %#! @(-h$-*0#?! c,A! $#F,A! 0.%! &,%! /#.(!
0*$./-#N.(-.! A,+$.! .%! &#D#$#! F! ,+%*/3#N.(-.! A,+$.! %#! @(-h$-*0#>! ,$*'*(#(0,! '$#(!
0*6.$.(/*#! 0.! -.NC.$#-3$#?! 9%! #*$.! /#%*.(-.! A.! .%.2#! /.$/#! 0.%! 9/3#0,$! F! .%! #*$.! 6$5,!
0.A/*.(0.! /.$/#! 0.! %,A! C,%,A>! 0#(0,! %3'#$! #! %#! /*$/3%#/*4(! #-N,A6d$*/#?! 9%!
N,2*N*.(-,! 0.! %#! $.A3%-#(-.! /,$$*.(-.! 0.! #*$.! .A! 0.A2*#0,! C,$! .%! N,2*N*.(-,! 0.!
$,-#/*4(!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!
I#F! #'3#! .(! %#! #-N4A6.$#>! C.$,! /3#(0,! A.! /,(0.(A#>! 6,$N#(0,! %%32*#! ,! (*.2.>! .%!
/#%,$!C#A#!#!%#!#-N4A6.$#>!/#N+*#(0,!.%!N,2*N*.(-,!0.%!#*$.?!
9%!-.$$.(,!/3+*.$-,!C,$!(*.2.!$./*d(!/#50#!$.6%.\#!NhA!%3X!A,%#$!D#/*#!.%!.AC#/*,!m3.!
/3#(0,!.A-h!%*+$.!0.!(*.2.?!9%!-.$$.(,!A.!D#/.!#G(!NhA!6$5,?!
"3#(0,!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!D#F!NhA!2#C,$!0.!#'3#!,!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,>!A.!+%,m3.#!
.(! N#F,$! N.0*0#! %#! .N*A*4(! *(6$#$$,\#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! c#! $#0*#/*4(! 0.! /#%,$! (,! C3.0.!
.A/#C#$! 0.! .A-.! *(2.$(#0.$,! #-N,A6d$*/,! F>! .(! /,(A./3.(/*#>! A.! .%.2#! %#!
-.NC.$#-3$#!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!
I#F! -,C,'$#65#! .(! %#! L*.$$#?! "3#(0,! %#A! /,$$*.(-.A! 0.! #*$.! A.! 0.A%*X#(! A,+$.! %#A!
N,(-#Q#A!,!C.(.-$#(!.(!%,A!2#%%.A>!/#N+*#!%#!/*$/3%#/*4(?!
9(! 3(! N,N.(-,! /3#%m3*.$#! F! .(! 3(! 0*N*(3-,! C%#(.-#>! .%! -*.NC,>! /,N,! -,0,A!
A#+.N,A>! .A! /,NC%.\,?! 9%! /%*N#>! #%! N.(,A! .(! /*.$-#! N.0*0#>! .A! *NC$.2*A*+%.?! 9(! .%!
C#A#0,! D#+5#! 6%3/-3#/*,(.A! /%*Nh-*/#A! NhA! 2*,%.(-#A?! &.! .B-*('3*.$,(! .AC./*.A!
.(-.$#A>! 'd(.$,A>! /%#A.A>! F! 6#N*%*#A! 0.! C%#(-#A! 0.A#C#$./*.$,(! -,-#%N.(-.! m3*XhA! #!
/#3A#!0.!.A-,A!-$.N.(0,A!/#N+*,A!/%*Nh-*/,A?!
H(#!0.!%#A!.BC%*/#/*,(.A!NhA!C%#3A*+%.A!#/.$/#!0.!%#!.B-*(/*4(!0.!%,A!0*(,A#3$*,A!.A!
m3.! .$#(! '$#(0.A! #(*N#%.A! /,(! C,+$.A! A*A-.N#A! -.$N,$$.'3%#0,$.Ao! .$#(! -,$C.A!
C#$#!/,(A-$3*$A.!N#0$*'3.$#A!F>!C,$!-#(-,>!*(/#C#/.A!-#N+*d(!0.!#/,N,0#$A.!#!3(#!
'.(.$#%!0./%*(#/*4(!0.!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#?!
c#!.2,%3/*4(!*(*/*#%!0.%!D,N+$.!.A-h!5(-*N#N.(-.!$.%#/*,(#0#!/,(!%#!#C#$*/*4(!0.!%#!
L*.$$#! -$#A! %#! 2#A-#! '%#/*#/*4(! ,! /,('.%#/*4(! C%.*A-,/d(*/#?! 9B*A-.! -,0#25#! 3(#!
*(.BC%*/#+%.! /,(.B*4(! .(-$.! %#A! *(2.$A*,(.A! 0.%! /#NC,! N#'(d-*/,! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! F! %#!
.B-*(/*4(!0.!'$#(!(GN.$,!0.!C.m3.Q,A!#(*N#%.A!#/3h-*/,A?!
c#!$#X4(!0.!.A-,A!/#N+*,A!/%*Nh-*/,A!-,0#25#!.A!,+\.-,!0.!#/#%,$#0#A!/,(-$,2.$A*#A?!
E3.0.! A.$! m3.! %#! /#(-*0#0! 0.! %3X! F! /#%,$! m3.! .N*-.! .%! &,%! A.#! 2#$*#+%.! #! (*2.%! 0.!
0./.(#A!0.!N*%.A!0.!#Q,A!,!m3*Xh!NhA?!E3.0.!A.$!m3.!.%!/#N+*,!/%*Nh-*/,!A.!0.+#!
#%!/#N+*,!N3F!%.(-,!0.!%#!,$*.(-#/*4(!0.!%#!*(/%*(#/*4(!0.%!.\.!0.!$,-#/*4(!0.!%#!L*.$$#!
$.AC./-,! #! A3! 4$+*-#?! 9A! C,A*+%.! m3.! %#A! $.#//*,(.A! m35N*/#A! D#F#(! $.03/*0,! %#!
/#(-*0#0! 0.! #(D50$*0,! /#$+4(*/,! F! ,-$#A! N,%d/3%#A! 0.! %#! #-N4A6.$#! F! #A5! A.! D#F#!
.(6$*#0,!%#!L*.$$#?!
1.!D./D,>!D#F!3(#A!/*(/3.(-#!,!A.A.(-#!-.,$5#A!0*6.$.(-.A!A,+$.!%#A!.0#0.A!0.!D*.%,!
F! A,+$.! ,-$,A! *NC,$-#(-.A! /#N+*,A! /%*N#-,%4'*/,A! .(! %#! L*.$$#?! 9A! 3(! C$,+%.N#! 0.!
*(-.$dA!*(-.%./-3#%!N3F!*NC,$-#(-.?!E.$,!D#F!#%',!NhA!m3.!.A-,?!c#!/,NC$.(A*4(!0.%!
/#N+*,! /%*Nh-*/,! C3.0.! -.(.$! C$,63(0#A! /,(A./3.(/*#A! +hA*/#A>! C,$m3.! .%! D,N+$.!
.A-h!.\.$/*.(0,!-$.N.(0#!*(6%3.(/*#!.(!.%!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!#!N.(30,!.(!
6,$N#A! m3.! $.2.%#(! N.0*,/$.A! /#N*(,A! 0.! C.(A#N*.(-,>! N#%#A! /,NC$.(A*,(.A! F!
/,(2.(*.(/*#A! *(0*2*03#%.A! F! +.(.6*/*,A! ./,(4N*/,A! #! /,$-,! C%#X,>! .(-$.! %,A!
D#+*-#(-.A!0.%!C%#(.-#?!
c#!C,%3/*4(!*(03A-$*#%!.A-h!*(-$,03/*.(0,!.(,$N.A!/#(-*0#0.A!0.!C#$-5/3%#A!.B-$#Q#A!
.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#>!C#$-5/3%#A!m3.!C,/,!#!C,/,!2#(!$,0.#(0,!#%!Z%,+,?!c#A!C#$-5/3%#A!
NhA!C.m3.Q#A>!*(F./-#0#A!.(!%#!.A-$#-,A6.$#>!-#$0#(!#Q,A!.(!/#.$?!9A-#A!C#$-5/3%#A!
#3N.(-#(!.%!$.6%.\,!0.!%#!L*.$$#!F!0*AN*(3F.(!%#!/#(-*0#0!0.!%3X!A,%#$!m3.!%%.'#!#!%#!
A3C.$6*/*.?! E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.>! %#! m3.N#! 0.! /,N+3A-*+%.A! 64A*%.A>! /,N,! .%! /#$+4(>! .%!
C.-$4%.,!F!%#!'#A,%*(#!#3N.(-#(!%#!/#(-*0#0!0.!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!
0.!%#!L*.$$#!m3.>!#!/#3A#!0.!A3!*NC,$-#(-.!#+A,$/*4(!*(6$#$$,\#>!C3.0.! #3N.(-#$!%#!
-.NC.$#-3$#!-.$$.A-$.?!
9B*A-.! 3(#! *NC,$-#(-.! '#N#! 0.! .6./-,A! m3.! X#$#(0.#(>! C,$! #A5! 0./*$%,>! #%! /%*N#! .(!
0*$.//*,(.A! ,C3.A-#A?! <#0*.! .(-*.(0.! 0.%! -,0,! .A-#A! *(-.$#//*,(.A?! @3(m3.! C#$./.!
C,/,!C$,+#+%.!m3.!%#!/#(-*0#0!0.!/,(-#N*(#/*4(!m3.!A.!/,(A*0.$#!#0N*A*+%.!C3.0#!
C$,2,/#$! 3(! *NC,$-#(-.! /#N+*,! /%*N#-,%4'*/,! .(! %#! L*.$$#>! -#NC,/,! C,0.N,A! .A-#$!
A.'3$,A! 0.! -#%! /,A#?! 9A! 3(! -4C*/,! m3.! +*.(! N.$./.! 3(#! *(2.A-*'#/*4(! #! (*2.%!
*(-.$(#/*,(#%?!
c#!.BC%,$#/*4(!.AC#/*#%!0.A.NC.Q#!3(!*(-.$.A#(-.!C#C.%!.(!%#!C$3.+#!0.!%#A!-.,$5#A!
0.%! /#N+*,! /%*Nh-*/,?! 9(! K#$-.>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! D#F! *(F.//*,(.A! N#A*2#A! F! C.$*40*/#A!
0.!-.(3.A!C#$-5/3%#A!0.!C,%2,!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#>!%#A!/3#%.A!-#$0#(!A.N#(#A!F!#!2./.A!
D#A-#! N.A.A! .(! /#.$?! &#+.N,A>! C,$! %#! .BC.$*.(/*#! 0.%! Mariner! T>! m3.! %#!
-.NC.$#-3$#>! .A-$3/-3$#! F! /%*N#! 0.! K#$-.! /#N+*#(! (,-#+%.N.(-.! 03$#(-.! -#%.A!
-,$N.(-#A!0.!C,%2,?!9A-30*#(0,!#!K#$-.>!C,0.N,A!/,NC$.(0.$!N.\,$!%,A!.6./-,A!0.!
%#!/,(-#N*(#/*4(!*(03A-$*#%!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!
c,! N*AN,! ,/3$$.! /,(! R.(3A?! I.! #m35! 3(! C%#(.-#! m3.! C#$./.! D#+.$! A,C,$-#0,! 3(!
.6./-,! *(2.$(#0.$,! 0.A/,(-$,%#0,?! 9(! A3! #-N4A6.$#! D#! C.(.-$#0,! 3(#! /#(-*0#0!
N#A*2#!0.!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,>!,/3%-#(0,!A3!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!-#%!N#(.$#!m3.!#%!.AC#/*,!
.A/#C#!N3F!C,/#!.N*A*4(!-d$N*/#!*(6$#$$,\#?!9%!.6./-,!0.!*(2.$(#0.$,!D#!/#%.(-#0,!%#!
A3C.$6*/*.! D#A-#! a`b}! "! ,! NhA?! k"4N,! A.! D#! 0#0,! .(! R.(3A! .A-.! 6.(4N.(,l!
k"4N,!.2*-#N,A!m3.!.A-,!,/3$$#!#m35l!
9%!.A-30*,!0.!(3.A-$,A!C%#(.-#A!2./*(,A!(,!A4%,!(,A!#F30#!#!'.(.$#%*X#$!.%!.A-30*,!
0.%! (3.A-$,>! A*(,! m3.! C3.0.! C$,C,$/*,(#$(,A! *(0*/*,A! C$h/-*/,A! F! D#A-#! $.%#-,A! m3.!
%%.2#(!/,(A*',!$./,N.(0#/*,(.A!0.!C$./#3/*4(!m3.!-,0,A!D.N,A!0.!%..$>!A*!A,N,A!
%,!A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!*(-.%*'.(-.A!F!C$30.(-.A!C#$#!.(-.(0.$%,A?!
!
21. Comienzos y finales de la Tierra
!

!
Cursos esquemticos de la evolucin de la temperatura del planeta Tierra a travs del tiempo
geolgico. Los cambios de temperatura se deben a los cambios en la luminosidad del Sol y a
la composicin de la atmsfera terrestre. Un en equivale a mil millones de aos. Segn
clculos del autor. Cortesa de la Asociacin Americana para el Progreso de la Ciencia.

c#A! .A-$.%%#A! (,! C,A..(! 2*0#! .-.$(#?! E.$,! %#! 2*0#! 0.! 3(#! C.$A,(#! A.! N*0.! .(!
0d/#0#A!F!%#!0.!3(#!.A-$.%%#!.(!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A?!
H(#! .A-$.%%#! (#/.! 0.! (3+.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! 0.! '#A! F! C,%2,?! 13$#(-.! /*.$-,! -*.NC,>!
/,(2*.$-.!.%!D*0$4'.(,!.(!D.%*,!.(!%,A!D,$(,A!-.$N,(3/%.#$.A!0.!A3!C$,63(0,!*(-.$*,$?!
1.AC3dA>!F!.(!C%.(#!2.\.X!.A-.%#$>!A36$.!3(#!A.$*.!0.!/#-hA-$,6.A!NhA!'$#(0.A!,!NhA!
C.m3.Q#A>! 3(! %.(-,! ',-.,! ,! 3(#! *(F.//*4(! .BC%,A*2#! 0.! N#-.$*#%! .A-.%#$! .(! .%!
.AC#/*,?! 13$#(-.! .%! C.$5,0,! NhA! ,! N.(,A! .A-#+%.! 0.! 2*0#! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#>! %#! $.'*4(!
*(-.$*,$! /#%*.(-.>! #%! /,(2.$-*$! .%! D*0$4'.(,! .(! D.%*,>! '$#03#%N.(-.! 2#! #+$*.(0,! C#A,!
D#/*#!.%!.B-.$*,$!0.A0.!.%!N*AN,!/.(-$,?!",(!.%!C#A,!0.%!-*.NC,>!%#!.A-$.%%#!/,N*.(X#!
#!D#/.$A.>!%.(-#!F!/#A*!*NC.$/.C-*+%.N.(-.>!NhA!+$*%%#(-.?!
1.AC3dA! 0.! %#A! %%#N#$#0#A! F! ,-$#A! *NC.-3,A*0#0.A! 0.! A3! -.NC$#(#! #0,%.A/.(/*#>!
(3.A-$,! &,%! A.! /#%N4! C#$#! *(*/*#$! 3(#! $#0*#/*4(>! ,>! N.\,$! 0*/D,>! 3(#! C$,03//*4(! 0.!
$#0*#/*4(! NhA! ,! N.(,A! /,(A-#(-.?! E.$,! D#/.! /3#-$,! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! .$#!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! 3(! V7! ! NhA! ,+A/3$,! 0.! %,! m3.! .A! .(! %#! #/-3#%*0#0?! &*!
A3C,(.N,A! m3.! D#/.! /3#-$,! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! %#! L*.$$#! N,A-$#+#! %#! N*AN#!
0*A-$*+3/*4(! 0.! -*.$$#A! F! #'3#>! (3+.A! F! D*.%,! C,%#$>! 0.! 6,$N#! m3.! #+A,$+5#! *0d(-*/#!
/#(-*0#0! $.%#-*2#! 0.! %3X! A,%#$! m3.! D,F>! F! A*! -#N+*d(! A3C,(.N,A! m3.! -.(5#! 3(#!
#-N4A6.$#! A*N*%#$>! C,0.N,A! /#%/3%#$! /3h%! .$#! A3! -.NC.$#-3$#?! 9%! /h%/3%,! $.2.%#! 3(#!
-.NC.$#-3$#!C#$#!-,0#!%#!L*.$$#!*(6.$*,$!#%!C3(-,!0.!/,('.%#/*4(!0.%!#'3#!0.%!N#$?!1.!
D./D,! *(/%3A,! D#/.! 0,A! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A>! A.'G(! .A-#A! A3C,A*/*,(.A>! .%! &,%! (,!
D#+$5#! C,0*0,! A.$! %,! A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! +$*%%#(-.! /,N,! C#$#! N#(-.(.$! #! %#! L*.$$#! C,$!
.(/*N#!0.%!C3(-,!0.!/,('.%#/*4(!#%!C3(-,!0.!/,('.%#/*4(?!
E.$,! 0*AC,(.N,A! 0.! '$#(! (GN.$,! 0.! C$3.+#A! 0.! m3.! dA-.! (,! 63.! .%! /#A,?! 9(!
#(-*'3,A! 0.C4A*-,A! 0.! +#$$,! D#F! N#$/#A! .(! 6,$N#! 0.! ,(0#A! F! $*X,A! /#3A#0#A! C,$!
#'3#! %5m3*0#?! 9B*A-.(! '$#(0.A! /,(/.(-$#/*,(.A! 0.! %#2#! C$,03/*0#A! C,$! 2,%/#(.A!
A3+N#$*(,A?!I#F!.(,$N.A!0.C4A*-,A!0.!A.0*N.(-#/*4(!m3.!A4%,!A.!C3.0.(!C$,03/*$!
.(! %#A! ,$*%%#A! 0.! %,A! ,/d#(,A?! I#F! C$,03/-,A! +*,%4'*/,A! %%#N#0,A! .A-$,N#-,%*-,A!
#%'h/.,A>!m3.!A4%,!A.!C$,03/.(!.(!.%!#'3#?!
9(-,(/.A>!km3d!.A!%,!m3.!.A-h!N#%l!;!+*.(!.A!3(!.$$,$!(3.A-$#!-.,$5#!0.!%#!.2,%3/*4(!
0.%!&,%!,!(3.A-$#!A3C,A*/*4(!0.!m3.!%#!L*.$$#!.$#!/,N,!%#!0.!D,F!05#?!c#!-.,$5#!0.!%#!
.2,%3/*4(! A,%#$! C#$./.! A.$! +3.(#?! c#A! 0.NhA! *(A.'3$*0#0.A! m3.! C$.2#%./.(! (,!
#6./-#(!#!%#!/3.A-*4(!0.!%#!*(*/*#%!%3N*(,A*0#0!0.%!&,%?!
c#!NhA!C$,+#+%.!$.A,%3/*4(!0.!.A-#!#C#$.(-.!C#$#0,\#!.A!m3.!.(!%#!-.NC$#(#!L*.$$#!
#%',!.$#!0*6.$.(-.?!1.AC3dA!0.!D#+.$!.A-30*#0,!3(!#NC%*,!N#$'.(!0.!C,A*+*%*0#0.A>!
%%.',!#!%#!/,(/%3A*4(!0.!m3.!%,!m3.!.$#!0*6.$.(-.!D#/.!0,A!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!.$#!%#!
C$.A.(/*#!0.!C.m3.Q#A!/#(-*0#0.A!0.!#N,(5#/,!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!9(!%#!
#/-3#%*0#0>!.%!#N,(5#/,!.A-h!C$.A.(-.!.(!PGC*-.$o!.A!%#!6,$N#!0.!(*-$4'.(,!.AC.$#0,!
.(!C$*N*-*2#A!/,(0*/*,(.A?!@+A,$+.!63.$-.N.(-.!.(!%#A!%,('*-30.A!0.!,(0#!*(6$#$$,\#A!
m3.!%#!L*.$$#!.N*-.!#%!.AC#/*,?!9%!#N,(5#/,>!.(!%#!C$*N*-*2#!L*.$$#>!0.+*4!0.!N#(-.(.$!
.%!/#%,$>!#3N.(-#(0,!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!N.0*#(-.!.%!.6./-,!*(2.$(#0.$,!
F!N#(-.(*.(0,!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#!'%,+#%!0.!%#!L*.$$#!#!(*2.%.A!/,NC#-*+%.A!-#(-,!/,(!.%!
,$*'.(! F! -.NC$#(#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! 2*0#! F! /,N,! /,(! m3.! .%! #'3#! %5m3*0#! 63.A.!
#+3(0#(-.!.(!%#A!C$*N.$#A!.-#C#A!0.!%#!D*A-,$*#!0.%!C%#(.-#?!9%!#N,(5#/,!.A!3(,!0.!
%,A!.%.N.(-,A!#-N,A6d$*/,A!(./.A#$*,A!C#$#!%,A!/*N*.(-,A!0.!%#!2*0#?!9%!.A-30*,!0.!%#!
.2,%3/*4(!0.%!&,%!(,A!%%.2#!#!%#!*(6,$N#/*4(!0.!%#!D*A-,$*#!*(*/*#%>!/,NC,A*/*4(!m35N*/#!
F! -.NC.$#-3$#! -.$$.A-$.A>! F>! C,$! -#(-,>! #! %#A! /*$/3(A-#(/*#A! 0.! A3! D#+*-#+*%*0#0?! c#!
.2,%3/*4(!.A-.%#$!F!%#!+*,%4'*/#!.A-h(!$.%#/*,(#0#A?!
kJ!m3d!D#F!#/.$/#!0.!%#!63-3$#!.2,%3/*4(!0.%!&,%l!9%!&,%!.A-h!#3N.(-#(0,!A3!+$*%%,?!
1.(-$,! 0.! 3(,A! /3#-$,! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! #! C#$-*$! 0.! #D,$#>! .%! &,%! A.$h! %,!
A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! +$*%%#(-.! /,N,! C#$#! m3.! A.! 0d! .%! .6./-,! 0.! *(2.$(#0.$,!
0.A/,(-$,%#0,! A,+$.! %#! L*.$$#>! /,N,! A3/.0.! D,F! 05#! .(! R.(3A?! <3.A-$,A! ,/d#(,A!
D.$2*$h(>! F! .%! #(D50$*0,! /#$+4(*/,>! D,F! C$.A.(-.! /,N,! /#$+,(#-#A! .(! %#A! $,/#A!
A.0*N.(-#$*#A>! #A/.(0.$h! #! %#! #-N4A6.$#?! c#! L*.$$#! A.! D#+$h! /,(2.$-*0,! .(! 3(#!
/#%0.$#!*(D#+*-#+%.?!
9A! C$,+#+%.! m3.! %#! -./(,%,'5#! 0.! .A,A! $.N,-,A! -*.NC,A! A.#! %#! (./.A#$*#! C#$#!
C$.2.(*$! A.N.\#(-.! 0.A/,(-$,%>! C.$,! A*(! 030#! A.$h! 3(#! -#$.#! 0.! *('.(*.$5#!
.B-$.N#0#N.(-.!0*65/*%?!&*(!.N+#$',>!/,A#!/3$*,A#>!.%!N*AN,!*(/$.N.(-,!.(!.%!+$*%%,!
F!/#%,$!0.%!&,%!0.(-$,!0.!#%'3(,A!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!D#$h!m3.!K#$-.!A.#!3(!
%3'#$! 0,(0.! %#! -.NC.$#-3$#>! m3.! .(! %#! #/-3#%*0#0! .A! 0.! aU}! "! +#\,! /.$,>! ',/.! 0.!
-.NC.$#-3$#A!/#A*!.B#/-#N.(-.!*'3#%.A!#!%#A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!.(!(3.A-$,A!05#A?!
"3#(0,!%#!L*.$$#!A.#!3(!%3'#$!*(D#+*-#+%.>!K#$-.!0*A6$3-#$h!0.!3(!/%*N#!#'$#0#+%.!F!
0.%*/*,A,?! <3.A-$,A! $.N,-,A! 0.A/.(0*.(-.A>! A*! %,A! D3+*.$.>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! 0.A..(!
#C$,2./D#$!.A-#!/*$/3(A-#(/*#?!
22. Terraformacin de los planetas
!

!
Fotografa compuesta de Marte, tomada por el Mariner 9. Se ven grandes volcanes en el fondo
y el casquete polar del Norte. La cantidad de anhdrido carbnico y agua congelada atrapada
en el casquete polar, si se liberase en la atmsfera, determinara probablemente condiciones
climticas muy parecidas a las de la Tierra. Cortesa de la NASA.

1.!3(#!N#(.$#!A3-*%!F!C$,63(0#>!%#A!#/-*2*0#0.A!0.!%#!2*0#!#6./-#(!#%!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!
0.!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#?!<3.A-$#!#-N4A6.$#!A.!/,NC,(.!0.!3(!`7!!0.!,B5'.(,!F!3(!W7!
! 0.! (*-$4'.(,?! 9%! ,B5'.(,! A.! C$,03/.! /#A*! C,$! .(-.$,! N.0*#(-.! %#! 6,-,A5(-.A*A>! ,!
A5(-.A*A!0.!%,A!D*0$#-,A!0.!/#$+,(,!$.#%*X#0#!C,$!%#!/%,$,6*%#!+#\,!%#!#//*4(!0.!%#!%3X?!
9(!6,$N#!A*N*%#$>!%,A!NhA!$./*.(-.A!-.A-*N,(*,A!A3'*.$.(!m3.!.%!(*-$4'.(,!.A!/#A*!C,$!
/,NC%.-,! 3(! C$,03/-,! 0.! %#! #/-*2*0#0! +*,%4'*/#! 0.! N*/$,,$'#(*AN,A! 0.%! A3.%,! m3.!
/,(2*.$-.(!%,A!(*-$#-,A!F!.%!#N,(5#/,!.(!'#A!<`!(*-$4'.(,!N,%./3%#$?!c#A!#/-*2*0#0.A!
+*,%4'*/#A! (,! A4%,! /,(-$,%#(! 5(-*N#N.(-.! %,A! C$*(/*C#%.A! .%.N.(-,A! 0.! (3.A-$#!
#-N4A6.$#>! A*(,! m3.! -#N+*d(! $.'3%#(! #! %,A! .%.N.(-,A! N.(,$.A?! 9(! N.0*0#! N3F!
A*'(*6*/#-*2#>! .%! #(D50$*0,! /#$+4(*/,! .A-h! $.'3%#0,! C,$! .%! N./#(*AN,! 6,-,A5(-.A*AO
$.AC*$#/*4(?!@3(m3.!A.#!3(!.%.N.(-,!N.(,$!0.!%#!#-N4A6.$#!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!.%!N.-#(,!
"Ia!.A!0.!,$*'.(!+*,%4'*/,?!
1.! D./D,>! %#! 2*0#! .(! %#! L*.$$#>! *(2*A*+%.! .(! %#! 6,-,'$#65#>! C,0$5#! 0.-./-#$A.! /,(! 3(!
C.m3.Q,! -.%.A/,C*,! F! 3(! .AC./-$4N.-$,! *(6$#$$,\,! 0.A0.! K#$-.?! c,A! N#$/*#(,A>! A*!
.B*A-.! #%'3(,>! C,0$5#(! ,+A.$2#$! 6h/*%N.(-.>! .(! %,('*-30! 0.! ,(0#! 0.! V>VV! ! .(! .%!
*(6$#$$,\,>!3(#!/#$#/-.$5A-*/#!0.!63.$-.!#+A,$/*4(!m3.!.%!#(h%*A*A!0*$./-,!$.2.%#$5#!A.$!
0.+*0,! #! 8M8?777?777! 0.! N.-#(,! .(! %#! #-N4A6.$#! -.$$.A-$.?! <,! A.$5#! 0*65/*%! 0.03/*$!
m3.!.%!N.-#(,!.A>!m3*Xh>!0.!,$*'.(!+*,%4'*/,?!9%!N.-#(,!.A!m35N*/#N.(-.!*(.A-#+%.!
.(! 3(! #N+*.(-.! /,(! .B/.A,! 0.! ,B5'.(,?! &.! ,B*0#! /,(! A3N#! $#C*0.X! #! #(D50$*0,!
/#$+4(*/,M!
"Ia!!`;`!!";`!!`I`;!
c#!/#(-*0#0!0.!N.-#(,!m3.!A.!.m3*%*+$#$5#!/,(!.%!'$#(!.B/.A,!0.!,B5'.(,!.(!(3.A-$#!
#-N4A6.$#! .A! *(6.$*,$! #! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! %#! /#(-*0#0! $.#%N.(-.! ,+A.$2#0#?!
k"4N,!C3.0.!A.$!.A-,l!9%!N.-#(,!A.!C3.0.!C$,03/*$!/,(!-#(-#!$#C*0.X!m3.!(,!D#F!
-*.NC,!A36*/*.(-.!C#$#!m3.!.%!,B5'.(,!$.03X/#!A3!#+3(0#(/*#!D#A-#!3(#!/#(-*0#0!0.!
.m3*%*+$*,?! E,0$5#! A.$! m3.! .B*A-*.$#! 3(#! N#A*2#! .63A*4(! 0.! N.-#(,! .(! #(-*'3,A!
/#NC,A!C.-$,%56.$,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!E.$,!-#%!.63A*4(!,!.A/#C.!-.(0$5#!m3.!A.$!.(,$N.>!
.A-#! D*C4-.A*A! .A! C$./*A,! 0.A./D#$%#?! 9A! N3/D,! NhA! C$,+#+%.! m3.! .%! N.-#(,! A.!
C$,03X/#!N.0*#(-.!3(!C$,/.A,!0.!/#$h/-.$!+*,%4'*/,?!
:(030#+%.N.(-.>! dA-.! .A! .%! /#A,?! E#$./.! .B*A-*$! /,(-$,2.$A*#! .(! %#! %*-.$#-3$#!
./,%4'*/#!A,+$.!0,A!C,A*+%.A!,$5'.(.A!0.!.A-.!N.-#(,?!H(#!63.(-.!.A!%#!+#/-.$*#!0.!
N.-#(,! m3.! 2*2.! .(! C#(-#(,A! F! N#$\#%.A>! 0.! #m35! .%! -d$N*(,! 0.! f'#A! 0.! %,A!
C#(-#(,Ag>! #%! $.6.$*$A.! #%! N.-#(,?! 9%! ,-$,! ,$*'.(! 0.! %#! +#/-.$*#! 0.! N.-#(,! .A! .%!
*(-.A-*(,!0.!%,A!3('3%#0,A?!I#F!,-$#!.A/3.%#!0.!C.(A#N*.(-,!./,%4'*/,!m3.!/$..!m3.!
A.!C$,03/.!NhA!N.-#(,!N.0*#(-.!%#!A.'3(0#!63.(-.!m3.!N.0*#(-.!%#!C$*N.$#?!9A-,!
A*'(*6*/#! m3.! %#! 6%#-3%.(/*#! +,2*(#>! .BC3%A*4(! 0.! '#A.A! *(-.A-*(#%.A! 0.! %#A! 2#/#A>!
.%.6#(-.A>!$.(,A!F!#%/.A!.A!0.-./-#+%.!#!0*A-#(/*#A!*(-.$C%#(.-#$*#A>!N*.(-$#A!m3.!.%!
/,(\3(-,! 0.! %#A! #/-*2*0#0.A! D3N#(#A! $.A3%-#! *(2*A*+%.?! E,$! A3C3.A-,>! (,!
/,(A*0.$#$5#N,A!%#!6%#-3%.(/*#!0.%!'#(#0,!/,N,!N#(*6.A-#/*4(!0,N*(#(-.!0.!2*0#!.(!
%#!L*.$$#>!C.$,!#D5!.A-h?!
:(#02.$-*0#N.(-.>! A*(! m3.! 0.! 3(! N,0,! /,(A/*.(-.! %#! I3N#(*0#0! D#F#! $.#%*X#0,!
#%'G(! .A63.$X,! C#$#! .%%,>! %#! 2*0#! .(! %#! L*.$$#! D#! N,0*6*/#0,! .%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! .(!
6,$N#!N3F!(,-#+%.?!@!-$#2dA!0.%!.6./-,!0.!%#!C$.A*4(!F!/,NC,A*/*4(!#-N,A6d$*/#!.(!.%!
/%*N#>!D#F!3(!N./#(*AN,!0.!$.-$,#%*N.(-#/*4(!.(!.%!m3.!.%!N*AN,!/%*N#>!C3.0.!.(!
#%'G(! '$#0,! A.$! /,(-$,%#0,! C,$! %#A! $.#//*,(.A! 0.! *(-.$/#N+*,! '#A.,A,! .(! %#A! m3.!
C#$-*/*C#(!%#A!6,$N#A!0.!2*0#!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!9(!#%'G(!N,0,!%#!2*0#!A,+$.!%#!L*.$$#!D#!
-.$$#6,$N#0,!%#!C$,C*#!L*.$$#?!9(!#%'3(#!N.0*0#!.A-,!D#!D./D,!#!%#!L*.$$#!-#%!F!/,N,!
.A?!
k9A! C,A*+%.! m3.>! .(! #%'G(! N,N.(-,! 0.%! 63-3$,>! C30*dA.N,A! %%.'#$! #! f-.$$#6,$N#$g!
,-$,A! C%#(.-#A>! /,(2.$-*$! #! K#$-.! ,! #! R.(3A>! D,F! D,A-*%.A! #%! D,N+$.>! .(! N.0*,!
#N+*.(-.!C$,C*/*,!F!D#+*-#+%.l!L#%!/#N+*,>!0.!A.$!C,A*+%.>!0.+*.$#!$.#%*X#$A.!-$#A!3(!
.B#N.(! /3*0#0,A,! F! $.AC,(A#+%.! 0.! %#A! /,(A./3.(/*#A?! E$*N.$,! -.(0$5#N,A! m3.!
.(-.(0.$! 0.%! -,0,! #%! #/-3#%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! 0.%! C%#(.-#! #(-.A! 0.! #%-.$#$%,?!
1.+.$5#N,A! '#$#(-*X#$! .A/$3C3%,A#N.(-.! m3.! (,! A.#(! 0.A-$,X#0,A! (*('3(#! /%#A.!
0.! ,$'#(*AN,A! *(05'.(#A! 0.%! C%#(.-#! N.0*#(-.! -#%! f-.$$#6,$N#/*4(g?! &*! K#$-.>! C,$!
.\.NC%,>!-*.(.!3(#!C,+%#/*4(!0.!,$'#(*AN,A!*(05'.(#A!m3.!A.!.B-*('3*$5#!N.0*#(-.!%#!
f-.$$#6,$N#/*4(g>! \#NhA! 0.+.$5#N,A! %%.2#$! #! /#+,! .A-#! G%-*N#?! E.$,! A*! .%! C%#(.-#!
/#$./.!0.!2*0#>!,!A*!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!A,+$.2*2.(!N.\,$!.(!/,(0*/*,(.A!C#$./*0#A!#!%#A!
(3.A-$#A>! C,0$5#! A.$! $#X,(#+%.>! .(! #%'G(! N,N.(-,! 0.%! 63-3$,>! /,(A*0.$#$! -#%!
#%-.$#/*4(!0.!3(!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!C%#(.-#$*,?!
1.+.(! A.$! N3F! /#$,A! (3.A-$,A! N,-*2,A! C#$#! .A-#>! 0*'#N,A>! $.6,$N#! C%#(.-#$*#?! <,!
.A!3(#!A,%3/*4(!#!3(!C$,+%.N#!0.!.B/.A,!0.!C,+%#/*4(?!9(!%#!L*.$$#!(#/.(!/#0#!05#!
2#$*,A!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!N*%.A!0.!C.$A,(#A?!J>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!(,!D#F!C.$AC./-*2#!#%'3(#!
.(!3(!*(N.0*#-,!63-3$,!0.!C,0.$!-$#A%#0#$!#!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!N*%.A!0.!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!#!
,-$,A! C%#(.-#A! /#0#! 05#?! 9(! -,0#! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0>! .%! D,N+$.! A4%,! D#!
C,0*0,!.(2*#$!#!,-$,!C%#(.-#!#!3(#!0,/.(#!0.!C.$A,(#A?!L#NC,/,!.A!N3F!C$,+#+%.!
m3.!%%.'3.!#!.B*A-*$!.(!3(!63-3$,!*(N.0*#-,!3(#!*(03A-$*#!N*(.$#!C#$#!.B-$#.$!N*(.$#%!
.(! ,-$,! C%#(.-#! F! -$#A%#0#$%,! %3.',! #! %#! L*.$$#M! .%! /,A-.! 0.%! -$#(AC,$-.! A.$5#!
C$,D*+*-*2,?! @3(! #A5>! .%! .AC5$*-3! D3N#(,! .A! .BC#(A*2,o! .(! .%! *(-.$*,$! 0.! N3/D,A! 0.!
(,A,-$,A! #%*.(-#! .%! 3$'.(-.! 0.A.,! 0.! /,%,(*X#$! (3.2,A! N.0*,A! #N+*.(-.A?! L#%.A!
#/-*2*0#0.A!C3.0.(!%%.2#$A.!#!/#+,!A*(!*NC.$*#%*AN,!/4AN*/,>!A*(!%#!#$$,'#(/*#!m3.!
/#$#/-.$*X4! #! %#! /,%,(*X#/*4(! .3$,C.#! 0.%! <3.2,! K3(0,>! ,! A*(! %#! %*m3*0#/*4(! 0.! %,A!
*(0*,A! m3.! .6./-3#$,(! %,A! +%#(/,A! C#$#! .A-#+%./.$A.! .(! .%! ;.A-.! #N.$*/#(,?! c#!
/,%,(*X#/*4(! *(-.$C%#(.-#$*#! C3.0.! A.$! /,NC#-*+%.! /,(! %#A! NhA! #%-#A! #AC*$#/*,(.A! F!
,+\.-*2,A!0.!%#!I3N#(*0#0?!
k"4N,!%,!D#$5#N,Al!9(!.%!/#A,!0.!R.(3A>!/,N,!D.N,A!2*A-,!.(!.%!/#C5-3%,!8`>!D#F!
3(#!#-N4A6.$#!#C%#A-#(-.>!/,NC3.A-#!C$*(/*C#%N.(-.!C,$!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,!F!3(#!
A3C.$6*/*.!/3F#!-.NC.$#-3$#!.A!/.$/#(#!#!%,A!b77!"?!92*0.(-.N.(-.>!$.C$.A.(-#$5#!
3(#!-#$.#!6,$N*0#+%.!/,(2.$-*$!.A-.!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!.(!,-$,!.(!.%!/3#%!%,A!D,N+$.A!
C30*.$#(! 2*2*$! F! -$#+#\#$! A*(! .(,$N.! #F30#! -./(,%4'*/#?! E.$,! .B*A-.! 3(#! A,%#!
C,A*+*%*0#0! 0.! f-.$$#6,$N#$g! ,! $.6,$N#$! R.(3A! C#$#! .m3*C#$#$%,! #! %#! L*.$$#>!
C,A*+*%*0#0! m3.! A3'.$5! /,(! /*.$-#A! $.A.$2#A! .(! 8T[8?! w%! Nd-,0,! A3C,(.! m3.! %#!
.%.2#0#!-.NC.$#-3$#!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!A.!C$,03/.!N.0*#(-.!3(!.6./-,!0.!*(2.$(#0.$,!
m3.! $.m3*.$.! #(D50$*0,! /#$+4(*/,! F! #'3#>! /,(\.-3$#! m3.! D,F! 05#! .A! N3/D,! NhA!
C%#3A*+%.! m3.! .(-,(/.A?! c#! *0.#! /,(A*A-.>! A*NC%.N.(-.>! .(! A.N+$#$! %#A! (3+.A! 0.!
R.(3A! /,(! 3(#! C,-.(-.! 2#$*.0#0! 0.! #%'#A! nA.! A3'*$*4! 3(! 'd(.$,! %%#N#0,!
<,A-,/#/#.n! m3.! $.#%*X#$5#! %#! 6,-,A5(-.A*A! .(! %#! C$,B*N*0#0! 0.! %#A! (3+.A?! 9%!
#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,!F!.%!#'3#!A.!/,(2.$-*$5#(!.(!/,NC3.A-,A!,$'h(*/,A>!.(!A3!N#F,$!
C#$-.!.(!D*0$,/#$+3$,A!F!,B5'.(,?!&*(!.N+#$',>!%#A!#%'#A!A.$5#(!-$#(AC,$-#0#A!C,$!%#!
/*$/3%#/*4(! #-N,A6d$*/#! #! (*2.%.A! NhA! +#\,A! F! NhA! /#%*.(-.A! .(! %#! #-N4A6.$#! 0.!
R.(3A! 0,(0.! A.! #+$#A#$5#(?! H(! #%'#>! #%! #+$#A#$A.>! %*+.$#! /,NC3.A-,A! 0.! /#$+,(,!
A*NC%.>! /#$+,(,! F! #'3#! #! %#! #-N4A6.$#?! 9%! /,(-.(*0,! 0.! #'3#! 0.! %#! #-N4A6.$#!
C.$N#(./.! 6*\,! F! .%! $.A3%-#0,! .2*0.(-.! .A! %#! /,(2.$A*4(! 0.%! #(D50$*0,! /#$+4(*/,! .(!
/#$+,(,!F!,B5'.(,?!
9%! #/-3#%! .6./-,! 0.! *(2.$(#0.$,! .(! R.(3A! A.! 0.+.! C$*(/*C#%N.(-.! .%! #(D50$*0,!
/#$+4(*/,! F! #%! #'3#?! c#! C$.A*4(! #/-3#%! A,+$.! R.(3A! .A! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! (,2.(-#!
2./.A! A3C.$*,$! #! %#! m3.! $.*(#! .(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! c#! #-N4A6.$#! 0.! R.(3A!
.A-h! /,NC3.A-#! C$*(/*C#%N.(-.! C,$! #(D50$*0,! /#$+4(*/,?! @%! /,(2.$-*$A.! .%! #(D50$*0,!
/#$+4(*/,! .(! /#$+,(,! F! ,B5'.(,>! F! #%! /,N+*(#$A.! .%! ,B5'.(,! m35N*/#N.(-.! /,(! %#!
/,$-.X#!0.!R.(3A>!A.!$.03/*$5#!%#!C$.A*4(!-,-#%>!0*AN*(3F.(0,!%#!#+A,$/*4(!*(6$#$$,\#!
#-N,A6d$*/#>!$.03/*d(0,A.!.%!.6./-,!0.!*(2.$(#0.$,!F!0.A/.(0*.(0,!%#!-.NC.$#-3$#?!
E,$! -#(-,>! .A! C,A*+%.! m3.! %#! *(F.//*4(! 0.! #%'#A! +*.(! 0.A#$$,%%#0#A!.(!%#A!(3+.A!0.!
R.(3A>!#%'#A!/#C#/.A!0.!$.C$,03/*$A.!#!N#F,$!2.%,/*0#0!m3.!A3!0.A-$3//*4(>!/,(!.%!
-*.NC,! /,(2.$-*$5#(! #%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! .B-$.N#0#N.(-.! D,A-*%! 0.! R.(3A! .(! ,-$,!
N3/D,!NhA!#'$#0#+%.!C#$#!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A?!
c#!/#(-*0#0!0.!2#C,$!0.!#'3#!m3.!D#F!.(!%#!#-N4A6.$#!0.!R.(3A>!A*!A.!/,(0.(A#$#!
A,+$.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.%! C%#(.-#>! C$,C,$/*,(#$5#! 3(#! /#C#! 0.! #'3#! 0.!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! aW! /N>! (,! 3(! ,/d#(,>! 0.A0.! %3.',>! C.$,! A5! A36*/*.(-.! C#$#! %#!
*$$*'#/*4(!F!C$,2..$!#!,-$#A!(./.A*0#0.A!D3N#(#A?!L#N+*d(!.A!C,A*+%.!m3.!.%!#'3#!
A.!/,(A*'#!.(-$.!%#A!$,/#A!0.%!C%#(.-#?!
<#0*.!C3.0.!/#%/3%#$!A*!dA-.!.A!.%!.A/.(#$*,!NhA!*04(.,!,!/3h(-,!-*.NC,!A.!-#$0#$5#!
.(! $.6,$N#$! #%! A.'3(0,! C%#(.-#! 0.%! &,%?! 9A! C.$6./-#N.(-.! C,A*+%.! m3.! D#F#! #%'G(!
6#%%,!,!C3(-,!0d+*%!.(!%#!*0.#?!E,$!.\.NC%,>!%#!#%-#!-.NC.$#-3$#!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!C3.0.!
m3.!(,!,+.0.X/#!#!3(!.6./-,!0.!*(2.$(#0.$,>!C.$,!/$.,!m3.!.A-,!.A!C,/,!C$,+#+%.?!
9(!-,0,!/#A,>!/$.,!m3.!f-.$$#6,$N#$g!#!R.(3A!(,!.A!.NC$.A#!*NC,A*+%.?!9%!.Am3.N#!
<,A-,/! .A! 3(! .\.NC%,! 0.! /4N,! %#! -./(,%,'5#! D3N#(#! F! %#! /*.(/*#! C3.0.(>! .(!
C.$5,0,A! 0.! -*.NC,! N3F! /,$-,A>! /,NC#$#0,A! /,(! .%! -*.NC,! '.,%4'*/,>! $.6,$N#$! F!
/#N+*#$!.%!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!0.!,-$,A!C%#(.-#A?!
9(! /3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$.! #! K#$-.>! F#! D.N,A! 2*A-,! .(! .%! /#C5-3%,! 8W! m3.! D,F! 05#! A.!
0*AC,(.!0.!C$3.+#A!0.!m3.!.(!dC,/#A!/,NC#$#-*2#N.(-.!$./*.(-.A!%#A!/,(0*/*,(.A!
.(!#m3.%!C%#(.-#!63.$,(!N3/D,!NhA!C#$./*0#A!#!%#A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!0.!%,!m3.!A,(!D,F?!
I.N,A! N.(/*,(#0,! %#! C$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.! m3.! .(! %,A! /#Am3.-.A! C,%#$.A! N#$/*#(,A!
.A-d(!.(/.$$#0#A!.(,$N.A!/#(-*0#0.A!0.!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,!F!#'3#?!Z$#(!C#$-.!0.!
0*/D,A! ";`! F! I`;! C3.0.(! C#A#$! 0.A0.! %,A! /#Am3.-.A! C,%#$.A! #! %#! #-N4A6.$#! 0,A!
2./.A! /#0#! /*/%,! C$./.A*,(#%! 0.! /*(/3.(-#! N*%! #Q,A?! c,A! 0,/-,$.A! P,A.CD! )3$(A! F!
K#$-*(!I#$r*->!0.!%#!",$(.%%!H(*2.$A*-F>!D#(!.B#N*(#0,!2#$*,A!.Am3.N#A!-./(,%4'*/,A!
C#$#! C$,2,/#$! /,(0*/*,(.A! NhA! 6#2,$#+%.A! .(! K#$-.! 0.(-$,! 0.! 3(,A! /.(-.(#$.A! 0.!
#Q,A! .(! %3'#$! 0.! C.(A#$! .(! N*%.(*,A?! 9A-,A! .Am3.N#A! *NC%*/#(! #%-.$#/*4(! 0.! %#A!
4$+*-#A! 0.! %,A! A#-d%*-.A! N#$/*#(,A! ,! 0.! 3(! /.$/#(,! #A-.$,*0.! C#$#! /#N+*#$! .%!
N,2*N*.(-,! C$./.A*,(#%! 0.%! C%#(.-#>! ,! %#! *(A-#%#/*4(! 0.! 3(! .(,$N.! .AC.\,! ,$+*-#%!
A,+$.!.%!/#Am3.-.!C,%#$!C#$#!63(0*$!.%!N#-.$*#%!#%%5!/,('.%#0,?!&*(!.N+#$',>!#G(!NhA!
6h/*%!A.$5#!2.$-.$!(.'$,!0.!/#$+,(,!A,+$.!%,A!/#Am3.-.A>!/#%.(-#$!%,A!C,%,A>!#3N.(-#$!
%#!C$.A*4(!#-N,A6d$*/#!F!/#%.(-#$!.%!C%#(.-#?!
=.C*-,! m3.! (,! A#+.N,A! A*! -#%.A! .Am3.N#A! 0#$h(! $.A3%-#0,>! C.$,! (,! C#$./.(! A.$!
.B-$.N#0#N.(-.!*$$#X,(#+%.A!,!*NC$#/-*/#+%.A?!E3.0.!A.$!m3.!0.(-$,!0.!/.(-.(#$.A!
0.! #Q,A! A.#N,A! /#C#/.A! 0.! /,(2.$-*$! #! K#$-.! .(! 3(! C%#(.-#! N3F! C#$./*0,! #! %#!
L*.$$#?!
c#! c3(#! F! %,A! #A-.$,*0.A! A,(! N3/D,! N.(,A! D,AC*-#%#$*,A! m3.! K#$-.! F! R.(3A?! &,(!
N3/D,! N.(,A! /#C#/.A! 0.! $.-.(.$! 3(#! #-N4A6.$#! F! (,! A.! %.A! C3.0.! #C%*/#$! %,A!
.Am3.N#A! 0.! $.6,$N#! m3.! D.N,A! A3'.$*0,?! E.$,! *(/%3A,! .(! N3(0,A! A*(! #*$.>! .%!
.A-#+%./*N*.(-,! 0.! /,%,(*#A! D3N#(#A! .(! A3A! A3C.$6*/*.A! ,! *(/%3A,! n.(! .%! /#A,! 0.!
C.m3.Q,A! #A-.$,*0.An! .(! A3! *(-.$*,$>! C#$./.! A.$! 3(! C,A*+%.! 63-3$,! C$,F./-,! C#$#! %#!
I3N#(*0#0?! L#%.A! /,%,(*#A! A.$5#(! N3/D,! NhA! $.03/*0#A! m3.! %#A! 0.! 3(! K#$-.! ,!
R.(3A>!$.6,$N#0,A>!F!(./.A*-#$5#(!N#F,$!#-.(/*4(!.(!/3#(-,!A.!$.6*.$.!#!%#!.A/#A.X!
0.!$./3$A,A?!
9A-#A! /,%,(*#A! A.$5#(! 0.6.(0*+%.A! A4%,! .(! .%! /#A,! 0.! m3.! A.! .(/,(-$#$#(! $./3$A,A!
(#-3$#%.A! (,-#+%.A>! .(! C#$-*/3%#$! #'3#! /,('.%#0#! ,! m35N*/#N.(-.! /,(6*(#0#?! 9(! .%!
/#A,!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!%#!c3(#>!%#A!N3.A-$#A!%,'$#0#A!C,$!%,A!#A-$,(#3-#A!0.%!@C,%,!
0.N,A-$#$,(! 3(#! /#$.(/*#! -,-#%! 0.! #'3#?! E.$,! .A! N3F! C,A*+%.! m3.! .B*A-#(! '$#(0.A!
#%N#/.(#N*.(-,A! 0.! #'3#! .(! $.'*,(.A! NhA! 6$5#A! F! 3N+$5#A>! /.$/#! 0.! %,A! C,%,A!
%3(#$.A>!,!#!'$#(0.A!C$,63(0*0#0.A!+#\,!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!%3(#$?!
L#NC,/,! .A! *NC$,+#+%.! m3.! 0.(-$,! 0.! #%'3(,A! A*'%,A! D#F#! '$#(0.A! /,%,(*#A!
D3N#(#A!.(!-,0#A!%#A!C#$-.A!*(-.$(#A!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$!F!.(!#%'3(,A!0.!%,A!N#F,$.A!
A#-d%*-.A!0.!%,A!C%#(.-#A!\,2*#(,A?!1.A0.!%3.',>!%#!C.$AC./-*2#!.A!0*65/*%o!%#A!-#$.#A!0.!
$.6,$N#! A,(! *(N.(A#A! F! %#! (./.A*0#0! 0.! $.AC.-#$! ./,%4'*/#N.(-.! ,-$,A! N.0*,A!
#N+*.(-.A! $.A3%-#! *NC.$#-*2#?! 9%! C.%*'$,! 0.! m3.! A.! C$,03X/#! 3(#! /,(-#N*(#/*4(!
+*,%4'*/#! .(! 0,A! 0*$.//*,(.A! .A! /,A#! m3.! -#N+*d(! D#+$5#! m3.! .B#N*(#$! /,(! A3N#!
.A/$3C3%,A*0#0?!
:(/%3A,! C3.0.! %%.'#$! .%! 05#! .(! .%! m3.! A.! (,A! C*0#(! /3.(-#A! C,$! D#+.$! #0N*(*A-$#0,!
#A5! .%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$?! 9(! /,(A./3.(/*#>! (3.A-$#! C$,C*#! dC,/#! 0.+.$5#! /,(A*0.$#$A.!
F#! /,N,! .%! N,N.(-,! .(! m3.! C$*N.$,! #+#(0,(#N,A! %#! /3(#! 0.! (3.A-$#! .AC./*.! F!
/,N.(X#N,A>!/#A*!#!-*.(-#A>!#!.BC%,$#$!F!-$#(A6,$N#$!.%!.AC#/*,!m3.!(,A!$,0.#?!
!
23. La exploracin y utilizacin del Sistema Solar
!

!
Una carabela espacial. Pintura de Jon Lomberg a partir de un dibujo de Brueghel
@!C$*(/*C*,A!0.%!A*'%,!zz>!%#A!0,A!,C*(*,(.A>!%#!/*.(-56*/#!F!%#!C$,6#(#>!A,A-.(5#(!m3.!
%,A!#2*,(.A!.$#(!/,A#!-,-#%N.(-.!*NC,A*+%.?!9%!6*(#%!0.%!A*'%,>!.%*N*(#0,!.%!6#(-#AN#!
0.!/#-hA-$,6.A!./,%4'*/#A!,!(3/%.#$.A>!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!2.$h!#!%,A!$3A,A!F!#N.$*/#(,A!
$.#%*X#$!.BC.0*/*,(.A!.AC#/*#%.A!#!,-$,A!C%#(.-#A?!
wA-.! .A! 3(! A*'%,! .(! .%! m3.! A.! D#(! D./D,! $.#%*0#0! #%'3(,A! 0.! %,A! NhA! #(-*'3,A!
A3.Q,A! 0.%! D,N+$.>! F! .(! .%! /3#%! %#! I3N#(*0#0! D#! /$.#0,! #%#A! F! $.#%*X#0,! %#A!
#AC*$#/*,(.A!0.!0#!R*(/*!F!1d0#%,?!@D,$#>!Nhm3*(#A!m3.!*(D#%#(!#*$.!F!-$#(AC,$-#(!
D,N+$.A! /*$/3N(#2.'#(! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#! .(! N.(,A! 0.! 3(! 05#o! ,-$#A! Nhm3*(#A>!
$,X#(0,! A,+$.! %#! #-N4A6.$#>! -$#(AC,$-#(! D,N+$.A! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! (3.A-$,! Z%,+,! .(!
(,2.(-#!N*(3-,A?!
I#F! 3(#! '.(.$#/*4(! 0.! D,N+$.A! F! N3\.$.A! C#$#! m3*.(.A>! .(! A3! \32.(-30>! %,A!
C%#(.-#A! .$#(! C3(-,A! 0.! %3X! A*-3#0,A! #! 0*A-#(/*#A! *(/,(/.+*+%.A>! F! %#! c3(#! .$#! .%!
C#$#0*'N#! 0.! %,! *(#%/#(X#+%.?! 9A,A! N*AN,A! D,N+$.A! F! N3\.$.A>! .(! %#! N*-#0! 0.%!
/#N*(,! 0.! A3! 2*0#>! /,N,! 0*\,! 1#(-.>! D#(! 2*A-,! #! A3A! /,('d(.$.A! /#N*(#$! A,+$.! %#!
A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! %#! c3(#o! .(! A3! 2.\.X>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! 2.$h(! D,N+$.A! 2#'#(0,! C,$! %#!
C,%2,$*.(-#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!K#$-.>!.6./-3#(0,!2*#\.A!*%3N*(#0,A!C,$!%#!.A-$,C.#0#!/#$#!
0.!p,+,A?!&4%,!D#F!3(#!'.(.$#/*4(!0.!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!.(!%,A!0*.X!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!
0.!D*A-,$*#!0.!%#!I3N#(*0#0!m3.!2*2*$h!-#%!-$#(A*/*4(?!9A#!'.(.$#/*4(!#G(!2*2.!D,F?!
L#N+*d(! dA-.! .A! .%! N,N.(-,! 0.! (3.A-$#! D*A-,$*#! /3#(0,>! C,$! C$*N.$#! 2.X>! A.! D#!
.BC%,$#0,!%#!-,-#%*0#0!0.!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#>!/3#(0,!.%!-$*+#%*AN,!.A-h!0.A#C#$./*.(0,>!
/3#(0,! A.! .A-h(! ,$'#(*X#(0,! '$#(0.A! #'$3C#/*,(.A! .A-#-#%.A! N3%-*(#/*,(#%.A>!
/3#(0,!%,A!#A,N+$,A,A!C$,'$.A,A!-./(,%4'*/,A!.(!%#A!/,N3(*/#/*,(.A!F!-$#(AC,$-.A!
.A-h(! .$,A*,(#(0,! %#A! 0*6.$.(/*#A! /3%-3$#%.A! .(-$.! %,A! 0*2.$A,A! A./-,$.A! 0.! %#!
I3N#(*0#0?! E.$,! %#! 0*2.$A*0#0! /3%-3$#%! .A! %#! 6,$\#! 0.! %#! A3C.$2*2.(/*#! 0.! (3.A-$#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(>! #A5! /,N,! %#! 0*2.$A*0#0! +*,%4'*/#! .A! .%! #3-d(-*/,! /$*A,%! C#$#! %#!
A3C.$2*2.(/*#!0.!%#!2*0#!N*AN#?!
c#!L*.$$#!.A-h!A3C.$C,+%#0#>!#3(m3.!-,0#25#!(,!.(!A.(-*0,!%*-.$#%M!(3.A-$#!-./(,%,'5#!
.A! %#! #0./3#0#! C#$#! N#(-.(.$! /4N,0#N.(-.! 3(#! C,+%#/*4(! N3/D,! N#F,$! m3.!
(3.A-$,A! #/-3#%.A! -$.A! N*%! N*%%,(.A! F! N.0*,! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.?! c#! L*.$$#! .A-h!
A3C.$C,+%#0#! .(! 3(! A.(-*0,! CA*/,%4'*/,?! E#$#! #m3.%%#! 6$#//*4(! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0>!
#N+*/*,A#! .! *(m3*.-#>! m3.! D#! A.Q#%#0,! (3.2,A! A.(0.$,A! C#$#! (3.A-$#! .AC./*.>! (,!
D#F!(3.2,A!%3'#$.A!#!0,(0.!*$?!I#F!%3'#$.A!0.(-$,!0.!(,A,-$,A!N*AN,A>!C.$,!dA-.!(,!
.A!.%!63.$-.!0.!-#%.A!*(0*2*03,A?!I#F!/3.(/#A!,/.h(*/#A>!C.$,!-,0#25#!(,!(,A!D.N,A!
0.0*/#0,! #! .BC%,$#$%#A! .(! A.$*,o! F! /3#(0,! %,! D#'#N,A>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! A.$h! C#$#!
.BC%,-#$%#A!/,(!'$#(!$#C*0.X?!
P3A-#N.(-.! .(! .A-#! dC,/#! 0.! (3.A-$#! D*A-,$*#! -.(.N,A! %#! C,A*+*%*0#0! 0.! .BC%,$#$! F!
/,%,(*X#$! (3.A-$,A! N3(0,A! 2./*(,A! 0.%! .AC#/*,?! <,A! D#! %%.'#0,! -#%! ,C,$-3(*0#0! (,!
0.N#A*#0,!C$,(-,?!
9%! 05#! 8`! 0.! ,/-3+$.! 0.! 8TT`! A.! /3NC%*$h(! m3*(*.(-,A! #Q,A! 0.%! 0.A/3+$*N*.(-,! 0.%!
f<3.2,! K3(0,g! C,$! "$*A-4+#%! ",%4(?! "$.,! m3.>! .(! -#%.A! N,N.(-,A>! %#! I3N#(*0#0!
.A-#$h!.NC.Q#0#!.(!3(#!.NC$.A#!N3F!C#$./*0#!#!%#!0.!",%4(?!L.(0$.N,A!N3/D#A!
2.(-#\#A!A,+$.!d%!F!A,+$.!%,A!N#$*(,A!0.!A3!dC,/#?!&#+.N,A!C.$6./-#N.(-.!#!04(0.!
2#N,A! F! /4N,! %%.'#$! #! (3.A-$,! C3(-,! 0.! 0.A-*(,?! 9%! /#N*(,! D#+$h! A*0,! .B#N*(#0,!
C,$! *((3N.$#+%.A! (#25,A! m3.! D#(! %%.'#0,! #%%5! N3/D,! #(-.A! m3.! (,A,-$,A?! c,A!
A.(0.$,A! .A-#$h(! /,$$./-#N.(-.! /#$-,'$#6*#0,A?! I#+$h! C.%*'$,A>! C,$! .\.NC%,>!
/,%*A*,(.A!/,(!#A-.$,*0.A!.(!%,A!2*#\.A!m3.!A.!D#'#(!#%!.B-.$*,$!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$>!,!
6#%%,A! 0.! -*C,! N./h(*/,?! E.$,! (,! D#+$h! -.N,$! #! 0.A%*X#$A.! C,$! .%! +,$0.! 0.%! K3(0,!
/,N,!-.N5#(!%,A!N#$*(,A!0.!%#!dC,/#!0.!",%4(?!J>!N3F!C$,+#+%.N.(-.>!(,!A.$h!3(!
&*A-.N#! &,%#$! .(! .%! m3.! D#F#! X,(#A! 0.! /#%N#A! ./3#-,$*#%.A! F! N,(A-$3,A! N#$*(,A?!
&*(! .N+#$',>! (,A! A.(-*$.N,A! *NC3%A#0,A! C,$! .%! N*AN,! .AC5$*-3! 0.! #2.(-3$#! m3.!
#(*N4!#!",%4(?!@A5!/,N,!.%!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,!F!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.%!<3.2,!K3(0,!.\.$/*4!
.6./-,A! *$$.2.$A*+%.A! F! C$,63(0,A! .(! %#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! .3$,C.#>! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! F!
/,%,(*X#/*4(! 0.%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! C$,2,/#$h! C.$N#(.(-.A! /#N+*,A! .(! %#! D*A-,$*#! F!
0.A#$$,%%,!0.!%#!I3N#(*0#0?!
9(!N*!,C*(*4(>!%#!#(#%,'5#!/,(!%,A!dC*/,A!2*#\.A!C,$!N#$!0.!D#/.!A*'%,A!.A!C.$6./-#?!
&.!0*,!.(-,(/.A!.%!/,(\3(-,!0.!2*#\.A!N#$5-*N,A!$.#%*X#0,A!C,$!",%4(>!3(!*-#%*#(,!]l_>!
#%!A.$2*/*,!0.!%#!",$-.!.AC#Q,%#?!<3.A-$,!*(*/*#%!/,(\3(-,!0.!.BC%,$#/*,(.A!0.%!@C,%,!
.(! %#! c3(#! 63.! *NC3%A#0,>! .(! '$#(! C#$-.>! C,$! 3(! '$3C,! 0.! *('.(*.$,A! #%.N#(.A!
.BC#-$*#0,A>!#!%#!/#+.X#!0.!%,A!/3#%.A!6*'3$#+#!t.$(D.$!2,(!)$#3(?!1.AC3dA!0.!%,A!
/3#-$,! 2*#\.A! 0.! ",%4(! D3+,! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! 2#/5,>! m3.! 03$4! 3(#! 0d/#0#! ,! #A5>! F!
0.AC3dA! A.! C$,03\,! 3(! 2.$0#0.$,! .A-#%%*0,! 0.! #/-*2*0#0.A! .BC%,$#-,$*#A! $.#%*X#0#A!
C,$! .AC#Q,%.A>! *('%.A.A>! 6$#(/.A.A! F! D,%#(0.A.A>! #! +,$0,! 0.! (#25,A! m3.!
.(#$+,%#+#(!C#+.%%,(.A!0*6.$.(-.A?!
9%!Apolo 17!A.Q#%4!.%!6*(!0.!%#A!N*A*,(.A!Apolo!#!%#!c3(#?!E#$./.!.2*0.(-.>!#%!N.(,A!
.(! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A>! m3.! A.! C$,03/*$h! 3(! 2#/5,! 0.! 3(#! 0d/#0#! ,! NhA! #(-.A! 0.!
m3.! A.! ,$'#(*/.(! (3.2#A! .BC%,$#/*,(.A! %3(#$.A! ,! A.! A*-G.(! +#A.A! .(! %#! c3(#?! c#!
C$*N.$#! ,$*.(-#/*4(! 0.%! @C,%,! (3(/#! 63.! /*.(-56*/#?! &.! /,(/*+*4! .(! 3(! N,N.(-,! 0.!
0*6*/3%-#0.A! C,%5-*/#A! C#$#! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A?! @%'3(,A! D*A-,$*#0,$.A! D#(! A3'.$*0,!
m3.! %,A! C$*(/*C#%.A! N,-*2,A! m3.! *NC3%A#$,(! #%! C$.A*0.(-.! u.((.0F! #! ,$'#(*X#$! .%!
C$,'$#N#! Apolo! 63.$,(! .%! 0.A2*#$! %#! #-.(/*4(! CG+%*/#! 0.! %#! 2.$',(X,A#! 0.$$,-#!
A36$*0#!.(!%#!)#D5#!0.!",/D*(,A!.(!.%!*(-.(-,!0.!*(2#A*4(!0.!"3+#?!9(!.%!C$,'$#N#!
Apolo! A.! *(2*$-*.$,(! 2#$*#A! 0./.(#A! 0.! N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! 04%#$.A?! &*! .%! ,+\.-*2,!
D3+*.$#! A*0,! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! /*.(-56*/#! 0.! %#! c3(#>! A.! C,05#! D#+.$! .6./-3#0,! NhA!
.6*/#XN.(-.>!'#A-#(0,!N3/D,!N.(,A!0*(.$,!F!.NC%.#(0,!2.D5/3%,A!(,!0*$*'*0,A!C,$!
.%!D,N+$.?!c#A!C$*N.$#A!N*A*,(.A!Apolo!63.$,(!#!%3'#$.A!0.!C,/,!*(-.$dA!/*.(-56*/,!
C,$m3.!%#!A.'3$*0#0!0.!%,A!#A-$,(#3-#A!.$#!%#!C$*N.$5A*N#!F!G(*/#!C$.,/3C#/*4(?!L#(!
A4%,! D#/*#! .%! 6*(#%! 0.! %#! A.$*.! Apolo! 0.A.NC.Q#$,(! 3(! C#C.%! A*'(*6*/#-*2,! %#A!
/,(A*0.$#/*,(.A!0.!/#$h/-.$!/*.(-56*/,?!
9%!C$,'$#N#!Apolo!-.$N*(4!/3#(0,!.%!C$*N.$!/*.(-56*/,!C*A4!%#!c3(#?!I#$$*A,(!fP#/qg!
&/DN*-->!'.4%,',>!6,$N#0,!.(!I#$2#$0>!63.!3(,!0.!%,A!0,A!D,N+$.A!m3.!-$*C3%#$,(!.%!
N403%,! %3(#$! 0.%! Apolo 17?! p3.! .%! C$*N.$! /*.(-56*/,! m3.! .A-30*4! %#! c3(#! 0.A0.! A3!
A3C.$6*/*.?! =.A3%-#! *$4(*/,! m3.>! /3#(0,! .%! C$,'$#N#! Apolo! D#+5#! %,'$#0,! .A-.!
*NC,$-#(-.! C$,'$.A,! .(! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! /*.(-56*/#! 0.! %#! c3(#>! A.! /#(/.%#$#?! E,$!
/,(A*'3*.(-.>!.%!C$*N.$!/*.(-56*/,!m3.!C*A4!%#!c3(#!63.!.%!G%-*N,!D,N+$.!.(!%%.'#$!#!%#!
c3(#>! #%! N.(,A! .(! 3(! C$.2*A*+%.! 63-3$,?! <,! D#F! C$,F./-,A! 0.! (*('3(#! /%#A.! ,!
N*A*,(.A! /,(! C$.A.(/*#! D3N#(#! C#$#! *$! 0.! (3.2,! #! %#! c3(#>! (*! C,$! C#$-.! 0.! %,A!
9A-#0,A!H(*0,A!(*!-#NC,/,>!m3.!(,A,-$,A!A.C#N,A>!C,$!C#$-.!0.!%#!H(*4(!&,2*d-*/#?!
c#A! $#X,(.A! C#$#! /#(/.%#$! .%! C$,'$#N#! Apolo! 63.$,(! 0.! ,$0.(! ./,(4N*/,?! &*(!
.N+#$',>! .%! *(/$.N.(-,! 0.%! /,A-.! 0.! 3(#! N*A*4(! 0#0#! A.! D#%%#+#! .(! %#A! N3/D#A!
0./.(#A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!04%#$.A!m3.!A3C,(5#>!#%',!C#$./*0,!#!3(#!N*%dA*N#!C#$-.!0.%!
/,A-,!-,-#%!0.%!C$,'$#N#!Apolo?!:'3#%!m3.!A*!F,>!.(!/,(-$#!0.!%#!,C*(*4(!0.!N*!.AC,A#>!
/,NC$#$#! 3(! f=,%%AO=,F/.g?! 9%%#! ,C*(#! m3.! 3(! fR,%qAr#'.(g! C3.0.! %%.2#$N.!
-#N+*d(! #! /3#%m3*.$! A*-*,>! C.$,! F,! -.(',! %#! *NC$.A*4(! 0.! m3.! 3(! f=,%%AO=,F/.g!
#C#$-#$5#!0.!N*!N.(-.!%#A!C$.,/3C#/*,(.A!0.!N*!-$#+#\,?!9(-,(/.A!'#A-,!-#(-,!0*(.$,!
.(! %#! /,NC$#! 0.%! f=,%%Ag! m3.! /3#(0,! %.! /,(03X/,! #%'G(! -*.NC,>! 0.A/3+$,! m3.! (,!
C3.0,! 3A#$%,! NhA! C,$m3.! (,! C3.0,! C.$N*-*$N.! .%! %3\,! 0.! %%.(#$! .%! 0.C4A*-,! 0.!
'#A,%*(#>!m3.!.A!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!%#!N*%dA*N#!C#$-.!0.%!/,A-.!0.!3(!f=,%%Ag?!
p3*!3(,!0.!%,A!/*.(-56*/,A!m3.!A.!,C3A*.$,(!#!3(#!-.NC$#(#!N*A*4(!@C,%,?!E.$,!3(#!
2.X! /,(-#N,A! /,(! %#! -./(,%,'5#! 0.%! @C,%,>! N.! /,(2.$-5! .(! 0./*0*0,! C#$-*0#$*,! 0.!
/,(-*(3#$%,?! "$.,! m3.! C,$! 0,A! 2./.A! A.! -,N4! 3(#! 0./*A*4(! .m3*2,/#0#M! %#! C$*N.$#!
2.X>!C,$!,C-#$!C,$!$.#%*X#$!%#A!C$*N.$#A!N*A*,(.A!#!%#!c3(#!/,(!C$.A.(/*#!D3N#(#!F>!
NhA!-#$0.>!C,$!#+#(0,(#$!-#%.A!N*A*,(.A?!1.AC3dA!0.%!Apolo 11>!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A!
A.!m3.0#$,(!A*(!(*('G(!C$,'$#N#!/,(!C$.A.(/*#!D3N#(#!,!A*(!.%%#>!C#$#!C$,A.'3*$!%#!
.BC%,$#/*4(!0.!%#!c3(#?!c#!H(*4(!&,2*d-*/#!D#!C.$6.//*,(#0,>!.(!A3A!A.$*.A!c3(#!0.!
(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A!A*(!C$.A.(/*#!D3N#(#>!3(#!/#C#/*0#0!C$,+#0#!C#$#!%#!.BC%,$#/*4(!
0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!%3(#$!/,(!$.'$.A,!#3-,Nh-*/,!0.!N3.A-$#A!#!%#!L*.$$#?!
9%! .\.NC%,! 0.! %#! C$*N.$#! .BC%,$#/*4(! 0.%! <3.2,! K3(0,! A3'*.$.! m3.! .%! 2#/5,! .(! j#!
%#+,$! 0.! *(2.A-*'#/*4(! .AC#/*#%! A.$h! A4%,! -.NC,$#%?! 9%! .(A#N+%#\.! 0.%! &,F3X! F!
&qF%#+>! %#A! .A-#/*,(.A! ,$+*-#%.A! 0.! %#! H(*4(! &,2*d-*/#! F! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A>!
$.C$.A.(-#(!3(!+3.(!#3'3$*,!0.!N*A*,(.A!C%#(.-#$*#A!.(!/,NG(?!
9%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! .A! N3/D,! NhA! 2#A-,! m3.! %#! L*.$$#>! C.$,! %#A! 2.%,/*0#0.A! 0.!
(3.A-$#A! (#2.A! .AC#/*#%.A! A,(>! C,$! A3C3.A-,>! N#F,$.A! m3.! %#A! 2.%,/*0#0.A! 0.! %#A!
/#$#+.%#A!0.!%,A!A*'%,A!zR!F!zR:?!9%!2*#\.!0.!3(#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%!0.A0.!%#!L*.$$#!#!%#!
c3(#! .A! NhA! $hC*0,! m3.! .%! 2*#\.! .(! '#%.4(! 0.A0.! 9AC#Q#! #! %#A! :A%#A! "#(#$*#A?! 9%!
2*#\.! 0.A0.! %#! L*.$$#! #! K#$-.! /,A-#$h! .%! N*AN,! -*.NC,! m3.! .%! 2*#\.! 0.! 3(! 2.%.$,!
0.A0.! :('%#-.$$#! #! <,$-.#Nd$*/#o! .%! 2*#\.! 0.A0.! %#! L*.$$#! #! %#A! %3(#A! 0.! PGC*-.$!
$.m3.$*$h! .%! N*AN,! -*.NC,! m3.! A.! *(2.$-5#! .(! .%! 2*#\.! 0.A0.! p$#(/*#! #! &*#N>! .(! .%!
A*'%,!zR:::?!@0.NhA>!%#!C#$-.!0.%!C$,03/-,!(#/*,(#%!+$3-,!0.!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A!,!%#!
H(*4(!&,2*d-*/#!m3.!A.!*(2*.$-#!.(!.%!NhA!/,A-,A,!C$,'$#N#!.AC#/*#%!/,(!C$.A.(/*#!
D3N#(#! .A! .B#/-#N.(-.! /,NC#$#+%.! #%! C$,03/-,! (#/*,(#%! +$3-,! '#A-#0,! C,$!
:('%#-.$$#! F! p$#(/*#! .(! %,A! A*'%,A! zR:! F! zR::! .(! A3A! #2.(-3$#A! .BC%,$#-,$*#A!
$.#%*X#0#A!/,(!+#$/,A!0.!2.%#?!i9(!-d$N*(,A!./,(4N*/,A!F!.(!-d$N*(,A!D3N#(,A>!F#!
D.N,A!.6./-3#0,!#(-.A!-#%.A!2*#\.Aj!
"$.,! m3.! 2.$.N,A! +#A.A! A.N*C.$N#(.(-.A! .(! %#! c3(#! C#$#! .%! #Q,! 8TW7>! NhA! ,!
N.(,A?!9(!C$*(/*C*,>!A.!%.A!C$,2..$h!/,(!N#-.$*#%!F!C.$A,(#%!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!C.$,!C,/,!
#! C,/,! *$h(! A3A-.(-h(0,A.! C,$! A5! N*AN#A>! 3-*%*X#(0,! $./3$A,A! %3(#$.A?! I#+$h! (*Q,A!
m3.!(#X/#(!.(!-#%.A!/,%,(*#A?!E.(A#$h(!.(!%#!L*.$$#!/,N,!.(!f%#!#(-*'3#!C#-$*#g>!3(!
N3(0,!C#A#0,!0.!N,0#!.(!N3/D,A!A.(-*0,A>!*(N,2*%*A-#>!N3/D,!N.(,A!%*+$.!m3.!%#A!
/,%,(*#A!%3(#$.A>!#!C.A#$!0.!%,A!$*',$.A!F!$.C$.A*,(.A!-./(,%4'*/,A!0.!%#!2*0#!.(!%#!
c3(#?!
9(!.%!/,NC#$#-*2#N.(-.!C$4B*N,!63-3$,>!A.!.BC%,$#$h!-,0,!.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$!N.0*#(-.!
2.D5/3%,A! #3-,Nh-*/,A! A*(! C$.A.(/*#! D3N#(#?! "$.,! m3.! C#$#! %#A! 0d/#0#A! 0.! %,A!
#Q,A! W7! 4! T7! 2.$.N,A! %#! C.(.-$#/*4(! 0.! A,(0#A! .(! %#A! #-N4A6.$#A! 0.! PGC*-.$! F!
&#-3$(,! F! L*-h(! ]%#! %3(#! NhA! '$#(0.! 0.! &#-3$(,_>! %3'#$.A! m3.! .A-h(>! /$.,! F,>! N3F!
%.\,A! 0.! A.$! %,A! NhA! 6#2,$#+%.A! .(! .%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! C#$#! %#! 2*0#! *(05'.(#?!
",(-.NC%#$.N,A! .%! C#A,! 0.! C.m3.Q#A! (#2.A! .AC#/*#%.A! m3.! #-.$$*X#$h(! .(! %,A!
'$#(0.A!A#-d%*-.A!0.!PGC*-.$!F!&#-3$(,>!(#2.A!m3.!D#$h(!2*#\.A!*(/%3A,!D#A-#!<.C-3(,!
F! E%3-4(>! F! 2.$.N,A! #A*N*AN,! 63.$-.A! (#2.A! m3.! A.! %#(X#$h(! D#/*#! .%! &,%>! 0.A0.!
0,(0.!-$#(AN*-*$h(!0#-,A!D#A-#!m3.!A.!D3(0#(!F!63(0#(!0.6*(*-*2#N.(-.!.(!.%!:(6*.$(,!
*(-.$*,$!0.!%#!.A-$.%%#!NhA!/.$/#(#?!
&*(!.N+#$',>!.%!C,A#$A.!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!.(!%,A!C%#(.-#A!NhA!/.$/#(,A!(,!A.$h!-#(!
6h/*%!/,N,!A.!D#+5#!C.(A#0,!#(-.A?!c#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.!R.(3A>!%.\,A!0.!A.$!3(!90d(>!.A!
.(! $.#%*0#0>! /,N,! F#! D.N,A! 2*A-,>! #%',! N3F! C#$./*0,! #%! :(6*.$(,?! <,! C,0.N,A!
*N#'*(#$! %#! .BC%,$#/*4(! 0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! R.(3A! .(! %#A! C$4B*N#A! 0d/#0#A?! R.(3A!
.A! 3(! C%#(.-#! /,(! -.$$*+%.A! -.NC.$#-3$#A>! '#A.A! (,/*2,A>! F! C$.A*,(.A! #-N,A6d$*/#A!
#C%#A-#(-.A?!&*(!.N+#$',>!%#A!(3+.A!0.!R.(3A!.A-h(!.(!3(!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!+.(*'(,o!
F!3(#!#%.'$.!A,(0#>!0*$*'*0#!C,$!.%!D,N+$.!n#%',!C#$./*0,!#!3(!'%,+,!0.%!A*'%,!z:z>!
.(!%#!m3.!%,A!#A-$,(#3-#A!-$#+#\.(!.(!N#('#A!0.!/#N*A#!F!/,(!NhA/#$#!0.!,B5'.(,n!
(,!0.\#!0.!-.(.$!A3!.(/#(-,!,!A3!*(-.$dA!/*.(-56*/,?!
K#$-.!.A!3(!C%#(.-#!N3F!.N,/*,(#(-.>!0.!.(,$N.!*(-.$dA!.(!%,A!/#NC,A!'.,%4'*/,>!
N.-.,$,%4'*/,!F!+*,%4'*/,?!&.$5#!N3F!0.A.#+%.!%%.2#$!#!/#+,!3(#!.BC.0*/*4(!#!K#$-.!
/,(! C$.A.(/*#! D3N#(#?! E.$,! .B*A-.(! 0,A! .(,$N.A! 0*6*/3%-#0.A?! E$*N.$#>! .%! /,A-.!
A.$5#! 6#+3%,A,?! 9%! /h%/3%,! NhA! #C$,B*N#0,! #! %#! 2.$0#0! A.$5#! .%! 0.! /*.(! N*%! ,!
0,A/*.(-,A! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! 04%#$.A?! <,! C3.0,! %%.'#$! #! /$..$! m3.! -#%! '#A-,! A.#!
(./.A#$*,!.(!%#A!C$4B*N#A!0d/#0#A>!/3#(0,!D#F!-#(-#!N*A.$*#!.(!%#!L*.$$#!m3.!C,0$5#!
C#%*#$A.!/,(!.A.!0*(.$,?!&*(!.N+#$',>!F!#!%#$',!C%#X,>!0*'#N,A!m3.!.(!%#A!C$*N.$#A!
0d/#0#A!0.%!A*'%,!zz:>!(,!/$.,!m3.!-#%!'#A-,!/,(A-*-3F#!3(#!0*6*/3%-#0!*(A3C.$#+%.>!.(!
.AC./*#%! C,$m3.! F#! A.! D#+$h(! C.$6.//*,(#0,! (3.2,A! A*A-.N#A! 0.! C$,C3%A*4(! F! 0.!
A3C.$2*2.(/*#!.(!.%!.AC#/*,?!
c#! A.'3(0#! 0*6*/3%-#0! .A! NhA! A3-*%?! :'3#%N.(-.! C3.0.! #C%*/#$A.! .A-#! 0*6*/3%-#0! #! %#!
,C.$#/*4(! 0.! $./,'.$! #3-,Nh-*/#N.(-.! N3.A-$#A! .(! K#$-.! F! D#/.$%#A! 2,%2.$! #! %#!
L*.$$#>! /,N,! %,! D#! D./D,! %#! H(*4(! &,2*d-*/#! .(! %#! c3(#?! J! dA-.! .A! .%! C.%*'$,! 0.! %#!
f/,(-#N*(#/*4(! 0.! $.'$.A,g?! E$./*A#N.(-.! #! /#3A#! 0.! m3.! K#$-.! -*.(.! 3(! N.0*,!
#N+*.(-.!0.!'$#(!*(-.$dA!+*,%4'*/,!C,-.(/*#%!.A!C,A*+%.!m3.!.(!K#$-.!D#F#!'d$N.(.A!
C#-4'.(,A>! ,$'#(*AN,A! m3.! A*! A.! -$#(AC,$-#(! #%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! -.$$.A-$.! C,0$5#(!
C$,2,/#$!.(,$N.A!0#Q,A!+*,%4'*/,A>!3(#!C%#'#!N#$/*#(#!C#$./*0#!#!%,!m3.!$.%#-#!I?!
Z?! t.%%A! .(! La guerra de los Mundos>! C.$,! #%! $.2dA?! wA-.! .A! 3(! C3(-,!
.B-$.N#0#N.(-.! '$#2.?! E,$! 3(#! C#$-.>! C,0.N,A! #%.'#$! m3.! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A!
N#$/*#(,A! (,! C3.0.(! C$,2,/#$! '$#2.A! C$,+%.N#A! #! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! -.$$.A-$.A>!
C,$m3.! (,! D#! D#+*0,! /,(-#/-,! +*,%4'*/,! 03$#(-.! /3#-$,! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! .(-$.!
#N+,A! ,$'#(*AN,A?! E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.>! -#N+*d(! C,0.N,A! #%.'#$! m3.! %,A! ,$'#(*AN,A!
-.$$.A-$.A! (,! D#(! 0.A#$$,%%#0,! 0.6.(A#A! /,(-$#! 3(,A! C,-.(/*#%.A! 'd$N.(.A!
C#-4'.(,A!N#$/*#(,A>!C$./*A#N.(-.!C,$!.A#!6#%-#!0.!/,(-#/-,!#(-.A!N.(/*,(#0#?!c#!
C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!-#%!*(6.//*4(!C3.0.!A.$!N3F!C.m3.Q#>!C.$,!.%!C.%*'$,>!A*!A.!C$,03\.$#>!
A.$5#!.(,$N.?!9A!C$./*A,!$./,$0#$!#m35!m3.!.%!.B-.$N*(*,!0.!%#A!C,+%#/*,(.A!(#-*2#A!
0.!&#(-,!1,N*(',!F!L#D*-5!A.!C$,03\,!.(!%,A!C$*N.$,A!-*.NC,A!0.!%#A!.BC%,$#/*,(.A!
N.0*#(-.!(#25,A!#!2.%#?!9(-$.!%,A!$.'#%,A!%%.2#0,A!C,$!",%4(!#%!<3.2,!K3(0,!.A-#+#!
%#!2*$3.%#?!
<,! A*$2.! 0.! (#0#! #%.'#$! m3.! %#A! N3.A-$#A! A.! C3.0.(! -$#.$! #! %#! L*.$$#! /,(! -,0#!
A.'3$*0#0!,!#!3(#!+#A.!A*-3#0#! .(!%#!c3(#>!F!#A5!(,!A.!/,$$.$5#!(*('G(!C.%*'$,?!c#!
+#A.! %3(#$! .A-#$h! .(2*#(0,! F! $./*+*.(0,! C#A#\.$,A! -.$$.A-$.A! F! %,! N*AN,! A3/.0.$h!
/,(! 3(#! '$#(! .A-#/*4(! ,$+*-#%! -.$$.A-$.?! c#! G(*/#! %.//*4(! /%#$#! m3.! ,+-32*N,A! .(!
(3.A-$#! .BC.$*.(/*#! 0.! #*A%#$! %#A! N3.A-$#A! %3(#$.A! -$#50#A! C,$! .%! @C,%,>! .A! m3.! %,A!
/,(-$,%#0,$.A!0.!%#!N*A*4(!(,!0.A.#(!#$$*.A'#$!.%!A.'3$,!N#%.A-#$!0.!3(!#A-$,(#3-#!
n(,!*NC,$-#!A3!N3.$-.n!/,(-$#!%#!$.N,-#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!3(#!.C*0.N*#!'%,+#%?!"3#(0,!
.%!Apolo 11>!C$*N.$#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%!m3.!#%3(*X4!/,(!dB*-,>!N#(.\#0#!C,$!.%!D,N+$.>!
$.'$.A4! #! %#! L*.$$#! n.$#! *04(.#! /,N,! (#2.! C#$#! .%! .AC#/*,>! C.$,! (,! C#$#! .%! N#$n>!
*(N.0*#-#N.(-.!A.!2*,%4!.%!C$,-,/,%,!0.!%#!C$,F./-#0#!/3#$.(-.(#?!&.!/,(A*0.$4!m3.!
.$#! N.\,$! #+$*$! %#! .A/,-*%%#! 0.%! Apolo 11! #%! #*$.! 0.%! ,/d#(,! E#/56*/,! F>! A.'G(! %,!
.(-.(0*N,A! (,A,-$,A>! .BC,(.$! %#! L*.$$#! #! 'd$N.(.A! C#-4'.(,A! %3(#$.A>! #(-.A! m3.!
C,(.$! .(! C.%*'$,! #! -$.A! N#$.#0,A! #A-$,(#3-#A?! L#(! C,/#! #-.(/*4(! A.! C$.A-4! #! %#!
/3#$.(-.(#! m3.! %#! '$G#! 0.%! C,$-##2*,(.A! m3.! D#+5#! 0.! #%X#$! #! +,$0,! %#! /hCA3%#!
/.$$#0#>!#!G%-*N#!D,$#>!,>!N.\,$>!.(!.%!G%-*N,!N*(3-,>!$.A3%-4!A.$!N3F!C,/,!A.'3$#?!9%!
dB*-,!0.%!Apolo 11!A.!.A/.(*6*/4!.(!.%!N#$!#+*.$-,?!
L#N+*d(!.B*A-.!.%!*$$*-#(-.!C.%*'$,!0.%!.A-#0,!%#-.(-.?!&*!.BC,(.N,A!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!
-.$$.A-$.A!#!%,A!'d$N.(.A!C#-4'.(,A!N#$/*#(,A>!k/3h(-,!0.+.N,A!.AC.$#$!#(-.A!0.!
m3.! C,0#N,A! /,(2.(/.$(,A! 0.! m3.! .(-.(0.N,A! C.$6./-#N.(-.! %#! $.%#/*4(! .(-$.!
#N+,A!,$'#(*AN,Al!E,$!.\.NC%,>!.%!C.$5,0,!%#-.(-.!0.!%#!%.C$#!.A!0.!3(#!0d/#0#!,!
#%',!NhA?!@!/#3A#!0.!.A-.!C.%*'$,!0.!/,(-#N*(#/*4(!f0.!$.'$.A,g>!/$.,!6*$N.N.(-.!
m3.! %,A! #-.$$*X#\.A! D3N#(,A! .(! K#$-.! 0.+.(! 0.N,$#$A.! D#A-#! C$*(/*C*,A! 0.%! A*'%,!
C$4B*N,>!-$#A!D#+.$A.!%%.2#0,!#!/#+,!-,0,!3(!/,(/*.(X30,!C$,'$#N#!0.!.B,+*,%,'5#!
F!.C*0.N*,%,'5#!-.$$.A-$.!A*(!C$.A.(/*#!D3N#(#?!
c%.',! #! .A-#! /,(/%3A*4(! 0.! N#%#! '#(#?! @! N5>! C.$A,(#%N.(-.>! N.! #'$#0#$5#! -,N#$!
C#$-.!.(!%#!C$*N.$#!.BC.0*/*4(!0.%!D,N+$.!#!K#$-.?!E.$,!C$*N.$,!A.!(./.A*-#!%%.2#$!#!
/#+,! 3(! 0.-#%%#0,! F! /3*0#0,A,! C$,'$#N#! 0.! .BC%,$#/*4(! +*,%4'*/#! .(! K#$-.>!
(#-3$#%N.(-.>! A*(! %#! C$.A.(/*#! 0.! %,A! D,N+$.A?! c#! C$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.! m3.! .B*A-#(!
'd$N.(.A!.A!A3N#N.(-.!C.m3.Q#>!C.$,!(,!C,0.N,A!C,(.$!.(!C.%*'$,!#!N*%!N*%%,(.A!
0.!2*0#A?!&*(!.N+#$',>!/$.,!m3.!%#!'.(-.!C*A#$h!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!N#$/*#(#!N3F!/.$/#!0.%!
/,N*.(X,!0.%!A*'%,!zz:?!
KhA!#%%h!0.!.A,>!D,F!05#!.A!C,A*+%.!/#%/3%#$!,>!NhA!+*.(>!*N#'*(#$!3(#!NhA!#NC%*#!
.BC%,$#/*4(!F!/,%,(*X#/*4(?!c#A!'$#(0.A!%3(#A!0.!PGC*-.$>!F!L*-h(>!%#!%3(#!NhA!'$#(0.!
0.!&#-3$(,>!A,(!N3(0,A!C$*(/*C#%.A!C,$!0.$./D,!C$,C*,?!&.!A#+.!m3.!L*-h(!-*.(.!3(#!
#-N4A6.$#! N3/D,! NhA! 0.(A#! m3.! %#! 0.! K#$-.?! 9A-#A! /*(/,! %3(#A! N3.A-$#(! .(! A3A!
A3C.$6*/*.A! '$#(0.A! /#(-*0#0.A! 0.! D*.%,?! E#$#! D#/.$! .A-,A! N3(0,A! NhA! D#+*-#+%.A>!
A.! C,0$h(! D,$#0#$! A3A! D*.%,A! C#$#! /,N+3A-*+%.>! C#$#! %#! C$,03//*4(! 0.! #%*N.(-,A! F!
C#$#! %#! '.(.$#/*4(! 0.! #-N4A6.$#A?! &.! D#(! A3'.$*0,! .Am3.N#A! C#$./*0,A! C#$#!
$.6,$N#$!K#$-.!F!R.(3A>!F!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!A.!C.$6.//*,(#$h(!F!%%.2#$h(!#!%#!C$h/-*/#!
]2d#A.! .%! /#C5-3%,! ``_?! 9(! %,A! 0,A! C$4B*N,A! A*'%,A! A3$'*$h(! C,A*+*%*0#0.A! #G(! NhA!
.B4-*/#A>! m3.! A*(! 030#! #%'3(#! .A-#$h(! #%! #%/#(/.! 0.! %#! /#C#/*0#0! D3N#(#?! 9(-$.!
-#%.A!C,A*+*%*0#0.A!6*'3$#(!%#A!0.!.A-#+%./.$!+#A.A!.(!%,A!#A-.$,*0.A!F!.(!/,N.-#A?!
@%! /#+,! 0.! ,-$,! A*'%,! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.>! A.! D#+$h(! 0.A#$$,%%#0,! (3.2#A! 6,$N#A! ,!
Nd-,0,A!0.!C$,C3%A*4(!0.(-$,!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$?!H(,!0.!%,A!NhA!#-$#/-*2,A!.A!.%!0.!
%#!(#2.'#/*4(!A,%#$!#!2.%#>!.%!3A,!0.!%,A!C$,-,(.A!F!.%./-$,(.A!0.%!2*.(-,!A,%#$!C#$#!
2*#\#$!C,$!.%!&*A-.N#?!&.!(./.A*-#$h(!2.%#A!.(,$N.A!C#$#!-#%!.NC$.A#>!C.$,!C3.0.(!
A.$!A3N#N.(-.!6*(#A?!E,0.N,A!*N#'*(#$!3(#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%!$,0.#0#!C,$!0./.(#A!0.!
N*%.A!0.!6*(#A!2.%#A!0,$#0#A>!0.%*/#0#!F!.Bm3*A*-#N.(-.!*X#0#A!C#$#!$./,'.$!.%!2*.(-,!
A,%#$?!H(#A!$.N,-#A!.A-#/*,(.A!/*.(-56*/#A!2*'*%#$h(!%#A!$h6#'#A!,!$#/D#A!C$,03/*0#A!
C,$!%#A!%%#N#A!A,%#$.A?!@%.\#$A.!0.%!&,%!A.$h!/,A#!6h/*%>!C.$,!#/.$/#$A.!#!d%!$.A3%-#$h!
NhA!0*65/*%?!
L#N+*d(!.(!.%!C$4B*N,!A*'%,!A.!6#+$*/#$h(!(#2.A!m3.!.NC%..(!63.$X#!.%d/-$*/#!A,%#$!
F!63A*4(!(3/%.#$?!
1.(-$,! 0.! 0,A! ,! -$.A! A*'%,A! NhA>! F! A3C,(*.(0,! m3.! *(/%3A,! (3.A-$#! /#C#/*0#0!
-./(,%4'*/#!(,!D#F#!C$,'$.A#0,!N3/D,>!*N#'*(,!m3.!-,0,!.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$!F#!D#+$h!
A*0,! .BC%,$#0,! C,$! /,NC%.-,>! #%! N.(,A! .(! %#! N*AN#! N.0*0#! .(! m3.! D#! A*0,!
.BC%,$#0#! %#! L*.$$#! D#A-#! #D,$#?! KhA! -#$0.>! (,! D#F! 030#! 0.! m3.! A.! *(*/*#$h! 3(#!
$.6,$N#! 0.! (3.A-$,! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! NhA! A#%30#+%.>! C$*N.$,! %.(-#N.(-.! F! 0.AC3dA! #!
N#F,$!2.%,/*0#0>!C$,F./-,A!0.!$.6,$N#!/,(!,+\.-,!0.!N,2.$!%,A!C%#(.-#A!F!0*AC,(.$!
A3A! N#A#A! #! /,(2.(*.(/*#! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0>! 0.! A3A! 0.A/.(0*.(-.A! F! 0.! A3A!
*(2.(/*,(.A?!
E,$! .(-,(/.A! nC$,+#+%.N.(-.! #(-.An>! C,0.N,A! D#+.$! .(-$#0,! F#! .(! /,(-#/-,! /,(!
,-$#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! #2#(X#0#A! .(! %#! Z#%#B*#?! ;! m3*Xh! (,?! 9(! -,0,! /#A,>! 0.(-$,! 0.!
3(,A!/3#(-,A!A*'%,A!.A-#$.N,A>!C$.C#$#0,A!C#$#!0#$!.%!A*'3*.(-.!C#A,?!
9%!Pioneer 10!.A!%#!C$*N.$#!A,(0#!*(-.$.A-.%#$!%#(X#0#!C,$!%#!I3N#(*0#0?!L#N+*d(!
63.!%#!A,(0#!NhA!$hC*0#!%#(X#0#!D#A-#!%#!6./D#!0.!A3!C#$-*0#?!E.$,!-,0#25#!-#$0#$h!
,/D.(-#! N*%! #Q,A! .(! %%.'#$! #! %#! .A-$.%%#! NhA! /.$/#(#?! ",N,! .%! .AC#/*,! .A-h! -#(!
2#/5,>! \#NhA! .(-$#$h! .(! ,-$,! &*A-.N#! &,%#$?! 9%! C.m3.Q,! N.(A#\.! 0,$#0,! m3.! 2#! #!
+,$0,!0.%!Pioneer 10!A.$h!%.50,>!C.$,!-#(!A4%,!A*!D#F!2*#\.$,A!*(-.$.A-.%#$.A!/#C#/.A!
0.!0.-./-#$!.!*(-.$/.C-#$!#%!Pioneer 10?!
"$.,!m3.!C3.0.!A3/.0.$!.A-,>!C.$,!$.#%*X#0,!C,$!2*#\.$,A!*(-.$.A-.%#$.A!0.%!C%#(.-#!
L*.$$#!m3.!0.-.(0$h(!F!.B#N*(#$h(!.A-.!2*.\,!#$-*%3'*,!.AC#/*#%>!/,N,!A*!%#!/#$#+.%#!
La Nia>! /,(! A3! -$*C3%#/*4(! /,N.(-#(0,! %#A! C,A*+*%*0#0.A! 0.! /#.$! C,$! .%! +,$0.! 0.%!
N3(0,>!63.A.!*(-.$/.C-#0#!.(!%#A!*A%#A!@X,$.A!C,$!.%!C,$-##2*,(.A!John F. Kennedy?!
!
 !
Figura humana y campo estelar. Un dibujo de Robert Mcintyre.
Tercera parte: Mas all del sistema solar
!
!
Danzar bajo el diamantino cielo
con una mano libre, saludando...
Bob Dylan
Mr. Tambourine Man
!
24. Algunos de mis mejores amigos son delfines
!

!
Tres delfines conversando con el autor. Fotografa del autor.

!
c#! C$*N.$#! /,(6.$.(/*#! /*.(-56*/#! A,+$.! .%! -.N#! 0.! %#A! /,N3(*/#/*,(.A! /,(!
*(-.%*'.(/*#A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! 63.! 3(! C.m3.Q,! #/,(-./*N*.(-,! #C#0$*(#0,! C,$! %#!
@/#0.N*#! <#/*,(#%! 0.! "*.(/*#A! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A>! .(! Z$..(! )#(q>! t.A-!
R*$'*(*#?!&.!/.%.+$4!.(!8T[8>!3(!#Q,!0.AC3dA!0.%!E$,F./-,!;XN#>!.%!C$*N.$!*(-.(-,!
]6#%%*0,_! 0.! .A/3/D#$! C,A*+%.A! A.Q#%.A! 0.! $#0*,! C$,/.0.(-.A! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! .(!
C%#(.-#A! 0.! ,-$#A! .A-$.%%#A?! @! /,(-*(3#/*4(! A.! /.%.+$#$,(! ,-$#A! 0,A! $.3(*,(.A!
C#$./*0#A! .(! %#! H(*4(! &,2*d-*/#>! C#-$,/*(#0#A! C,$! %#! @/#0.N*#! 0.! "*.(/*#A!
&,2*d-*/#?! KhA! -#$0.>! .(! A.C-*.N+$.! 0.! 8TU8>! A.! /.%.+$4! 3(#! /,(6.$.(/*#! /,(\3(-#!
$3A,O#N.$*/#(#! A,+$.! %#! /,N3(*/#/*4(! /,(! *(-.%*'.(/*#A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A>! .(!
)F3$#q#(>! @$N.(*#! &,2*d-*/#! ]2d#A.! /#C5-3%,! `U_?! c#! C,A*+*%*0#0! 0.! 3(#!
/,N3(*/#/*4(!/,(!*(-.%*'.(/*#A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A>!#%!N.(,A!#D,$#>!.A!A.N*$$.AC.-#+%.>!
C.$,!.(!8T[8!A.!C$./*A#+#!-.(.$!N3/D,!2#%,$!C#$#!,$'#(*X#$!A.N.\#(-.!$.3(*4(?!I#F!
m3.! /,(/.0.$! Nd$*-,! F! D,(,$.A! #%! 0,/-,$! ;--,! &-$32.>! 0*$./-,$! 0.%! <#-*,(#%! =#0*,!
@A-$,(,NF!;+A.$2#-,$F>!m3.!63.!m3*.(!,$'#(*X4!%#!$.3(*4(!0.!Z$..(!)#(q?!
9(-$.! %,A! *(2*-#0,A! #! %#! $.3(*4(! 6*'3$#+#(! .%! 0,/-,$! P,D(! c*%%F>! m3.! .(-,(/.A!
C.$-.(./5#!#%!:(A-*-3-,!0.!:(2.A-*'#/*4(!0.!",N3(*/#/*,(.A>!0.!",$#%!Z#+%.A>!p%,$*0#?!
c*%%F! A.! D#%%#+#! #%%5! #! /#3A#! 0.! A3! -$#+#\,! $.%#/*,(#0,! /,(! %#! *(-.%*'.(/*#! 0.! %,A!
0.%6*(.A!F>!.(!C#$-*/3%#$>!/,(!A3A!.A63.$X,A!C,$!/,N3(*/#$A.!/,(!.%%,A?!
9B*A-5#!%#!*NC$.A*4(!0.!m3.!.A-.!.A63.$X,!C,$!/,N3(*/#$A.!/,(!%,A!0.%6*(.A!n.%!0.%65(>!
C$,+#+%.N.(-.>! .A! ,-$#! 0.! %#A! .AC./*.A! *(-.%*'.(-.A! 0.! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#n! .$#!
/,NC#$#+%.>! .(! #%'3(#! N.0*0#>! #! %#! -#$.#! /,(! m3.! (,A! .(6$.(-#N,A! -$#-#(0,! 0.!
C,(.$(,A! .(! /,N3(*/#/*4(! /,(! .AC./*.A! *(-.%*'.(-.A! 0.! ,-$,! C%#(.-#! N.0*#(-.! 3(#!
/,N3(*/#/*4(!0.!$#0*,!*(-.$.A-.%#$?!"$.,!m3.!A.$h!N3/D,!NhA!6h/*%!/,NC$.(0.$!%,A!
N.(A#\.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A>! A*! #%'3(#! 2.X! %,A! /#C-#N,A>! m3.! %%.'#$! #! /,NC$.(0.$! %,A!
N.(A#\.A! 0.! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! ]2d#A.! /#C5-3%,! 8T_>! A*! .A! m3.! .(! $.#%*0#0! -#%.A! N.(A#\.A!
.B*A-.(?!
c#!A3C3.A-#!$.%#/*4(!.(-$.!%,A!0.%6*(.A!F!.%!.AC#/*,!%#!0$#N#-*/d!F,!NhA!-#$0.!.(!%#!
%#'3(#! m3.! D#F! .(! .%! .B-.$*,$! 0.%! R.$-*/#%! @AA.N+%F! )3*%0*('>! .(! "#+,! u.((.0F>!
/3#(0,! .AC.$#+#! .%! %#(X#N*.(-,! 0.%! Apolo 17?! H(! 0.%65(! (#0#+#! C#/56*/#N.(-.! 0.!
#/h! C#$#! #%%h>! F! 0.! 2.X! .(! /3#(0,! A#%-#+#! 63.$#! 0.%! #'3#>! .B#N*(#(0,! /,(!
/3$*,A*0#0!.%!*%3N*(#0,!F!.(,$N.!C$,F./-*%!&#-3$(,!C$.C#$#0,!C#$#!A3!%#(X#N*.(-,!#%!
.AC#/*,?!ks3*Xh!,+A.$2h(0,(,A!#!-,0,Al!
K3/D,A!0.!%,A!C#$-*/*C#(-.A!.(!%#!$.3(*4(!0.!Z$..(!)#(q!A.!/,(,/5#(!N3-3#N.(-.?!
E.$,!c*%%F!.$#>!C#$#!-,0,A!(,A,-$,A>!3(#!(3.2#!.(-*0#0?!&3A!0.%6*(.A!.$#(!6#A/*(#(-.A!
F! $.A3%-#+#! N3F! #-$#/-*2#>! C,$! A3C3.A-,>! A3! C,A*+%.! /,N3(*/#/*4(! /,(! .%%,A?! ]c#!
$.3(*4(! %%.'4! #! A.$! N.N,$#+%.! #! /#3A#! 0.! m3.! 03$#(-.>! A3! /.%.+$#/*4(! A.! #(3(/*4!
0.A0.!9A-,/,%N,!m3.!#!3(,!0.!%,A!C#$-*/*C#(-.A>!K.%2*(!"#%2*(>!%.!D#+5#(!/,(/.0*0,!
.%!C$.N*,!<,+.%!0.!s35N*/#?_>!
E,$! N3/D#A! $#X,(.A>! 0.A.h+#N,A! /,(N.N,$#$! %#! $.3(*4(! F! N#(-.(.$! /*.$-#! %*+$.!
/,D.$.(/*#!/,N,!'$3C,?!&*(-*d(0,(,A!.(,$N.N.(-.!*(-.$.A#0,A!C,$!%,A!$.%#-,A!m3.!
(,A! D#/5#! c*%%F! A,+$.! %,A! 0.%6*(.A>! (,A! +#3-*X#N,A! #! (,A,-$,A! N*AN,A! /,N,! La
Orden de los Delfines?! "#%2*(! -.(5#! 3(! #%6*%.$! 0.! /,$+#-#! /,N,! .N+%.N#! 0.! %#!
A,/*.0#0! $./*.(-.N.(-.! 63(0#0#?! 9$#! 3(#! $.C$,03//*4(! 0.! 3(#! N,(.0#! m3.! .B*A-.!
.(!.%!N3A.,!0.!),A-,(>!3(#!#(-*'3#!N,(.0#!'$*.'#!.(!%#!m3.!#C#$./.!3(!N3/D#/D,!
A,+$.! 3(! 0.%65(?! &.$25! /,N,! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! /,,$0*(#0,$! 0.! /,$$.AC,(0.(/*#! %#A!
C,/#A! 2./.A! m3.! A.! /.%.+$4! #%'3(#! $.3(*4(! ,! #/,(-./*N*.(-,! Delfn>! A,+$.! -,0,!
03$#(-.! %#! .%.//*4(! 0.! (3.2,A! N*.N+$,A?! @%! #Q,! A*'3*.(-.>! .%.'*N,A! 3(,A! /3#(-,AM!
.(-$.! .%%,A>! #! :?! &?! &Dq%,2Aq**>! p$.NN#(! 1FA,(>! F! P?! )?! &?! I#%0#(.?! 9A-.! G%-*N,! N.!
.A/$*+*4! 0*/*d(0,N.! m3.! 3(#! A,/*.0#0! m3.! /#$./5#! 0.! ,+%*'#/*,(.A>! $.3(*,(.A>!
C.$*40*/,A>!,!$.AC,(A#+*%*0#0.A!.$#>!C$./*A#N.(-.>!%#!A,/*.0#0!m3.!NhA!#C$./*#+#o!
C$,N.-*4!C,(.$A.!#!%#!#%-3$#!0.!%,A!#/,(-./*N*.(-,A?!
)*.(>!%#!Orden de los Delfines!.A>!.(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0>!3(#!A,/*.0#0!N,$*+3(0#?!I#!
A*0,! $.NC%#X#0#! C,$! /*.$-,! (GN.$,! 0.! #/-*2*0#0.A! #! .A/#%#! *(-.$(#/*,(#%?! &*(!
.N+#$',>! C#$#! N5>! %#! Orden de los Delfines! -32,! 3(! A*'(*6*/#0,! .AC./*#%M! N.!
C$,C,$/*,(4! %#! ,/#A*4(! 0.! $.3(*$N.! F! /D#$%#$! /,(! %,A! 0.%6*(.A>! .! *(/%3A,>! .(! /*.$-#!
N.0*0#>!D#/.$!#N*A-#0!/,(!.%%,A?!
9(-,(/.A>!F,!-.(5#!%#!/,A-3N+$.!0.!C#A#$!3(#!A.N#(#!,!0,A!03$#(-.!.%!*(2*.$(,!.(!
.%!"#$*+.>!+3/.#(0,!/,(!.m3*C,!0.!,B5'.(,!F!A*(!d%>!.B#N*(#(0,!#!%,A!D#+*-#(-.A>!(,!
N#N56.$,A>!0.!#m3.%%#A!#'3#A?!@!/#3A#!0.!N*A!/,(,/*N*.(-,A!F>!NhA!-#$0.>!#N*A-#0!
/,(!P,D(!c*%%F>!-#N+*d(!C30.!C#A#$!#%'3(,A!05#A!/,(!A3A!0.%6*(.A>!.(!",$#%!Z#+%.A!F!
.(!A3!.A-#/*4(!0.!*(2.A-*'#/*,(.A!0.!&-?!LD,N#A!.(!%#A!:A%#A!R5$'.(.A?!
&3!*(A-*-3-,>!#D,$#!0.A#C#$./*0,>!$.#%*X4>!A*(!030#!#%'3(#>!3(#!+3.(#!%#+,$!A,+$.!%,A!
0.%6*(.A>! *(/%3F.(0,! %#! $.#%*X#/*4(! 0.! 3(! *NC,$-#(-.! #-%#A! 0.%! /.$.+$,! 0.%! 0.%65(?!
@3(m3.! #m35! .BC$.A.! /*.$-#A! /$5-*/#A! A,+$.! #%'3(,A! #AC./-,A! /*.(-56*/,A! 0.%! -$#+#\,!
0.!c*%%F>!A*(!.N+#$',>!0.A.,!.BC$.A#$!N*!#0N*$#/*4(!D#/*#!/3#%m3*.$!*(-.(-,!A.$*,!0.!
.A-30*#$! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! F! .(! C#$-*/3%#$! D#/*#! %,A! C*,(.$,A! .A63.$X,A! 0.! c*%%F! .(! .A-.!
-.$$.(,?! 1.A0.! .(-,(/.A>! c*%%F! A.! 0.0*/4! #! ,-$#! -#$.#M! %#! 0.! *(2.A-*'#$! %#! N.(-.!
D3N#(#! 0.A0.! A3! *(-.$*,$>! 0.A#$$,%%,! 0.! %#! /,(A/*.(/*#>! C$,03/*0#! C,$! N.0*,A!
6#$N#/,%4'*/,A!F!(,!6#$N#/,%4'*/,A?!
",(,/5! C,$! 2.X! C$*N.$#! #! Elvar! .(! .%! *(2*.$(,! 0.! 8T[V?! c#! *(2.A-*'#/*4(! A,+$.! %,A!
0.%6*(.A! A.! D#+5#! %*N*-#0,! N3/D,! #! /#3A#! 0.! %#! A.(A*+%.! C*.%! 0.! .A-,A! N#N56.$,Ao!
A4%,!.%!0.A#$$,%%,!0.!-#(m3.A!0.!C,%5N.$,A!C%hA-*/,A!C.$N*-*4!3(#!$.A*0.(/*#!#!%#$',!
C%#X,!0.!%,A!0.%6*(.A!.(!%#+,$#-,$*,?!K.!A,$C$.(0*4!N3/D,!/,NC$,+#$!m3.!.%!:(A-*-3-,!
0.! :(2.A-*'#/*4(! 0.! ",N3(*/#/*4(! A.! D#%%#+#! *(A-#%#0,! .(! %,! m3.! D#+5#! A*0,!
#(-.$*,$N.(-.! 3(! )#(/,>! F! #A5>! /#A*! %%.',! #! *N#'*(#$! 3(! -#(m3.! 0.! C,%*.A-*$.(,! .(!
/#0#! 2.(-#(*%%#! 0.! /#\.$,! /,(! 0.%6*(.A! /,(-#(0,! 0*(.$,?! @(-.A! 0.! C$.A.(-#$N.! #!
Elvar>! c*%%F! *(A*A-*4! .(! m3.! N.! C3A*.$#! 3(! *NC.$N.#+%.! 0.! C%hA-*/,>! #! C.A#$! 0.! N*A!
C$,-.A-#A!0.!m3.!(,!%,!/,(A*0.$#+#!(./.A#$*,?!9(-$#N,A!.(!3(#!.A-#(/*#!0.!$.'3%#$!
-#N#Q,?!9(!3(!$*(/4(!D#+5#!3(!'$#(!-#(m3.!0.!C%hA-*/,?!:(N.0*#-#N.(-.>!2*!#!Elvar!
/,(! %#! /#+.X#! 63.$#! 0.%! #'3#?! <#04! 0.AC#/*,! D#A-#! .%! /,A-#0,! NhA! C$4B*N,! 0.%!
-#(m3.>!F!P,D(>!/,N,!C.$6./-,!#(6*-$*4(>!0*\,M!
Carl, ste es 9%2#$; 9%2#$, ste es Carl.
Elvar! %#(X4! %#! /#+.X#! D#0#! 0.%#(-.! F>! 3(! A.'3(0,! #(-.A! 0.! A3N.$'*$A.>! %#(X4! 3(!
/D,$$,!0.!#'3#!A,+$.!3(#!0.!N*A!A*.(.A?!1.AC3dA!0.!-,0,>!.$#!/*.$-,!m3.!(./.A*-#+#!
3(!*NC.$N.#+%.?!P,D(!0*\,M!
Bien, ya veo que comenzis a entablar amistad.
J>!#/-,!A.'3*0,>!A.!$.-*$4?!
J,!*'(,$#+#!-,-#%N.(-.!%#A!#//*,(.A!$./5C$,/#A!A,/*#%.A!0.%65(OA.$!D3N#(,o!#A5!m3.!
N.!#C$,B*Nd!#%!-#(m3.!/,(!-,0#!%#!/#%N#!.!*(0*6.$.(/*#!m3.!C30.!#0,C-#$!F!N3$N3$d!
#%',!#A5!/,N,M!
fiI,%#>!Elvarjg!
:(N.0*#-#N.(-.>! Elvar! '*$4! A,+$.! A5! N*AN,! F! A.! C3A,! +,/#! #$$*+#>! 0.\#(0,! #%!
0.A/3+*.$-,! A3! 2*.(-$.! 0.! /,%,$! '$*Ah/.,?! 9$#! /,N,! 3(! C.$$,! m3.! 0.A.#$#! m3.! %.!
$#A/#$#(!#N,$,A#N.(-.?!@A5!%,!D*/.?!c.!'3A-4>!,!#%!N.(,A>!#A5!%,!/$.5?!
c,A! 0.%6*(.A>! /,(! A3! (#$*X! C#$./*0#! #%! /3.%%,! 0.! 3(#! +,-.%%#>! C#$./.(! N,A-$#$!
.-.$(#N.(-.!3(#!.A-.$.,-*C#0#!A,($*A#!/,N,!%,A!'.$.(-.A!0.!D,-.%?!
@%! /#+,! 0.! 3(! $#-,>! Elvar! (#04! D#/*#! .%! %#0,! ,C3.A-,! 0.%! -#(m3.! F! %3.',! $.'$.A4>!
C$.A.(-h(0,N.!0.!(3.2,!.%!2*.(-$.>!C.$,!.A-#!2.X!#A,N#(0,!#!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.%!#'3#!
A4%,!3(,A!/3#(-,A!/.(-5N.-$,A?!92*0.(-.N.(-.>!0.A.#+#!m3.!%.!$#A/#$#!0.!(3.2,?!
c#! ,C.$#/*4(! N.! $.A3%-#+#! 3(! -#(-,! 0*6*/3%-,A#>! F#! m3.! 0.+#\,! 0.%! *NC.$N.#+%.!
%%.2#+#!/#N*A#>!/,$+#-#!F!/D#m3.-#?!<,!0.A.#(0,!N,A-$#$N.!C,/,!/,$-dA>!N.!m3*-d!
.%!*NC.$N.#+%.>!D*/.!%,!N*AN,!/,(!%#!/D#m3.-#!F!N.!A3+5!%,A!C3Q,A!0.!%#!/#N*A#>!A*(!
0.A#+$,/D#$%,A>! 3(! C,/,! NhA! #$$*+#! 0.! %#A! N3Q./#A?! c3.',! N.! C3A.! 0.! (3.2,! .%!
*NC.$N.#+%.>! N*.(-$#A! m3.! #A.'3$#+#! #! Elvar! m3.! 2,%2.$5#! #! $#A/#$%.!
*(N.0*#-#N.(-.>! /,A#! m3.! D*/.! #! C,/,A! /.(-5N.-$,A! A,+$.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.%! #'3#?!
H(#! 2.X! NhA>! C#$./*4! #'$#0#$%.?! E#A#$,(! 3(,A! A.'3(0,Ao! .%! 0.%65(! (#04! ,-$#! 2.X!
D#/*#!.%!.B-$.N,!NhA!#%.\#0,!F!%3.',!$.'$.A4!0.!(3.2,>!C.$,!.A-#!2.X!N,A-$#(0,!.%!
2*.(-$.! 3(,A! V7! /N! A,+$.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.?! c,! /*.$-,! .$#! m3.! N*! /,$0*#%*0#0! .A-#+#!
#',-h(0,A.! $hC*0#N.(-.>! C.$,! -#N+*d(! N.! C#$./*4! m3.! Elvar! F! F,! .A-h+#N,A!
/,N3(*/h(0,(,A! 0.! #%'3(#! 6,$N#?! @A5>! 3(#! 2.X! NhA>! N.! m3*-d! .%! *NC.$N.#+%.>!
.($,%%d! %#A! N#('#A! 0.! %#! /#N*A#>! N.! C3A.! 0.! (3.2,! .%! *NC.$N.#+%.>! F! #-.(05! #!
Elvar?! 9(! %#! A*'3*.(-.! A./3.(/*#! Elvar! #C#$./*4! #A,N#(0,! .%! 2*.(-$.! A,+$.! %#!
A3C.$6*/*.!0.%!#'3#!3(,A!8b!/N>!.AC.$#(0,!N*!N#A#\.?!E,0$5#!D#+.$!.B-.(0*0,!3(#!
N#(,!C#$#!#/#$*/*#$%.>!A*!.(!#m3.%!N,N.(-,!N.!D3+*.$#!A.(-*0,!0*AC3.A-,!#!m3*-#$N.!
0.! (3.2,! .%! *NC.$N.#+%.>! C.$,! %#! /,A#! .A-#+#! %%.'#(0,! 0.N#A*#0,! %.\,A?! @A5! m3.!
C.$N#(./*N,A! N*$h(0,(,A! N3-3#N.(-.! nD,N+$.! F! 0.%65(n>! /,(! 3(! N.-$,! 0.! #'3#!
.(-$.!%,A!0,A?!1.!$.C.(-.>!Elvar!A#%-4!A,+$.!.%!#'3#!D#A-#!m3.!A3!/,%#!A4%,!-,/4!%#!
A3C.$6*/*.?!&.!#'*-4!.(!.%!#*$.!F>!#/-,!A.'3*0,>!A3!'#$'#(-#!%#(X4!3(!$#$,!A,(*0,>!#%',!
C#$./*0,!#%!%#N.(-,!0.%!C#-,!1,(#%0?!"$.5>!.(-,(/.A>!m3.!Elvar!#/#+#+#!0.!0./*$M!
Ms!
&#%5! 0.! %#! .A-#(/*#o! .(/,(-$d! #! P,D(! .(-$.-.(*0,! /,(! 3(! .m3*C,! .%./-$4(*/,! F! %.!
#(3(/*d>!/,(!/*.$-#!.N,/*4(>!m3.!Elvar>!#%!C#$./.$>!D#+5#!'$*-#0,M!
Ms!
P,D(!A.!N,A-$4!%#/4(*/,?!
nkc,!0*\,!.(!3(!/,(-.B-,l!
n&5>!/$.,!m3.!A5?!
n)3.(,>!dA#!.A!3(#!0.!%#A!C#%#+$#A!m3.!/,(,/.?!
P,D(!/$.5#!m3.!Elvar!D#+5#!#C$.(0*0,!3(#A!0,/.(#A!0.!C#%#+$#A!.(!*('%dA?!s3.!F,!
A.C#>!D#A-#!#D,$#!(*('G(!A.$!D3N#(,!D#!#C$.(0*0,!3(#!A,%#!C#%#+$#!.(!f0.%6*(.Ag?!
s3*XhA!.A-,!C.$6*%#!0.!#%'G(!N,0,!%#!$.%#-*2#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!0.!%#A!0,A!.AC./*.A?!
1.A0.! %,A! -*.NC,A! 0.! E%*(*,>! %#! D*A-,$*#! D3N#(#! D#! .A-#0,! %%.(#! 0.! D*A-,$*#A! A,+$.!
3(#! .B-$#Q#! F! 6$#-.$(#%! $.%#/*4(! .(-$.! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! F! 0.%6*(.A?! 9B*A-.(!
*((3N.$#+%.A! $.%#-,A! m3.! (,A! D#+%#(! 0.! 0.%6*(.A! m3.! A#%2#$,(! #! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! #!
C3(-,! 0.! #D,'#$A.>! F! 0.! 0.%6*(.A! m3.! C$,-.'*.$,(! #! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! /3#(0,! dA-,A!
.A-#+#(! #! C3(-,! 0.! A.$! #-#/#0,A! C,$! ,-$,A! 0.C$.0#0,$.A! N#$*(,A?! =./*.(-.N.(-.>!
.(!8TU`>!A.!C3+%*/4!.(!.%!New York Times!m3.!0,A!0.%6*(.A!D#+5#(!C$,-.'*0,!#!3(#!
N3\.$!0.!2.*(-*-$dA!#Q,A!/,(-$#!%,A!-*+3$,(.A!m3.!%#!$,0.#+#(!.(!#%-#!N#$?!c#!N3\.$!
D#+5#! (#36$#'#0,! .(! .%! ;/d#(,! (0*/,! F! A.! D#+5#! 2*A-,! ,+%*'#0#! #! (#0#$! 03$#(-.!
3(,A!a7!qN!#(-.A!0.!#%/#(X#$!%#!/,A-#?!c,A!0.%6*(.A!%#!D#+5#(!C$,-.'*0,!F!.A/,%-#0,!
03$#(-.! -,0,! .%! -*.NC,?! c,A! 0.%6*(.A! A,(! N,-*2,! 0,N*(#(-.! .(! .%! #$-.! 0.! %#! N#F,$!
C#$-.!0.!%#A!#(-*'3#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!N.0*-.$$h(.#A>!*(/%3*0#A!%#!(#+#-.#!F!%#!N*(,*/#?!
c#! N,(.0#! '$*.'#! m3.! K.%2*(! "#%2*(! D#+5#! 03C%*/#0,! C#$#! (,A,-$,A! .A! 3(#!
.BC$.A*4(!0.!.A-#!#(-*'3#!$.%#/*4(?!
c,! m3.! %.A! '3A-#! #! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! 0.! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! .A! .2*0.(-.?! &,(! #(*N#%.A!
#N*A-,A,A!F!6*.%.Ao!#!2./.A!(,A!C$,C,$/*,(#(!/,N*0#!]#%'3(,A!0.%6*(.A!D#(!$.3(*0,!
0*6.$.(-.A!/%#A.A!0.!C./.A!.(!+.(.6*/*,!0.!%,A!C.A/#0,$.A_>!F!0.!2.X!.(!/3#(0,!(,A!
A#%2#(! %#! 2*0#?! &*(! .N+#$',>! (,! .A-h! N3F! /%#$,! C,$! m3d! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! A.! A*.(-.(!
#-$#50,A!C,$!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A?!KhA!#0.%#(-.>!.(!.A-.!N*AN,!/#C5-3%,>!D#+%#$d!0.!%,!
m3.!(,A,-$,A!%.A!C$,C,$/*,(#N,A!#!.%%,A>!.A-5N3%,!*(-.%./-3#%!F!0*2.$A*4(!#30*-*2#?!
P,D(! /,(,/5#! N3%-*-30! 0.! #(d/0,-#A! A,+$.! 0.%6*(.A! 0.! C$*N.$#! ,! A.'3(0#! N#(,?!
=./3.$0,! .(! C#$-*/3%#$! -$.A! $.%#-,A?! 9(! 3(,>! 3(! 0.%65(! D#+5#! A*0,! /#C-3$#0,! .(! #%-#!
N#$! .! *X#0,! #! +,$0,! 0.! 3(#! C.m3.Q#! .N+#$/#/*4(! C#$#! *$! #! C#$#$! #! 3(! -#(m3.! 0.!
C%hA-*/,>!0.A0.!.%!/3#%!/,N.(X4!#!%#(X#$!3(#!%#$'#!A.$*.!0.!0*6.$.(-.A!A,(*0,A!#(-.!
A3A!/#C-,$.A>!A,(*0,A!m3.!*N*-#+#(!A*%+*0,A>!+36*0,A>!.-/??!@!2./.A>!'$*-#+#!*N*-#(0,!
#!3(#!'#2*,-#>!,-$#A>!#%!A*%+#-,!0.!3(!-$.(o!.(!6*(>!-,0,A!.%%,A!$3*0,A!0.!%#!/,A-#!F!0.!
-*.$$#!6*$N.?!9%!0.%65(!D#+5#!A*0,!/#C-3$#0,!C,$!/$*#-3$#A!-.$$.A-$.A!.!*(-.(-#+#!/D#$%#$!
/,N,!.%%#A>!/,N,!.$#!0.!.AC.$#$!0.!3(!*(2*-#0,!/,$-dA?!
c,A! 0.%6*(.A! C$,03/.(! %#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! A3A! A,(*0,A! N.0*#(-.! A3! ,$*6*/*,! 0.!
f.A/#C.g>!m3.!C$,03/.!.%!/D,$$,!0.!#'3#!.(!A3A!C$*N#A!%#A!+#%%.(#A>!0.!%#A!m3.!A,(!
.\.NC%#$.A!#(#-4N*/,A!.(!N*(*#-3$#?!
9(!,-$,!$.%#-,>!#!3(!0.%65(>!m3.!D#+5#!C.$N#(./*0,!/#3-*2,!03$#(-.!#%'G(!-*.NC,>!A.!
%.!0.\4!.(!%*+.$-#0!F!%3.',!63.!A.'3*0,?!
"3#(0,!.(-$4!.(!/,(-#/-,!.(!#%-#!N#$!/,(!3(!'$3C,!0.!,-$,A!0.%6*(.A>!.%!.B!/#3-*2,!
*(*/*4!3(#!%#$'#!A.$*.!0.!A,(*0,A?!k@/#A,!%.A!0#+#!*(6,$N#/*4(!A,+$.!A3!/#3-*2.$*,l!
@0.NhA! 0.! A3! 0*AC,A*-*2,! 0.! %,/#%*X#/*4(! 0.! A,(*0,A! n.6*/#X! A*A-.N#! 0.! A,(#$!
A3+N#$*(,n>! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! .N*-.(! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! A*%+*0,>! #%',! C#$./*0,! #%! $3*0,! m3.!
C$,03/.(! %,A! ',X(.A! $.A./,A! 0.! 3(#! C3.$-#! /3#(0,! dA-#! A.! #+$.>! F! .%! $3*0,! m3.!
D#/.(!/3#(0,!*N*-#(!.%!N,0,!0.!D#+%#$!D3N#(,>!/,N,!.(!.%!Ms!!0.!Elvar?!&,(!
/#C#/.A! 0.! .N*-*$! -,(,A! N3F! C3$,A>! F! A.! A#+.! m3.! D#F! C#$.\#A! 0.! 0.%6*(.A! m3.!
.N*-.(! -,(,A! 0.! %#! N*AN#! 6$./3.(/*#! F! 6#A.! 0*6.$.(-.>! 0.! N#(.$#! m3.! A.! 0#! .%!
6.(4N.(,!0.!f+#-*0,g!0.!,(0#!65A*/#?!9A-.!A,(*0,!0.!+#-*0,!.A!N3F!0*2.$-*0,?!&*!%,A!
A.$.A! D3N#(,A! C30*.A.(! /#(-#$! ,! .N*-*$! -,(,A! C3$,A>! .A-,F! A.'3$,! 0.! m3.! 03$#(-.!
D,$#A!(,A!0*2.$-*$5#N,A!f+#-*.(0,g?!
9B*A-.(!C,/#A!030#A!A,+$.!.-!D./D,!0.!m3.!%,A!A*%+*0,A!A,(!$3*0,A!m3.!.NC%.#(!%,A!
0.%6*(.A!C#$#!/,N3(*/#$A.!.(-$.!A5?!;5!%,!m3.!N.!C#$./*4!.$#(!A*%+*0,A!A3C%*/#(-.A!.(!
&-?!LD,N#A>!.N*-*0,A!C,$!3(!0.%65(!N3F!\,2.(!F!N#/D,>!%%#N#0,!E.-.$>!#%!m3.!D#+5#(!
#*A%#0,!0.!0,A!D.N+$#A!#0,%.A/.(-.A?!c,A!-$.A!A.!%#(X#+#(!N3-3#N.(-.!3(#!%#$'#!
A.$*.! 0.! 0*6.$.(-.A! A*%+*0,A?! "3#(0,! %,A! $.3(*.$,(! .(! 3(! A,%,! -#(m3.>! A3! #/-*2*0#0!
A.B3#%!63.!C$,0*'*,A#?!9(-,(/.A!/#A*!0.\#$,(!0.!A*%+#$?!
c#!N#F,$!C#$-.!0.!/,N3(*/#/*4(!m3.!D.!C,0*0,!.A/3/D#$!.(-$.!0.%6*(.A!C.$-.(./.!#!
%#! 2#$*.0#0! 0.! fC3.$-#! /D*$$*#(-.g>! C,$! #A5! 0./*$%,?! c,A! 0.%6*(.A! A.! A*.(-.(! #-$#50,A!
C,$! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! m3.! C$,03/.(! $3*0,A! C#$./*0,A?! E,$! .\.NC%,>! .(! N#$X,! 0.!
8TU8>! .(! 3(! .A-#(m3.! 0.! 0.%6*(.A! .(! I#r#*>! N.! C#Ad! /3#$.(-#! F! /*(/,! N*(3-,A! 0.!
#(*N#0#! /,(2.$A#/*4(! 0.! fC3.$-#! /D*$$*#(-.g! /,(! 2#$*,A! 0.%6*(.A>! #%! N.(,A! /,(!
#%'3(,A! 0.! %,A! /3#%.A! N.! C#$./5#! .A-#$! 0*/*.(0,! #%',! *(-.$.A#(-.?! 9(! f0.%6*(dAg>!
C3.0.!m3.!63.$#!3(#!#3-d(-*/#!.A-3C*0.X>!C.$,!%,!/*.$-,!.A!m3.!F,!#-$#5#!A3!#-.(/*4(?!
9(!,-$,!N,N.(-,>!P,D(!N.!/,(-4!%,!m3.!D#/5#!/,(!%,A!0.%6*(.A!.(!%#!#0,%.A/.(/*#!F!
/,(! -.(0.(/*#A! A.B3#%.A! C#$#! A.C#$#$! .%! N#/D,! 0.! %#! D.N+$#! 03$#(-.! .%! 6*(! 0.!
A.N#(#! /3#(0,! (,! D#+$5#! .BC.$*N.(-,A?! 1.! %,! /,(-$#$*,>! D#$5#(! %,! m3.! P,D(!
0.(,N*(#+#! /,(! A3N#! 0.%*/#0.X#! /,N,! f*$A.! 0.! %3(#! 0.! N*.%g>! %,! m3.! C,$! N3F!
0.A.#+%.! m3.! 63.$#! C#$#! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! %.A! 0.\#+#! .(! N#%#A! /,(0*/*,(.A! C#$#! %,A!
.BC.$*N.(-,A!0.%!%3(.A!C,$!%#!N#Q#(#?!
c,A! 0.%6*(.A! C#A#+#(! 0.! 3(! -#(m3.! '$#(0.! #! ,-$,! NhA! C.m3.Q,! #! -$#2dA! 0.! 3(#!
C.A#0#! C3.$-#! m3.! A.! 0.A%*X#+#! 2.$-*/#%N.(-.>! F! #A5! m3.0#+#(! A.C#$#0,A?! 9(! 3(#!
N#Q#(#!0.!%3(.A>!P,D(!.(/,(-$4!%#!C3.$-#!-#%!F!/,N,!0.+5#!.A-#$>!C.$,!.(!.%!-#(m3.!
'$#(0.!A.!D#%%#+#(!\3(-,A!%,A!0,A!0.%6*(.A!0.!A.B,!,C3.A-,?!Elvar!F!Chi-Chi!D#+5#(!
A#%2#0,! %#! +#$$.$#! m3.! %,A! A.C#$#+#?! &.! D#+5#(! *0,! 0.! %3(#! 0.! N*.%?! 9%! C$,-,/,%,!
.BC.$*N.(-#%!0.!P,D(!-.(5#!m3.!.AC.$#$!F!P,D(!.A-#+#!N3F!.(6#0#0,?!ks3*d(!D#+5#!
,%2*0#0,! A.C#$#$! #! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! .(! %#! -#$0.! 0.%! 2*.$(.Al! E.$,! -,0,! .%! N3(0,!
$./,$0#+#! m3.! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! D#+5#(! A*0,! A.C#$#0,A! F! %#! C3.$-#! /.$$#0#!
#0./3#0#N.(-.?!
",N,! C$3.+#>! %,A! .BC.$*N.(-#0,$.A! $.C*-*.$,(! %#! ,C.$#/*4(?! &.C#$#$,(! #! Elvar! F! #!
Chi-Chi! F! /.$$#$,(! %#! C.A#0#! C3.$-#>! #! %#! 2.X! m3.! -.(5#(! %3'#$! %#A! (,$N#%.A!
0.AC.0*0#A!0.%!2*.$(.A!.(!2,X!#%-#>!/*.$$.!0.!C3.$-#A!0.%!.0*6*/*,!/,(!/*.$-#!63.$X#!F!
$3*0,! 0.! C#A,A! m3.! A.! #%.\#+#(?! E.$,! 0.A0.! 3(! %3'#$! ,/3%-,! C.$N#(./*.$,(!
,+A.$2#(0,!#!%,A!0.%6*(.A!/3*0#0,A#N.(-.?!"3#(0,!-,0,!.A-32,!.(!A*%.(/*,>!#N+,A!
#(*N#%.A!A.!.(/,(-$#$,(!.(!%#!+#$$.$#!0.!#%#N+$.!F!A.!6$,-#$,(!.%!N,$$,!2#$*#A!2./.A!
.N*-*.(0,!A,(*0,A!0.!C3.$-#!/D*%%,(#?!9(-,(/.A!Elvar!.NC3\4!%#!C3.$-#!D#/*#!#$$*+#!
0.A0.! 3(#! .Am3*(#! D#A-#! m3.! m3.04! #/3Q#0#?! Chi-Chi>! 0.A0.! .%! ,-$,! %#0,>! .NC3\4!
D#/*#!#$$*+#!C,$!%#!.Am3*(#!,C3.A-#?!
c.(-#N.(-.! %,'$#$,(! #%X#$! %#! C3.$-#?! Elvar! #-$#2.A4! .%! 3N+$#%! (#0#(0,! C#$#! A.$!
$./*+*0,! C,$! %,A! #+$#X,A! ]f#%.-#X,Ag! (,! .A! %#! C#%#+$#! NhA! /,$$./-#_! 0.! A3!
/,NC#Q.$#?! c3.',>! A.'G(! .%! $.%#-,! 0.! P,D(>! %,A! m3.! A.! D#%%#+#(! ,+A.$2h(0,%.A!
#(3(/*#$,(! A3! C$.A.(/*#! N.0*#(-.! A*%+*0,A! F! '$*-,A???! D#A-#! m3.>! N,A-$#(0,! /*.$-,!
.N+#$#X,>!Elvar!A.!#%.\4!(#0#(0,!D#/*#!%#!C#$-.!m3.!%.!/,$$.AC,(05#!0.%!-#(m3.>!F!
%,A!0,A!0.%6*(.A!D*/*.$,(!0.A/.(0.$!%#!C.A#0#!C3.$-#!-$#+#\#(0,!/,(!.%!N,$$,!0.A0.!
#N+,A!%#0,A?!
9A-.! $.%#-,! C,A..! /#$h/-.$! D3N#(,! D#A-#! .%! C3(-,! 0.! m3.! .(! d%! A.! N3.A-$#! %,! m3.!
C,0$5#N,A! 0.(,N*(#$! 3(! -#(-,! 0.! /3%C#+*%*0#0! 2*/-,$*#(#>! m3.! %,! /$.,! N3F! C,/,!
C$,+#+%.?!E.$,!D#F!.(!%,A!0.%6*(.A!N3/D#A!/,A#A!m3.!C#$./.(!C,/,!C$,+#+%.A?!
s3*Xh!F,!A.#!3(#!0.!%#A!C,/#A!C.$A,(#A!m3.!D#!$./*+*0,!3(#!fC$,C,A*/*4(g!0.!3(!
0.%65(?! 9%! $.%#-,! (./.A*-#! 2,%2.$! 3(! C,/,! #-$hA?! p3*! #! &-?! LD,N#A! 3(! *(2*.$(,! C#$#!
(#0#$! F! 2*A*-#$! .%! .A-#+%./*N*.(-,! 0.%! 0.%6*(.A! 0.! c*%%F! m3.! .(-,(/.A! 0*$*'5#! Z$.',$F!
)#-.A,(>! 3(! *('%dA! m3.! A.(-5#! C$,63(0,! *(-.$dA! C,$! %#! #(-$,C,%,'5#>! CA*/,%,'5#! F!
/,NC,$-#N*.(-,! #(*N#%! F! D3N#(,?! K*.(-$#A! /.(#+#! /,(! #%'3(,A! #N*',A! .(! 3(!
$.A-#3$#(-.! A*-3#0,! .(! %#! /*N#! 0.! 3(#! N,(-#Q#! .(-#+%#N,A! /,(2.$A#/*4(! /,(! %#!
C$,C*.-#$*#!0.%!$.A-#3$#(-.>!3(#!\,2.(!%%#N#0#!K#$'#$.-?!K.!0.A/$*+*4!m3d!#+3$$*0,A!
F! C,/,! *(-.$.A#(-.A! .$#(! A3A! 05#A! ]A4%,! -$#+#\#+#! C,$! %#A! (,/D.A! .(! .%!
.A-#+%./*N*.(-,_?! @m3.%! N*AN,! 05#>! C,$! %#! N#Q#(#>! )#-.A,(! N.! D#+5#! /,(-#0,! %#A!
0*6*/3%-#0.A!m3.!.(/,(-$#+#!C#$#!C,0.$!0*AC,(.$!0.!#F30#!.(!A3A!*(2.A-*'#/*,(.A!0.%!
C$,'$#N#! f1.%65(g?! E,$! -#(-,>! (,! 63.! 0*65/*%! C$.A.(-#$%.A?! K3F! C$,(-,>! K#$'#$.-!
.A-32,!-$#+#\#(0,!/,(!%,A!0.%6*(.A?!
"3#(0,!)#-.A,(!0.\4!&-?!LD,N#A>!K#$'#$.-!A.!/,(2*$-*4>!C,$!.%!N,N.(-,>!.(!0*$./-,$!
0.!%#!.A-#/*4(!0.!*(2.A-*'#/*4(?!
9(! .%! /3$A,! 0.! A3! -$#+#\,>! K#$'#$.-! %%.24! #! /#+,! 3(! (,-#+%.! .BC.$*N.(-,>! m3.! A.!
0.A/$*+.!/,(!#%'G(!0.-#%%.!.(!.%!%*+$,!0.!c*%%F>! La mente del delfn?!",N.(X4!#!2*2*$!
/#A*!-,0,!.%!05#!N3F!/.$/#!0.%!.A-#(m3.!0,(0.!Peter>!.%!0.%65(>!(#0#+#!C%h/*0#N.(-.?!
9%! .BC.$*N.(-,! 0.! K#$'#$.-! -32,! %3'#$! (,! N3/D,! #(-.A! 0.%! *(/*0.(-.! #! m3.! N.!
$.6*.$,o!.A-32,!$.%#/*,(#0,!/,(!%#!#/-*-30!0.!E.-.$!D#/*#!N5?!
9A-#+#! F,! (#0#(0,>! .(! /,NC#Q5#! 0.! Peter>! .(! 3(! '$#(! .A-#(m3.! *(-.$*,$?! "3#(0,!
%#(X#+#! D#/*#! Peter! %#! '$#(! C.%,-#! 0.! C%hA-*/,>! .%! 0.%65(! +3/.#+#>! F! %3.',>! /,(! .%!
N,$$,>!N.!%#!0.2,%25#!/,(!#+A,%3-#!A.'3$*0#0?!
@%! /#+,! 0.! 3(! $#-,! 0.! .A-#$! \3'#(0,! 0.! .A-#! N#(.$#>! %#A! 0.2,%3/*,(.A! 0.! Peter!
63.$,(!D#/*d(0,A.!NhA!*(A.'3$#A>!,+%*'h(0,N.!#!(#0#$!D#/*#!3(!%#0,!0.%!.A-#(m3.!
F! %3.',! D#/*#! ,-$,! C#$#! #%/#(X#$! %#! C.%,-#?! :(N.0*#-#N.(-.! N.! 0*! /3.(-#! 0.! m3.!
Peter!D#+5#!0./*0*0,!%#(X#$!%#!C.%,-#!#!3(,A!b!4![!N!0.!0*A-#(/*#!0.!0,(0.!F,!N.!
.(/,(-$#$#!.(!-#%.A!N,N.(-,A?!
Peter!D#+5#!/#N+*#0,!%#A!$.'%#A!0.%!\3.',?!
Peter! .A-#+#! $.#%*X#(0,! /,(N*',! 3(! .BC.$*N.(-,! CA*/,%4'*/,M! A#+.$! D#A-#! m3d!
.B-$.N,!%%.'#$5#!F,!C#$#!/,(-*(3#$!/,'*.(0,!-$#+#\,A#N.(-.!%#!C.%,-#?!9$#!%#!N*AN#!
/%#A.! 0.! C$3.+#! CA*/,%4'*/#! m3.! Elvar! D#+5#! %%.2#0,! #! /#+,! .(! (3.A-$,! C$*N.$!
.(/3.(-$,?! L#%! C$3.+#! .A! 3(#! N3.A-$#! 0.! %,A! 25(/3%,A! m3.! 3(.(! #! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! /,(!
%,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A?! &,N,A! 3(#! 0.! %#A! C,/#A! .AC./*.A! m3.! -*.(.(! C$.-.(A*,(.A! 0.!
C,A..$!/,(,/*N*.(-,A!CA*/,%4'*/,Ao!C,$!-#(-,>!-#N+*d(!A,N,A!3(#!0.!%#A!C,/#A!m3.>!
A*(! .N+#$',>! F! #3(m3.! A.#! *(#02.$-*0#N.(-.>! C.$N*-*N,A! m3.! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! %%.2.(! #!
/#+,!/,(!(,A,-$,A!.BC.$*N.(-,A!CA*/,%4'*/,A?!
",N,!D#+5#!,/3$$*0,!.(!N*!C$*N.$#!.(-$.2*A-#!/,(!Elvar>!2*!%,!m3.!.A-#+#!A3/.0*.(0,!
F!0./*05!m3.!(*('G(!0.%65(!*+#!#!.BC.$*N.(-#$!/,(N*',!CA*/,%4'*/#N.(-.?!@A5!C3.A>!
$.-32.!%#!C.%,-#!F>!A*NC%.N.(-.>!/,N.(/d!#!(#0#$!0.!#/h!C#$#!#%%h?!@%$.0.0,$!0.!3(!
N*(3-,! 0.AC3dA>! Peter! (#04! /,(! $#C*0.X! D#/*#! N5! F! N.! $,X4! /,(! A3! /3.$C,!
.NC%.#(0,! /*.$-#! 63.$X#?! 9A-#! 2.X! A.(-5! m3.! #%',! A,+$.A#%5#! 0.%! /3.$C,! 0.! E.-.$! F!
m3.! N.! -,/#+#! A3#2.N.(-.! #%! C#A#$?! "3#(0,! %,! D*X,! C,$! -.$/.$#! 2.X>!
*(N.0*#-#N.(-.!N.!0*!/3.(-#!0.!%,!m3.!.A-#+#!,/3$$*.(0,?!<,!A.!-$#-#+#!0.!3(#!0.!
A3A!#%.-#A!0.!/,%#>!(,???!F!.(!.%!#/-,!N.!A.(-5!/,N,!3(#!0.!.A#A!-5#A!A,%-.$,(#A!#!%#!
/3#%! 3(! 2#$4(! D#/.! 3(#! C$,C3.A-#! C,/,! #0./3#0#?! E,$! A3C3.A-,>! (,! .A-#+#!
C$.C#$#0,! C#$#! /,,C.$#$! .(! -#%! A.(-*0,! F! #/30*.$,(! #! N*! N.(-.! '$#(! (GN.$,! 0.!
6$#A.A! 0.! 0*A/3%C#! /,N,>! C,$! .\.NC%,M! fk9A! m3.! (,! /,(,/.A! C,$! #D5! #! (*('3(#!
+,(*-#! D.N+$#lg! E.$,! Peter! /,(-*(34! N,A-$h(0,A.! #%.'$.! F! A*(! ,6.(0.$A.! %,! NhA!
N5(*N,!C,$!N*!6#%-#!0.!$.AC3.A-#!#!A3A!C$,C,A*/*,(.A?!]9A!C,A*+%.!m3.!C.(A#$#!m3.!
F,!.$#!0.N#A*#0,!.A-GC*0,!/,N,!C#$#!.(-.(0.$!#m3.%!N.(A#\.!A3F,?_!
Peter!%%.2#+#!#%'G(!-*.NC,!A.C#$#0,!0.!%#A!D.N+$#A!F>!.(!3(#!dC,/#!(,!N3F!%.\#(#>!
A.! D#+5#! C#A#0,! N3/D,A! 05#A! .(! 5(-*N,! /,(-#/-,>! *(/%3F.(0,! .%! A.B3#%>! /,(!
K#$'#$.->!,-$,!A.$!D3N#(,?!<,!/$.,!m3.!D#F#!(*('G(!25(/3%,!A.B3#%!m3.!\3A-*6*m3.!.%!
#6./-,! m3.! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! A*.(-.(! C,$! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A>! C.$,! .%! *(/*0.(-.>! A*(! 030#>!
-*.(.! /*.$-,! A*'(*6*/#0,?! :(/%3A,! .(! %,! m3.! (,A,-$,A! 0.A/$*+*N,A! C*#0,A#N.(-.! /,(!
f+.A-*#%*AN,g! A4%,! D#F! 3(#A! C,/#A! .AC./*.A! m3.>! A.'G(! -.(',! .(-.(0*0,>! A,(!
3-*%*X#0#A! C,$! %,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! .(! #/-*2*0#0.A! A.B3#%.Ao! .A-#A! .AC./*.A!
C.$-.(./.(!#!%#!/%#A.!m3.!%,A!D3N#(,A!D#(!0,N.A-*/#0,?!
K.! C$.'3(-,! A*! #%'3(,A! 0.%6*(.A! #%+.$'#(! .%! C.(A#N*.(-,! 0.! 0,N.A-*/#$(,A! #!
(,A,-$,A?!
c#A! #(d/0,-#A! A,+$.! 0.%6*(.A! A*.NC$.! A,(! -.N#! 0.! /,(2.$A#/*4(! .(! N3/D#A!
$.3(*,(.A! 0.! /#$h/-.$! A,/*#%! F! -#N+*d(! 63.(-.! 0.! C,%dN*/#! F! 0*A/3A*4(?! H(#! 0.! %#A!
0*6*/3%-#0.A!m3.!D.!0.A/3+*.$-,!.(!%#!*(2.A-*'#/*4(!A,+$.!.%!%.('3#\.!0.!%,A!0.%6*(.A!F!
A3! *(-.%*'.(/*#! 63.>! C$./*A#N.(-.>! .A-#! 6#A/*(#/*4(! m3.! .\.$/.(! %#A! #(d/0,-#Ao! C.$,!
%,! /*.$-,! .A! m3.! (3(/#! A.! D#(! %%.2#0,! #! /#+,! C$3.+#A! m3.! A.#(! #3-d(-*/#N.(-.!
/*.(-56*/#A?!
E,$!.\.NC%,>!$.C.-*0#A!2./.A!*(A*A-5!.(!m3.!A.!0.+5#!D#/.$!.%!A*'3*.(-.!.BC.$*N.(-,M!
&.!*(-$,03/.!#%!0.%65(!@!.(!3(!-#(m3.!m3.!.A-h!.m3*C#0,!/,(!0,A!#30*,N*/$46,(,A?!
"#0#! D*0$46,(,! .A-h! 3(*0,! #! 3(! A3N*(*A-$#0,$! #3-,Nh-*/,! 0.! C.A/#0,! m3.! C3.0.!
#$$,\#$! A#+$,A#! /,N*0#! #! %,A! 0.%6*(.A?! 9(! 3(,! 0.! %,A! N*/$46,(,A! A3.(#! NGA*/#! 0.!
)#/D!F!.(!,-$,>!NGA*/#!0.!%,A!f).#-%.Ag?!c#!NGA*/#!0.!3(#!3!,-$#!/%#A.!D#!0.!A,(#$!
#%!#X#$?!&*.NC$.!m3.!.%!0.%65(!@!A.!#/.$m3.!D#A-#!.%!N*/$46,(,!*04(.,!nA3C,('#N,A!
.%! m3.! .A-h! 0*63(0*.(0,! NGA*/#! 0.! %,A! f).#-%.Agn! A.! %.! $./,NC.(A#! /,(! 3(! C.X?!
"$.,! m3.! (,! D#F! 030#! 0.! m3.! /3#%m3*.$! 0.%65(>! 0.+*0,! #! A3! '$#(! *(-.$dA>! C,0$h!
0*A-*('3*$!C$,(-,!.(-$.!)#/D!F!%,A!f).#-%.Ag?!E.$,!dA-#!(,!.A!%#!C#$-.!NhA!*NC,$-#(-.!
0.%! .BC.$*N.(-,?! c,! m3.! A5! .A! A*'(*6*/#-*2,! .A! .%! (GN.$,! 0.! .(A#F,A! m3.! A.! D#'#(!
#(-.A!0.!m3.!.%!0.%65(!@!A.!/,(2*.$-#!.(!.%.N.(-,!A,6*A-*/#0,>!.A!0./*$>!m3.!.(!-,0,!
N,N.(-,! A.C#! m3.! A*! 0.A.#! 3(! C.X! D#! 0.! #/30*$! #%! %3'#$! 0,(0.! A3.(#(! %,A!
f).#-%.Ag?!
@! /,(-*(3#/*4(>! A.! A.C#$#! #%! 0.%65(! @! 0.! %,A! N*/$46,(,A! N.0*#(-.! 3(#! +#$$.$#! 0.!
C%hA-*/,! /,(! #(/D,! .($.\#0,?! 9%! #(*N#%! C3.0.! 2.$! #! -$#2dA! 0.! %#! +#$$.$#>! ,%.$! F!
A#+,$.#$>!F>!%,!NhA!*NC,$-#(-.>!C3.0.!,5$!F!fD#+%#$g!#!-$#2dA!0.!.%%#!-#N+*d(?!E.$,!
(,!C3.0.!#-$#2.A#$%#!(#0#(0,?!9(-,(/.A!A.!*(-$,03/.!#%!0.%65(!)!.(!%#!X,(#!0.!%,A!
N*/$46,(,A?!9%!0.%65(!)!.A!-,0#25#!3(!(,2#-,>!.A!0./*$!/#$./.!#G(!0.!.BC.$*.(/*#!.(!
%,!m3.!/,(/*.$(.!#!%,A!A3N*(*A-$#0,$.A!#3-,Nh-*/,A!0.!/,N*0#!A3+N#$*(,A>!#!)#/D!,!
#! %,A! f).#-%.Ag?! @! 0*6.$.(/*#! 0.! %#! +*.(! /,(,/*0#! 0*6*/3%-#0! .(! D#%%#$! f*('.(3,Ag!
/,(0*A/5C3%,A! 0.! /,%.'*,! /,(! m3*.(.A! .6./-3#$! .BC.$*N.(-,A! /,(! %#! Canabis sativa>!
(,!0.+.!.B*A-*$!0*6*/3%-#0!#%'3(#!.(!.(/,(-$#$!0.%6*(.A!/,(!-,-#%!6#%-#!0.!.BC.$*.(/*#!
0.! )#/D! F! f).#-%.Ag?! 9%! 0.%65(! )! 0.+.! C#A#$! C,$! .%! N*AN,! Nd-,0,! 0.! #C$.(0*X#\.!
m3.! C#A4! .%! 0.%65(! @?! E.$,! #D,$#>! /#0#! 2.X! m3.! .%! 0.%65(! )! ]#%! C$*(/*C*,! #%! #X#$_!
#%/#(X#!.%!dB*-,>!(,!A,%#N.(-.!A.!%.!C$.N*#!/,(!3(!C.X>!A*(,!m3.!-#N+*d(!A.!#$$,\#!
,-$,!C.X!#%!0.%65(!@>!m3.!.(!-#%.A!N,N.(-,A!.A-h!A*.(0,!-.A-*',!0.%!#C$.(0*X#\.!0.%!
0.%65(!)?!&*!.%!0.%65(!@!-*.(.!D#N+$.>!.A!N3F!C$,+#+%.!m3.!/,N3(*m3.!#%!0.%65(!)!%,!
m3.! A#+.! A,+$.! )#/D! F! %,A! f).#-%.Ag?! &*! .%! 0.%65(! )! .A-h! D#N+$*.(-,>! C$.A-#$h!
#-.(/*4(!#!%#!*(6,$N#/*4(!m3.!%.!A3N*(*A-$#!.%!0.%65(!@?!E,$!%,!-#(-,!%#!/3.A-*4(!.AM!9%!
0.%65(! )>! kN3.A-$#! 3(#! /3$2#! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! NhA! .%.2#0#! m3.! %#! 0.%! 0.%65(! @l!
k@%/#(X#!.%!(*2.%!0.!.(-.(0*N*.(-,!.(!N.(,A!C$3.+#A!,!.(!N.(,A!-*.NC,l!
&*! -#%.A! .BC.$*N.(-,A! A.! $.C*-*.$#(! N3/D#A! 2./.A! F! A.! /,NC$,+#$#! m3.! %#A! /3$2#A!
0.! #C$.(0*X#\.! 0.%! 0.%65(! )>! 63.A.(! .A-#05A-*/#N.(-.! NhA! A*'(*6*/#-*2#A! m3.! %#A! 0.%!
0.%65(! @>! A.! D#+$5#! .A-#+%./*0,! .%! D./D,! .2*0.(-.! 0.! m3.! .(-$.! #N+,A! 0.%6*(.A! A.!
D#+5#! 0#0,! 3(#! /,N3(*/#/*4(! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(! N,0.$#0#N.(-.! *(-.$.A#(-.?! E,0$5#!
A.$!3(#!0.A/$*C/*4(!2.$+#%!0.!%#!0*6.$.(/*#!.(-$.!)#/D!F!%,A!f).#-%.Ag!.(!N*!,C*(*4(>!
-#$.#!0*65/*%>!C.$,!(,!*NC,A*+%.>!,>!A*NC%.N.(-.>!C,0$5#!A.$!m3.!A4%,!A.!.A-#+%./*.$#!
3(#!0*A-*(/*4(!.(-$.!%#!*Xm3*.$0#!F!%#!0.$./D#!.(!/#0#!C$3.+#!D#A-#!m3.!.%!0.%65(!)!%#!
/#C-#?!E,$!A3C3.A-,>!dA-.!(,!.A!.%!N.\,$!Nd-,0,!C#$#!C$,+#$!%#!/,N3(*/#/*4(!.(-$.!
0,A! 0.%6*(.A>! C.$,! .A! -5C*/#! 0.! 3(#! .(,$N.! '#N#! 0.! .BC.$*N.(-,A! m3.! A.! C,0$5#(!
%%.2#$!#!/#+,?!c#!2.$0#0!.A!m3.!%#N.(-,!N3/D,!m3.!D#A-#!%#!6./D#>!m3.!F,!A.C#>!(,!
A.!D#F#!C$#/-*/#0,!(*('3(,!0.!.%%,A?!
9%! -.N#! 0.! %#! *(-.%*'.(/*#! 0.%! 0.%65(! D#! -.(*0,! C#$#! N5! .AC./*#%! *NC,$-#(/*#! .(! %,A!
G%-*N,A!#Q,A>!A,+$.!-,0,!/3#(0,!A.!0.A#$$,%%4!.%!/#A,!0.!%#A!+#%%.(#A!\,$,+#0#A?!9(!
3(! (,-#+%.! /,(\3(-,! 0.! .BC.$*N.(-,A>! =,'.$! E#F(.>! 0.! %#! =,/q.6.%%.$! H(*2.$A*-F>!
A*-34!D*0$46,(,A!#!3(#!C$,63(0*0#0!0.!#%'3(#A!0./.(#A!0.!N.-$,A!.(!.%!"#$*+.!C#$#!
-$#-#$!0.!'$#+#$!%,A!/#(-,A!0.!%#A!+#%%.(#A!\,$,+#0#A>!N*.N+$,>!/,(!%,A!0.%6*(.A>!0.!
%#! /%#A.! -#B,(4N*/#! 0.! %,A! /.-h/.,A?! 9A-#A! +#%%.(#A! .N*-.(! A,(*0,A! A3N#N.(-.!
+.%%,A! F! /,NC%.\,A>! m3.! A.! .BC#(0.(! +#\,! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.%! ,/d#(,! #! /,(A*0.$#+%.!
0*A-#(/*#!F!m3.>!#%!C#$./.$>!A,(!0.!'$#(!3-*%*0#0!A,/*#%!0.(-$,!F!.(-$.!%#A!.A/3.%#A!0.!
+#%%.(#A>!#(*N#%.A!A,/*#%.A!N3F!'$.'#$*,A?!
9%!-#N#Q,!0.%!/.$.+$,!0.!%#A!+#%%.(#A!.A!N3/D,!N#F,$!m3.!.%!0.!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A?!
&3A!/,$-.X#A!/.$.+$#%.A!C$.A.(-#(!/*$/3(2,%3/*,(.A?!E,$!%,!N.(,A>!A,(!-#(!A,/*#%.A!
/,N,!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A?!c,A!#(-$,C4%,',A!/$..(!m3.!.%!0.A#$$,%%,!0.!%#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!
D3N#(#! 0.C.(0.! /$5-*/#N.(-.! 0.! .A-,A! -$.A! 6#/-,$.AM! -#N#Q,! 0.%! /.$.+$,>!
/*$/3(2,%3/*,(.A! /.$.+$#%.A>! F! #//*4(! $./5C$,/#! A,/*#%! .(-$.! %,A! *(0*2*03,A?! @m35!
-.(.N,A!3(#!/%#A.!0.!#(*N#%.A!.(!%,A!/3#%.A!%#A!-$.A!/,(0*/*,(.A!m3.!/,(03/.(!#!%#!
*(-.%*'.(/*#! D3N#(#! C3.0.! A.$! m3.! A.! 0.(! /,(! /$./.A! F>! .(! #%'3(,A! /#A,A>! A.!
$.+#A.(!%#$'#N.(-.?!
E.$,! /,N,! %#A! +#%%.(#A! F! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! (,! -*.(.(! N#(,A>! -.(-h/3%,A! 3! ,-$,A! 4$'#(,A!
-h/-*%.A>!A3!*(-.%*'.(/*#!(,!C3.0.!0.-.$N*(#$A.!.(!-d$N*(,A!0.!-./(,%,'5#?!ks3d!D#F!
.(!-,0,!.A-,l!E#F(.!D#!'$#+#0,!.\.NC%,A!0.!/#(/*,(.A!N3F!%#$'#A!/#(-#0#A!C,$!%#!
+#%%.(#!\,$,+#0#>!D#A-#!.%!.B-$.N,!0.!m3.!#%'3(#A!0.!.%%#A!03$#(!D#A-#!N.0*#!D,$#!
,! NhA?! H(#A! /3#(-#A! C#$./.(! $.C.-*$A.>! 2*$-3#%N.(-.! 6,(.N#! C,$! 6,(.N#o! C,/,!
0.AC3dA>! -,0,! .%! /*/%,! 0.! A,(*0,A! 23.%2.! #! ,5$A.! 3(#! 2.X! NhA?! @%'3(#A! 0.! %#A!
/#(/*,(.A! A.! D#(! '$#+#0,! /,N.$/*#%N.(-.! F! A.! C3.0.(! /,(A.'3*$! .(! 0*A/,A! 0.! %#!
"=K!=./,$0A!]&t=O::_?!"#%/3%,!m3.!.%!(GN.$,!#C$,B*N#0,!0.!+*-A!]2d#A.!/#C5-3%,!
Va_! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(! ]C$.'3(-#A! *(0*2*03#%.A! A*v(,! (./.A#$*#A! C#$#! /#$#/-.$*X#$! %#!
/#(/*4(_! .(! 3(#! /#(/*4(! 0.! +#%%.(#! 0.! N.0*#! D,$#! 0.! 03$#/*4(>! ,A/*%#! .(-$.! 3(!
N*%%4(! F! /*.(! N*%%,(.A?! @! /#3A#! 0.! %#! .%.2#0#! 2#$*#/*4(! 0.! 6$./3.(/*#! .(! .A-#A!
/#(/*,(.A>!A3C3A.!m3.!%#!6$./3.(/*#!.A!*NC,$-#(-.!.(!.%!/,(-.(*0,!0.!%#!/#(/*4(>!,>!
0*/D,!0.!,-$#!N#(.$#>!m3.!.%!%.('3#\.!0.!%#!+#%%.(#!.A!-,(#%?!&*!(,!%,!.A!-#(-,!/,N,!
A,AC./D,>!.%!(GN.$,!0.!+*-A!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!.(!-#%!/#(/*4(!C3.0.!0.A/.(0.$!C,$!3(!
6#/-,$!0.!0*.X?!@D,$#>!3(!N*%%4(!0.!+*-A!.A!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!.%!(GN.$,!0.!+*-A!m3.!
/,(-*.(.! La Odisea! ,! %#A! Eddas! 0.! :A%#(0*#?! ]L#N+*d(! .A! *NC$,+#+%.! m3.>! .(! %#A!
C,/#A! .B/3$A*,(.A! D*0$,64(*/#A! $.#%*X#0#A! .(! .%! -.$$.(,! 0.! %#A! 2,/#%*X#/*,(.A!
/.-h/.#A>!A.!D#F#!'$#+#0,!%#!NhA!%#$'#!0.!-#%.A!/#(/*,(.A?_!
k9A! C,A*+%.! m3.! %#! *(-.%*'.(/*#! 0.! %,A! /.-h/.,A! A.! .(/#3/.! #%! .m3*2#%.(-.! 0.! %#!
C,.A5#!dC*/#>!D*A-,$*#>!F!.%#+,$#0,A!/40*',A!0.!*(-.$#//*4(!A,/*#%l!k&,(!%#A!+#%%.(#A!
F! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! /,N,! I,N.$,A! D3N#(,A! #(-.A! 0.! %#! *(2.(/*4(! 0.! %#! .A/$*-3$#>!
$.%#-#(0,! '$#(0.A! D#X#Q#A! $.#%*X#0#A! .(! #Q,A! C#A#0,A! .(! %#A! C$,63(0*0#0.A! F!
$.N,-,A! %3'#$.A! 0.%! N#$l! kI#F! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! Moby Dick! #%! $.2dA>! 3(#! -$#'.0*#!
0.A0.! .%! C3(-,! 0.! 2*A-#! 0.! 3(#! +#%%.(#>! 0.! 3(! *NC%#/#+%.! .(.N*',>! 0.! #-#m3.A! (,!
C$,2,/#0,A>!C,$!.B-$#Q#A!+.A-*#A!0.!N#0.$#!F!N.-#%!m3.!A3$/#(!%,A!N#$.A!/#$'#0#A!
/,(!A.$.A!D3N#(,Al!
c,A! /.-h/.,A! /,(A-*-3F.(! C#$#! (,A,-$,A! 3(#! *NC,$-#(-.! %.//*4(?! c#! %.//*4(! (,! A.!
/.(-$#! A,+$.! +#%%.(#A! F! 0.%6*(.A>! A*(,! A,+$.! (,A,-$,A! N*AN,A?! E,$! %,! N.(,A>! A.!
0*AC,(.! 0.! C$3.+#A! N,0.$#0#N.(-.! /,(2*(/.(-.A! 0.! m3.! D#F! ,-$#! /%#A.! 0.! A.$.A!
*(-.%*'.(-.A! .(! %#! L*.$$#! #0.NhA! 0.! (,A,-$,A?! &.! /,NC,$-#(! +.(*'(#N.(-.! F>! #!
2./.A>!D#A-#!(,A!N3.A-$#(!#6./-,?!&*A-.Nh-*/#N.(-.>!%.A!D.N,A!.%*N*(#0,?!I#F!3(!
N,(A-$3,A,!F!+h$+#$,!/,N.$/*,!/,(!%,A!.Am3.%.-,A!F!6%3*0,A!2*-#%.A!0.!%#A!+#%%.(#A?!
&.! .B-$#.! .%! #/.*-.! C#$#! 6#+$*/#$! %hC*/.A! 0.! %#+*,A>! %3+$*/#(-.A! *(03A-$*#%.A>! F! C#$#!
,-$,A! C$,C4A*-,A>! #3(! /3#(0,! .A-,! -.('#! /*.$-,! A.(-*0,! ./,(4N*/,! N#$'*(#%>! C3.A!
D#F! %3+$*/#(-.A! N3F! .6*/#/.A! 0.! ,-$#! /%#A.?! E.$,>! kC,$! m3d! D#A-#! D#/.! N3F! C,/,!
-*.NC,! (,! A.! #%X#$,(! '$*-,A! .(! /,(-$#! 0.! .A-#! /#$(*/.$5#l! kE,$! m3d! -#(! C,/#!
/,NC#A*4(!D#/*#!%#A!+#%%.(#Al!
9A! .2*0.(-.! m3.! .B*A-.! N3F! C,/,! $.AC.-,! C,$! %#! 2*0#! .(! %#! *(03A-$*#! +#%%.(.$#>!
A3+$#F#(0,!3(#!C$,63(0#!0.+*%*0#0!D3N#(#!m3.>!A*(!.N+#$',>!(,!A.!%*N*-#!A4%,!#!%#A!
+#%%.(#A?! 9(! %#! '3.$$#>! D,N+$.! /,(-$#! D,N+$.>! .A! /,$$*.(-.! m3.! /#0#! +#(0,!
0.AD3N#(*/.! #%! ,-$,>! 0.! N#(.$#! m3.! (,! D#F#! (*('3(,! 0.! %,A! (#-3$#%.A! $./.%,A! ,!
-.N,$.A! m3.! 3(! A.$! D3N#(,! A*.(-.! #%! N#-#$! #! ,-$,?! c,A! (#X*A! #%/#(X#$,(! .A-.!
,+\.-*2,! 0./%#$#(0,! #! C3.+%,A! .(-.$,A! untermenschen>! A3+D3N#(,A?! 9(-,(/.A!
.A-#+#! C.$N*-*0,>! -$#A! A.N.\#(-.! /%#A*6*/#/*4(>! C$*2#$! #! .A-,A! C3.+%,A! 0.! A3A!
%*+.$-#0.A! /*2*%.A>! .A/%#2*X#$%,A! F! #A.A*(#$%,A?! 9%! .\.NC%,! 0.! %,A! (#X*A! .A! .%! NhA!
N,(A-$3,A,>!C.$,!(,!.%!NhA!$./*.(-.?!E,0$5#(!/*-#$A.!N3/D,A!,-$,A!/#A,A?!9(!/3#(-,!
A.! $.6*.$.! #! %,A! #N.$*/#(,A>! %#! .(/3+*.$-#! $./%#A*6*/#/*4(! 0.! ,-$,A! C3.+%,A! /,N,!
untermenschen!D#!A*0,!.%!%3+$*/#(-.!0.!%#!N#m3*(#$*#!N*%*-#$!F!./,(4N*/#!0.A0.!%#A!
-.NC$#(#A! '3.$$#A! /,(-$#! %,A! *(0*,A! #N.$*/#(,A! D#A-#! (3.A-$#A! NhA! $./*.(-.A!
/,NC%*/#/*,(.A! N*%*-#$.A>! C.$,! D.$.0.$,A! 0.! 3(#! #(-*'3#! /3%-3$#>! 0,(0.! A.! %.A! D#!
0.A/$*C-,! F! 0.A/$*+.! /,N,! A*N*,A>! /.$0,A! A#%2#\.A>! 0*#+%,A! #N#$*%%,A>! ,\,A! ,+%*/3,A>!
.-/?>! .A! 0./*$>! -,0#! 3(#! %.-#(5#! 0.! 0.AD3N#(*X#/*4(>! C#$#! m3.! (3.A-$,A! A,%0#0,A! F!
#2*#0,$.A!A.!A*(-*.$#(!NhA!/4N,0,A!#%!%*m3*0#$%,A?!
9A-#!0.AD3N#(*X#/*4(!A.!D#/.!N3/D,!NhA!6h/*%!N.0*#(-.!%#!'3.$$#!#3-,N#-*X#0#!F!
0.A-$3//*4(! #d$.#! 0.! ,+\.-*2,A! *(2*A*+%.A?! @3N.(-#! %#! f.6*/*.(/*#g! 0.! %#! '3.$$#>!
C,$m3.! A,/#2#! (3.A-$#A! A*NC#-5#A! D#/*#! (3.A-$,A! /,('d(.$.A?! &*! (,! 2.N,A! #!
m3*.(.A! N#-#N,A>! (,! (,A! A.(-*N,A! -#(! /3%C#+%.A! 0.! #A.A*(#-,?! J! A*! C,0.N,A! -#(!
6h/*%N.(-.! $#/*,(#%*X#$! .%! #A.A*(#-,! 0.! ,-$,A! A.$.A! C.$-.(./*.(-.A! #! (3.A-$#! C$,C*#!
.AC./*.>! k(,! A.$h! N3/D,! NhA! 0*65/*%! A.(-*$! $.AC.-,! D#/*#! *(0*2*03,A! *(-.%*'.(-.A! 0.!
0*6.$.(-.A!.AC./*.Al!
9A! .(! .A-.! C3(-,! 0,(0.! A3$'.! .%! A*'(*6*/#0,! 63(0#N.(-#%! 0.! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! .(! %#!
+GAm3.0#! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.?! <,! .A! .%! /#A,! 0.! A*! .A-#N,A!
.N,/*,(#%N.(-.! C$.C#$#0,A>! #! %#! %#$'#>! C#$#! .(6$.(-#$(,A! #! 3(! N.(A#\.! 0.! %#A!
.A-$.%%#A?! KhA! +*.(! A.! -$#-#! 0.! A*! C,0.N,A! 0.A#$$,%%#$! .%! A.(-*0,! 0.! m3.! D#F! A.$.A!
/,(! 0*A-*(-#A! .2,%3/*,(.A>! A.$.A! m3.! C3.0.(! C#$./.$! N3F! 0*6.$.(-.A! #! (,A,-$,A>!
*(/%3A,!fN,(A-$3,A,Ag!A.$.A>!.(!$.A3N.(>!m3.>!A*(!.N+#$',>!A,(!0*'(,A!0.!#N*A-#0!
F! $.AC.-,>! 6$#-.$(*0#0>! F! /,(6*#(X#?! L.(.N,A! -,0#25#! m3.! %%.'#$! N3F! %.\,Ao! #G(!
/3#(0,!D#F!#%'G(!*(0*/*,!0.!m3.!%#!/,N3(*0#0!D3N#(#!A.!N3.2.!.(!.A-#!0*$.//*4(>!
%#!C$.'3(-#!.A!k(,A!N,2.N,A!/,(!A36*/*.(-.!$#C*0.Xl!9%!/,(-#/-,!NhA!C$,+#+%.!/,(!
*(-.%*'.(/*#A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!A.$h!/,(!3(#!A,/*.0#0!N3/D5A*N,!NhA!#2#(X#0#!m3.!%#!
(3.A-$#! ]/#C5-3%,! V8_?! E.$,! (,! (,A! D#%%#$.N,A! .(! #%'G(! N,N.(-,! 0.! 3(! C$.2*A*+%.!
63-3$,!.(!%#!C,A*/*4(!0.!%,A!*(0*,A!#N.$*/#(,A!,!.(!%#!0.!%,A!2*.-(#N*-#A>!+#$+#$*0#0!
/,%,(*#%!C$#/-*/#0#!.(!(,A,-$,A!C,$!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!NhA!#2#(X#0#!-./(,%4'*/#N.(-.>!
0.+*0,! #! %,A! .(,$N.A! .AC#/*,A! .(-$.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A>! F! #! %,! m3.! F,! /$.,! .A! %#!
(.3-$#%*0#0! ,! +,(0#0! 0.! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! m3.! D#! A,+$.2*2*0,! %,! A36*/*.(-.!
C#$#! m3.! (,A! C,('#N,A! .(! /,(-#/-,! /,(! .%%#?! <*! -#NC,/,! %#! A*-3#/*4(! A.$h! %#!
,C3.A-#M!$#C*Q#!-.$$.A-$.!/,(-$#!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A>!C3.A!.A-h(!0.N#A*#0,!
%.\,A!0.!(,A,-$,A!F!A,N,A!$.%#-*2#N.(-.!*(,6.(A*2,A?!9%!/,(-#/-,!/,(!,-$#A!.AC./*.A!
*(-.%*'.(-.A! C.$-.(./*.(-.A! #! 3(! C%#(.-#! 0.! ,-$#! .A-$.%%#! n.AC./*.A! +*,%4'*/#N.(-.!
N3F! 0*6.$.(-.A>! N3/D,! NhA! m3.! (,A,-$,A! 0.! %,A! 0.%6*(.A! ,! %#A! +#%%.(#An! C3.0.!
#F30#$(,A! #! #C#$-#$! 0.! (3.A-$,A! D,N+$,A! .%! 6,$N*0#+%.! +#'#\.! 0.! #/3N3%#0,A!
.',5AN,A>! 0.A0.! .%! (#/*,(#%*AN,! D#A-#! .%! /D#32*(*AN,! D3N#(,?! @3(m3.! C3.0#!
/,A-#$! N3/D,! -*.NC,! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.>! /$.,! m3.>! C,$! .%!
N,N.(-,>! %,! N.\,$! m3.! C,0.N,A! D#/.$! .A! *(*/*#$! 3(! #3-d(-*/,! C$,'$#N#! 0.!
$.D3N#(*X#/*4(>!.(-#+%#(0,!%#X,A!0.!#N*A-#0!/,(!%#A!+#%%.(#A!F!%,A!0.%6*(.A?!
!
25. Oiga! Distribucin Central? Envenme veinte extraterrestres!
!

!
Secuencia de 2001: Una Odisea espacial. Ilustracin de cubierta del libro original de Signet:
The making of Kubricks 2001.
!
K*! #N*',! @$-D3$! "?! "%#$q.! -.(5#! 3(! C$,+%.N#?! 9A-#+#! .A/$*+*.(0,! 3(! '3*4(! /,(!
&-#(%.F!u3+$*/q!0.%!%*+$,!Dr. Strangelove?!&.!-*-3%#$5#!Viaje ms all de las estrellas!F>!
#%! C#$./.$>! A.! %.! D#+5#! C$.A.(-#0,! #%'3(#! 0*6*/3%-#0! .(! .%! 0.A#$$,%%,! 0.%! -.N#?!
kE,0$5#!/.(#$!/,(!.%%,A!.(!.%!.A-30*,!0.!u3+$*/q>!.(!<.r!J,$q>!F!#F30#$%.A!3(!C,/,!
.(! .%! C$,+%.N#l! ]@! C$,C4A*-,>! .%! -5-3%,! 0.! %#! C.%5/3%#! N.! C#$./*4! 3(! C,/,! .B-$#Q,?!
s3.! F,! A3C*.$#>! (,! D#+5#! (*('G(! %3'#$! NhA! #%%h! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A?! H(#! C.%5/3%#! m3.!
2.$A#$#!A,+$.!3(!%3'#$!#A5!-.(0$5#!m3.!A.$!0,A!D,$#A!0.!C#(-#%%#!(.'$#>!3(#!C,A*+%.!
-$#N#!A4%,!C#$#!@(0F!t#$D,%?!9A-#+#!A.'3$,!0.!m3.!A.N.\#(-.!.A/.(#!(,!.$#!%,!m3.!
u3+$*/q!F!"%#$q.!C.(A#+#(!D#/.$>!C,$!A3C3.A-,?_!
L$#A!0*A6$3-#$!0.!3(#!#'$#0#+%.!/.(#>!A.!C%#(-.4!.%!C$,+%.N#!0.!%#!N#(.$#!A*'3*.(-.M!
@C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! .(! %#! N*-#0! 0.! %#! C.%5/3%#>! 3(#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! 0*$*'*0#! C,$! .%!
D,N+$.!A.!#/.$/#!+*.(!#!PGC*-.$!b>!.%!A#-d%*-.!NhA!*(-.$*,$!0.!PGC*-.$>!,!#!P#C.-,>!3(,!
0.! %,A! A#-d%*-.A! 0.! N.0*#(,! -#N#Q,! 0.! &#-3$(,?! "3#(0,! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! A.!
#C$,B*N#!F!A.!D#/.!2*A*+%.!.(!%#!C#(-#%%#!%#!/3$2#-3$#!0.%!A#-d%*-.>!(,A!0#N,A!/3.(-#!
0.! m3.! .%! A#-d%*-.! (,! .A! 3(#! %3(#! (#-3$#%?! &.! -$#-#! 0.! 3(! #$-.6#/-,! 0.! #%'3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(! C3\#(-.! F! N3F! #2#(X#0#?! 1.! $.C.(-.>! #C#$./.! 3(#! #+.$-3$#! .(! 3(! %#0,!
0.%!A#-d%*-.!F>!#!-$#2dA!0.!.%%#>!2.N,A???!.A-$.%%#A?!E.$,!(,!A,(!$.#%N.(-.!%,!m3.!D#F!
#%!,-$,!%#0,!0.%!A#-d%*-.?!9A!3(#!C#$-.! 0.!6*$N#N.(-,!0.!,-$,!%3'#$!0.A/,(,/*0,?!&.!
0*AC#$#(! C.m3.Q,A! /,D.-.A! D#/*#! %#! #+.$-3$#>! C.$,! A.! C*.$0.! .%! /,(-#/-,! /,(! .%%,A!
-#(! C$,(-,! /,N,! C#A#(! #! -$#2dA! 0.! .%%#?! c#! #+.$-3$#! .A! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! C3.$-#!
.AC#/*#%>! 3(! /#N*(,! C#$#! *$! 0.A0.! 3(#! C#$-.! 0.%! H(*2.$A,! #! ,-$#>! A*(! -.(.$! m3.!
$./,$$.$!0*A-#(/*#!#%'3(#?!c#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%!#-$#2*.A#!.A-#!.AC./*.!0.!C3.$-#!F!A3$'.!
.(!%#A!/.$/#(5#A!0.!,-$,!A*A-.N#!.A-.%#$>! .(!/3F,!6*$N#N.(-,!+$*%%#>!63%'3$#(-.>!3(#!
.A-$.%%#! '*'#(-.A/#?! ;$+*-#(0,! #%! '*'#(-.! $,\,>! D#F! 3(! C%#(.-#>! A*(! 030#! #A*.(-,! 0.!
3(#! #2#(X#0#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! -./(,%4'*/#?! c#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! A.! #C$,B*N#! #%! C%#(.-#>!
0.A/*.(0.!A,+$.!d%>!F!%3.',???!km3dl!
@3(m3.! %#A! .A/.(#A! /,(! .%.N.(-,A! D3N#(,A! A.! $,0#$5#(! .(! %,A! .A-30*,A! 0.!
:('%#-.$$#>!.A-#!C#$-.!-#(!*NC,$-#(-.!0.%!'3*4(!ni.%!6*(#%jn!#G(!(,!D#+5#!A*0,!.A/$*-#!
C,$!%,A!0,A!#3-,$.A?!c#!-$*C3%#/*4(!0.!%#!(#2.!.AC#/*#%>!,!#%!N.(,A>!3(#!C#$-.!0.!.%%#>!
*+#! #! .A-#+%./.$! /,(-#/-,! /,(! A.$.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A?! &5>! C.$,>! k/4N,! 0.A/$*+*$! #! %,A!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.Al! u3+$*/q! A3A-.(-#+#! %#! ,C*(*4(! 0.! m3.! (,! 63.A.(! N3F! 0*6.$.(-.A! 0.!
%,A! A.$.A! D3N#(,A?! c#! C$.6.$.(/*#! 0.! u3+$*/q! C,A.5#! 3(#! 2.(-#\#! /%#$#! F! #! %#! 2.X!
./,(4N*/#M!c%#N#$5#!#!%#!1*A-$*+3/*4(!".(-$#%!F!A,%*/*-#$5#!2.*(-.!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A?!",(!
3(! C,/,! 0.! N#m3*%%#\.>! -.(0$5#! .%! C$,+%.N#! $.A3.%-,?! ;-$#! #%-.$(#-*2#! m3.! (,! 63.$#!
dA-#!$.A3%-#$5#!N3F!/,A-,A#?!
@%.'3d! m3.! .$#! -#(! '$#(0.! .%! (GN.$,! 0.! *NC$,+#+%.A! #/,(-./*N*.(-,A! *(0*2*03#%.A!
.(!%#!D*A-,$*#!0.!%#!.2,%3/*4(!0.%!D,N+$.>!m3.!-#NC,/,!.$#!C$,+#+%.!.B*A-*.A.(!.(!.%!
H(*2.$A,!A.$.A!C#$./*0,A!#!(,A,-$,A?!&3'.$5!.(-,(/.A!m3.!/3#%m3*.$!$.C$.A.(-#/*4(!
.BC%5/*-#!0.!3(!A.$!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!#2#(X#0,>!A*(!030#!#%'3(#!N,A-$#$5#>!#%!N.(,A>!3(!
.%.N.(-,!0.!6#%A.0#0!F!m3.!%#!N.\,$!A,%3/*4(!A.$5#!A3'.$*$!#!%,A!A.$.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!
.(!%3'#$!0.!$.-$#-#$%,A!A3*!'.(.$*A?!
c#! C.%5/3%#>! -*-3%#0#! 0.AC3dA! 2001: Una odisea espacial>! A.! .A-$.(4! -$.A! #Q,A! NhA!
-#$0.?!9(!.%!05#!0.%!.A-$.(,>!N.!#%.'$4!2.$!m3.!D#+5#!C$.A-#0,!#%'3(#!#F30#?!",N,!
A3C*N,A! C,$! .%! %*+$,! 0.! P.$,N.! @'.%>! The making of Kubrick's 2001>! u3+$*/q!
.BC.$*N.(-4! 03$#(-.! .%! $,0#\.! /,(! N3/D#A! $.C$.A.(-#/*,(.A! 0.! 2*0#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!
*(/%3F.(0,! 3(! +#*%#$5(! #-#2*#0,! /,(! 3(! N#*%%,-! (.'$,! F! .(-.$,! /,(! +%#(/#A! (,-#A!
N3A*/#%.A!0.!C,%/#?!p,-,'$#6*#0,!/,(-$#!3(!6,(0,!(.'$,>!.A-,!C,0$5#!A.$!2*A3#%N.$$-.!
N3F! .6*/#X?! E,$! G%-*N,>! 0./*0*4! .A-#+%./.$! 3(#! $.C$.A.(-#/*4(! A3$$.#%*A-#! 0.! %#!
*(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.?! c#! C.%5/3%#! 0.A.NC.Q4! 3(! *NC,$-#(-.! C#C.%! .(! D#/.$!
/,NC$.(0.$! #%! D,N+$.! 0.! %#! /#%%.! /3h%! C,0$5#! A.$! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! %#! C.$AC./-*2#!
/4AN*/#?! K3/D,A! /*.(-56*/,A! A,2*d-*/,A! /,(A*0.$#(! #! 2001! /,N,! %#! N.\,$! C.%5/3%#!
#N.$*/#(#! m3.! D#(! 2*A-,?! c#A! #N+*'e.0#0.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! (,! %.A! N,%.A-#$,(! (*!
C$.,/3C#$,(!.(!#+A,%3-,?!
13$#(-.!.%!$,0#\.!0.!2001>!u3+$*/q>!m3.!.2*0.(-.N.(-.!.$#!3(!D,N+$.!C$.,/3C#0,!
C,$! %,A! 0.-#%%.A>! %%.'4!#!#+$*'#$!-.N,$.A!0.!m3.!A.!C30*.$#!0.A/3+$*$!%#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.! #(-.A! 0.! m3.! A.! .BC%,-#$#! /,N.$/*#%N.(-.! %#! C.%5/3%#! m3.! /,A-#+#! %#!
6$*,%.$#!0.!0*.X!N*%%,(.A!0.!04%#$.A>!F!m3.>!.(!-#%!/#A,>!A3!%#+,$!63.$#!*(G-*%>!#0.NhA!
0.!.m3*2,/#0#?!9(-$#$,(!.(!/,(-#/-,!/,(!.%!c%,F0xA!0.!c,(0$.A!C#$#!A3+A/$*+*$!3(#!
C4%*X#! 0.! A.'3$,A! C#$#! C$,-.'.$A.! /,(-$#! %#A! Cd$0*0#A! .(! .%! /#A,! 0.! m3.! A.!
0.A/3+$*.$#! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.>! C.$,! .%! c%,F0xA! 0.! c,(0$.A>! /,NC#Q5#! m3.!
#A.'3$#! %#A! /,(-*('.(/*#A! NhA! *(/$.5+%.A>! A.! (.'4! #! A3+A/$*+*$! -#%! C4%*X#?! 9(! %#!
0d/#0#!0.!%,A!A.A.(-#>!#G(!(,!A.!D#+5#!%%.2#0,!#!/#+,!(*('G(!.A63.$X,!C#$#!+3A/#$!
*(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.>! F! %,! /*.$-,! .A! m3.! .$#! N3F! $.N,-#! %#! C$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.!
-$,C.X#$A.!/,(!.%%#!.(!C,/,A!#Q,A!,!.(!N3/D,A?!@A5!C3.A>!.%!c%,F0xA!0.!c,(0$.A!A.!
C.$0*4!3(!+3.(!(.',/*,?!
!
26. La conexin csmica
!

!
Bellota por Jon Lomberg. Los dbiles vestigios de gas brillantes en el fondo son de los restos
de una supernova.
!
1.A0.!%,A!C$*N.$,A!-*.NC,A>!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!D#(!$.6%.B*,(#0,!A,+$.!.%!%3'#$!m3.!
,/3C#(! .(! .%! H(*2.$A,?! &.! D#(! C$.'3(-#0,! A*! .A-h(! /,(./-#0,A! 0.! #%'3(#! N#(.$#!
/,(!.%!#A,N+$,A,!.!*(N.(A,!",AN,A!.(!.%!m3.!%#!L*.$$#!.A-h!*(N.$A#?!
I#/.! N3/D,A! N*%.A! 0.! #Q,A! A.! *(2.(-4! 3(#! A.30,O/*.(/*#! %%#N#0#! @A-$,%,'5#?! c#A!
C,A*/*,(.A!0.!%,A!C%#(.-#A>!#%!(#/.$!3(!(*Q,>!A.!/$.5#!m3.!0.A.NC.Q#+#(!3(!C#C.%!
*NC,$-#(-5A*N,! .(! 0.-.$N*(#$! A3! 63-3$,?! c,A! C%#(.-#A>! C3(-,A! 0.! %3X! 0.! .-.$(,!
C#$C#0.#$>! .$#(! 0*,A.A?! 9(! A3! 2#(*0#0>! .%! D,N+$.! *N#'*(4! 3(! H(*2.$A,! 0*A.Q#0,!
C#$#!A3!C$,C*,!+.(.6*/*,!F!C.$6./-#N.(-.!,$'#(*X#0,!C#$#!A3!3A,!C#$-*/3%#$?!
s3*Xh! A.! A3C3A,! m3.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! .$#(! 0*,A.A! #! /#3A#! 0.! A3A! N,2*N*.(-,A!
*$$.'3%#$.A?! c#! C#%#+$#! fC%#(.-#g! A*'(*6*/#>! .(! '$*.',>! 2#'#+3(0,?! 9%! *NC$.2*A*+%.!
/,NC,$-#N*.(-,!0.!%,A!0*,A.A!.(!N3/D#A!%.F.(0#A!C3.0.!D#+.$!/,$$.AC,(0*0,!/,(!
%,A>! #%! C#$./.$>! -#N+*d(! *NC$.2*A*+%.A! N,2*N*.(-,A! 0.! %,A! C%#(.-#A?! &.! A3C,(.! m3.!
A.! $#X,(4! #A5M! c,A! 0*,A.A! (,! A.! A3\.-#(! #! (,$N#Ao! %,A! C%#(.-#A! (,! A.! A3\.-#(! #!
(,$N#Ao!%,A!C%#(.-#A!A,(!0*,A.A?!
"3#(0,!%#!#(-*'3#!/#A-#!A#/.$0,-#%!#A-$,%4'*/#!0.A/3+$*4!m3.!.%!N,2*N*.(-,!0.!%,A!
C%#(.-#A! (,! .$#! *$$.'3%#$>! A*(,! C$.2*A*+%.>! A.! '3#$0#$,(! %#! *(6,$N#/*4(! C#$#! A5?! <,!
2#%5#! %#! C.(#! C$.,/3C#$! *((./.A#$*#N.(-.! #%! C,C3%#/D,>! A,/#2#$! A3A! /$..(/*#A!
$.%*'*,A#A! F! .$,A*,(#$! %#A! +#A.A! 0.%! C,0.$! C,%5-*/,?! @0.NhA>!.%! &,%! .$#! %#! 63.(-.! 0.!
2*0#?!c#!c3(#>!N.0*#(-.!%#A!N#$.#A>!0,N*(#+#!%#!#'$*/3%-3$#>!.AC./*#%N.(-.!.(!%#A!
/3.(/#A! 0.! $5,A! /,N,! .%! :(0,>! .%! <*%,>! .%! J#('-X.>! F! .%! L*'$*AO936$#-.A?! i"3#(!
$#X,(#+%.!.$#!.(-,(/.A!m3.!.A-#A!%3/.A!N.(,$.A>!%,A!C%#(.-#A>!.\.$/*.$#(!*(6%3.(/*#!
A,+$.!%#!2*0#!D3N#(#>!3(#!*(6%3.(/*#!NhA!A3-*%>!C.$,!(,!N.(,A!.6*/#Xj!
c#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! 3(#! /,(.B*4(>! .%! .A%#+4(! .(-$.! %#! '.(-.! F! .%! H(*2.$A,>! (,! D#!
0*AN*(3*0,!0.A0.!%,A!#%+,$.A!0.!%#!#A-$,%,'5#?!@!C.A#$!0.!%,A!#2#(/.A!0.!%#!/*.(/*#>!
#G(!C.$A*A-.!-#%!(./.A*0#0?!
@D,$#! A#+.N,A! m3.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! A,(>! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.>! N3(0,A! /,N,! .%! (3.A-$,?!
&#+.N,A!-#N+*d(!m3.!A3!%3X!F!'$#2.0#0!(,!*(6%3F.(!.(!#+A,%3-,!.(!.%!(#/*N*.(-,!0.!
3(! (*Q,?! &#+.N,A! m3.! D#F! .(,$N.A! /#(-*0#0.A! 0.! ,-$,A! ,+\.-,A! n#A-.$,*0.A>!
/,N.-#A>!C3%A#$A>!m3#A#$A>!'#%#B*#A!.BC%,A*2#A>!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A>!.-/d-.$#n>!,+\.-,A!
0.A/,(,/*0,A! C#$#! %,A! #(-*'3,A! .AC./3%#0,$.A! m3.! *(2.(-#$,(! %#! #A-$,%,'5#?! 9%!
H(*2.$A,!.A!N3/D5A*N,!NhA!'$#(0.!0.!%,!m3.!C30*.$,(!D#+.$!*N#'*(#0,?!
c#! @A-$,%,'5#! (,! D#! -$#-#0,! 0.! N#(-.(.$A.! #! %#! #%-3$#! 0.! %,A! -*.NC,A?! :(/%3A,! %,A!
/h%/3%,A!0.!%,A!N,2*N*.(-,A!C%#(.-#$*,A!F!C,A*/*,(.A!.A-#+%./*0,A!C,$!%#!N#F,$!C#$-.!
0.!%,A!#A-$4%,',A!A,(!(,$N#%N.(-.!*(.B#/-,A?!
<*('G(! .A-30*,! N3.A-$#! .A-#05A-*/#N.(-.! 3(! 5(0*/.! 0.! dB*-,A! A*'(*6*/#-*2,A! #%!
C$.0./*$>!N.0*#(-.!A3A!D,$4A/,C,A>!.%!63-3$,!,!%,A!$#A',A!0.!%#!C.$A,(#%*0#0!0.!%,A!
$./*d(!(#/*0,A?!<,!D#F!(*('G(!/#NC,!0.!$#0*,#A-$,%,'5#>!,!#A-$,%,'5#!C,$!$#F,A!z>!,!
#A-$,%,'5#! C,$! $#F,A! '#NN#>! m3.! -.('#(! .(! /3.(-#! %#A! (3.2#A! 63.(-.A!
#A-$,(,N*/,.(.$'d-*/#A!0.A/3+*.$-#A!.(!#Q,A!$./*.(-.A?!
&*(!.N+#$',>!%#!@A-$,%,'5#!A*'3.!A*.(0,!A3N#N.(-.!C,C3%#$!.(!-,0#A!C#$-.A?!E,$!%,!
0.NhA>! D#F! 0*.X! 2./.A! NhA! #A-$4%,',A! m3.! #A-$4(,N,A?! H(! '$#(! (GN.$,>!
C$,+#+%.N.(-.! %#! N#F,$! C#$-.>! 0.! C.$*40*/,A! .(! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A! C3+%*/#(!
0*#$*#N.(-.!A3A!A.//*,(.A!0.!D,$4A/,C,A?!
K3/D#! '.(-.! \,2.(>! '.(-.! +$*%%#(-.! F! A,/*#%N.(-.! +*.(! A*-3#0#>! A*.(-.! '$#(! *(-.$dA!
C,$! %#! @A-$,%,'5#?! &#-*A6#/.! 3(#! (./.A*0#0! *(-.$*,$! 0.! A.(-*$A.! *NC,$-#(-.A! /,N,!
A.$.A!D3N#(,A!.(!3(!",AN,A!*(N.(A,!F!#A,N+$,A,>!/$..$!m3.!0.!#%'3(#!N#(.$#!
(,A! $.%#/*,(#N,A! /,(! .%! H(*2.$A,>! *0.#%! 0.! N3/D#A! .BC.$*.(/*#A! $.%*'*,A#A! F! /,(!
0$,'#A>!.%!samadhi!0.!#%'3(#A!$.%*'*,(.A!,$*.(-#%.A?!
c,A!'$#(0.A!/,(,/*N*.(-,A!0.!%#!#A-$,(,N5#!N,0.$(#!0.N3.A-$#(!m3.>!.(!#%'3(,A!
#AC./-,A! N3F! 0*6.$.(-.A! #! %,A! *N#'*(#0,A! C,$! %,A! #(-*'3,A! #A-$4%,',A>! .A-#N,A!
/,(./-#0,A!/,(!.%!H(*2.$A,?!
c,A!C$*N.$,A!/*.(-56*/,A!F!6*%4A,6,A!n@$*A-4-.%.A>!C,$!.\.NC%,n!*N#'*(#$,(!m3.!.%!/*.%,!
.A-#+#! D./D,! 0.! 3(! N#-.$*#%! 0*6.$.(-.! #%! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>! 3(#! .AC./*.! 0.! A3+A-#(/*#!
/.%.A-.>! C3$#! .! *(N#/3%#0#?! @D,$#! A#+.N,A! m3.! dA-.! (,! .A! .%! /#A,?! L$,X,A! 0.%!
/*(-3$4(!0.!#A-.$,*0.A!%%#N#0,A!N.-.,$*-,A>!%#A!N3.A-$#A!0.!%#!c3(#!-$#50#A!C,$!%,A!
#A-$,(#3-#A! 0.%! @C,%,! F! C,$! %#A! A,(0#A! A,2*d-*/#A>! .%! 2*.(-,! A,%#$! F! %,A! $#F,A!
/4AN*/,A>!m3.!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!A.!'.(.$#(!C,$!%#!.BC%,A*4(!0.!.A-$.%%#A!F!A3A!$.A-,A>!
-,0,A!.%%,A!N3.A-$#(!%#!C$.A.(/*#!0.!%,A!N*AN,A!h-,N,A!m3.!/,(,/.N,A!#m35>!.(!%#!
L*.$$#?!c#!.AC./-$,A/,C*#!#A-$,(4N*/#!C3.0.!0.-.$N*(#$!%#!/,NC,A*/*4(!m35N*/#!0.!
.A-$.%%#A!A*-3#0#A!#!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!%3X!0.!0*A-#(/*#?!L,0,!.%!H(*2.$A,!.A-h!
D./D,!/,(!N#-.$*#%!6#N*%*#$?!c,A!N*AN,A!h-,N,A!F!N,%d/3%#A!A.!D#%%#(!C$.A.(-.A!#!
.(,$N.A!0*A-#(/*#A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!/,N,!%,!.A-h(!0.(-$,!0.!(3.A-$,!&*A-.N#!&,%#$?!
9A-,A! .A-30*,A! /,(03/.(! #! 3(#! (,-#+%.! /,(/%3A*4(?! <,! A,%#N.(-.! .%! H(*2.$A,! .A-h!
.(!-,0#A!C#$-.A!/,(A-*-3*0,!C,$!%,A!N*AN,A!h-,N,A>!A*(,!m3.!%,A!h-,N,A>!D#+%#(0,!
.(!-d$N*(,A!'.(.$#%.A>!.A-h(!C$.A.(-.A!.(! -,0#A!C#$-.A!F!.(!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!%#A!
N*AN#A!C$,C,$/*,(.A?!
"#A*! -,0#! %#! A3+A-#(/*#! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! F! %#! N#-.$*#! *(-.$.A-.%#$! .(-$.! .A-$.%%#A! .A!
D*0$4'.(,! F! D.%*,>! %,A! 0,A! h-,N,A! NhA! A*NC%.A?! L,0,A! %,A! 0.NhA! h-,N,A! A,(!
*NC3$.X#A>! /,(A-*-3F.(-.A! 2.A-*'*#%.A?! 9A-,! -#N+*d(! C3.0.! #C%*/#$A.! #! %,A! '$#(0.A!
C%#(.-#A! .B-.$*,$.A! 0.! (3.A-$,! &*A-.N#! &,%#$>! /,N,! PGC*-.$?! E.$,! (,! .A! #A5! .(!
/3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$.! #! %,A! -$,X,A! /,NC#$#-*2#N.(-.! C.m3.Q,A! 0.! $,/#! F! N.-#%! .(! %#!
C#$-.!*(-.$*,$!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$>!/,N,!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#!L*.$$#?!9A-,!,/3$$.!C,$m3.!%,A!
C.m3.Q,A!C%#(.-#A!-.$$.A-$.A!-*.(.(!'$#2.0#0.A!0.N#A*#0,!0d+*%.A!C#$#!$.-.(.$!A3A!
#-N4A6.$#A! ,$*'*(#%.A! 0.! D*0$4'.(,! F! D.%*,>! #-N4A6.$#A! m3.! '$#03#%N.(-.! D#(!
.A/#C#0,!#%!.AC#/*,?!
c,A! A*'3*.(-.A! h-,N,A! NhA! #+3(0#(-.A! .(! .%! H(*2.$A,! A,(! .%! ,B5'.(,>! /#$+,(,>!
(*-$4'.(,! F! (.4(?! L,0,! .%! K3(0,! D#! ,50,! D#+%#$! 0.! .A-,A! h-,N,A?! kE,$! m3d! %,A!
.%.N.(-,A! m3.! NhA! #+3(0#(! .(! .%! C%#(,! /4AN*/,! A,(! %,A! NhA! $#X,(#+%.N.(-.!
/,$$*.(-.A!.(!%#!L*.$$#>!F!(,>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!.%!J-$*,!,!.%!C$#A.,0*N*,l!
c#!-.,$5#!0.!%#!.2,%3/*4(!0.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!.A-h!%,!A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!#2#(X#0#!C#$#!m3.!
%,A! #A-$4(,N,A! C3.0#(! /,NC$.(0.$! A3A! 0*6.$.(-.A! /%#A.A! F! A3A! $.%#/*,(.AM! /4N,!
3(#!.A-$.%%#!(#/.!0.%!'#A!F!C,%2,!*(-.$.A-.%#$.A>!/4N,!+$*%%#!F!A.!0.A#$$,%%#!N.0*#(-.!
$.#//*,(.A!-.$N,(3/%.#$.A!.(!A3!#$0*.(-.!*(-.$*,$>!F!/4N,!N3.$.?!9A-#A!$.#//*,(.A!
-.$N,(3/%.#$.A! A,(! 0.! %#! N*AN#! /%#A.! m3.! %#A! $.#//*,(.A! m3.! 63(0#N.(-#(! %#A!
#$N#A! (3/%.#$.A! ]+,N+#A! 0.! D*0$4'.(,_M! %#! /,(2.$A*4(! 0.>! /3#-$,! h-,N,A! 0.!
D*0$4'.(,!.(!3(,!0.!D.%*,?!
E.$,!.(!%#A!C,A-.$*,$.A!.-#C#A!0.!%#!.2,%3/*4(!.A-.%#$!.(!.%!*(-.$*,$!0.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!
A.! #%/#(X#(! .%.2#0#A! -.NC.$#-3$#A>! F! %,A! .%.N.(-,A! NhA! C.A#0,A! m3.! .%! D.%*,! A.!
'.(.$#(!C,$!C$,/.A,A!-.$N,(3/%.#$.A?!c#!#A-$,65A*/#!(3/%.#$!*(0*/#!m3.!%,A!h-,N,A!
NhA! #+3(0#(-.A>! C$,03/*0,A! .(! .A-#A! '*'#(-.A/#A! .A-$.%%#A! #$0*.(-.A>! A,(!
C$./*A#N.(-.! %,A! h-,N,A! m3.! NhA! A.! .(/3.(-$#(! .(! %#! L*.$$#! F! .(! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$#!
C#$-.!0.%!H(*2.$A,?!c,A!h-,N,A!C.A#0,A>!'.(.$#0,A!.(!%,A!*(-.$*,$.A!0.!%,A!'*'#(-.A!
$,\,A>! A,(! #$$,\#0,A! #%! N.0*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$! N.0*#(-.! 3(! %.(-,! $.6%3\,! 0.A0.! %#!
#-N4A6.$#!0.!%#!.A-$.%%#>!/,N,!(3.A-$,!C$,C*,!2*.(-,!A,%#$>!,!C,$!N.0*,!0.!C,0.$,A#A!
.BC%,A*,(.A!.A-.%#$.A>!#%'3(#A!0.!%#A!/3#%.A!C3.0.(!D#/.$!m3.!3(#!.A-$.%%#!+$*%%.!N*%!
N*%%,(.A!0.!2./.A!NhA!m3.!(3.A-$,!&,%?!
H(!$./*.(-.!.A-30*,!.AC./-$,A/4C*/,!/,(!*(6$#$$,\,A!0.!.A-$.%%#A!.(!63A*4(!0.A/3+$*4!
m3.!.A-h(!%#(X#(0,!#%!.AC#/*,!A*%*/#-,A>!C,%2,!0.!$,/#!#$$,\#0,!#%!N.0*,!*(-.$.A-.%#$?!
c#A! .A-$.%%#A! 0.! /#$+,(,! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! %#(X#(! C#$-5/3%#A! 0.! '$#6*-,! #%! .AC#/*,!
/4AN*/,!m3.!%#A!$,0.#?!;-$#A!.A-$.%%#A!0.AC$.(0.(!D*.%,?!
9(! A3A! C$*N.$#A! .-#C#A! D*A-4$*/#A>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! #%'3(#A! .A-$.%%#A! /,N,! .%! &,%!
%#(X#$,(! 63.$#! 0.! A5! '$#(0.A! /#(-*0#0.A! 0.! /,NC3.A-,A! ,$'h(*/,A! #%! .AC#/*,!
*(-.$.A-.%#$o! 0.! D./D,! F! N.0*#(-.! .%! .NC%.,! 0.! Nd-,0,A! $#0*,#A-$,(4N*/,A>! A.!
.(/3.(-$#(! N,%d/3%#A! ,$'h(*/#A! A*NC%.A! m3.! C#$./.(! $.%%.(#$! .%! .AC#/*,! .(-$.! %#A!
.A-$.%%#A?! c#! (.+3%,A#! C%#(.-#$*#! NhA! +$*%%#(-.! m3.! A.! /,(,/.! ]3(#! (.+3%,A#!
C%#(.-#$*#! .A! 3(#! (3+.! .(! .BC#(A*4(>! C,$! %,! '.(.$#%! $,0.#0#! C,$! 3(#! .A-$.%%#!
.BC%,A*2#!%%#N#0#!(,2#_!C#$./.!/,(-.(.$!C#$-5/3%#A!0.!/#$+,(#-,!0.!N#'(.A*,?!
9A-,A! h-,N,A! C.A#0,A! n/#$+,(,>! (*-$4'.(,>! ,B5'.(,>! A*%*/*,>! F! 0.NhAn! 6%,-#(! .(! .%!
N.0*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$! D#A-#! m3.! .(! #%'G(! N,N.(-,! C,A-.$*,$! A.! 0#! 3(#! /,(0.(A#/*4(!
'$#2*-#/*,(#*! %,/#%! F! A.! 6,$N#(! 3(! (3.2,! A,%! F! (3.2,A! C%#(.-#A?! 9A-.! A*A-.N#! A,%#$!
0.!A.'3(0#!'.(.$#/*4(!.A-h!.($*m3./*0,!C,$!.%.N.(-,A!C.A#0,A?!
9%!0.A-*(,!0.!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!C3.0.!(,!.A-#$!/,(./-#0,!0.!3(#!N#(.$#!C$,63(0#!
/,(! .%! $.A-,! 0.%! H(*2.$A,>! C.$,! %#! N#-.$*#! 0.! m3.! .A-#N,A! D./D,A! A.! D#%%#!
5(-*N#N.(-.!%*'#0#!#!C$,/.A,A!m3.!,/3$$*.$,(!03$#(-.!*(N.(A,A!*(-.$2#%,A!0.!-*.NC,!
F!.(,$N.A!0*A-#(/*#A!.(!.%!.AC#/*,!%.\,A!0.!(,A,-$,A?!<3.A-$,!&,%!.A!3(#!.A-$.%%#!0.!
-.$/.$#! '.(.$#/*4(?! L,0,! .%! N#-.$*#%! $,/,A,! F! N.-h%*/,! A,+$.! .%! /3#%! (,A!
.(/,(-$#N,A!.%!D*.$$,!0.!(3.A-$#!A#('$.>!.%!/#%/*,!0.!(3.A-$,A!0*.(-.A>!,!.%!/#$+,(,!
0.! (3.A-$,A! '.(.A! A.! C$,03\.$,(! D#/.! N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! .(! .%! *(-.$*,$! 0.!
3(#!'*'#(-.A/#!.A-$.%%#!$,\#?!9A-#N,A!D./D,A!0.!N#-.$*#%!.A-.%#$?!
<3.A-$#! /,(.B*4(! N,%./3%#$! F! #-4N*/#! /,(! .%! $.A-,! 0.%! H(*2.$A,! .A! 3(! /*$/3*-,!
/4AN*/,!$.#%!F!(#0#!/#C$*/D,A,!,!*N#'*(#-*2,?!
@%! .BC%,$#$! .%! 6*$N#N.(-,! m3.! (,A! $,0.#! /,(! .%! -.%.A/,C*,! F! /,(! %#A! (#2.A!
.AC#/*#%.A>! .A! C,A*+%.! m3.! A3$\#(! ,-$,A! /*$/3*-,A?! E3.0.(! A.$! 3(#! $.0! 0.!
/*2*%*X#/*,(.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! *(-.$/,N3(*/#0#A! #! %#A! m3.! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! N#Q#(#!
-.('#N,A! m3.! 3(*$(,A! (,A,-$,A?! c#! 6#%%*0#! 0./%#$#/*4(! 0.! %#! #A-$,%,'5#! nm3.! %#A!
.A-$.%%#A!*(6%3F.(!A,+$.!(3.A-$,A!/#$#/-.$.A!*(0*2*03#%.An!(,!A.$h!/,(6*$N#0#!C,$!%#!
#A-$,(,N5#!N,0.$(#?!
E.$,!%#!C$,63(0#!(./.A*0#0!D3N#(#!0.!+3A/#$!F!/,NC$.(0.$!(3.A-$#!/,(.B*4(!/,(!
.%!H(*2.$A,>!.A!3(!,+\.-*2,!0.(-$,!0.!(3.A-$,!#%/#(/.?!
!
27. Vida extraterrestre: una idea cuyo momento ha llegado
!
I#/.! N*%.A! 0.! #Q,A>! %#! *0.#! 0.! m3.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! .A-#+#(! C,+%#0,A! C,$! A.$.A!
*(-.%*'.(-.A!$.A3%-#+#!*(/,(/.+*+%.?!&.!C.(A#+#!m3.!%,A!C$,C*,A!C%#(.-#A!.$#(!A.$.A!
*(-.%*'.(-.A?!K#$-.!.$#!.%!0*,A!0.!%#!'3.$$#?!R.(3A>!%#!0*,A#!0.!%#!+.%%.X#>!F!PGC*-.$>!.%!
$.F!0.!%,A!0*,A.A?!
9(!%,A!C$*N.$,A!-*.NC,A!0.!=,N#>!3(,A!C,/,A!.A/$*-,$.A>!c3/*#(,!0.!&#N,A#-#>!C,$!
.\.NC%,>! /,(/*+*4! m3.! #%! N.(,A! %#! c3(#! .$#! 3(! %3'#$! m3.! .A-#+#! C,+%#0,! /,N,! %#!
L*.$$#?! &3! $.%#-,! 0.! /*.(/*#O6*//*4(! 0.A/$*+*.(0,! 3(! 2*#\.! #! %#! c3(#! A.! -*-3%4! La
verdadera historia?!E,$!A3C3.A-,>!.$#!6#%A#?!
9(! .%! =.(#/*N*.(-,! A3$'*4! %#! *0.#! 0.! m3.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! (,! .$#(! NhA! m3.! 3(! $.%,\!
/.%.A-.>! 3(! $.%,\! .%.'#(-.>! /$.#0,! C,$! .%! &.Q,$! C#$#! #A,N+$,! F! 3-*%*0#0! 0.! %,A!
D,N+$.A?! 9(! 8[77>! Z*,$0#(,! )$3(,! 63.! m3.N#0,! .(! %#! D,'3.$#>! .(! C#$-.! C,$! 0#$!
C3+%*/*0#0!#!A3!-.,$5#!0.!m3.!D#+5#!,-$,A!N3(0,A!D#+*-#0,A!C,$!,-$,A!A.$.A?!
9(! %,A! A*'%,A! A*'3*.(-.A>! .%! Cd(03%,! #C3(-4! .(! ,-$#! 0*$.//*4(?! 9A/$*-,$.A! /,N,!
).$(#$0! 0.! p,(-.(.%%.>! 9NN#(3.%! &r.0.(+,$'>! .! *(/%3A,! :NN#(3.%! u#(-! F!
P,D#((.A!u.C%.$>!C30*.$,(!*N#'*(#$!A*(!(*('G(!C$,+%.N#!0.!/.(A3$#!m3.!-,0,A!%,A!
C%#(.-#A!.A-#+#(!D#+*-#0,A?!E,$!A3C3.A-,>!.(!%#!*0.#!A.!*NC%*/#+#!m3.!.%!(,N+$.!0.%!
C%#(.-#! C$.A-#+#! /#$h/-.$! #! A3A! D#+*-#(-.A?! c,A! 0.! R.(3A! .$#(! #N,$,A,Ao! %,A! 0.!
K#$-.>!'3.$$.$,A!,!N*%*-#$.Ao!%,A!D#+*-#(-.A!0.!K.$/3$*,>!*(/,(A-#(-.Ao!%,A!0.!PGC*-.$>!
#%.'$.A!F!\,2*#%.Ao!F!#A5!A3/.A*2#N.(-.?!9%!'$#(!#A-$4(,N,!+$*-h(*/,!t*%%*#N!I.$A/D.%!
*(/%3A,!,C*(4!m3.!.%!&,%!.A-#+#!D#+*-#0,?!
E.$,!#!N.0*0#!m3.!.%!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!65A*/,!0.%!&*A-.N#!&,%#$!63.!D#/*d(0,A.!NhA!
/%#$,>!F!#%!D#/.$A.!-#N+*d(!NhA!.2*0.(-.!%#!.B/.%.(-.!#0#C-#/*4(!#%!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!
0.!,$'#(*AN,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!A3$'*.$,(!%,A!.A/dC-*/,A?!E$,+#+%.N.(-.>!K#$-.!F!R.(3A!
.A-#+#(! D#+*-#0,A>! C.$,! A.'3$#N.(-.! (*! K.$/3$*,>! (*! %#! c3(#! (*! PGC*-.$?! J! #A5!
A3/.A*2#N.(-.?!
9(!%#A!G%-*N#A!0d/#0#A!0.%!A*'%,!z:z>!%#A!,+A.$2#/*,(.A!0.%!C%#(.-#!K#$-.>!$.#%*X#0#A!
C,$! Z*,2#((*! &/D*#C#$.%%*! F! E.$/*2#%! c,r.%%>! 0.AC.$-#$,(! %#! .N,/*4(! CG+%*/#! #(-.! %#!
C,A*+*%*0#0! 0.! %#! .B*A-.(/*#! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .(! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#! 2./*(,! C%#(.-#$*,?! c#!
C#A*4(!0.!c,r.%%!C,$!%#!*0.#!0.!m3.!D3+*.A.!A.$.A!*(-.%*'.(-.A!.(!K#$-.!F!%#!#NC%*#!
0*63A*4(! 0.! A3A! %*+$,A! D*/*.$,(! N3/D,! C,$! %%#N#$! %#! #-.(/*4(! 0.%! CG+%*/,>! /,N,!
A3/.0*4! /,(! %,A! .A/$*-,$.A! 0.! /*.(/*#O6*//*4(! m3.! A*'3*.$,(! %#! C#3-#! N#$/#0#! C,$!
c,r.%%?!
E.$,! /3#(0,! %#A! C$3.+#A! 0.! %#! .B*A-.(/*#! 0.! 2*0#! *(-.%*'.(-.! .(! K#$-.! A.! 63.$,(!
0.+*%*-#(0,>! F! A.! 63.! A#+*.(0,! m3.! .%! N.0*,! #N+*.(-.! 0.! K#$-.! .$#! *(/%.N.(-.! 0.!
#/3.$0,!/,(!%#A!(,$N#A!-.$$.A-$.A>!-,0,!.%!.(-3A*#AN,!C,C3%#$!A.!0.A2#(./*4?!
E,$!.(-,(/.A>!.%!*(-.$dA!/*.(-56*/,!C,$!%#!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!D#+5#!#%/#(X#0,!A3!(#0*$?!
9%! N*AN,! .(-3A*#AN,! /,(! m3.! c,r.%%! D#+5#! C.$A.'3*0,! %#! *0.#! 0.! %#! .B*A-.(/*#! 0.!
A.$.A!*(-.%*'.(-.A!.(!K#$-.!F!%#!#-.(/*4(!m3.!C$.A-#+#!.%!D,N+$.!0.!%#!/#%%.!#!.A-#A!
*0.#A! m3.0#$,(! #(3%#0#A! C,$! ,-$,A! N3/D,A! /*.(-56*/,A?! E,$! #Q#0*03$#>! 3(! (3.2,!
/#NC,! #A-$,(4N*/,>! %#! #A-$,65A*/#>! %#! #C%*/#/*4(! 0.! %#! 65A*/#! #! %#A! A3C.$6*/*.A! .!
*(-.$*,$.A! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A>! D#+5#(! %,'$#0,! .B-$#,$0*(#$*,A! dB*-,A>! A*.(0,! #A5! m3.! %,A!
\42.(.A! #A-$4(,N,A! NhA! .(-3A*#A-#A! A.! 0.0*/#$,(! #%! .A-30*,! 0.! %#! #A-$,(,N5#!
.A-.%#$>! #+#(0,(#(0,>! .(! '$#(! N.0*0#>! %,A! .A-30*,A! C%#(.-#$*,A?! 9%! Cd(03%,! D#+5#!
,A/*%#0,!-#(!%.\,A!m3.!.(!.%!C.$5,0,!m3.!A*'3*4!#!%#!&.'3(0#!Z3.$$#!K3(0*#%!D3+,!n
.(!-,0,A!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,An!A4%,!3(!#A-$4(,N,!0.0*/#0,!#!A.$*#A!*(2.A-*'#/*,(.A!
65A*/#A!0.!%,A!C%#(.-#A>!Z?!E?!u3*C.$>!0.!%#!H(*2.$A*0#0!0.!"D*/#',?!c,A!#A-$4(,N,A!
(,! A4%,! D#+5#(! C$.A/*(0*0,! 0.! %#! 2*0#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.>! A*(,! -#N+*d(! 0.! %,A! .A-30*,A!
C%#(.-#$*,A!.(!'.(.$#%?!
1.A0.! 8Tb7>! %#! A*-3#/*4(! D#! 23.%-,! #! A3A! #(-*'3,A! /#3/.A! %.(-#N.(-.o! .%! Cd(03%,!
,A/*%#! 0.! (3.2,! (,$N#%N.(-.?! 9%! 0.A#$$,%%,! 0.! (3.2,A! *(A-$3N.(-,A! 0.! N.0*0#!
]A3+C$,03/-,!0.!%#!&.'3(0#!Z3.$$#!K3(0*#%_>!#%!C$*(/*C*,!/,(!+#A.!.(!-*.$$#!F!NhA!
-#$0.! .(! .%! .AC#/*,>! D#! C$,03/*0,! 3(#! N#A*2#! *(F.//*4(! 0.! (3.2,A! /,(,/*N*.(-,A!
+hA*/,A! A,+$.! %,A! N.0*,A! #N+*.(-.A! 65A*/,A! 0.! %#! c3(#! F! 0.! %,A! C%#(.-#A?! H(#! 2.X!
NhA>!%,A!\42.(.A!/*.(-56*/,A!A.!D#(!A.(-*0,!#-$#50,A!C,$!%,A!.A-30*,A!C%#(.-#$*,A>!(,!
-#(!A4%,!%,A!#A-$4(,N,A>!A*(,!-#N+*d(!%,A!'.4%,',A>!m35N*/,A>!65A*/,A!F!+*4%,',A?!c#!
0*A/*C%*(#!%,A!(./.A*-#!#!-,0,A?!

!
El Sistema Solar. Las distancias desde el Sol se muestran tomando como unidad la distancia a
la Tierra. Las marcas en tridente son un ndice de la excentricidad de una rbita planetaria y
muestran las distancias ms cercana, promedio, y ms lejana al planeta desde el Sol. Las
masas de los planetas se expresan tomando como unidad a la masa terrestre. Los planetas
jovianos se distinguen de los planetas terrestres por el reticulado.
 !
Cinco sistemas solares modelo, obtenidos por Steven Dole en un experimento computacional
sobre la Fsica de los orgenes de los sistemas solares. Los sistemas de Dole son claramente
muy similares a nuestro Sistema Solar. Esta es una de las varias lneas de evidencia que
sugieren que los sistemas planetarios son acompaantes habituales de las estrellas a todo lo
largo y ancho de la galaxia. Cortesa de ICARUS.

!
@D,$#!A#+.N,A!m3.!%,A!63(0#N.(-,A!0.%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#!.A-h(!.(!%,A!-.$$.(,A!0.!
%#!65A*/#!F!0.!%#!m35N*/#o!A*.NC$.!m3.!A.!.BC,(.(!%#A!#-N4A6.$#A!C$*N*-*2#A!(,$N#%.A!
#!%#A!63.(-.A!0.!.(.$'5#!/,NG(>!%,A!+%,m3.A!0.!/,(A-$3//*4(!0.!%#!2*0#!.(!%#!L*.$$#!
/#.(!0.!%#!#-N4A6.$#!.(!C.$5,0,A!0.!05#A!,!A.N#(#A?! &.!D#(!D#%%#0,!/,NC3.A-,A!
,$'h(*/,A! .(! %,A! N.-.,$*-,A! F! .(! .%! .AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$?! &.! D#(! .(/,(-$#0,!
C.m3.Q#A! /#(-*0#0.A! .(! N.0*,A! #N+*.(-.A! -#(! C,/,! D,AC*-#%#$*,A! /,N,! .%! 0.! %#!
c3(#?! &.! A,AC./D#! m3.! .B*A-.(! .(! PGC*-.$>! .(! %,A! C%#(.-#A! .B-.$*,$.A! 0.%! &*A-.N#!
&,%#$>! #A5! /,N,! .(! L*-h(>! %#! %3(#! NhA! '$#(0.! 0.! &#-3$(,?! L#(-,! %#! -.,$5#! /,N,! %#!
,+A.$2#/*4(! A3'*.$.(! m3.! %,A! C%#(.-#A! A,(! #/,NC#Q#(-.A! D#+*-3#%.A>! A*(,!
/,(A-#(-.A>! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A>! #(-.A! m3.! 3(#! N3F! $#$#! ,/3$$.(/*#>! /,N,! .A-32,! 0.!
N,0#!/$..$!.(!%#A!C$*N.$#A!0d/#0#A!0.!.A-.!A*'%,?!
E,$! C$*N.$#! 2.X! 0*AC,(.N,A! #D,$#! 0.! N.0*,A! C#$#! .A-#+%./.$! /,(-#/-,! /,(!
/*2*%*X#/*,(.A! .(! C%#(.-#A! 0.! ,-$#A! .A-$.%%#A?! 9A! 3(! D./D,! #A,N+$,A,! m3.! .%! '$#(!
$#0*,-.%.A/,C*,!0.!V7!N!0.!0*hN.-$,!0.%!<#-*,(#%!@A-$,(,NF!#(0!:,(,ACD.$.!".(-.$>!
0*$*'*0,! C,$! %#! ",$(.%%! H(*2.$A*-F! .(! @$./*+,>! E3.$-,! =*/,>! C,0$5#! A.$! /#C#X! 0.!
/,N3(*/#$A.! /,(! ,-$,! *0d(-*/,! A*-3#0,! .(! /3#%m3*.$! %3'#$! 0.! %#! R5#! ch/-.#?!
1*AC,(.N,A! 0.! %,A! N.0*,A! 0.! /,N3(*/#$(,A! (,! A4%,! 2.(/*.(0,! 0*A-#(/*#A! 0.!
/.(-.(#$.A! ,! N*%.A! 0.! #Q,AO%3X>! A*(,! m3.! C,0.N,A! D#/.$%,! 0.! .A#! N#(.$#! .(! 3(!
2,%3N.(!m3.!/,(-.('#!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!.A-$.%%#A?!c#!D*C4-.A*A!0.!
m3.! .B*A-.(! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! N3F! #2#(X#0#A! .(! ,-$,A! C%#(.-#A! A.! .A-h! C,(*.(0,! #!
C$3.+#?! J#! D#! 0.\#0,! 0.! A.$! C3$#! .AC./3%#/*4(?! @D,$#! A.! D#%%#! .(! .%! -.$$.(,! 0.! %#!
.BC.$*N.(-#/*4(?!
<3.A-$,! C$*N.$! *(-.(-,! 0.! .A/3/D#$! .N*A*,(.A! 0.! A,/*.0#0.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! 63.! .%!
E$,F./-,! ;XN#?! ;$'#(*X#0,! C,$! p$#(q! 1$#q.>! .(! 8T[7! .(! .%! <#-*,(#%! =#0*,!
@A-$,(,NF!;+A.$2#-,$F!]<=@;_!/,(-.NC%4!0,A!.A-$.%%#A!.(!3(#!6$./3.(/*#!03$#(-.!
0,A!A.N#(#A?!c,A!$.A3%-#0,A!63.$,(!(.'#-*2,A?!9(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0>!A.!D#(!%%.2#0,!#!%#!
C$h/-*/#!C$,F./-,A!N3/D,!NhA!#N+*/*,A,A!.(!.%!:(A-*-3-,!0.!=#0*,65A*/#!Z,$q*!0.!%#!
H(*4(! &,2*d-*/#>! F! .(! %#! <=@;>! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A?! 9(! -,-#%>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! A.!
.B#N*(.(!3(,A!/3#(-,A!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!/.$/#(#A!.A-$.%%#A!.(!3(#!,!0,A!6$./3.(/*#A?!
E.$,! *(/%3A,! %,A! /h%/3%,A! NhA! ,C-*N*A-#A! A,+$.! %#A! 0*A-#(/*#A! #! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! NhA!
C$4B*N#A! A3'*.$.(! m3.! D#+$h! m3.! .B#N*(#$! /.(-.(#$.A! 0.! N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.!
.A-$.%%#A!#(-.A!0.!m3.!C,$!C#$-.!0.!3(#!0.!.%%#A!A.!$./*+#!3(#!A.Q#%!*(-.%*'*+%.?!9A-,!
$.m3*.$.!3(!'$#(!.A63.$X,!m3.!#+#$m3.!3(!A3+A-#(/*,A,!C.$5,0,!0.!-*.NC,?!E.$,!.A!
3(! .A63.$X,! m3.! .A-h! 0.(-$,! 0.! (3.A-$,A! $./3$A,A>! (3.A-$#A! D#+*%*0#0.A! F! (3.A-$,A!
*(-.$.A.A?!
9%!/#N+*,!.(!.%!/%*N#!0.!,C*(*4(!#/.$/#!0.!%#!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!A.!$.6%.\4!.(!8TU8>!
N.0*#(-.! 3(#! /,(6.$.(/*#! /*.(-56*/#! /.%.+$#0#! .(! )*3$#qh(>! @$N.(*#! A,2*d-*/#>!
C#-$,/*(#0#! /,(\3(-#N.(-.! C,$! %#! @/#0.N*#! &,2*d-*/#! 0.! "*.(/*#A! F! %#! @/#0.N*#!
<#/*,(#%! 0.! "*.(/*#A! 0.! %,A! 9A-#0,A! H(*0,A?! L32.! .%! C$*2*%.'*,! 0.! #A*A-*$! #! .A-#!
$.3(*4(!/,(!%#!0.%.'#/*4(!#N.$*/#(#?!c,A!C#$-*/*C#(-.A!$.C$.A.(-#+#(!#!%,A!/#NC,A!
0.! %#! #A-$,(,N5#>! 65A*/#>! N#-.Nh-*/#A>! +*,%,'5#>! m35N*/#>! #$m3.,%,'5#>! #(-$,C,%,'5#>!
D*A-,$*#>!.%./-$4(*/#>!-./(,%,'5#!0.!/,NC3-#0,$#A!F!/$*C-,'$#65#?!9%!'$3C,>!m3.!*(/%35#!
#!0,A!.A/dC-*/,A!%#3$.#0,A!<,+.%>!#C#$./5#!C.$6./-#N.(-.!N#$/#0,!C,$!A3A!%5N*-.A!
-#(-,!(#/*,(#%.A!/,N,!0*A/*C%*(#$*,A?!c#!/,(6.$.(/*#!/,(/%3F4!m3.!%#A!,C,$-3(*0#0.A!
,! C,A*+*%*0#0.A! 0.! m3.! D3+*.A.! 2*0#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.>! #0.NhA! 0.! (3.A-$#! /#C#/*0#0!
-./(,%4'*/#! #/-3#%! C#$#! C,0.$! /,N3(*/#$! /,(! -#%.A! A3C3.A-#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A>! .$#(!
A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!$#X,(#+%.A!/,N,!C#$#!*(*/*#$!3(#!A.$*#!*(2.A-*'#/*4(?!@%'3(#A!0.!%#A!
/,(/%3A*,(.A!.AC./56*/#A!#!m3.!A.!%%.'#$,(!63.$,(!%#A!A*'3*.(-.AM!
8>! c,A! A,$C$.(0.(-.A! 0.A/3+$*N*.(-,A! 0.! #Q,A! $./*.(-.A! .(! %,A! /#NC,A! 0.! %#!
#A-$,(,N5#>!+*,%,'5#>!/*.(/*#!0.!/,NC3-#0,$.A>!F!$#0*,65A*/#!D#(!D./D,!m3.!#%'3(,A!
0.! %,A! C$,+%.N#A! 0.! %#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! F! A3! 0.-.//*4(! C#A.(! 0.%!
/#NC,!0.!%#!.AC./3%#/*4(!#%!0.!%#!.BC.$*N.(-#/*4(!F!,+A.$2#/*4(?!E,$!2.X!C$*N.$#!
.(! %#! D*A-,$*#! D3N#(#>! .A! C,A*+%.! %%.2#$! #! /#+,! 0.-#%%#0,A! .BC.$*N.(-,A! .!
*(2.A-*'#/*,(.A!0.!.A-.!C$,+%.N#!-#(!63(0#N.(-#%!.!*NC,$-#(-.?!
`?!9A!C$,+#+%.!m3.!.A-.!C$,+%.N#!-.('#!C$,63(0,!A*'(*6*/#0,!.(!.%!63-3$,!0.A#$$,%%,!
0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0?! &*! .(! #%'G(! N,N.(-,! A.! 0.A/3+$.! %#! .B*A-.(/*#! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A>!.A-.!D./D,!.\.$/.$h!.(,$N.!*(6%3.(/*#!.(!%#!/#C#/*0#0!-./(,%4'*/#!F!
/*.(-56*/#! D3N#(#A>! D#A-#! .%! C3(-,! 0.! m3.! -#%! 0.A/3+$*N*.(-,! C,0$h! *(6%3*$>!
C,A*-*2#N.(-.>!.(!-,0,!.%!63-3$,!0.%!D,N+$.?!9%!A*'(*6*/#0,!C$h/-*/,!F!6*%,A46*/,!0.!3(!
/,(-#/-,! 0.! dB*-,! /,(! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.! A.$5#! -#(! .(,$N.! /,N,! C#$#!
\3A-*6*/#$! .%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! $.#%*/.N,A! *('.(-.A! .A63.$X,A?! c#A! /,(A./3.(/*#A! 0.! -#%!
0.A/3+$*N*.(-,>!A*(!030#!#%'3(#>!#3N.(-#$5#(!0.!N#(.$#!(,-#+%.!%,A!/,(,/*N*.(-,A!
D3N#(,A?!
V?!c,A!$./3$A,A!/*.(-56*/,A!F!-./(,%4'*/,A!0.!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#!A,(!F#!A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!
*NC,$-#(-.A! /,N,! C#$#! C.$N*-*$(,A! *(*/*#$! *(2.A-*'#/*,(.A! ,$*.(-#0#A! D#/*#! %#!
+GAm3.0#! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.?! ",N,! (,$N#>! -#%.A! .A-30*,A! D#(! 0.!
C$,C,$/*,(#$!*NC,$-#(-.A!$.A3%-#0,A!/*.(-56*/,A>!#3(!/3#(0,! %#! +GAm3.0#! .AC./56*/#!
0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.! (,! /,(A*'#! dB*-,! #%'3(,?! 9(! %#! #/-3#%*0#0>! .A-#A!
*(2.A-*'#/*,(.A!C3.0.(!%%.2#$A.!#!/#+,!/,(!.6*/#/*#!.(!2#$*,A!C#5A.A!N.0*#(-.!A3A!
C$,C*#A! *(A-*-3/*,(.A! /*.(-56*/#A?! &*(! .N+#$',>! *(/%3A,! .(! .A-#! C$*N.$#! .-#C#>! A.$5#!
G-*%! 0*A/3-*$! F! .A-#+%./.$! C$,'$#N#A! 0.! /,,$0*(#/*4(! .(! /3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$.! #! -#%.A!
*(2.A-*'#/*,(.A! .! *(-.$/#N+*#$! *(6,$N#/*4(! /*.(-56*/#?! 9(! .%! 63-3$,! A.$5#! 0.A.#+%.!
/,N+*(#$!%,A!.A63.$X,A!0.!%,A!*(2.A-*'#0,$.A!0.!2#$*,A!C#5A.A!C#$#!%,'$#$!,+\.-*2,A!
0.! ,+A.$2#/*4(! F! .BC.$*N.(-#/*4(?! ",(A*0.$#N,A! #0./3#0,! m3.! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.!
*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!0.+#!$.#%*X#$A.!C,$!$.C$.A.(-#(-.A!0.!-,0#!%#!I3N#(*0#0?!
a?!9(!%#!",(6.$.(/*#!A.!D#(!0*A/3-*0,!0*2.$A,A!Nd-,0,A!m3.!D#(!0.!.NC%.#$A.!.(!%#!
+GAm3.0#!0.!2*0#!.!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.?!c#!$.#%*X#/*4(!0.!%#!NhA!.%#+,$#0#!0.!
.A-#A! C$,C3.A-#A! ,! Nd-,0,A! (./.A*-#$5#! /,(A*0.$#+%.! -*.NC,! F! .A63.$X,! F! .NC%.#$!
3(,A! N.0*,A! ./,(4N*/,A! /,NC#$#+%.A! #! %,A! m3.! A.! 0.0*/#(! #! %#! *(2.A-*'#/*4(!
.AC#/*#%! F! (3/%.#$?! &*(! .N+#$',>! -#N+*d(! A.! C3.0.(! *(*/*#$! *(2.A-*'#/*,(.A! .(!
.A/#%#A!NhA!N,0.A-#A?!
b?! c,A! C#$-*/*C#(-.A! .(! %#! ",(6.$.(/*#! /,(A*0.$#(! N3F! 2#%*,A#! %#! *(2.A-*'#/*4(! F!
.BC.$*N.(-,A!m3.!A.!$.#%*X#(!.(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0!F!m3.!0.+.(!A.'3*$!.6./-3h(0,A.!.(!
.%!63-3$,!.(!/3#(-,!A.!$.%#/*,(#!/,(!%#A!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A>!.BC.$*N.(-,A!m3.!D#(!0.!
,$*.(-#$A.! D#/*#! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! 2*0#! .(! ,-$,A! C%#(.-#A! 0.! (3.A-$,! &*A-.N#! &,%#$?!
=./,N*.(0#(! %#! /,(-*(3#/*4(! F! .A63.$X,A! .(! -#%.A! h$.#A! /,N,! %#! 0.! %#! m35N*/#!
,$'h(*/#! C$.+*,%4'*/#>! +GAm3.0#! 0.! A*A-.N#A! C%#(.-#$*,A! .B-$#A,%#$.A! F! +*,%,'5#!
.2,%3/*,(#$5#>!m3.!-#(-,!A.!$.%#/*,(#(!/,(!.%!C$,+%.N#?!
[?! c#! ",(6.$.(/*#! $./,N*.(0#! %#! *(*/*#/*4(! 0.! (3.2#A! *(2.A-*'#/*,(.A! .AC./56*/#A!
,$*.(-#0#A!D#/*#!N,0,A!,!Nd-,0,A!0.!/#C-#$!A.Q#%.A?!
]L,0#A! %#A! #/-#A! F! C$,/.0*N*.(-,A! 0.! %#! /,(6.$.(/*#! A.! D#(! C3+%*/#0,! /,N,!
Comunicacin con inteligencias extraterrestres>! "#$%! &#'#(>! "#N+$*0'.>!
K#AA#/D3A.--A>!K?:?L?!E$.AA>!8TUV?_!
;-$#! A.Q#%! 0.! %#! /$./*.(-.! #/.C-#/*4(! 0.! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.!
A,(!%#A!$./,N.(0#/*,(.A!0.!%#!",N*A*4(!:(AC./-,$#!0.!@A-$,(,N5#!0.!%#!@/#0.N*#!
<#/*,(#%!0.!"*.(/*#A!0.!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A>!#!%#!m3.!A.!D#+5#!A,%*/*-#0,!$.A3N*.$#!
%#A! (./.A*0#0.A! 0.! %#! #A-$,(,N5#! C#$#! %#! 0d/#0#! 0.! %,A! #Q,A! U7?! 9%! *(6,$N.! 0.! %#!
/,N*A*4(! 63.! .%! C$*N.$! *(6,$N.! (#/*,(#%! A,+$.! .%! 63-3$,! 0.! %#! #A-$,(,N5#! m3.!
$./,N.(0#+#! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.>! /,N,! C,A*+%.! *NC,$-#(-.!
A3+C$,03/-,!0.!%#!*(2.A-*'#/*4(!#A-$,(4N*/#!.(!3(!63-3$,!C$4B*N,!F!\3A-*6*/#/*4(!C#$#!
6#+$*/#$!'$#(0.A!$#0*,-.%.A/,C*,A?!
E*A#(0,! 3(! -.$$.(,! NhA! C$h/-*/,>! 0*$.N,A! m3.! A.! .A-h(! %%.2#(0,! #! /#+,! -#N+*d(!
*(-.(A,A! .A-30*,A! 0.! %#+,$#-,$*,! A,+$.! %,A! ,$5'.(.A! 0.! %#! 2*0#! .(! %#! L*.$$#?! &*! .%!
,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#!.(!%#!L*.$$#!$.A3%-#!D#+.$!A*0,!N3F!f6h/*%g>!.(-,(/.A!-#N+*d(!A.$h(!
N3/D#A!%#A!C,A*+*%*0#0.A!0.!m3.!D#F#!2*0#!.(!,-$,A!%3'#$.A!0.%!H(*2.$A,?!
9B*A-.!#A*N*AN,!3(!C$,F./-,!.(!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A!n.%!E$,F./-,!R*q*('n!C#$#!A*-3#$!
*(A-$3N.(-,A! .(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! K#$-.! F! +3A/#$! #A5! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#! *(05'.(#A! 0.!
#m3.%!C%#(.-#?!
92*0.(-.N.(-.>!%#!*0.#!0.!%#!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!.A!#%',!m3.>!C,$!A3.$-.>!C$.,/3C#!#%!
K3(0,!.(-.$,?!
!
28. Ha sido visitada la Tierra?
!
E,$! A3C3.A-,>! %#! 6,$N#! NhA! +#$#-#! F! 6h/*%! 0.! /,N3(*/#$A.! /,(! %#! L*.$$#>! A*! 3A-.0!
63.$#!$.C$.A.(-#(-.!0.!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!#2#(X#0#>!A.$5#>!A*(!030#>!C,$!
$#0*,?! H(! A*NC%.! N.(A#\.! .(2*#0,! #! -$#2dA! 0.%! .AC#/*,! /,(! 0*$.//*4(! #! %#! L*.$$#!
/,A-#$5#!N.(,A!0.!3(!C.(*m3.?!E,$!-#(-,>!C#$./.!$#X,(#+%.!m3.!.(!%#!+GAm3.0#!0.!
*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!/,N.(/.N,A!C,$!*(2.A-*'#$!.A-#!C,A*+*%*0#0?!E.$,>!kD.N,A!
0.!#+#(0,(#$!,-$#A!C,A*+*%*0#0.Al!k<,!A.$5#!3(#!.A-3C*0.X!0.0*/#$!-,0,A!(3.A-$,A!
.A63.$X,A! #! .A/3/D#$! N.(A#\.A! $#0*#0,A! ,! #! +3A/#$! A.Q#%.A! 0.! 2*0#! .(! K#$-.!
/3#(0,!#m35>!.(!%#!L*.$$#>!C3.0.(!.B*A-*$!C$3.+#A!0.!3(#!2*0#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.l!
9B*A-.(! 0,A! D*C4-.A*A! 0.! .A-#! /%#A.! m3.! D#(! /,(A.'3*0,! 3(! C3.A-,! .(! %#! %*-.$#-3$#!
C,C3%#$?!c#!C$*N.$#!0.!.%%#A!A3'*.$.>!F!#!2./.A!#A.'3$#>!m3.!%#!L*.$$#>!D,F!05#>!.A-h!
A*.(0,! 2*A*-#0#! C,$! (#2.A! .AC#/*#%.A! 0.! ,-$,A! N3(0,Ao! dA-#! .A! %#! D*C4-.A*A! 0.! %,A!
C%#-*%%,A!2,%#(-.A!3!,+\.-,A!2,%#0,$.A!A*(!*0.(-*6*/#$?!c#!A.'3(0#!-#N+*d(!C,A-3%#!m3.!
%#!L*.$$#!63.!2*A*-#0#!C,$!.A-.!-*C,!0.!(#2.A!.AC#/*#%.A>!C.$,!.(!.%!C#A#0,>!#(-.A!0.!
.A/$*+*$A.!%#!I*A-,$*#?!
c#! D*C4-.A*A! 0.! %,A! ;R<:&>! .A! 0./*$! %#! C$*N.$#! 0.! %#A! N.(/*,(#0#A>! .A! -.N#! N3F!
/,NC%.\,!F!m3.!0.C.(0.!0.!%#!6*#+*%*0#0!0.!%,A!-.A-*',A?!I#/.!3(,A!#Q,A!A.!C3+%*/4!
3(#! #NC%*#! 0*A/3A*4(! A,+$.! .A-.! C$,+%.N#! .(! UFO's: Un debate cientfico! ]"#$%!
&#'#(!F!LD,$(-,(!E#'.>!.0*-,$.A>!:-D#/#>!<.r!J,$q>!",$(.%%!H(*2.$A*-F!E$.AA>!8TU`_>!
.(!.%!/3#%!A.!D#(!#*$.#0,!-,0,A!%,A!#AC./-,A!0.%!-.N#?!K*!C3(-,!0.!2*A-#!C.$A,(#%!.A!
m3.! (,! D#F! /#A,A! m3.! #%! N*AN,! -*.NC,! A.#(! N3F! A.'3$,A! ]/,N3(*/#0,A!
*(0.C.(0*.(-.N.(-.!C,$!3(!'$#(!(GN.$,!0.!-.A-*',A_!F!N3F!.B-$#Q,A!](,!.BC%*/#+%.A!
.(!-d$N*(,A!0.!6.(4N.(,A!C,A-3%#0,A!0.!N#(.$#!$#X,(#+%.>!/,N,>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!3(#!
.B-$#Q#!%3X!m3.!A.!N3.2.!C,0$5#!A.$!%#!0.!3(!$.6%./-,$!0.!3(!#2*4(!N.-.,$,%4'*/,!,!
%#! 0.! 3(#! ,C.$#/*4(! N*%*-#$! #d$.#! 0.! A3N*(*A-$,! 0.! /,N+3A-*+%._?! <,! .B*A-.(! /#A,A>!
/,N3(*/#0,A! /,(! #+A,%3-#! A.'3$*0#0>! A,+$.! .B-$#Q#A! Nhm3*(#A! m3.! #-.$$*/.(! ,!
0.AC.'3.(>!C,$!.\.NC%,?!
I#F! ,-$#! #C$,B*N#/*4(! #! %#! D*C4-.A*A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.! 0.! %,A! ,$5'.(.A! 0.! %,A! ;R<:&?!
9A-#! 2#%,$#/*4(! 0.C.(0.! 0.! 3(! '$#(! (GN.$,! 0.! 6#/-,$.A! A,+$.! %,A! /3#%.A!
/,(,/.N,A! N3F! C,/#A! /,A#A! F>! 0.! ,-$,A! C,/,A! NhA>! #/.$/#! 0.! %,A! /3#%.A! (,!
A#+.N,A! (#0#?! 1.A.,! D#/.$! 3(! /h%/3%,! 0.! %#A! C$,+#+*%*0#0.A! 0.! m3.! A.#N,A!
2*A*-#0,A!/,(!6$./3.(/*#!C,$!A.$.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A?!
I,F!05#>!A.!0*AC,(.!0.!3(#!'$#(!'#N#!0.!D*C4-.A*A!m3.!C3.0.(!.B#N*(#$A.!0.!.A#!
6,$N#?! H(! .\.NC%,M! ",(A*0.$.N,A! %#! D*C4-.A*A! &#(-#! "%#3A! m3.! N#(-*.(.! m3.>!
03$#(-.! 3(! C.$5,0,! 0.! ,/D,! D,$#A! ,! #A5>! .%! `aO`b! 0.! 0*/*.N+$.! 0.! /#0#! #Q,>! 3(!
03.(0./*%%,!,!.(#(,!2*A*-#!/*.(!N*%%,(.A!0.!D,'#$.A!.(!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A?!wA-#!.A!
3(#! D*C4-.A*A! *(-.$.A#(-.! F! #NC%*#N.(-.! 0*A/3-*0#?! 9A-h! /#$'#0#! 0.! 63.$-.A!
.N,/*,(.A!F!A.!0*/.!m3.!C,$!%,!N.(,A!(,!D#/.!0#Q,!#!(#0*.?!
I#'#N,A! #%'3(,A! /h%/3%,A?! &3C,('#N,A! m3.! .%! 03.(0.! .(! /3.A-*4(! C#A#! 3(!
A.'3(0,!.(!/#0#!/#A#?!)*.(>!A,AC./D,!m3.!dA-.!(,!.A!.%!2.$0#0.$,!/3#0$,!m3.!-,0,!
.%!N3(0,!*N#'*(#>!C.$,!A*'#N,A!/,(!.%!/h%/3%,?!@3(!N,A-$h(0,A.!N3F!$hC*0,!.(!A3A!
2*A*-#A>!F!.A-,!.BC%*/#$5#!C,$!m3d!D#F!N3/D#!'.(-.!m3.!(,!%,!2.!N3/D,>!.%!03.(0.>!
*(2*$-*.(0,!3(!A.'3(0,!C,$!/#A#>!-.(0$5#!m3.!C#A#$!-$.A!#Q,A!%%.(#(0,!/#%/.-*(.A?!I.!
A3C3.A-,!m3.!(,!*(2*.$-.!(*('G(!-*.NC,!.(!*$!0.!/#A#!.(!/#A#?!@3(!/,(-#(0,!/,(!.%!
C,C3%#$! $.(,>! .%! -*.NC,! C#A#0,! .(! /*.(! N*%%,(.A! 0.! /#A#A! A*'3.! A*.(0,! .%! 0.! -$.A!
#Q,A! F! (,! .%! 0.! ,/D,! D,$#A?! 9(-,(/.A>! D.N,A! 0.! /,(/%3*$! m3.! .A-#! D*C4-.A*A! .A!
#+A3$0#?!
E,0.N,A! D#/.$! 3(! .B#N.(! C#$./*0,>! C.$,! /,(! N#F,$! *(A.'3$*0#0>! 0.! %#! D*C4-.A*A!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.! m3.! A,A-*.(.! m3.! 3(! '$#(! (GN.$,! 0.! ;R<:&! 2*A-,A! A,+$.! .%! C%#(.-#!
L*.$$#! A,(! 2.D5/3%,A! .AC#/*#%.A! C$,/.0.(-.A! 0.! C%#(.-#A! 0.! ,-$#A! .A-$.%%#A?! c,A!
*(6,$N.A!*(0*/#(!m3.>!#%!N.(,A!.(!/#A,A!$./*.(-.A>!.A-,A!6.(4N.(,A!A.!D#(!0#0,!#!
0*#$*,>!2#$*,A!C,$!05#?!<,!%,!0*A/3-*$d?!K.!2,F!#!%*N*-#$!#!A.$!NhA!/,(A.$2#0,$!.(!.A-.!
-.$$.(,!F!#!A3C,(.$!m3.!-#%.A!2*A*-#A!A.!$.03/.(!#!A4%,!3(#!C,$!#Q,?!R.#N,A!m3d!.A!
%,!m3.!.A-,!*NC%*/#?!
I.N,A! 0.! -.(.$! .(! /3.(-#! C#$#! .%%,! .%! (GN.$,>! <>! 0.! .B*A-.(-.A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A!
-d/(*/#A!.(!%#!Z#%#B*#>!.A!0./*$!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!N3/D,!NhA!#2#(X#0#A!m3.!%#!(3.A-$#>!
/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!m3.!C3.0.(>!A.#!/3#%.A!63.$.(!A3A!N.0*,A>!%%.2#$!#!/#+,!23.%,A!.(!.%!
.AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$?! ]@3(m3.! %,A! N.0*,A! A,(! 0*65/*%.A>! (,! 6,$N#(! C#$-.! 0.! .A-#!
0*A/3A*4(>!#A5!/,N,!-#NC,/,!.%!N./#(*AN,!0.!C$,C3%A*4(!0.%!C,C3%#$!$.(,!(,!#6./-4!
#!(3.A-$#!0*A/3A*4(!0.!%#!D*C4-.A*A!&#(-#!"%#3A?_!
&.!D#!*(-.(-#0,!0.-#%%#$!.BC%5/*-#N.(-.!%,A! 6#/-,$.A!m3.!.(-$#(!.(!%#!0.-.$N*(#/*4(!
0.%! (GN.$,! 0.! -#%.A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! -d/(*/#A! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#?! <,! .BC,(0$d! #m35! m3d!
(GN.$,A! A.! D#(! #A*'(#0,! #! %#A! 0*2.$A#A! /#(-*0#0.A! *NC%*/#0#AM! A.! -$#-#! 0.! 3(#!
N3%-*C%*/#/*4(!0.!N3/D#A!C$,+#+*%*0#0.A>!F!%#!C$,+#+*%*0#0!0.!m3.!C,0#N,A!D#/.$!3(!
+3.(! \3*/*,! 0*AN*(3F.! #! N.0*0#! m3.! $./,$$.N,A! %#! %*A-#?! <! 0.C.(0.! C$*N.$,! 0.%!
5(0*/.! 0.! 2.%,/*0#0! #! m3.! A.! 6,$N.(! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! .(! %#! Z#%#B*#>! (GN.$,! m3.! A.!
/,(,/.!$#X,(#+%.N.(-.!+*.(?!1.C.(0.!0.%!(GN.$,!0.!.A-$.%%#A!m3.!-.('#(!C%#(.-#A>!
%,!m3.!.A!N.(,A!/,(,/*0,>!C.$,!0*AC,(.N,A!0.!#%'3(,A!0#-,A!A,+$.!.A-,?!1.C.(0.!
0.! %#! 6$#//*4(! 0.! -#%.A! C%#(.-#A! m3.! .A-d(! A*-3#0,A! 0.! N#(.$#! -#(! #0./3#0#! /,(!
$.AC./-,!#!A3!.A-$.%%#!m3.!.%!N.0*,!#N+*.(-.!A.#!6#/-*+%.!C#$#!.%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#?!
1.C.(0.!0.!%#!6$#//*4(!0.!-#%.A!C,A*+%.A!C%#(.-#A!.(!%,A!m3.!.%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#!A.!
0d!.(!$.#%*0#0?!1.C.(0.!0.!%#!6$#//*4(!0.!#m3.%%,A!C%#(.-#A!.(!%,A!/3#%.A!A.!0#!.%!
,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#!F!.(!%,A!m3.>!0.AC3dA!m3.!D#!A3$'*0,!%#!2*0#>!A.!%%.'#!#!3(#!6,$N#!
0.! 2*0#! *(-.%*'.(-.?! 1.C.(0.! 0.! %#! 6$#//*4(! 0.! #m3.%%,A! C%#(.-#A! .(! %,A! /3#%.A! D#(!
A3$'*0,! 6,$N#A! *(-.%*'.(-.A! m3.! *NC%*/#(! %#! .B*A-.(/*#! 0.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! -d/(*/#!
A3+A-#(/*#%N.(-.!N3/D,!NhA!#2#(X#0#!m3.!%#!(3.A-$#?!J!0.C.(0.!0.!%#!.AC.$#(X#!
,!C$,N.0*,!0.!2*0#!0.!-#%!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-d/(*/#?!
9A-h! /%#$,! m3.! #',-#$.N,A! %,A! .\.NC%,A! #! N.0*0#! m3.! #2#(/.N,A! /#0#! 2.X! NhA!
%.\,A?! L.(.N,A! N3/D#A! .A-$.%%#A>! C.$,! A4%,! 3(! .\.NC%,! 0.%! ,$*'.(! 0.! 2*0#! F!
G(*/#N.(-.!3(!(GN.$,!N3F!%*N*-#0,!n#%'3(,A!0*$5#(!m3.!3(,n!0.!/#A,A!,!.\.NC%,A!
0.!%#!.2,%3/*4(!0.!A.$.A!*(-.%*'.(-.A!F!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!-d/(*/#A!.(!.A-.!C%#(.-#?!J!(,!
-.(.N,A! /#A,A! N.0*#(-.! %,A! /3#%.A! C,0.$! \3X'#$! /3h%! A.$h! .%! C$,N.0*,! 0.! 2*0#! 0.!
3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-d/(*/#?!&*(!.N+#$',>!D#F!3(!C#A#-*.NC,!#%!m3.!#%'3(,A!0.!(,A,-$,A!
D.N,A! 0.0*/#0,! #%'3(,A! $#-,A>! $.#%*X#(0,! (3.A-$,A! N.\,$.A! /h%/3%,A! A,+$.! .A-,A!
(GN.$,A! F! ,+-.(*.(0,! 3(! 2#%,$! 0.! <?! 9%! $.A3%-#0,! .A! m3.! <! *'3#%#! .(! #Q,A!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! #! 3(#! 0d/*N#! C#$-.! 0.%! C$,N.0*,! 0.! 2*0#! 0.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(!
-d/(*/#?!
&*!C.(A#N,A!.(!3(!(GN.$,!/,N,!.%!0.!0*.X!N*%%,(.A!]87U_!0.!#Q,A!!C#$#!.%!C$,N.0*,!
0.! 2*0#! 0.! 3(#! #2#(X#0#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! -d/(*/#>! ,+-.(0$.N,A! 3(! (GN.$,! C#$#! -#%.A!
/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!.(!%#!Z#%#B*#!0.!/.$/#!0.!3(!N*%%4(!]87[_>!.A!0./*$!3(!N*%%4(!0.!,-$#A!
.A-$.%%#A!/,(!C%#(.-#A!.(!%,A!/3#%.A!D,F!.B*A-.(!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!#2#(X#0#A?!=.#%N.(-.!
.A! 0*65/*%! D#/.$! 3(! /h%/3%,! .B#/-,?! c#! .%.//*4(! 0.! 0*.X! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A! C#$#! .%!
C$,N.0*,!0.!2*0#!0.!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-d/(*/#!.A!NhA!+*.(!,C-*N*A-#?!E.$,!#/.C-.N,A!
.A-,A!,C-*N*A-#A!(GN.$,A!F!2.#N,A!#!04(0.!(,A!%%.2#(?!
&3C,('#N,A! m3.! /#0#! 3(,! 0.! .A-,A! N*%%,(.A! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! -d/(*/#A! %#(X#! s!
2.D5/3%,A! .AC#/*#%.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! .(! 3(! #Q,>! 0.! N#(.$#! m3.! 87[s! 2.D5/3%,A!
.AC#/*#%.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! A.! %#(X#(! 03$#(-.! .%! #Q,?! &3C,('#N,A! m3.! A4%,! A.!
.A-#+%./.!3(!/,(-#/-,!C,$!/#0#!2*#\.?!9(!A*-3#/*4(!.A-#+%.>!D#F!#%',!#A5!/,N,!87[s!
%%.'#0#A!#!3(,!3!,-$,!%3'#$!C,$!#Q,?!@D,$#!+*.(>!A.'3$#N.(-.!D#F!3(,A!8787!%3'#$.A!
*(-.$.A#(-.A! .(! %#! Z#%#B*#! 0*'(,A! 0.! A.$! 2*A*-#0,A! ](,A,-$,A! -.(.N,A! 2#$*#A! 2./.A!
8788!.A-$.%%#A_!F>!C,$!%,!-#(-,!3(!-d$N*(,!N.0*,!0.!8v87a!!87Oa!%%.'#0#A!#!/3#%m3*.$!
%3'#$!*(-.$.A#(-.!]0*'#N,A!3(!C%#(.-#_!C,$!#Q,?!@A5!C3.A>!A*!-#(!A4%,!3(!;R<:!D#!0.!
2*A*-#$! %#! L*.$$#! /#0#! #Q,>! C,0.N,A! /#%/3%#$! /3h%! .A! .%! 5(0*/.! 0.! %#(X#N*.(-,A! m3.!
C$./*A#!$.#%*X#$!/#0#!3(,!0.!.A-,A!N*%%,(.A!0.!N3(0,A?!9%!(GN.$,!$.A3%-#(-.!.A!0.!
0*.X!N*%!%#(X#N*.(-,A!C,$!#Q,!F!C,$!/*2*%*X#/*4(!F!0*.X!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!%#(X#N*.(-,A!
C,$! #Q,! .(! %#! Z#%#B*#?! 9A-,! C#$./.! .B/.A*2,?! @3(! /3#(0,! *N#'*(.N,A! 3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(! N3/D,! NhA! #2#(X#0#! m3.! %#! (3.A-$#>! .%! D./D,! 0.! %#(X#$! 0*.X! N*%!
2.D5/3%,A!C#$#!m3.!-#(!A4%,!#C#$.X/#!#m35!3(,>!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!.A!C.0*$!N3/D,?!J!A*!
63dA.N,A! NhA! C.A*N*A-#A! #/.$/#! 0.%! C$,N.0*,! 0.! 2*0#! 0.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! -d/(*/#>!
(./.A*-#$5#N,A! C$,C,$/*,(#%N.(-.! 3(! 5(0*/.! N3/D,! N#F,$! 0.! %#(X#N*.(-,! #%!
.AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$?! E.$,! #! N.0*0#! m3.! 0*AN*(3F.! .%! C$,N.0*,! 0.! 2*0#>! %#!
C$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.! m3.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! 0.A#$$,%%.! 23.%,A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! -#N+*d(! A.!
$.03/.>!/,N,!.A!%4'*/,?!
9%! 65A*/,! #N.$*/#(,! I,('OJ..! "D*3! $#X,(#! m3.! .A! C,A*+%.! m3.! %%.'3.! NhA! 0.! 3(!
;R<:!C,$!#Q,!#!%#!L*.$$#?!E.$,!A3!#$'3N.(-,!A*'3.!%#!N*AN#!%5(.#!0.%!m3.!#/#+,!0.!
C$.A.(-#$! F,?! 1*/D,! 65A*/,! /#%/3%#! %#! N#A#! -,-#%! 0.! N.-#%.A! m3.! *NC%*/#! %#!
/,(A-$3//*4(! 0.! .A-,A! 2.D5/3%,A! .AC#/*#%.A! 03$#(-.! .A-#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#?! 9%!
2.D5/3%,!D#!0.!-.(.$!#%'G(!-#N#Q,!n0*'#N,A!m3.!D#!0.!A.$!N#F,$!m3.!%#!/hCA3%#!0.%!
@C,%,n>! F! #A5! C,0.N,A! /#%/3%#$! /3h(-,! N.-#%! A.! (./.A*-#?! =.A3%-#! m3.! D#+$5#! m3.!
C$,/.A#$!%#!N#A#!-,-#%!0.!N.0*,!N*%%4(!0.!.A-$.%%#A!F!.B-$#.$!-,0,A!A3A!N.-#%.A?!;!A*!
#NC%*#N,A! .%! #$'3N.(-,! F! A3C,(.N,A! m3.! G(*/#N.(-.! A.! C3.0.(! A,N.-.$! #! .A-#!
.B-$#//*4(! N*(.$#! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! .B-.$*,$.A! m3.! A.! D#%%#(! #! 3(,A! /.(-.(#$.A! 0.!
q*%4N.-$,A!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!0.!.A-$.%%#A!/,N,!.%!&,%>!.B-$#//*,(.A!m3.!D#+$5#!m3.!
$.#%*X#$!N.0*#(-.!3(#!-./(,%,'5#!A3C.$#2#(X#0#!]NhA!/.$/#!0.%!&,%!A.$5#!*NC,A*+%._>!
D#%%#N,A! m3.! D#(! 0.! C$,/.A#$A.! 0,A! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! -#%.A! .A-$.%%#A! ,!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! .%! 8! ! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#?! 9A-,! -#N+*d(! A3.(#! #!
*NC$,+#+%.?!
@D,$#!+*.(>!/3#%m3*.$#!C3.0.! #%.'#$M!f)*.(>!C.$,!dA.!.A!3(!$#X,(#N*.(-,!3(!-#(-,!
0*A/3-*+%.>! C,$m3.! .A! C,A*+%.! m3.! 0*AC,('#(! 0.! (#2.A! .AC#/*#%.A! 0.! C%hA-*/,?g! &5>!
A3C,(',! m3.! .A,! .A! C,A*+%.?! E.$,! .%! C%hA-*/,! D#! 0.! 2.(*$! 0.! #%'G(! A*-*,>! F! #A5! .%!
C%hA-*/,! /,(-$#! N.-#%! /#N+*#! %#A! /,(/%3A*,(.A! N3F! C,/,?! 9A-.! /h%/3%,! (,A!
C$,C,$/*,(#! /*.$-#! *0.#! #/.$/#! 0.! %#! N#'(*-30! 0.! %#! -#$.#! /3#(0,! A.! (,A! C*0.! m3.!
/$.#N,A!m3.!D#F!2*A*-#A!$3-*(#$*#A!F!6$./3.(-.A!#!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#?!
kJ!m3d!D#F!A,+$.!%,A!C,A*+%.A!#$'3N.(-,A!.(!/,(-$#l!E,$!.\.NC%,>!A.!C,0$5#!#%.'#$!
m3.! A,N,A! ,+\.-,! 0.! .AC./*#%! #-.(/*4(>! C3.A! D.N,A! C.$6.//*,(#0,! -,0#! /%#A.! 0.!
N3.A-$#A! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*4(! F! 0.! #%-#! *(-.%*'.(/*#! /,N,! %#A! #$N#A! (3/%.#$.A>! F! C3.0.!
A.$>! C,$! -#(-,>! m3.! A.#N,A! ,+\.-,! 0.! *(-.$dA! C#$#! %,A! #(-$,C4%,',A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A?!
s3*Xh?!E.$,!D.N,A!A.Q#%#0,!%#!C$.A.(/*#!0.!(3.A-$#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-d/(*/#!A4%,!.(!%#A!
G%-*N#A! 0d/#0#A?! c#A! (,-*/*#A! C$./*A#(! $./,$$.$! #%'3(#A! 0./.(#A! 0.! #Q,AO%3X?! E,$!
,-$#! C#$-.>! -,0,A! %,A! #(-$,C4%,',A! 0.%! N3(0,! (,! /,(2.$'.(! .(! %#A! :A%#A! @(0#N#(!
A4%,!C,$m3.!#%%5!A.!D#F#!*(2.(-#0,!%#!$.0!0.!C.A/#$?!I#F!3(,A!C,/,A!.AC./*#%*A-#A!.(!
$.0.A!0.!C.A/#!F!3(,A!C,/,A!.AC./*#%*A-#A!#(0#N5#(,Ao!F!.A-,A!-*C,A!0*/.(M!f)*.(>!
#%',!-.$$*+%.!.A-h!A3/.0*.(0,!.(!%#A!:A%#A!@(0#N#(?!L.(',!m3.!C#A#$N.!#%%5!3(!#Q,>!
C,$m3.>! A*! (,! 2,F! #D,$#>! N.! %,! C.$0.$d>! %,! C#A#$d! C,$! #%-,?g! E.$,! %,A! .BC.$-,A! .(!
#%6#$.$5#! F! %,A! .AC./*#%*A-#A! .(! %,A! #+,$5'.(.A! 0.! @3A-$#%*#! (,! D#/.(! %#A! N#%.-#A! F!
C#$-.(!C#$#!.%!,/d#(,!:(0*/,?!
:N#'*(#$! m3.! D#F! #%',! C,$! /,NC%.-,! 6#A/*(#(-.! .(! %,! m3.! .A-h! ,/3$$*.(0,! #m35! .A!
C$./*A#N.(-.! /,(-$#$*,! #! %#! *0.#! 0.! m3.! .A-#N,A! $,0.#0,A! C,$! ,-$#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A?!
E,$m3.!A*!.A-,!G%-*N,!.A!/*.$-,>!(3.A-$,!-*C,!0.!/*2*%*X#/*4(!0.+.!A.$!N3F!/,NG(?!J!
A*(,! A,N,A! N3F! /,N3(.A>! .(-,(/.A! .A! m3.! (,! D#+$h! N3/D#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A!
#2#(X#0#A!,>!#%!N.(,A>!%,!A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!#2#(X#0#A!/,N,!C#$#!.(2*#$!2*A*-#(-.A?!
@3(!#A5>!k(,!.A!C,A*+%.!m3.!A.#!/*.$-#!,!#/.$-#0#!%#!A.'3(0#!D*C4-.A*A!;R<:M!0.!m3.!
.(! dC,/#A! C$.D*A-4$*/#A! ,! #G(! NhA! $./*.(-.A! 3(! 2.D5/3%,! .AC#/*#%! #-.$$*X4! .(! %#!
L*.$$#l!<,!D#F!N#(.$#!0.!m3.!C,0#N,A!.B/%3*$!-#%!/,(-*('.(/*#?!k"4N,!C,0$5#N,A!
C$,+#$%#l!
=./*.(-.N.(-.!A.!D#(!C3+%*/#0,!N3/D,A!%*+$,A!m3.!C$.-.(0.(!0.N,A-$#$!%#!$.#%*0#0!
0.!-#%.A!2*A*-#A?!c,A!#$'3N.(-,A!A,(!0.!0,A!/%#A.AM!%.F.(0#!F!#$-.6#/-,A?!K.(/*,(d!
.A-.! -.N#! .(! .%! %*+$,! Vida Inteligente en el Universo>! .A/$*-,! /,(! .%! #A-$,65A*/,!
A,2*d-*/,! :?! &?! &Dq%,2Aq**>! F! C3+%*/#0,! .(! 8T[[?! 9B#N*(d! 3(#! A3'.A-*2#! F! -5C*/#!
%.F.(0#!0.!/,(-#/-,A!.(-$.!(3.A-$,A!#(-.C#A#0,A!F!3(>!#%!C#$./.$>!$.C$.A.(-#(-.!0.!
3(#!A,/*.0#0!A3C.$*,$?!c#!%.F.(0#>!-,N#0#!0.!%#!NhA!#(-*'3#!N*-,%,'5#!A3N.$*#>!.A!
*NC,$-#(-.>! C,$m3.! %,A! A3N.$*,A! A,(! %,A! #(-./.0.(-.A! 0*$./-,A! 0.! (3.A-$#! C$,C*#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(?! &.! A3C,(.! m3.! 3(! A.$! A3C.$*,$! .(A.Q4! #! %,A! A3N.$*,A! N#-.Nh-*/#A>!
#A-$,(,N5#>! #'$*/3%-3$#>! ,$'#(*X#/*4(! C,%5-*/#! F! A,/*#%! F! %.('3#\.! .A/$*-,>! -,0#A! %#A!
#$-.A!(./.A#$*#A!#!%#!-$#(A*/*4(!0.!3(#!A,/*.0#0!/#X#0,$#!#!%#!C$*N.$#!/*2*%*X#/*4(?!
E.$,! C,$! N3F! C$,2,/#-*2#A! m3.! 63.$#(! .A-#A! %.F.(0#A>! /,(/%35! m3.! .$#! *NC,A*+%.!
0.N,A-$#$! /,(-#/-,A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! #! \3X'#$! C,$! -#%.A! %.F.(0#A?! I#F! #%-.$(#-*2#A!
C%#3A*+%.A! .(! A3! .BC%*/#/*4(?! E,0.N,A! .(-.(0.$! C,$! m3d! %,A! A#/.$0,-.A! C30*.$,(!
6#+$*/#$! N*-,A! A,+$.! A.$.A! A3C.$*,$.A! m3.! D#+*-#(! %,A! /*.%,A! F! ,$*.(-#(! #! %,A! A.$.A!
D3N#(,A! A,+$.! /4N,! ,$0.(#$! A3A! #A3(-,A?! 9(-$.! ,-$#A! f2.(-#\#Ag>! -#%.A! %.F.(0#A!
C.$N*-.(!#!%,A!A#/.$0,-.A!/,(-$,%#$!#!%#!'.(-.?!
&4%,! D#F! 3(#! /%#A.! 0.! %.F.(0#! m3.! C,0$5#! A.$! /,(2*(/.(-.M! /3#(0,! %#! *(6,$N#/*4(!
m3.!/,(-*.(.!%#!%.F.(0#!(,!C30,!A.$!'.(.$#0#!C,$!%#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!m3.!/$.4!%#!%.F.(0#!
nA*>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! 3(! (GN.$,! -$#(AN*-*0,! 0.A0.! D#/.! N*%.A! 0.! #Q,A! /,N,! A#'$#0,!
$.A3%-#!A.$!.%!/,(A-#(-.!0.!%#!.A-$3/-3$#!(3/%.#$?!wA-.!A.$5#!3(!/#A,!m3.!N.$./.$5#!
-,0#!/,(A*0.$#/*4(?!
;-$,!/#A,!/,(2*(/.(-.!A.$5#>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!/*.$-#!/%#A.!0.!#$-.6#/-,?!&*!A.!D#%%#$#!3(!
#$-.6#/-,!C.$-.(./*.(-.!#!3(#!#(-*'3#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!/3F#!-./(,%,'5#!.A-32*.A.!NhA!#%%h!
0.!%,A!/,(,/*N*.(-,A!m3.!C$*2#(!.(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0!.(!-#%!/#NC,>!.(-,(/.A!-.(0$5#N,A!
3(! *(-.$.A#(-.! /#A,! prima facie! 0.! 2*A*-#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.?! ;-$,! .\.NC%,! A.$5#! %#!
.B*A-.(/*#!0.!3(!N#(3A/$*-,>!.(/,(-$#0,!.(!3(!N,(#A-.$*,!*$%#(0dA!m3.!/,(-32*.A.!.%!
0*#'$#N#!0.%!/*$/3*-,!.%./-$4(*/,!C#$#!3(!$./.C-,$!0.!$#0*,!A3C.$D.-.$,0*(,?!I#+$5#!
m3.! -.(.$! A3N,! /3*0#0,! A,+$.! %#! C$,/.0.(/*#! 0.! .A-.! #$-.6#/-,>! #%! *'3#%! m3.! %,A!
/,%.//*,(*A-#A!N3.A-$#(!A3N,!/3*0#0,!/,(!3(!$./*d(!0.A/3+*.$-,!/3#0$,!0.!=#6#.%?!
L.(0$5#N,A!m3.!#A.'3$#$(,A!0.!m3.!(*('G(!C5/#$,!*$%#(0dA!/,(-.NC,$h(.,!63.A.!%#!
63.(-.!0.%!0*#'$#N#!0.%!/*$/3*-,?!
s3.! F,! A.C#>! (,! D#F! -#%.A! %.F.(0#A! (*! -#%.A! #$-.6#/-,A?! E,$! .\.NC%,>! -,0,A! %,A!
#$-.6#/-,A!#(-*'3,A!N.(/*,(#0,A!C,$!9$*q!2,(!1#(*q.(!.(!A3!%*+$,!Carrozas de los
dioses?! -*.(.(! .BC%*/#/*,(.A! #%-.$(#-*2#A! F! N.$*-,$*#A?! c#! $.C$.A.(-#/*4(! 0.! A.$.A!
/,(!/#+.X#A!'$#(0.A!F!#%#$'#0#A>!m3.!A.!C#$./.(!#!/#A/,A!.AC#/*#%.A>!C,0$5#(!N3F!
+*.(!A.$!2.$A*,(.A!#$-5A-*/#A!0.!3(#A!NhA/#$#A!/.$.N,(*#%.A!m3.!/3+$.(!%#!/#+.X#!
(,$N#%!,!.BC$.A*,(.A!0.!3(#!.B/.A*2#!D*0$,/.6#%*#?!1.!D./D,>!%#!.AC.$#(X#!,>!NhA!
+*.(>! A3C,A*/*4(! 0.! m3.! %,A! #A-$,(#3-#A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! A.! C#$.X/#(! #! %,A!
#A-$,(#3-#A!A,2*d-*/,A!,!#N.$*/#(,A>!0.A0.!%,A!-$#\.A!.AC#/*#%.A!D#A-#!%,A!,\,A>!.A>!
C$,+#+%.N.(-.>!-#(!#+A3$0#!/,N,!%#!*0.#!N*AN#!0.!%#!2*A*-#!#!%#!L*.$$#?!1.%!N*AN,!
N,0,>! %#! *0.#! .BC$.A#0#! C,$! R,(! 1#(*q.(! F! ,-$,A! 0.! m3.! %,A! #(-*'3,A! #A-$,(#3-#A!
/,(A-$3F.$,(! /#NC,A! 0.! #2*#/*4(>! .NC%.#$,(! /,D.-.A>! .! D*/*.$,(! .A-#%%#$! +,N+#A!
(3/%.#$.A!.(!%#!L*.$$#!.A!#+A3$0#!.(!.B-$.N,>!C,$m3.!C$./*A#N.(-.!A,N,A!(,A,-$,A!
m3*.(.A!D.N,A!0.A#$$,%%#0,!.A-#!-./(,%,'5#?!H(!2*A*-#(-.!0.%!.AC#/*,!(,!A.!D#%%#$5#!
-#(!/.$/#!0.!(,A,-$,A!.(!-#%.A!-.$$.(,A?!9A!/,N,!A*!.(!8WU7!D3+*dA.N,A!.BC$.A#0,!
%#!N*AN#!*0.#>!C.$,!0*/*.(0,!m3.!%,A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!.NC%.#(!'%,+,A!0.!#*$.!/#%*.(-.!
C#$#!A3!.BC%,$#/*4(!0.%!.AC#/*,?!c.\,A!0.!A.$!0.N#A*#0,!#30#/.A>!%,!m3.!.BC$.A#(!
-#%.A!*0.#A!.A!3(#!-,-#%!6#%-#!0.!*N#'*(#/*4(?!
E,$! ,-$#! C#$-.>! %,A! $.%#-,A! C,C3%#$.A! m3.! D#+%#(! 0.! A3C3.A-,A! /,(-#/-,A! /,(!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!A,(!.(!.B-$.N,!/D#32*(*A-#A?!
H(!#3-,$!#N.$*/#(,!%%#N#0,!=*/D#$0!&D#2.$!#%.'#!m3d!%#A!$,/#A!,$0*(#$*#A>!/,$-#0#A!
.(! 6*(#A! $.+#(#0#A>! /,(-*.(.(! 3(! /,(\3(-,! 0.! 6,-,'$#65#A! 0.\#0#A! C,$! 3(#! #(-*'3#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(>!6,-,'$#65#A!m3.!A.!C3.0.(!N,(-#$!C#$#!C$,F./-#$%#A!/,N,!3(#!C.%5/3%#?!
J!#Q#0.M!.%.'*$!/3#%m3*.$!$,/#!F!/,$-#$%#!.(!$.+#(#0#A?!
9(! .%! #%-*C%#(,! 0.! <#X/#>! E.$G>! D#F! 3(#! A.$*.! 0.! '*'#(-.A/#A! 6*'3$#A! '.,Nd-$*/#A?!
9A-#(0,! .(-$.! .%%#A! A,(! 0*65/*%.A! 0.! 2.$>! C.$,! #C#$./.(! N3F! /%#$#A! /3#(0,! A.! %#A!
,+A.$2#! 0.A0.! .%! #*$.?! 9A! 6h/*%! /,NC$,+#$! /4N,! 3(#! #(-*'3#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! D3N#(#!
C30,! D#/.$! -#%.A! 6*'3$#A?! E.$,>! kC,$! m3dl! n(,A! C$.'3(-#N,An>! kC,$! m3d! 3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.! D#+5#! 0.! %%.2#$! #! /#+,! A.N.\#(-.A! /,(A-$3//*,(.A! ,!
6*'3$#Al!&*!%#A!'.(-.A!.(!#m3.%%#!dC,/#!/$.5#(!.(!%#!.B*A-.(/*#!0.!0*,A.A!.(!.%!/*.%,>!
(,! -*.(.! (#0#! 0.! C#$-*/3%#$! *N#'*(#$%.A! D#/*.(0,! .A-#A! N#$/#A! '*'#(-.A/#A! C#$#!
/,N3(*/#$A.!#A5!/,(!0*/D,A!0*,A.A?!c#A!N#$/#A!F!6*'3$#A!C3.0.(!A.$!3(#!.AC./*.!0.!
,$#/*4(! '$h6*/#?! E.$,! (,! 0.N3.A-$#(>! (./.A#$*#N.(-.>! %#! $.#%*0#0! 0.%! A3C3.A-,!
$./.C-,$!0.!%#!,$#/*4(?!
I#F!,-$,A!/#A,A!m3.!C#$./.(!A.$!/,(2*(/.(-.A!.(!3(!C$*(/*C*,>!/,N,>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!%#!
.B*A-.(/*#!0.!3(!/3+,!0.!#/.$,!C.$6./-#N.(-.!6$.A#0,>!m3.!A.!0*/.!.A-h!.(!.%!N3A.,!
0.!&#%X+3$',!F!m3.!63.!D#%%#0,!.(!.A-$#-,A!'.,%4'*/,A!m3.!-.(5#(!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!
0.!#(-*'e.0#0?!;!%#!$./.C/*4(!0.!A.Q#%.A!0.!%%#N#0#!C,$!-.%.2*A*4(!.N*-*0#A!0.A0.!
.%!.AC#/*,!03$#(-.!-$.A!#Q,A?!
9A-,A!/#A,A!A,(!A.'3$#N.(-.!+3$0#A!N.(-*$#A?!
@A*N*AN,>! D#F! /*$/3(A-#(/*#A! #$m3.,%4'*/#A! *'3#%N.(-.! C$,2,/#-*2#A! m3.! %,A!
.A/$*-,$.A! 0.! -#%.A! %*+$,A! A.(A#/*,(#%*A-#A! D#(! C#A#0,! C,$! #%-,?! E,$! .\.NC%,>! .(! .%!
6$*A,! 0.! %#! '$#(! C*$hN*0.! #X-./#! 0.! &#(! P3#(! L.,-*D3#/h(>! 63.$#! 0.! %#! /*30#0! 0.!
KdB*/,>!D#F!3(#!6*'3$#!m3.!A.!$.C*-.!F!m3.!A.!0.A/$*+.!/,N,!.%!0*,A!0.!%#!%%32*#>!C.$,!
m3.! A.! C#$./.! .(,$N.N.(-.! #! 3(! 2.D5/3%,! #(6*+*,! /,(! /3#-$,! 6#$,A?! <*! C,$! 3(!
N,N.(-,! /$.,! m3.! -#%.A! 2.D5/3%,A! #(6*+*,A! 63.A.(! *(05'.(#A! .(! .%! -*.NC,! 0.! %,A!
#X-./#A>! .(-$.! ,-$#A! $#X,(.A>! C,$m3.! A.N.\#(-.A! #$-.6#/-,A! .A-h(! N3F! /.$/#! 0.! %,!
m3.!(,A,-$,A!D.N,A!/$.#0,!D,F?!

!
El dios de la lluvia, en el friso del Templo del Sol, en San Juan Teotihuacn, Mxico. Fotografa
por el autor.

9A-,A!#$-.6#/-,A!A,(>!.(!$.#%*0#0>!C$3.+#A!CA*/,%4'*/#A!C$,F./-*2#A?!c#!'.(-.!C3.0.!
2.$! .(! .%%,A! %,! m3.! 0.A..?! <,! D#F! (#0#! m3.! *NC*0#! #! #%'3*.(! 2.$! #! A3! #%$.0.0,$!
A.Q#%.A! ,! N3.A-$#A! 0.! #(-*'3#A! 2*A*-#A! 0.! A.$.A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A?! E#$#! 3(#! C.$A,(#!
/,(! N.(-#%*0#0! N.0*#(#N.(-.! .A/dC-*/#! -#%.A! C$3.+#A! %.! $.A3%-#$h(! A*.NC$.! N3F!
C,/,! /,(2*(/.(-.A?! ",N,! .%! A*'(*6*/#0,! .! *NC,$-#(/*#! 0.! -#%! 0.A/3+$*N*.(-,! A.$5#(!
.(,$N.A>! 0.+.N,A! .NC%.#$! 3(! '$#(! $#X,(#N*.(-,! /$5-*/,! F! #0,C-#$! C,A-3$#A! N3F!
.A/dC-*/#A!#%!-$#-#$!.%!-.N#?!c,A!0#-,A!0.!m3.!0*AC,(.N,A!#%!$.AC./-,!A,(!*(/#C#/.A!
0.! C#A#$! C,$! .%! 6*(,! -#N*X! 0.! 3(! 0.-#%%#0,! .B#N.(o! .(! /,(A./3.(/*#>! D.N,A! 0.!
A.'3*$! N,A-$h(0,(,A! #%',! NhA! m3.! .A/dC-*/,A>! A*! .A! m3.! (,A! A.(-*N,A! $.#%N.(-.!
*(-.$.A#0,A!C,$!%#!%%#N#0#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.?!
!
29. Estrategia en la bsqueda de la inteligencia extraterrestre
!

!
Gran radiotelescopio de la Cornell University en Arecibo, Puerto Rico. Cortesa del National
Astronomy and Ionosphere Center.

!
&3C,('#N,A!m3.!/,(/.$-#N,A!3(#!$.3(*4(!.(!/3#%m3*.$!%3'#$!0.!%#!/*30#0!0.!<.r!
J,$q!/,(!3(!.B-$#Q,!m3.!(,!/,(,/.N,A!F!A,+$.!.%!m3.!(#0#!A#+.N,A>!/*-#!NhA!+*.(!
#+A3$0#>! C.$,! m3.! A.$h! G-*%! #! (3.A-$,A! C$,C4A*-,A?! c.! .A-#N,A! +3A/#(0,! F! d%! (,A!
.A-h! +3A/#(0,! #! (,A,-$,A?! k"3h%! .A! (3.A-$#! .A-$#-.'*#! 0.! +GAm3.0#l!
E$,+#+%.N.(-.>!(,!C.$N#(./.$.N,A!03$#(-.!3(#!A.N#(#!.(!%#!.Am3*(#!0.!%#!"#%%.!
UW! F! K#0*A,(! @2.(3.?! 9(! %3'#$! 0.! D#/.$! .A-,>! $./,$0#$5#N,A! m3.! .(! %#! /*30#0! 0.!
<.r! J,$q! D#F! 3(! /*.$-,! (GN.$,! 0.! %3'#$.A! 6#N,A,A>! -#(! +*.(! /,(,/*0,A! C#$#! -#%!
*(0*2*03,! /,N,! C#$#! (,A,-$,A?! 9(-,(/.A! /,N.(X#$5#N,A! #! .A-30*#$! .A-,A! %3'#$.AM!
9A-#-3#! 0.! %#! c*+.$-#0>! 9NC*$.! &-#-.! )3*%0*('>! Z$#(0! ".(-$#%! &-#-*,(>! =#0*,! "*-F!
K3A*/! I#%%>! c*(/,%(! ".(-.$>! .0*6*/*,! 0.! %#A! <#/*,(.A! H(*0#A>! L*N.A! &m3#$.! F>!
C,A*+%.N.(-.>! "*-F! I#%%?! :(/%3A,! C,0$5#N,A! .B#N*(#$! #%'3(#A! ,-$#A! C,A*+*%*0#0.A!
N.(,$.A>!/,N,!.%!J#(q..!&-#0*3N>!%#!.(-$#0#!0.!K#(D#--#(!#%!&-#-.(!:A%#(0!p.$$F?!
E.$,! (,! D#F! 3(! (GN.$,! :(6*(*-,! 0.! C,A*+*%*0#0.A?! <,! D#F! N*%%,(.A! 0.! C,A*+*%*0#0.A>!
C,$m3.!A4%,!D#F!3(#!0,/.(#>!F!/,(!-*.NC,!C,0$.N,A!.A-30*#$%#A!-,0#A?!
c#!A*-3#/*4(!.A!%#!N*AN#!.(!/3#(-,!A.!$.6*.$.!#!%#!.A-$#-.'*#!0.!+GAm3.0#!N.0*#(-.!
3(#! /,N3(*/#/*4(! 0.! $#0*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$?! 9(! #3A.(/*#! 0.! 3(! #(-.$*,$! ,! C$*N.$!
/,(-#/-,>! k/4N,! A#+.N,A! C,$! 04(0.! .NC.X#$l! k"4N,! A#+.N,A! m3d! 6$./3.(/*#! ,!
f.A-#/*4(g!+3A/#$l!
I#F! C,$! %,! N.(,A! N*%%,(.A! 0.! C,A*+%.A! +#(0#A! 0.! 6$./3.(/*#! 0.! $#0*,?! E.$,! 3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(! *(-.$.A#0#! .(! /,N3(*/#$! /,(! (,A,-$,A! /,NC#$-.! -#N+*d(! /,(! (,A,-$,A!
/,(,/*N*.(-,A! /,N3(.A! A,+$.! $#0*,#A-$,(,N5#! F! A,+$.! (3.A-$#! Z#%#B*#?! E,$!
.\.NC%,>! A#+.(! m3.! .%! h-,N,! NhA! #+3(0#(-.! .(! .%! H(*2.$A,>! .%! D*0$4'.(,>! .N*-.!
/#$#/-.$5A-*/#N.(-.! .(! 3(#! 6$./3.(/*#! 0.! 8>a`7! N.'#D.$-X*,A?! &#+.(! m3.! %,!
A#+.N,A?! &#+.(! m3.! A#+.N,A! m3.! %,! A#+.(?! J! #A5! A3/.A*2#N.(-.?! I#F! ,-$#A!
N,%d/3%#A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! #+3(0#(-.A>! /,N,! .%! #'3#! ,! .%! #N,(5#/,>! m3.! -*.(.(! A3A!
C$,C*#A! 6$./3.(/*#A! 0.! .N*A*4(! F! #+A,$/*4(?! @%'3(#A! 0.! dA-#A! A.! D#%%#(! .(! 3(#!
$.'*4(! 0.%! .AC./-$,! 0.! $#0*,! '#%h/-*/,>! 0,(0.! D#F! N.(,A! $3*0,A! 0.! 6,(0,! m3.! .(!
,-$#A?!wA-#!-#N+*d(!.A!3(#!*(6,$N#/*4(!m3.!C30*d$#N,A!/#%*6*/#$!0.!/,NC#$-*0#?!c,A!
.A-30*,A,A!0.!.A-.!C$,+%.N#!D#(!/,(6.//*,(#0,!3(#!%*A-#!0.!3(#!0,/.(#!0.!C,A*+%.A!
6$./3.(/*#A!m3.!C#$./.!0.+.(!.B#N*(#$A.?!:(/%3A,!A.!/,(/*+.!m3.!%#!2*0#!+#A#0#!.(!
.%! #'3#! /,N3(*m3.! .(! 6$./3.(/*#! 0.! #'3#>! %#! 2*0#! +#A#0#! .(! .%! #N,(5#/,! .(!
6$./3.(/*#A!0.!#N,(5#/,>!F!#A5!A3/.A*2#N.(-.?!
@%!C#$./.$>!.B*A-.(!C,A*+*%*0#0.A!0.!m3.!%#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!#2#(X#0#A!
.A-d(! .(2*#(0,! A.Q#%.A! 0.! $#0*,! D#/*#! (,A,-$,A>! F! m3.! (,A,-$,A! C,A.#N,A! %#!
-./(,%,'5#! #0./3#0#! C#$#! $./*+*$! -#%.A! A.Q#%.A?! k"4N,! D#+$5#! 0.! ,$'#(*X#$A.! %#!
+GAm3.0#! 0.! .A-#A! A.Q#%.Al! c,A! #/-3#%.A! $#0*,-.%.A/,C*,A>! *(/%3A,! %,A! NhA!
C.m3.Q,A>!0.+.$5#(!A.$!#0./3#0,A!C#$#!%%.2#$!#!/#+,!3(#!+GAm3.0#!C$.%*N*(#$?!9(!
.6./-,>! %#A! *(2.A-*'#/*,(.A! m3.! .(! .A-.! /#NC,! A.! %%.2#(! #! /#+,! .(! .%! :(A-*-3-,! 0.!
=#0*,65A*/#! Z,$q*>! 0.! %#! H(*4(! &,2*d-*/#>! $.m3*.$.(! .%! .NC%.,! 0.! -.%.A/,C*,A! .!
*(A-$3N.(-#%!m3.!A,(!+#A-#(-.!N,0.A-,A!A*!%,A!\3X'#N,A!/,(!#$$.'%,!#!%,A!A-#(0#$0A!
/,(-.NC,$h(.,A?!
9%!N3F!/#C#X!F!/,NC.-.(-.!C$.A*0.(-.!0.!%#!@/#0.N*#!0.!"*.(/*#A!&,2*d-*/#A>!K?!R?!
u.%0*AD>! 3(#! 2.X! 0*\,>! '3*Qh(0,N.! .%! ,\,! m3.! f/3#(0,! A.! 0.A/3+$#! %#! *(-.%*'.(/*#!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!%%.'#$h!#!A.$!3(!*NC,$-#(-.!C$,+%.N#!/*.(-56*/,g?!H(,!0.!%,A!C$*N.$,A!
65A*/,A! #N.$*/#(,A! 0*A/3-*4! /,(N*',! m3.! .%! N.\,$! Nd-,0,! C#$#! +3A/#$! *(-.%*'.(/*#!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.! .A! fD#/.$g! #A-$,(,N5#! ,$0*(#$*#o! A*! A.! D#! 0.! $.#%*X#$! .%!
0.A/3+$*N*.(-,>!A.!D#$h!A*(!(*('3(#!/,NC%*/#/*4(!F!/3#(0,!N.(,A!A.!.AC.$.?!E.$,!
N.!C#$./.!m3.!C,0.N,A!D#/.$!#%',!C#$#!#F30#$!#%!dB*-,!0.!-#%!+GAm3.0#>!F!m3.!.%!
D./D,! 0.! /,%#+,$#$! /,(! %#! $#0*,#A-$,(,N5#! (,! .A! %,! N*AN,! m3.! +3A/#$!
.BC%5/*-#N.(-.!/*.$-#A!.A-$.%%#A>!6$./3.(/*#A>!*(-.$2#%,A!0.!6$./3.(/*#A>!F!/,(A-#(-.A!
0.!-*.NC,>!-,0,!.%%,!,$*.(-#0,!#%!.(/3.(-$,!0.!%#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.?!
E.$,>! C#$#! .%%,>! .A! (./.A#$*,! *(2.A-*'#$! .(,$N.A! /#(-*0#0.A! 0.! .A-$.%%#A! F! N3/D#A!
C,A*+%.A!6$./3.(/*#A?!&*(!030#!#%'3(#>!A.$5#!N3F!%#$',!3(!C$,'$#N#!+#A#0,!.(!3(#!
+GAm3.0#! $#X,(#+%.?! J>! C,$! ,-$#! C#$-.o! (#0*.! 030#! 0.! m3.! .A-#! G%-*N#>! $.#%*X#0#!
03$#(-.!-,0,!.%!-*.NC,!/,(!3(!'$#(!-.%.A/,C*,>!03$#$5#!0d/#0#A>!C,$!%,!N.(,A?!c,A!
,+A.$2#0,$.A!0.!$#0*,>!.(!-#%!.NC$.A#>!C,$!N3F!.(-3A*#A-#A!m3.!A.!N,A-$#$#(!.(!%#!
+GAm3.0#!0.!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!-.$N*(#$5#(!C,$!#+3$$*$A.!-$#A!N3/D,A!#Q,A!
0.!*(G-*%!%#+,$?!H(!$#0*,#A-$4(,N,>!#%!*'3#%!m3.!,-$,A!/*.(-56*/,A>!.A-h!*(-.$.A#0,!.(!
-$#+#\#$!A,+$.!C$,+%.N#A!m3.!N3.A-$.(!C,A*+*%*0#0.A!0.!*(N.0*#-,A!$.A3%-#0,A?!
c#!.A-$#-.'*#!*0.#%!*NC%*/#$5#!3(!'$#(!-.%.A/,C*,!m3.!0.0*/#$#!%#!N*-#0!0.%!-*.NC,!#%!
0.A/3+$*N*.(-,!0.!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!F!%#!,-$#!N*-#0>!#%!.A-30*,!0.!,+\.-*2,A!
$#0*,#A-$,(4N*/,A! NhA! /,(2.(/*,(#%.A>! /,N,! %,A! C%#(.-#A>! C3%A#$A>! N,%d/3%#A!
*(-.$.A-.%#$.A>! .-/??! c#! 0*6*/3%-#0! .(! 3A#$! 2#$*,A! 0.! %,A! #/-3#%.A! ,+A.$2#0,$.A! 0.!
$#0*,>! 0*'#N,A! m3.! /#0#! 3(,! 0.! .%%,A! .%! 8! ! 0.! A3! -*.NC,>! .A-h! .(! m3.! 0*/D#A!
#/-*2*0#0.A! -.(0$5#(! m3.! %%.2#$A.! #! /#+,! 03$#(-.! N3/D,A! A*'%,A! C#$#! #%/#(X#$! 3(#!
$#X,(#+%.!C$,+#+*%*0#0!0.!dB*-,?!
@A5! C3.A>! D#+$5#! m3.! .B#N*(#$! 3(#! #NC%*#! 2#$*.0#0! 0.! ,+\.-,AM! .A-$.%%#A! -*C,! Z>!
/,N,! %#! (3.A-$#o! .A-$.%%#A! -*C,! K>! m3.! A,(! NhA! #(-*'3#A>! F! ,+\.-,A! .B-$#Q,A! ,!
.B4-*/,A>!m3.!C3.0.(!A.$!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!,!C,A*+%.A!N#(*6.A-#/*,(.A!0.!#/-*2*0#0.A!
0.! $.6,$N#A! #A-$#%.A?! 9%! (GN.$,! 0.! .A-$.%%#A! F! ,-$,A! ,+\.-,A! 0.! (3.A-$#! C$,C*#! R5#!
ch/-.#!.A!0.!3(,A!0,A/*.(-,A!N*%!N*%%,(.A>!F!.%!(GN.$,!m3.!0.+.N,A!.B#N*(#$!C#$#!
/,(A.'3*$! /*.$-#! C$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.! 0.A/3+$*$! -#%.A! A.Q#%.A! C#$./.! A.$>! #%! N.(,A>! 0.!
N*%%,(.A?!
I#F! 3(#! .A-$#-.'*#! #%-.$(#-*2#! C#$#! +3A/#$! C.(,A#N.(-.! /#0#! N*%%4(! 0.! .A-$.%%#A! F!
0.A/3+$*$! A.Q#%.A! 0.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! (,! N3/D,! NhA! #2#(X#0#! m3.! %#! (3.A-$#?!
E,0$5#N,A! .B#N*(#$! -,0#! 3(#! '#%#B*#! N3F! C$,(-,>! +3A/#(0,! -#N+*d(! A.Q#%.A! 0.!
3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!N3/D,!NhA!#2#(X#0#!m3.!%#!(3.A-$#!]2d#(A.!/#C5-3%,A!Va!F!Vb_?!H(!
C.m3.Q,! $#0*,-.%.A/,C*,! C3.0.! ,$*.(-#$A.! D#/*#! %#! NhA! /.$/#(#! '#%#B*#! .AC*$#%>!
D#/*#!%#!m3.!.A-d!NhA!/.$/#!0.!%#!(3.A-$#>!%#!'$#(!'#%#B*#!KV8!.(!%#!/,(A-.%#/*4(!0.!
@(0$4N.0#>! F! A*N3%-h(.#N.(-.>! ,+A.$2#$! 0,A/*.(-,A! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! .A-$.%%#A?! @3(!
/3#(0,! N3/D#A! 0.! .A-#A! .A-$.%%#A! .A-32*.$#(! $#0*#(0,! /,(! 3(#! -./(,%,'5#!
%*'.$#N.(-.! A3C.$*,$! #! %#! (3.A-$#>! (,! /#C-#$5#N,A! A3A! A.Q#%.A?! E.$,! A*! A,%#N.(-.!
3(#A! C,/#A! $#0*#(! /,(! %#! C,-.(/*#! 0.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! N3F! #2#(X#0#>! C,0$5#N,A!
0.-./-#$%#A! 6h/*%N.(-.?! @0.NhA! 0.! .B#N*(#$! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! /.$/#(#A! m3.! (,A!
#2.(-#\#(! N3F! %*'.$#N.(-.! .(! -./(,%,'5#>! C#$./.! m3.! -*.(.! A.(-*0,>! C,$! %,! -#(-,>!
.B#N*(#$!#%!N*AN,!-*.NC,!N3/D#A!.A-$.%%#A!0.!%#A!'#%#B*#A!2./*(#A>!F#!m3.!-#(!A4%,!
3(#A! C,/#A! 0.! .%%#A! C3.0.(! .A-#$! D#+*-#0#A! C,$! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! N3/D5A*N,! NhA!
#2#(X#0#A!m3.!%#!(3.A-$#?!
I#A-#! #D,$#! D.N,A! .A-#0,! 0.A/$*+*.(0,! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! A.Q#%.A! $#0*#0#A! .(!
(3.A-$#! 0*$.//*4(! '.(.$#%! C,$! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! *(-.$.A#0#A! .(! /,N3(*/#$A.! /,(!
(,A,-$,A?! E.$,! %,A! -.$$.A-$.A! (,! .A-#N,A! $#0*#(0,! A.Q#%.A! /,(! 0*$.//*4(! #! #%'3(#!
.A-$.%%#!,!.A-$.%%#A!.AC./56*/#A?!&*!-,0#A!%#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!.A/3/D#(!F!(,!-$#(AN*-.(>!
C,0$5#N,A! %%.'#$! #! %#! .$$4(.#! /,(/%3A*4(! 0.! m3.! %#! Z#%#B*#! .A-h! 0.AD#+*-#0#>!
.B/.C-,! (3.A-$#! C$,C*#! .B*A-.(/*#?! @A5! C3.A>! A.! D#! C$,C3.A-,! n/,N,! #%-.$(#-*2#! F!
.NC$.A#! N3/D,! NhA! /,A-,A#n! m3.! (,A,-$,A! -#N+*d(! fC#$.N,A! %#! ,$.\#go! .A! 0./*$!
m3.!-$#+#\.N,A!A,+$.!A.Q#%.A!m3.!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!3A#!C#$#!A3A!C$,C*,A!C$,C4A*-,A>!
/,N,>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! -$#(AN*A*,(.A! 0.! $#0*,! F! -.%.2*A*4(! 0,NdA-*/#A>! A*A-.N#A! 0.!
$#0#$! F! 0.NhA?! c#! /,(A-$3//*4(! F! 63(/*,(#N*.(-,! 0.! 3(! '$#(! $#0*,-.%.A/,C*,>! m3.!
0.0*/#$#!%#!N*-#0!0.%!-*.NC,!#!3(#!$*'3$,A#!+GAm3.0#!0.!A.Q#%.A!.(2*#0#A!D#/*#!%#!
L*.$$#!C,$!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!/,A-#$5#!0./.(#A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!04%#$.A!],!
$3+%,A_?!H(!/,(\3(-,!0.!$#0*,-.%.A/,C*,A!0*A.Q#0,A!C#$#!fD3AN.#$g!#!3(#!0*A-#(/*#!
0.!#%'3(,A!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!#Q,AO%3X!/,A-#$5#!N3/D,A!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!04%#$.A?!
E,$!#Q#0*03$#>!%#!C$,+#+*%*0#0!0.!dB*-,!.(!%,!m3.! %%#N#N,A!#m35!fD3AN.#$g!C3.0.!
A.$! +#\#?! I#/.! /*.(! #Q,A! (,! %#(Xh+#N,A! A.Q#%.A! 0.! $#0*,! ,! -.%.2*A*4(! #%! .AC#/*,?!
1.(-$,!0.!/*.(!#Q,A>!.%!C.$6.//*,(#N*.(-,!0.!%#A!-$#(AN*A*,(.A!0.!$#0*,!25#!A#-d%*-.!
F!-.%.2*A*4(!C,$!/#+%.>!#A5!/,N,!%#!#C#$*/*4(!0.!(3.2#A!-./(,%,'5#A>!C3.0.(!A*'(*6*/#$!
m3.>! 3(#! 2.X! NhA>! (,! A#%0$h(! #%! .AC#/*,! A.Q#%.A! 0.! $#0*,! ,! -.%.2*A*4(?! E3.0.! A.$!
m3.! -#%.A! A.Q#%.A! A.#(! 0.-./-#+%.A! A4%,! 03$#(-.! 3(,A! /3#(-,A! /.(-.(#$.A! 0.! #Q,A!
.(! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! 3(! C%#(.-#>! D*A-,$*#! m3.! A.! /,(-#$h! .(! N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A?!
E,$! -#(-,>! %#! .NC$.A#! 0.! fD3AN.#$g! ,! f6*A',(.#$g>! #0.NhA! 0.! $.A3%-#$! /,A-,A#>!
-#N+*d(!C3.0.!-.(.$!N3F!C,/#A!C$,+#+*%*0#0.A!0.!dB*-,?!
9A!3(!-#(-,!/3$*,A#!%#!A*-3#/*4(!.(!m3.!(,A!.(/,(-$#N,A?!@%!N.(,A>!D#F!3(#!+3.(#!
C$,+#+*%*0#0! 0.! m3.! D#F#! N3/D#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A>! %#(X#(0,! A.Q#%.A! D#/*#! (,A,-$,A?!
E,A..N,A!%#!-./(,%,'5#!C#$#!0.A/3+$*$!-#%.A!A.Q#%.A!#!0*A-#(/*#A!*(N.(A#A>!#%!,-$,!
%#0,!0.!%#!Z#%#B*#?!9B/.C-,!#%'3(,A!C.m3.Q,A!.A63.$X,A!$.#%*X#0,A!C,$!%,A!9A-#0,A!
H(*0,A!F!%#!H(*4(!&,2*d-*/#>!(,A,-$,A!n.A!0./*$>!%#!I3N#(*0#0n!(,!.A-#N,A!%%.2#(0,!
#! /#+,! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.?! L#%! .NC$.A#! .A! A36*/*.(-.N.(-.!
.N,/*,(#(-.! F>! #%! N.(,A>! %,! +#A-#(-.! $.AC.-#+%.! C#$#! m3.! C30*.A.! D#+.$! C,/#A!
0*6*/3%-#0.A!.(!0.0*/#$!C.$A,(#%!#!3(!$#0*,,+A.$2#-,$*,!0*A.Q#0,!C#$#!.A-.!C$,C4A*-,>!
C.$A,(#%! .(-$.! .%! /3#%! 6*'3$#A.(! /*.(-56*/,A! /#C#/.A! .! *((,2#0,$.A>! /*.(-56*/,A! /,(!
*0.#A?!9%!G(*/,!,+A-h/3%,!C#$./.!A.$!.%!0*(.$,?!
@3(m3.!.%!D./D,!(,!A.#!3(#!+#'#-.%#>!%,!/*.$-,!.A!m3.!#%'3(#A!0./.(#A!0.!N*%%,(.A!
0.! 04%#$.A! ],! $3+%,A_! $.C$.A.(-#(>! A*(! .N+#$',>! 3(#! /#(-*0#0! 0.! 0*(.$,! m3.!
$.#%N.(-.! .A-h! #%! #%/#(/.! 0.! *(0*2*03,A! $*/,A! F! 63(0#/*,(.A?! 1.! D./D,>! D#F! .(! %#!
#A-$,(,N5#! 3(#! %#$'#! F! ,$'3%%,A#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! ,+A.$2#-,$*,A! 63(0#0,A! C,$! *(0*2*03,A!
C#$-*/3%#$.A! F! C,$! #%'3(#A! 63(0#/*,(.A?! 9%! c*/q! ;+A.$2#-,$F>! .(! K,3(-! I#N*%-,(>!
"#%*6,$(*#>!63.!63(0#0,!C,$!.%!A.Q,$!c*/q!]m3.!0.A.#+#!/,(A-$3*$!3(#!C*$hN*0.>!C.$,!
A.! /,(6,$N4! /,(! 3(! ,+A.$2#-,$*,>! .(! /3F#! +#A.! .A-h! .(-.$$#0,_o! .%! J.$q.A!
;+A.$2#-,$F>! .(! t*%%*#NA! )#F>! t*A/,(A*(>! 63(0#0,! C,$! .%! A.Q,$! J.$q.Ao! .%! c,r.%%!
;+A.$2#-,$F!0.!p%#'A-#66>!@$*X,(#>!63(0#0,!C,$!.%!A.Q,$!c,r.%%>!F!.%!K,3(-!t*%A,(!F!
K,3(-! E#%,N#$! ;+A.$2#-,$*.A>! .(! "#%*6,$(*#! 0.%! &3$>! 63(0#/*4(! .A-#+%./*0#! C,$! .%!
A.Q,$!"#$(.'*.?!9A!C,A*+%.!m3.!C$,(-,!%%.'3.!.%!0*(.$,!0.%!Z,+*.$(,?!H(!0*(.$,!m3.!
C3.0#! /,A-.#$! -#%! .NC$.A#?! 1.AC3dA! 0.! -,0,>! /3.A-#! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! %,! m3.! %,A!
#2*,(.A!#N.$*/#(,A!m3.!$.NC%#X#$,(!#!%,A!0.$$*+#0,A!.(!.%!R*.-(#N!F!.(!%#!A.N#(#!
0.!%#!<#2*0#0!0.!8TU`?!E.$,!3(!$#0*,-.%.A/,C*,!0*A.Q#0,!C#$#!%#!/,N3(*/#/*4(!/,(!
%#! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.! F>! \3(-,! #! d%>! 3(! +3.(! /.(-$,! 0.! .B,+*,%,'5#>! A*(! 030#!
#%'3(#!A.$5#!3(!#0./3#0,!N,(3N.(-,!/,(N.N,$#-*2,!C#$#!#%'3(,A!0.!(,A,-$,A?!
!
30. Si tenemos xito...
!

!
Una red de civilizaciones galcticas, en comunicacin mutua. Ilustracin de Jon Lomberg.
!
I#F! '.(-.! m3.! A.! C$.,/3C#! #%! $.6%.B*,(#$! A,+$.! .%! C$,+%.N#! 0.! 3(#! /,N3(*/#/*4(!
*(-.$.A-.%#$?!ks3d!A3/.0.$h!A*!.(-$#N,A!.(!/,(-#/-,!/,(!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!N3/D,!NhA!
#2#(X#0#!m3.!%#!(3.A-$#l!
9(!%#!L*.$$#>!%#!D*A-,$*#!0.!%,A!/,(-#/-,A!.(-$.!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!-./(,%4'*/#A!#2#(X#0#A!
F! #-$#A#0#A! .A! NhA! +*.(! -$*A-.?! c#A! A,/*.0#0.A! N.(,A! #2#(X#0#A! -d/(*/#N.(-.! n
#3(m3.! C3.0#(! 0*A6$3-#$! 0.! N#-.Nh-*/#A! A3C.$*,$.A>! #A-$,(,N5#>! C,.A5#>! ,!
C$./.C-,A!N,$#%.An!0.A#C#$./.(?!&*!dA-#!.A!#m35!3(#!%.F!(#-3$#%!0.!A.%.//*4(>!kC,$!
m3d! (,! D#! 0.! A.$%,! .(! /3#%m3*.$! ,-$#! C#$-.l! J! .(! .A.! /#A,>! k(,! 0.+.N,A!
N#(-.(.$(,A!m3*.-,Al!
9A-h(! %,A! m3.! C$.0*/.(! 3(#! -.$$*+%.! /#-hA-$,6.! A*! $#0*#N,A! (3.A-$#! C$.A.(/*#! #! ,-$#!
.A-$.%%#?! c,A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! 2.(0$h(! F! (,A! /,N.$h(! ,! A3/.0.$h! #%',! *'3#%N.(-.!
0.A#'$#0#+%.?! ]=.#%N.(-.>! A*! A,N,A! .AC./*#%N.(-.! A#+$,A,A>! A4%,! (./.A*-#(! 3(#!
N3.A-$#! 0.! 3(,! 0.! (,A,-$,A>! 0.-.$N*(#$! m3d! A./3.(/*#! 0.! #N*(,h/*0,A! (,A! D#/.(!
#C.-*-,A,A! F! %3.',! $./,(A-$3*$! %#A! #C$,C*#0#A! C$,-.5(#A! .(! A3! C$,C*,! C%#(.-#?! 9%!
.%.2#0,! /,A-.! 0.%! -$#(AC,$-.! (,A! /,(2*.$-.! .(! #%',! C,/,! #C.-./*+%.! 0.A0.! .%! C3(-,!
0.! 2*A-#! ./,(4N*/,?_! 9%! N.(A#\.! #! +,$0,! 0.%! Pioneer 10! 63.! /$*-*/#0,! C,$! 3(,A!
/3#(-,A! C,$m3.! f0.(3(/*#+#g! (3.A-$#! C,A*/*4(! .(! %#! Z#%#B*#?! 130,! N3/D,! m3.!
-.('#N,A! %#! A36*/*.(-.! /#-.',$5#! /,N,! C#$#! /,(A-*-3*$! 3(#! #N.(#X#! #! #%'3*.(! #D5!
63.$#?! &,N,A! %#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! NhA! $.-*$#0#! F! %#! m3.! N.(,A! C$,+#+*%*0#0.A! -*.(.! 0.!
.(-$#$!.(!/,N3(*/#/*4(>!F!%,A!.(,$N.A!.AC#/*,A!.(-$.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!A,(!3(#!.AC./*.!
0.! /3#$.(-.(#! (#-3$#%! m3.! (,A! *NC*0.(>! .(! 3(! 63-3$,! C$4B*N,>! N.X/%#$(,A! C,$! #D5!
#$$*+#!,!#+#\,!/,(!,-$,A!A.$.A?!
E.$,>! .(! /3#%m3*.$! /#A,>! F#! .A! 0.N#A*#0,! -#$0.?! J#! D.N,A! #(3(/*#0,! (3.A-$#!
C$.A.(/*#?!c#A!*(*/*#%.A!.N*A*,(.A!0.!$#0*,>!/,N.(X#(0,!/,(!K#$/,(*!F!#%/#(X#(0,!
(,-#+%.!*(-.(A*0#0!.(!%,A!#Q,A!`7>!D#(!#-$#2.A#0,!%#!*,(,A6.$#!F!A.!.B-*.(0.(!#!%#!
2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X!.(!3(!6$.(-.!,(03%#0,!.A6d$*/,!/.(-$#0,!#%$.0.0,$!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!J!
.(!.A.!6$.(-.!3(#!#2#(X#0#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-d/(*/#!C3.0.!$./,'.$!%#A!-$#(AN*A*,(.A!0.!
9($*/,! "#$3A,>! .%! \3*/*,! &/,C.A>! %#A! .%.//*,(.A! 0.! 8T`W>! %#A! '$#(0.A! ,$m3.A-#A! 0.!
\#XX?! wA-,A! A,(! %,A! C$./3$A,$.A! 0.! %#A! /3%-3$#A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>! (3.A-$,A! C$*N.$,A!
.N*A#$*,A!#!%#A!.A-$.%%#A?!
&*! D#F! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! -d/(*/#A! #! 3(#! 0*A-#(/*#! 0.! /*(/3.(-#! #Q,AO%3X>! #D,$#! N*AN,!
.A-#$h(! 0.A/3+$*.(0,! .A-#A! .B-$#Q#A! F! C$*N*-*2#A! A.Q#%.A?! @3(! /3#(0,! .A-d(!
C$.C#$#0#A! C#$#! $.AC,(0.$! *(A-#(-h(.#N.(-.! /,(! %#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! NhA! $hC*0#>!
C#A#$h(!C,$!%,!N.(,A!,-$,A!/*(/3.(-#!#Q,A!#(-.A!0.!m3.!A.C#N,A!#%',!0.!.%%,A?!9%!
Pioneer 10!-#$0#$h!3(!N*%%4(!0.!#Q,A!.(!$./,$$.$!%#!N*AN#!0*A-#(/*#?!
9A! 0.N#A*#0,! -#$0.! C#$#! N,A-$#$(,A! -5N*0,A! ,! /,(! 030#A?! I.N,A! #(3(/*#0,!
(3.A-$#!C$.A.(/*#!#%!",AN,A>!0.!3(#!N#(.$#!-#$05#>!#!-*.(-#A>!C,/,!$.C$.A.(-#-*2#???!
iC.$,!#m35!.A-#N,Aj!
c#A!.(,$N.A!0*A-#(/*#A!.(-$.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!*NC%*/#(!m3.!(,!D#+$h!0*h%,',A!/4AN*/,A!
N.0*#(-.! -$#(AN*A*,(.A! 0.! $#0*,?! &3C,('#N,A! m3.! $./*+*N,A! 3(#! A.Q#%! 0.! 3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(!A*-3#0#!#!3(#!0*A-#(/*#!C,A*+%.!C#$#!.%!/,(-#/-,>!0*'#N,A>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!#!
3(,A!-$.A/*.(-,A!#Q,AO%3X?!9%!N.(A#\.!m3*Xh!0*$5#M!fiI,%#>!#N*',Aj!k"4N,!.A-h*Alg!
9A-#(0,!F#!C$.C#$#0,A!C#$#!.A-.!N,N.(-,!*(N.0*#-#N.(-.>!$.C%*/#$.N,A!0*/*.(0,M!
fK3F!+*.(>!kF!2,A,-$,Alg!9A-#!N3-3#!/,N3(*/#/*4(!/,A-#$5#!3(!-*.NC,!#C$,B*N#0,!
0.!A.*A/*.(-,A!#Q,A?!9(!/,(A./3.(/*#>!(,!A.$5#!3(#!/,(2.$A#/*4(!N3F!#(*N#0#?!
I#/.! A.*A/*.(-,A! #Q,A! %#! C.A-.! #A,%4! #! 93$,C#>! %#! 0*(#A-5#! K*('! #/#+#+#! 0.!
0.A/3+$*$A.>! "#$%,A! .%! E$30.(-.! A.! A.(-#+#! .(! .%! -$,(,! 6$#(/dA>! Z$.',$*,! z:! .$#!
E#C#>! F! %,A! #X-./#A! .A-#+#(! #D,$/#(0,! #! %,A! m3.! /,(-#N*(#+#(! .%! #*$.! F! .%! #'3#?!
&.*A/*.(-,A! #Q,A! $.C$.A.(-#! 3(! %#$',! C.$5,0,! .(! %#! L*.$$#?! c#! /,N3(*/#/*4(!
*(-.$.A-.%#$! C,$! $#0*,! (,! A.$h! 3(! 0*h%,',>! A*(,! 3(! N,(4%,',?! c,A! -*C,A! *'(,$#(-.A!
.A/3/D#(! #! %,A! %*A-,A>! /,N,! A*! .%! #A-$4%,',! 0.! "#$%,A! .%! E$30.(-.! $./*+*.$#! 3(!
N.(A#\.!(3.A-$,?!
@3(m3.!.%!C.$5,0,!0.!-*.NC,!C#$#!m3.!3(#!A.Q#%!0.!$#0*,!$./,$$#!3(#!0*A-#(/*#!0.!
-$.A/*.(-,A!#Q,AO%3X!A*'#!A*.(0,!0.!-$.A/*.(-,A!#Q,A>!%#!/#(-*0#0!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!m3.!
C3.0.!-$#(AN*-*$!.A!.(,$N.?!1.!D./D,!F!/,(!*(A-$3N.(-,A!(,!N3/D,!NhA!#2#(X#0,A!
m3.!%,A!(3.A-$,A>!.(!3(,A!/3#(-,A!05#A!A.!C,0$5#!-$#(AN*-*$!-,0,!%,!NhA!*NC,$-#(-.!
$.%#/*,(#0,!/,(!(3.A-$#!/*2*%*X#/*4(?!L#$0#$5#!-$.A/*.(-,A!#Q,A!.(!%%.'#$!#%%5>!C.$,!%#!
-$#(AN*A*4(! NhA! $hC*0#! A*.NC$.! A.$h! .(! %#! ,-$#! 0*$.//*4(>! 0.A0.! %,A! %*A-,A! ].%%,A_! #!
%,A!*'(,$#(-.A!](,A,-$,A_?!9A!C,A*+%.!m3.!A3$m3.(!.%!.AC#/*,!2#$*#A!-$#(AN*A*,(.A!#!
%#! 2.X! 0*$*'*0#A! #! %#! L*.$$#! F! #A5! D#+$h! m3.! #C$.(0.$! .%! %.('3#\.! 0.! -#%.A!
-$#(AN*A*,(.A?!E.$,!%,!m3.!A5!.A-h!/%#$,!.A!m3.!(,!%#A!,*$.N,A!A*!(,!.A/3/D#N,A?!
E.$,>!k/4N,!C,0$5#N,A!0.A/*6$#$!-#%!N.(A#\.l!c,A!.$30*-,A!.3$,C.,A!*(2*$-*.$,(!NhA!
0.! 3(! A*'%,! .(! %%.2#$! #! /#+,! .m3*2,/#0,A! *(-.(-,A! 0.! 0.A/*6$#$! %,A! \.$,'%56*/,A!
.'*C/*,A!#(-.A!0.!0.A/3+$*$!%#!E*.0$#!=,A.-#!F!.%!+$*%%#(-.!#-#m3.!A,+$.!A3!-$#03//*4(!
%%.2#0#!#!/#+,!C,$!J,3('!F!"D#NC,%%*,(?!@%'3(#A!%.('3#A!#(-*'3#A>!/,N,!%,A!'%*6,A!
0.! %#! *A%#! 0.! E#A/3#>! .A/$*-,A! 0.! %,A! N#F#A! F! #%'3(#A! 2#$*.0#0.A! 0.! .A/$*-3$#!
/$.-.(A.>! D,F! 05#! #G(! A*'3.(! A*.(0,! -,-#%N.(-.! (,! *(-$#03/*+*.A>! A*(,! NhA! +*.(!
*(0.A/*6$#+%.A?! &*(! .N+#$',>! .$#(! %.('3#A! 0.! A.$.A! D3N#(,A! /,N,! (,A,-$,A!
N*AN,A>!/,(!*(A-*(-,A!+*,%4'*/,A!/,N3(.A>!F!%.\,A!0.!(,A,-$,A!.(!.%!-*.NC,!A4%,!.(!
3(,A! /.(-.(#$.A! ,! N*%.A! 0.! #Q,A?! k"4N,! C,0.N,A! .AC.$#$! m3.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(!
N3/D5A*N,! NhA! #2#(X#0#! m3.! %#! (3.A-$#! F! +#A#0#! .(-.$#N.(-.! .(! 0*6.$.(-.A!
C$*(/*C*,A!+*,%4'*/,A>!C3.0#!.(2*#$!N.(A#\.A!m3.!(,A,-$,A!.(-.(0#N,Al!
c#A!0*6.$.(/*#A!.(!%,A!0,A!/#A,A!A,(!%#!*(-.(/*4(!F!%#!*(-.%*'.(/*#?!9%!,+\.-*2,!0.!%,A!
'%*6,A! 0.! %#! *A%#! 0.! E#A/3#! (,! .$#! /,N3(*/#$! /,(! %,A! /*.(-56*/,A! 0.%! A*'%,! BB?! 9$#!
/,N3(*/#$A.! /,(! ,-$,A! D#+*-#(-.A! 0.! %#! *A%#! 0.! E#A/3#! ,! C,A*+%.N.(-.! /,(! %,A!
0*,A.A?!c#!*0.#!0.!3(!/40*',!,!/%#2.>!#%!N.(,A!.(!.%!-.$$.(,!0.!%#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!N*%*-#$>!
.A! A*.NC$.! /,(6.//*,(#$! 3(! N.(A#\.! 0*65/*%! 0.! 0.A/*6$#$?! E.$,! %,! m3.! #m35! .A-#N,A!
-$#-#(0,! .A! %,! ,C3.A-,?! <,! D#+%#N,A! 0.! /$*C-,'$#65#>! A*(,! NhA! +*.(! 0.! 3(#!
#(-*/$*C-,'$#65#>!0*A.Q,!0.!3(!N.(A#\.!$.#%*X#0,!C,$!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!N3F!*(-.%*'.(-.>!
F!0*A.Q,!-#(!A.(/*%%,!m3.!*(/%3A,!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!NhA!C$*N*-*2#A!m3.!%#!(3.A-$#!C3.0#(!
%..$?!
9%! N.(A#\.! A.! +#A#$h! .(! 0.-#%%.A! /,N3(.A! .(-$.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! -$#(AN*A,$#A! F!
$./.C-,$#A?!9A-,A!0.-#%%.A!/,N3(.A>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!(,!A.$h!(*('G(!%.('3#\.!D#+%#0,!
,!.A/$*-,!(*!-#NC,/,!A.!+#A#$h!.(!(3.A-$,A!N#-.$*#%.A!'.(d-*/,A>!A*(,!m3.!NhA!+*.(!
D#(!0.!2.$A#$!A,+$.!#m3.%%,!m3.!/,NC#$-*N,A!.(!/,NG(M!.%!H(*2.$A,!m3.!(,A!$,0.#>!
/*.(/*#!F!N#-.Nh-*/#A?!I#F!.Am3.N#A!N.0*#(-.!%,A!/3#%.A!A.!-$#(AN*-.(!C$,C3.A-#A!
N#-.Nh-*/#A>! C$,C3.A-#A! m3.! %%.2#(! /,(A*',! /,(/.C-,A! -#%.A! /,N,! %#! A3N#! F! %#!
*'3#%0#0!F!(.'#/*4(>!F!0.A.N+,/#(0,!0.AC3dA!.(!/,(/.C-,A!NhA!A,6*A-*/#0,A?!I#F!
.Am3.N#A!A,+$.!.%!.(25,!0.!N.(A#\.A!C,$!$#0*,!.(!%,A!m3.!.%!(GN.$,!0.!.%.N.(-,A!
A,(!/%#$#N.(-.!#%',!#A5!/,N,!6,-,'$#65#A!F!m3.!/3#(0,!A.!$./,(A-$3F.(!/,N,!-#%.A!
A.!%%.'#(!#!.(-.(0.$!N3F!+*.(?!c#!C%#/#!0.%!Pioneer 10!.A!3(!.\.NC%,!0.!%#!/%#A.!0.!
6,-,'$#65#! ,! 0*+3\,! m3.>! -$#(AN*-*0,! /,N,! 3(! ,+\.-,! .(! 3(#! A,(0#! .AC#/*#%! ,! /,N,!
6,-,!,!/3#0$,!C,$!-$#(AN*A*4(!0.!$#0*,>!A.$5#!.(-.(0*0,!N3F!+*.(!C,$!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!
.B-$#-.$$.A-$.! N3F! #2#(X#0#?! 1.! %#! N*AN#! N#(.$#>! 3(,A! N.(A#\.A! C#$./*0,A! m3.!
%%.'3.(! D#A-#! (,A,-$,A>! %,A! .(-.(0.$.N,A! C.$6./-#N.(-.>! A*! -.(.N,A! %#! /3$*,A*0#0!
0.!.A/3/D#$?!
I#F!#%'3(,A!/*.(-56*/,A!m3.!/,(A*0.$#(!%#!#3A.(/*#!0.!0*h%,',!/,N,!#%',!$.#%N.(-.!
N,%.A-,>! /,N,! A*! %,A! 0*h%,',A! A*'(*6*/#-*2,A! 63.$#(! /,A#! /,NG(! .(! .A-.! C%#(.-#?!
ED*%*C! K,$$*A,(>! 0.%! K#AA#/D3A.--A! :(A-*-3-.! ,6! L./D(,%,'F>! D#! A.Q#%#0,! m3.! -#%.A!
N,(4%,',A! /3%-3$#%.A! A,(! N3F! /,N3(.A! .(! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! %#! I3N#(*0#0o! m3.>! C,$!
.\.NC%,>! -,0,! .%! C#-$*N,(*,! /3%-3$#%! 0.! %#! Z$./*#! /%hA*/#>! m3.! D#! *(6%3*0,! -#(!
C$,63(0#N.(-.! A,+$.! (3.A-$#! /*2*%*X#/*4(>! D#! 2*#\#0,! A4%,! .(! 3(#! 0*$.//*4(! /,(! .%!
-*.NC,?! <,! D.N,A! .(2*#0,! (3.A-$#! A#+*03$5#! #! %,A! '$*.',A?! c,A! '$*.',A! (,A! D#(!
.(2*#0,!A3!A#+*03$5#!#!(,A,-$,A>!A,+$.!C#C.%!F!C.$'#N*(,>!F!(,!C,$!,(0#A!0.!$#0*,>!
C.$,!.%!C$*(/*C*,!.A!.%!N*AN,?!
c,A! /,(,/*N*.(-,A! d-*/,A>! /*.(-56*/,A>! %4'*/,A! F! /3%-3$#%.A! m3.! A.! /,(A.'3*$h(!
N.0*#(-.!%#A!-$#(AN*A*,(.A!'#%h/-*/#A>!C3.0.(!A.$>!#!%#!%#$'#>!.%!#/,(-./*N*.(-,!NhA!
*NC,$-#(-.!F!C$,63(0,!.(!%#!D*A-,$*#!0.!(3.A-$#!/*2*%*X#/*4(?!&.!,+-.(0$h!*(6,$N#/*4(!
.(! 3(,A! /#NC,A! m3.! (,! A.! C,0$h(! /#%*6*/#$! 0.! D3N#(*0#0.A>! C,$m3.! (3.A-$,A!
/,N3(*/#(-.A! (,! A.$h(! D3N#(,A?! E,A*+%.N.(-.>! D#+$h! 3(#! 0.A2*#/*4(>! C,$! #A5!
0./*$%,>!0.!%#!6,$N#!.(!m3.!(,A,-$,A!2.N,A!.%!",AN,A!F!#!(,A,-$,A!N*AN,A?!I#+$h!
3(#! (3.2#! C.$AC./-*2#! .(! %#A! 0*6.$.(/*#A! m3.! C.$/*+*N,A! .(-$.! (,A,-$,A>! 3(#! 2.X!
m3.! /#C-.N,A! %#A! .(,$N.A! 0*6.$.(/*#A! m3.! .B*A-*$h(! .(-$.! (,A,-$,A! F! %,A! A.$.A! 0.!
,-$#A! C#$-.A>! A.$.A! /,(! %,A! /3#%.A>! A*(! .N+#$',>! -.(.N,A! *(-.$.A.A! *(-.%./-3#%.A!
/,N3(.A?!
E.$,>! #%! N*AN,! -*.NC,>! (,! .A! C$,+#+%.! m3.! D#F#! 3(! /#N+*,! 0*A/,(-*(3,?! c#!
*(6,$N#/*4(! C3.0.! %%.'#$! /3#%m3*.$! 05#! N.0*#(-.! (3.A-$,A! $#0*,-.%.A/,C*,A! .(!
$#C*05A*N#! -$#(A6.$.(/*#?! 9%! D./D,! 0.! 0.A/*6$#$! .%! N.(A#\.>! %#! /,NC$.(A*4(! 0.! A3!
/,(-.(*0,!F!%#!#C%*/#/*4(!.B-$.N#0#N.(-.!/3*0#0,A#!0.!%,!m3.!A.!(,A!D#!.(A.Q#0,!
C3.0.(!/,A-#$!0d/#0#A!.!*(/%3A,!A*'%,A?!
9A!N3F!C$,+#+%.!m3.!.%!*NC#/-,!/3%-3$#%!0.%!/,(-.(*0,!0.%!N.(A#\.!A.#!C.m3.Q,?!&*(!
.N+#$',>! .%! C$*(/*C#%! *NC#/-,! %,! /,(A-*-3*$h! %#! $./.C/*4(! 0.%! C$,C*,! N.(A#\.?! 9%!
#%3(*X#\.! 0.! D,N+$.A! .(! %#! c3(#! A.! /,(A*0.$#! D,F! 05#>! #%! N.(,A! .(! %,A! 9A-#0,A!
H(*0,A>!/,A#!-#(!(,$N#%!F!/,$$*.(-.>!m3.!A,AC./D,!m3.!C3.0,!0./*$!m3.!%#!$./.C/*4(!
0.!3(!N.(A#\.!0.!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!N.(A#\.!m3.!/3.A-.!N3/D,!-*.NC,!
0.A/*6$#$!F!.(-.(0.$>!(,!A.$h!-#NC,/,!/,A#!N3F!A,$C$.(0.(-.!C#$#!.%!D,N+$.!0.!%#!
/#%%.?!
J!D#A-#!.A!C,A*+%.!m3.!0.A..N,A!$.AC,(0.$?!
kE,$! m3d! 3(#! A,/*.0#0! #2#(X#0#! 0.A.#! $.#%*X#$! .A63.$X,A! C,$! /,N3(*/#$! -#%!
*(6,$N#/*4(!#!,-$#!A,/*.0#0!#-$#A#0#!F!(3.2#!/,N,!%#!(3.A-$#l!E3.0,!*N#'*(#$!m3.!
%.A! *NC3%A#! %#! +.(.2,%.(/*#o! m3.! 03$#(-.! A3A! 6#A.A! 0.! #C#$*/*4(! A.! #F30#$,(! #! A5!
N*AN,A!/,(!-#%.A!N.(A#\.A!F!m3.!dA-#!.A!3(#!-$#0*/*4(!0*'(#!0.!/,(-*(3#/*4(?!I#F!
#%'3(,A!$.%#-,A!0.!/*.(/*#O6*//*4(>!.(!%,A!/3#%.A!%,A!/,(-.(*0,A!0.!%,A!N.(A#\.A!A,(!
N#%d2,%,A>!.(!%,A!m3.!$./*+*N,A!*(A-$3//*,(.A!C#$#!/,(A-$3*$!3(#!Nhm3*(#>!m3.!%3.',!
6#+$*/#N,A! ,+.0*.(-.N.(-.! F! m3.>! NhA! -#$0.>! -#N+*d(! 0.! N#(.$#! A3N*A#! -,N#!
C,A.A*4(!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!E.$,!(#0*.!/,(A-$3*$h!#!/*.'#A!-#%!Nhm3*(#?!<#0*.!,+.0./.$h!
%#A!*(A-$3//*,(.A!/,(-.(*0#A!.(!3(!N.(A#\.!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!D#A-#!m3.!A.!/,NC$.(0#(!
+*.(!%#A!+#A.A!/*.(-56*/#A!0.!-#%.A!*(A-$3//*,(.A?!wA-#!.A!3(#!0.!%#A!$#X,(.A!C,$!%#A!
/3#%.A! .%! *NC#/-,! /3%-3$#%! 0.! 3(! N.(A#\.! D#! 0.! A.$! C.m3.Q,?! <,! /$.,! m3.! D#F#!
(*('G(!C.%*'$,!0.!*NC,$-#(/*#!.(!%#!$./.C/*4(!0.!-#%!N.(A#\.>!A*.NC$.!F!/3#(0,!A.!
-,N.(!%#A!NhA!.%.N.(-#%.A!C$./#3/*,(.A!/,(!$.AC./-,!#!A3!/,(-.(*0,?!
&.! D#! A3'.$*0,! m3.! .%! /,(-.(*0,! 0.%! N.(A#\.! $./*+*0,>! 0.%! N.(A#\.! *(*/*#%>! A.!
.(-*.(0.>!/,(-.(0$h!*(A-$3//*,(.A!C#$#!.2*-#$!(3.A-$#!C$,C*#!#3-,0.A-$3//*4(>!C,A*+%.!
0.A-*(,! /,NG(! 0.! -,0#A! %#A! A,/*.0#0.A! m3.! D#(! #%/#(X#0,! %#! 6#A.! -d/(*/#?!
"*.$-#N.(-.>!D#F!.(!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#!A36*/*.(-.A!#$N#A!(3/%.#$.A!/,N,!C#$#!%*m3*0#$!
(,! 3(#>! A*(,! 2#$*#A! 2./.A! #! -,0,A! %,A! D,N+$.A>! N3\.$.A! F! (*Q,A?! &.! 0*/.! m3.! %#A!
/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!#2#(X#0#A>!N,-*2#0#A!+*.(!C,$!#%-$3*AN,>!,!+*.(!C,$!3(!
*(-.$dA! .',5A-#! .(! N#(-.(.$! 3(! .A-*N3%#(-.! '$3C,! 0.! /,N3(*/#(-.A>! C$,C,$/*,(#(!
*(6,$N#/*4(!C#$#!m3.!#%'3(#A!A,/*.0#0.A!A.!.A-#+*%*/.(?!<,!Ad!A*!.A-,!.A!C,A*+%.o!%#A!
0*6.$.(/*#A!D*A-4$*/#A!.(-$.!,$'#(*AN,A!F!A,/*.0#0.A!/,(!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!
0.! .2,%3/*4(! *(0.C.(0*.(-.! A.$5#(! .(,$N.A?! E.$,! .A! 3(#! C,A*+*%*0#0! m3.! 2#%.! %#!
C.(#! (,! *'(,$#$>! .A-#! D*C4-.A*A! 0.! m3.! %#! .B*A-.(/*#! 0.! /,N3(*/#/*,(.A!
*(-.$.A-.%#$.A! #3N.(-.! .%! (GN.$,! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! F! m3.! C3.0#! A.$! %#! +#A.! 0.!
(3.A-$#!C$,C*#!A3C.$2*2.(/*#?!
I#F!,-$#!6,$N#!.(!%#!m3.!.A-.!N*AN,!C$,/.A,!C3.0.!63(/*,(#$!+*.(>!#3(m3.!(,!D#F#!
*(A-$3//*,(.A!.AC./56*/#A!A,+$.!/4N,!.2*-#$!0.A-$3*$(,A!#!(,A,-$,A!N*AN,A?!9A-h!.%!
6#/-,$!0.!%#!.A/#%#!0.%!-*.NC,?!c,A!Z,+*.$(,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!$#$#!2.X!D#/.(!C$,F./-,A!
m3.!2#F#(!NhA!#%%h!0.!3(!C.$5,0,!0.!/*(/,!#Q,A?!c,A!*(0*2*03,A!(,$N#%N.(-.!D#/.(!
C$,F./-,A! C#$#! .AC#/*,A! 0.! -*.NC,! N3/D,! NhA! C.m3.Q,A?! :(/%3A,! 3(#! *(G-*%!
+GAm3.0#! 0.! *(-.%*'.(/*#! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.>! m3.! C3.0.! #%#$'#$A.! 03$#(-.! 0d/#0#A! ,!
A*'%,A>!.A!3(!.\.NC%,!G-*%!0.!C%#(*6*/#/*4(!#!%#$',!C%#X,?!E.$,!D#+$5#!m3.!C.(A#$!.(!
%#A!/,(A./3.(/*#A!0.!$./*+*$!3(!N.(A#\.!m3.!A.!-$#(AN*-*4!D#/.!-$.A/*.(-,A!#Q,A!F!
m3.! A.! 0*A/3-*$h! 03$#(-.! ,-$,A! A.*A/*.(-,A?! 9AC.$#$! %#! $.AC3.A-#! #! %#! (3.A-$#!
$.m3*.$.>!#A5>!3(#!/,(-*(3*0#0!0.!C$,C4A*-,A!N3F!C,/,!/,$$*.(-.!.(!%#A!*(A-*-3/*,(.A!
D3N#(#A?! Z$#(! C#$-.! 0.! %#A! /#-hA-$,6.A! ./,%4'*/#A! #/-3#%.A! A.! 0.+.(! #%! #(A*#! 0.!
'#(#(/*#A! #! C%#X,! /,$-,! F! #! 3(#! #A,N+$,A#! /.'3.$#! D#/*#! %,A! 0.A#A-$.A! #! %#$',!
C%#X,?! c#! .A/#%#! 0.%! -*.NC,! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! F! %#! /,N3(*/#/*4(! /,(!
.%%#A!C$,C,$/*,(#(!3(!A.(-*0,!0.!/,(-*(3*0#0!D*A-4$*/#>!2*-#%!C#$#!%#!/,(-*(3#/*4(!0.!
(3.A-$#!C$,C*#!/*2*%*X#/*4(?!
!
31. Cables, tambores y caracolas
!

!
Concha estelar. Ilustracin de Jon Lomberg.
!
9(! /#A*! -,0#A! %#A! 0.A/$*C/*,(.A! /*.(-56*/#A! 0.! /,(-#/-,A! .(-$.! %#! L*.$$#! F! 3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!#!.A-#!G%-*N#!A.!%#!N.(/*,(#!/,N,!#2#(X#0#?!
kE,$! m3d! #2#(X#0#l! kE,$! m3d! (,! D#F! #%%5! #%'3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! C$*N*-*2#>! *(0*2*03,A!
#-$#A#0,A>! #(0#(0,! #! -*.(-#A! A,+$.! .A/,N+$,A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! F! $.N.(0#(0,!
/,(-*(3#N.(-.! -,0#A! %#A! /,A#Al! kE,$! m3d! .A-#N,A! -#(! ,+A.A*,(#0,A! /,(! 3(#A!
A3C3.A-#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!#2#(X#0#Al!
c#! $.AC3.A-#! .A! N3F! A.(/*%%#M! %#A! C$*N*-*2#A! (,! (,A! D#+%#(?! ]c#A! 2.$0#0.$#N.(-.!
*(-.%*'.(-.A!-#NC,/,!%,!D#/.(>!C.$,!0.(-$,!0.!C,/,!F#!-,/#$.N,A!.A-.!C3(-,?_!
E.(A.N,A!.(!3(!/,(-#/-,!.NC%.#(0,!%#!$#0*,#A-$,(,N5#?!c#!$#0*,#A-$,(,N5#!.(!%#!
L*.$$#! .A! 3(! A3+C$,03/-,! 0.! %#! &.'3(0#! Z3.$$#! K3(0*#%>! /3#(0,! D3+,! 63.$-.A!
C$.A*,(.A! N*%*-#$.A! C#$#! .%! C.$6.//*,(#N*.(-,! 0.%! $#0#$?! H(#! A.$*#! $#0*,#A-$,(,N5#!
A3$'*4!A,%#N.(-.!.(!%,A!#Q,A!/*(/3.(-#!F!%,A!'$#(0.A!$#0*,-.%.A/,C*,A>!.(!%,A!#Q,A!
A.A.(-#?! &*! 0.6*(*N,A! #! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! #2#(X#0#! /,N,! #m3.%%#! /#C#X! 0.! .6./-3#$!
/,N3(*/#/*,(.A!#!%#$'#!0*A-#(/*#!.NC%.#(0,!$#0*,-.%.A/,C*,A>! D#+$h!m3.!0./*$!m3.!
.(! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#! %#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! #2#(X#0#! A4%,! -*.(.! 3(,A! 0*.X! #Q,A?! E,$! -#(-,>!
/3#%m3*.$!/*2*%*X#/*4(!0*.X!#Q,A!N.(,A!#2#(X#0#!m3.!%#!(3.A-$#!(,!C,0$h!D#+%#$(,A!
.(!#+A,%3-,?!
:(/%3A,! %,A! /h%/3%,A! NhA! ,C-*N*A-#A! A,+$.! .%! 5(0*/.! 0.! #2#(/.! -d/(*/,! 0.! 3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(!m3.!C3.0#!A3$'*$!.(!%#!Z#%#B*#!#(3(/*#(!m3.!.A!*(6.$*,$!#!3(#!/#0#!0*.X!
#Q,A! ]2d#A.! /#C5-3%,! zzR:::_?! &*! .A-,! .A! /,$$./-,>! A*'(*6*/#! m3.! 0.! -,0#A! %#A!
/*2*%*X#/*,(.A! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#! m3.! C3.0.(! /,N3(*/#$! C,$! $#0*,! (,! D#F! (*('3(#! -#(!
#-$#A#0#! /,N,! %#! (3.A-$#?! E3.0.(! .B*A-*$! N*%%,(.A! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! N.(,A!
#2#(X#0#A! m3.! (,A,-$,A>! C.$,! (,! -.(.N,A! 6,$N#! #%'3(#! 0.! C,(.$(,A! .(! /,(-#/-,!
/,(!.%%#AM!/#$./.(!0.!%#!-./(,%,'5#!(./.A#$*#!C#$#!$./*+*$!,!-$#(AN*-*$?!c#A!,+\./*,(.A!
m3.!A.!D#/.(!#%!D./D,!0.!m3.!.%!N.(A#\.!0.%!Pioneer 10!C3.0.!A.$!0.N#A*#0,!0*65/*%!
0.!0.A/*6$#$!C#$#!%,A!m3.!%,!$./*+#(>!C#$./.(!*'(,$#$!.%!D./D,!0.!m3.!C#$#!m3.!.A-,!
A.#!#A5!%,A!$./*C.(0#$*,A!D#(!0.!A.$!/#C#/.A!#(-.!-,0,!0.!*(-.$/.C-#$!F!/#C-#$!.A-.!
C.m3.Q,! #$-*%3'*,! .(! .%! .AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$>! /,A#! m3.! D#A-#! #D,$#! C#$#! (,A,-$,A!
$.C$.A.(-#! -#$.#! m3.! 2#! N3/D,! NhA! #%%h! 0.! (3.A-$#! /#C#/*0#0?! &*! .A-h(! %,!
A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! #2#(X#0#A! /,N,! C#$#! C,0.$! /#C-3$#$! #%! Pioneer 10>! .(! %#!
,+A/3$*0#0>! .(-$.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A>! /$.,! m3.! C,0$h(! A.$! %,! A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! *(-.%*'.(-.A!
/,N,!C#$#!/#C-#$!-#N+*d(!A3!N.(A#\.>!m3.!C3.0.!A.$!%.50,!A*(!(*('3(#!0*6*/3%-#0!C,$!
N3/D,A!65A*/,A>!-#(!#-$#A#0,A!/,N,!%,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#?!
E.$,>! km3d! D#F! A,+$.! %#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! N3/D,! NhA! #2#(X#0#A! m3.! %#! (3.A-$#l! 9%!
C$,'$.A,! -d/(*/,! m3.! D.N,A! #%/#(X#0,! .(! %,A! G%-*N,A! A*'%,A! .A! $.#%N.(-.!
A,$C$.(0.(-.?! <,! A4%,! A.! D#(! 0.A#$$,%%#0,! ,! C.$6.//*,(#0,! (3.2#A! -d/(*/#A>! A*(,!
m3.! A.! D#(! .A-#+%./*0,! (3.2#A! %.F.A! 65A*/#A! F! (3.2,A! Nd-,0,A! 0.! .B#N*(#$! .%!
H(*2.$A,?! 9A-.! 0.A#$$,%%,! *(-.%./-3#%! F! -./(,%4'*/,! .A! /,(-*(3,?! &*! A,+$.2*2.! %#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(! 0.! %#! L*.$$#>! .%! #2#(/.! 0.! %#! /*.(/*#! F! 0.! %#! -./(,%,'5#! -#N+*d(!
/,(-*(3#$h?!
c#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!m3.!(,A!A3C.$#(!.(!/*.(/*#!F!-./(,%,'5#!.(!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!
#Q,A! .A! /#A*! A.'3$,! m3.! (,! C,0#N,A! /,NC$.(0.$%#A! C,$m3.! (*! A*m3*.$#! A.! C,0$h(!
0*A-*('3*$!0.!%,!m3.!D,F!(,A!C#$./.!N#'*#?!<,!.A!m3.!%,!m3.!C3.0#(!D#/.$!2*,%.!%#A!
%.F.A! 0.! %#! 65A*/#>! C.$,! A5! m3.! (,! .(-.(0.$.N,A! /4N,! C3.0.(! 3A#$! %#A! %.F.A! 0.! %#!
65A*/#!C#$#!D#/.$!%,!m3.!D#/.(?!
9A!C,A*+%.!-#N+*d(!m3.!.A-.N,A!-#(!#-$#A#0,A!F!A.#N,A!-#(!C,/,!*(-.$.A#(-.A!C#$#!
-#%.A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A>! m3.! (,! 2#%'#N,A! %#! C.(#! 0.! (*('G(! /,(-#/-,>! ,>! #%! N.(,A>! 0.!
N3/D,! /,(-#/-,?! E3.0.! D#+.$! 3(,A! C,/,A! .AC./*#%*A-#A! .(! A,/*.0#0.A! C$*N*-*2#A!
*(-.$C%#(.-#$*#A! m3.! $./*+#(! .%! '$#0,! 0.! %*/.(/*#0,A! ,! 0,/-,$.A! .(! .%! .A-30*,! 0.! %#!
L*.$$#! ,! .(! .A/3/D#$! (3.A-$,! -$h6*/,! hAC.$,! F! D#A-#! *$$*-#(-.! 0.! $#0*,! F! -.%.2*A*4(?!
E3.0.! D#+.$! #6*/*,(#0,A! n+,FOA/,3-A>! $#0*,#6*/*,(#0,A>! .-/d-.$#n! m3.! A.! A*.(-#(!
*(-.$.A#0,A!C,$!%,!m3.!,/3$$.!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!E.$,!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!0.!3(!N*%%4(!0.!#Q,A!
NhA! #2#(X#0#! m3.! %#! (3.A-$#>! (,! Ad>! N.! C#$./.! m3.! (,! A.! A.(-*$h! .(! #+A,%3-,!
*(-.$.A#0#!C,$!(,A,-$,A?!
c#A! /,N3(*/#/*,(.A! .(-$.! 0,A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! N3F! #2#(X#0#A! C$,+#+%.N.(-.!
.NC%.#$h(! 3(#! /*.(/*#! F! 3(#! -./(,%,'5#! *(#//.A*+%.A! C#$#! (,A,-$,A?! E,$! -#(-,>!
/#$./.N,A! 0.! C.$AC./-*2#! #%'3(#! .(! %,! m3.! A.! $.6*.$.! #! /#C-#$! -#%! -$h6*/,! 0.!
/,N3(*/#/*4(>!+*.(!#//*0.(-#%N.(-.!,!#!C$,C4A*-,?!
&,N,A!/,N,!%,A!D#+*-#(-.A!0.!3(!2#%%.!#*A%#0,!0.!<3.2#!Z3*(.#!m3.!A.!/,N3(*/#(!
/,(! ,-$#A! A,/*.0#0.A! 0.! /.$/#(,A! 2#%%.A! ]A,/*.0#0.A! +#A-#(-.! 0*6.$.(-.A>! C,0$5#!
#Q#0*$_! N.0*#(-.! /,$$.0,$.A! ,! -#N+,$.A?! "3#(0,! A.! %.A! C$.'3(-#! /4N,! 3(#!
A,/*.0#0!#2#(X#0#!D#!0.!/,N3(*/#$A.>!m3*XhA!*N#'*(.(!m3.!D#!0.!A.$!N.0*#(-.!3(!
/,$$.0,$!.B-$.N#0#N.(-.!2.%,X!,!C,$!N.0*,!0.!3(!-#N+,$!$.#%N.(-.!'*'#(-.A/,?!9A!
/#A*!A.'3$,!m3.!(,!*N#'*(.(!%#!.B*A-.(/*#! 0.!3(#!-./(,%,'5#!A3C.$*,$!#!%#!A3F#?!J>!
A*(! .N+#$',>! D#F! 3(#! .(,$N.! /#(-*0#0! 0.! -$h6*/,! 0.! $#0*,>! 0.! /#+%.! *(-.$(#/*,(#%>!
m3.!C#A#!A,+$.!.%%,A>!#!A3!#%$.0.0,$>!F!#!-$#2dA!0.!.%%,A!-#N+*d(?!
9(!.A-.!N*AN,!N,N.(-,!.A-#$h(!/$3X#(0,!.%!.AC#/*,!N.(A#\.A!0.!,-$#!/*2*%*X#/*4(>!
N.(A#\.A! *NC3%A#0,A! C,$! 0*AC,A*-*2,A! A3C.$#2#(X#0,A! .! *(*N#'*(#+%.A! C#$#!
(,A,-$,A>!*(/#C#/.A!0.!0.-./-#$%,A>!C.$,!#D5!.A-h(o!A*!-#(!A*m3*.$#!A3C*dA.N,A!/4N,!
0.-./-#$%,A?!s3*XhA!.%!N.(A#\.!%%.'#$h!25#!,(0#A!0.!$#0*,!C#$#!m3.!A.#(!0.-./-#0#A!
C,$! '$#(0.A! $#0*,-.%.A/,C*,A?! ;>! m3*Xh>! C,$! 0*AC,A*-*2,A! NhA! N*A-.$*,A,A>! /,N,! %#!
N,03%#/*4(! 0.! .A-$.%%#A! 0.! $#F,A! z>! ,(0#A! 0.! '$#2*-#/*4(>! (.3-$*(,A! ,! /#(#%.A! 0.!
-$#(AN*A*4(!m3.!(#0*.!.(!%#!L*.$$#!A,Q#$h!#G(!03$#(-.!A*'%,A?!;>!C$,+#+%.N.(-.>!%,A!
N.(A#\.A!F#!.A-h(!#m35>!C$.A.(-.A!.(!%#A!.BC.$*.(/*#A!0.!/#0#!05#>!C.$,!N.(A#\.A!
m3.!$.A3%-#(!*NC,A*+%.A!0.!/#C-#$!C,$m3.!(,!$.#%*X#N,A!.%!/,$$./-,!.A63.$X,!N.(-#%!
C#$#!.%%,?!9%!C,0.$!F!63.$X#!0.!-#%!/*2*%*X#/*4(!#2#(X#0#!.A!N3F!'$#(0.?!9A!C$,+#+%.!
m3.!A3A!N.(A#\.A!.A-d(!#D5>!#m35>!.(!N3/D,A!A*-*,A>!A*-3#0,A!.(!/*$/3(A-#(/*#A!C,$!
/,NC%.-,!6#N*%*#$.A?!
E.(A.N,A>!C,$!3(!N,N.(-,>!.(!%#A!/#$#/,%#A?!L,0,!.%!N3(0,!/,(,/.!.%!fA,(*0,!0.%!
N#$g!m3.!.A/3/D#!/3#(0,!#$$*N#N,A!#%!,50,!3(#!0.!.A-#A!/#$#/,%#A!N#$*(#A?!<,A!
0*/.(!m3.!%,!m3.!,5N,A!.A!.%!A,(*0,!N3F!#NC%*#0,!0.!(3.A-$#!C$,C*#!A#('$.?!E.$,>!
k.A! .A-,! $.#%N.(-.! /*.$-,l! k&.! D#! .A-30*#0,! .A-,l! k@/#A,! D3+,! #%'3*.(! m3.! A.!
C$.,/3C#$#!0.!.A-30*#$!,!*(-.(-#$#!0.A/*6$#$!.%!N.(A#\.!m3.!A3.(#!.(!.%!*(-.$*,$!0.!
3(#! /#$#/,%#l! <,! N.(/*,(,! .A-.! .\.NC%,! /,N,! %*-.$#%N.(-.! /*.$-,>! A*(,! NhA! +*.(!
/,N,!3(#!#%.',$5#?!9(!#%'G(!%3'#$!0.!%#!L*.$$#!C3.0.!.B*A-*$!.%!.m3*2#%.(-.!#%!/#(#%!
0.!/,N3(*/#/*,(.A!0.!%#!/#$#/,%#?!9%!N.(A#\.!0.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!+*.(!C3.0.!.A-#$!#m35!
F#?!E.$,>!k04(0.l!
9A/3/D#$.N,A! #! %#! .AC.$#! 0.! ,5$! -#N+,$.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! F! C#A#$.N,A! C,$! #%-,! %,A!
/#+%.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A?! E$,+#+%.N.(-.! $./*+*$.N,A! (3.A-$,A! C$*N.$,A! N.(A#\.A!
N.0*#(-.!%,A!-#N+,$.A!0.!%,A!2#%%.A!'#%h/-*/,A!2./*(,A>!0.!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!/.$/#(#A!#!
(3.A-$,!63-3$,?!c#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!N3/D,!NhA!#2#(X#0#A!m3.!(,A,-$,A!C.$N#(./.$h(!
03$#(-.! N3/D,! -*.NC,! *(#//.A*+%.A! .(! %#! 0*A-#(/*#?! 9(! 3(! 63-3$,! 0.! '$#(! -$h6*/,! 0.!
$#0*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$>! %#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! N3F! #2#(X#0#A! C3.0.(! A.$! C#$#! (,A,-$,A! -#(!
A,%,!%.F.(0#A!*(A3+A-#(/*#%.A?!
!
32. Tren nocturno a las estrellas
!

!
El tren carguero nocturno a las estrellas. Ilustracin de Jon Lomberg.
!
13$#(-.!-$.A!'.(.$#/*,(.A!0.!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!D3+,!n/,N,!3(#!,N(*C$.A.(-.>!C.$,!
/#A*!*(#02.$-*0#>!C#$-.!0.!A3A!2*0#An!3(!A,(*0,!0.!%%#N#0#>!3(!'$*-,!m3.!#-$#2.A#+#!
%#! (,/D.>! %%.2#(0,! /,(A*',! %#! (,-*/*#! 0.! m3.! D#+5#! 3(#! 6,$N#>! (,! N3F! 0*65/*%>! 0.!
#+#(0,(#$!Lr*(!p,$qA>!<,$-D!1#q,-#>!,!@C#%#/D*/,%#>!p%,$*0#>!,!)$,,q%F(>!<.r!J,$q?!
9$#!.%!m3.\3N+$,A,!$3*0,!0.%!-$.(!(,/-3$(,>!-#(!N*A-.$*,A,!F!.2,/#0,$!/,N,!.%!'$*-,!
0.%! A,N,$'3\,?! 9$#! 3(! /,(A-#(-.! $./,$0#-,$*,! 0.! m3.! D#+5#! 2.D5/3%,A>! 0*AC,A*-*2,A!
m3.>!A*!A.!#+,$0#+#(>!C,05#(!A#/#$%.!#!3(,!#!#%-#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!A3!C.m3.Q,!N3(0,!
C#$#!%%.2#$%.!#!3(!N3/D,!N#F,$!H(*2.$A,!0.!+,Am3.A!F!0.A*.$-,A>!/,A-#A!F!/*30#0.A?!
9AC./*#%N.(-.!.(!%,A!9A-#0,A!H(*0,A>!C.$,!m3*XhA!.(!'$#(!C#$-.!0.%!K3(0,>!C,/#A!
C.$A,(#A! 2*#\#(! D,F! 05#! .(! -$.(?! I#F! '.(.$#/*,(.A! .(-.$#A! m3.! /$./.(! A*(! D#+.$!
,50,! %#! %%#N#0#! 0.! .A-#! A*$.(#?! wA-.! .A! .%! N,N.(-,! 0.! D,N,'.(.*X#$! .%! K3(0,>!
/3#(0,!A.!.A-h!.$,A*,(#(0,!%#!0*2.$A*0#0!0.!A,/*.0#0.A>!/3#(0,!.A-h!A3$'*.(0,!3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(!'%,+#%?!J#!(,!m3.0#(!%3'#$.A!.B4-*/,A!.(!%#!L*.$$#!/,(!%,A!/3#%.A!C,0.$!
A,Q#$?!
J! C,$! .A-#! $#X4(! *NC.$#! /#0#! 05#! NhA! %#! 3$'.(-.! (./.A*0#0! 0.! 0*AC,(.$! 0.! 3(!
2.D5/3%,>! 0.! 3(! 0*AC,A*-*2,>! m3.! (,A! %%.2.! #! #%'3(#! C#$-.?! <,! #! -,0,A! (,A,-$,Ao!
A,%#N.(-.!3(,A!C,/,A>!#!%,A!0.A*.$-,A!0.!%#!c3(#>!#!%#A!#(-*'3#A!/,A-#A!0.!K#$-.>!#!
%,A!+,Am3.A!0.%!/*.%,?!I#F!#%',!0.!/,(A,%#0,$!.(!%#!*0.#!0.!m3.!3(!05#!3(,A!/3#(-,A!
$.C$.A.(-#(-.A! 0.! (3.A-$,! C.m3.Q,! C3.+%,! -.$$.A-$.! C3.0#(! #2.(-3$#$A.! #! *$! #! %#A!
'$#(0.A!/*30#0.A!'#%h/-*/#A?!
L,0#25#!(,!D#F!-$.(.A!*(-.$.A-.%#$.A!(*!Nhm3*(#A!m3.!(,A!%%.2.(!#!%#A!.A-$.%%#A?!E.$,!
3(!05#!C3.0.(!.A-#$!#m35?!c#A!D#+$.N,A!/,(A-$3*0,!,!%#A!D#+$.N,A!#-$#50,?!
J! .(-,(/.A>! 3(#! 2.X! NhA! A,(#$h! .%! A*%+#-,! 0.%! -$.(! (,/-3$(,?! <,! .%! #(-*'3,! A,(*0,!
0.%!A*%+#-,!0.!%#!%,/,N,-,$#>!F#!m3.!.%!A,(*0,!(,!A.!,F.!.(!.%!.AC#/*,!*(-.$C%#(.-#$*,!
,! .(! .%! 6#(-hA-*/,! 2#/5,! .(-$.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A?! E.$,! D#+$h! #%',>! m3*XhA! .%! 6%#AD! ,!
$.%hNC#',! %3N*(,A,! 0.%! magnetobrehmstrahlung>! /3#(0,! .%! 2.D5/3%,! .A-.%#$! A.!
#C$,B*N.!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X?!I#+$h!3(#!A.Q#%?!
K*$#(0,! 0.A0.! %#A! /*30#0.A! .(,$N.A! /,N,! /,(-*(.(-.A! F! 0.A0.! %#A! -#N+*d(!
.(,$N.A! $.A.$2#A! 0.! /#X#>! .(! 3(#! (,/D.! /%#$#>! %3'#$.A! m3.! C3.0.(! A.$! (3.A-$,!
63-3$,! .(! .A-.! C%#(.-#>! %,A! \42.(.A! A,Q#$h(! m3.! /3#(0,! A.#(! N#F,$.A>! A*! -*.(.(!
A3.$-.>!-,N#$h(!.%!-$.(!(,/-3$(,!m3.!%.A!%%.2.!#!%#A!.A-$.%%#A?!
!
33. Astroingeniera
!

!
Astroingeniera. Ilustracin de Jon Lomberg.

!
@D,$#>! .(! 3(! $.%#-,! 0.%! m3.! A.! D#(! D./D,! N3/D#A! /*-#A! F! C,A*+%.N.(-.! #C4/$*6,>!
$.C.-*$.N,A! #m35! m3.! .%! 65A*/,! (3/%.#$! 9($*/,! p.$N*! C$.'3(-4>! 03$#(-.! 3(! #%N3.$X,!
/.%.+$#0,! .(! c,A! @%#N,A! .(! %,A! #Q,A! /3#$.(-#M! fDnde estn ellos?g! &*! D#F!
'$#(0.A! /#(-*0#0.A! 0.! A.$.A! NhA! #2#(X#0,A! m3.! (,A,-$,A>! N3$N3$4! #%! C#$./.$>!
kC,$!m3d!(,!D.N,A!2*A-,!(*('3(#!A.Q#%!,!D3.%%#!0.!.%%,A>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!3(#!2*A*-#!#!%#!
L*.$$#l!
I.N,A! -$#-#0,! .A-.! C$,+%.N#! .(! %,A! /#C5-3%,A! `U! F! `W?! E.$,! D#F! ,-$#! N#(.$#! 0.!
C%#(-.#$!%#!C$.'3(-#!0.!p.$N*?!H(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!m3.!(,A!A3C.$#!-./(,%4'*/#N.(-.!.(!
/*.(!#Q,A!]-.(*.(0,!.(!/3.(-#!%,A!#/-3#%.A!5(0*/.A!0.!C$,'$.A,!-./(,%4'*/,_>!A.'3$,!
m3.!C,0$5#!/,N3(*/#$A.!C,$!$#0*,>!F!m3*Xh!N.0*#(-.!,-$#A!-d/(*/#A!0.A0.!/3#%m3*.$!
C3(-,!0.!%#!Z#%#B*#!F!-#N+*d(!0.A0.!,-$#A!'#%#B*#A?!H(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!m3.!(,A!A3C.$.!
-./(,%4'*/#N.(-.!.(!N*%!#Q,A!.A!C$,+#+%.!m3.!A.#!N3F!/#C#X!0.!2*#\#$!65A*/#N.(-.!
.(-$.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A>!#3(m3.!.NC%.#(0,!/,(A*0.$#+%.!-*.NC,!F!$./3$A,A?!
E.$,>! kF! m3d! C.(A#$! 0.! %#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! m3.! (,A! A3C.$#(! -./(,%4'*/#N.(-.! .(!
N*%.A!,!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!N*%.A!0.!#Q,A!,!*(/%3A,!NhA!-*.NC,l!I#F>!0.AC3dA!0.!-,0,>!
N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! .A-$.%%#A! NhA! 2*.\#A! m3.! .%! &,%?! c#A! NhA! #(-*'3#A! 0.! -#%.A!
.A-$.%%#A!/#$./.(!0.!N.-#%.A!C.A#0,A!F!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!A3A!C%#(.-#A!-#N+*d(!A36$.(!
%#!N*AN#!/#$.(/*#?!L#%.A!.A-$.%%#A>!2*.\#A!.A-$.%%#A>!-*.(.(!N.0*,A!#N+*.(-.A!D,A-*%.A!
#%! 0.A#$$,%%,! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! -./(,%4'*/#A?! E.$,! #%'3(#A! .A-$.%%#A>! N*%! ,! 0,A! N*%!
N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!NhA!2*.\#A!m3.!.%!&,%!(,!A36$.(!-#%.A!0*6*/3%-#0.A?!&.'3$#N.(-.!.A!
C,A*+%.! m3.! D#F#>! #%! N.(,A>! 3(#A! /3#(-#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! m3.! (,A! A3C.$.(! .(! .%!
#AC./-,!-./(,%4'*/,!.(!N*%%,(.A!,!.(!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A?!
K.0*#(-.! C$,0*'*,A,A! $./3$A,A! .(.$'d-*/,A! -#%.A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! C,0$5#(! $.6,$N#$! ,!
/#N+*#$!.%!",AN,A?!I.N,A!.BC3.A-,!.(!.%!/#C5-3%,!``!/4N,!%#!2*0#!.(!%#!L*.$$#!F#!
D#!#%-.$#0,!A*'(*6*/#-*2#N.(-.!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#!F!/4N,!C,0.N,A!F#!*N#'*(#$>!.(!3(!
63-3$,! $.%#-*2#N.(-.! C$4B*N,>! .%! $.#%*X#$! *NC,$-#(-.A! /#N+*,A! .(! %,A! N.0*,A!
#N+*.(-.A!0.!%,A!C%#(.-#A!NhA!/.$/#(,A!#!(,A,-$,A?!
&*(! 030#! A,(! C,A*+%.A! /#N+*,A! N3/D,! N#F,$.A! .(! 3(! 63-3$,! NhA! %.\#(,?! 9%!
N#-.Nh-*/,!p$..N#(!1FA,(>!0.%!:(A-*-3-.!6,$!@02#(/.0!&-30F>!,6$./.!3(!.Am3.N#!.(!
.%! /3#%! .%! C%#(.-#! PGC*-.$! A.! $,NC.! -$,X,! #! -$,X,>! -$#(AC,$-#0,! #! %#! 0*A-#(/*#! 0.! %#!
L*.$$#! 0.A0.! .%! &,%! F! $./,(A-$3*0,! .(! 6,$N#! 0.! /,(/D#! .A6d$*/#>! 3(! .(\#N+$.! 0.!
6$#'N.(-,A! *(0*2*03#%.A! '*$#(0,! #%$.0.0,$! 0.%! &,%?! c#! 2.(-#\#! 0.! %#! C$,C3.A-#! 0.!
1FA,(! .A! m3.! -,0#! %#! %3X! A,%#$! m3.! A.! 0.AC.$0*/*#>! #%! (,! /#.$! A,+$.! 3(! C%#(.-#!
*(D#+*-#0,>! C,0$5#! .NC%.#$A.! 2.(-#\,A#N.(-.o! F! N#(-.(.$A.! #A5! .%! .B/.A,! 0.!
C,+%#/*4(!m3.!#D,$#!D#+*-#!%#!L*.$$#?!&*!C,+%#/*4(!-#(!2#A-#!.A!0.A.#+%.>!.A!#%',!m3.!
#G(!(,!A.!D#!$.A3.%-,?!E.$,!%,!m3.!A5!C#$./.!.2*0.(-.!.A!m3.!/,(!.%!#/-3#%!5(0*/.!0.!
C$,'$.A,! -./(,%4'*/,! A.$h! C,A*+%.! /,(A-$3*$! %#! .A6.$#! 0.! 1FA,(! m3*Xh! 0.(-$,! 0.!
#%'3(,A! N*%.A! 0.! #Q,A?! 9(! .A.! /#A,>! .A! C$,+#+%.! m3.! ,-$#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! NhA!
#(-*'3#A!m3.!%#!(3.A-$#!D#F#(!/,(A-$3*0,!F#!-#%.A!.(\#N+$.A!.A6d$*/,A?!
H(#! .A6.$#! 1FA,(! #+A,$+.! %#! %3X! 2*A*+%.! 0.%! &,%?! E.$,! (,! /,(-*(G#! #+A,$+*.(0,!
*(0.6*(*0#N.(-.!.A-#!%3X!A*(!%%.2#$!#!/#+,!3(#!$.*$$#0*#/*4(>!F#!m3.!0.!(,!A.$!#A5!%#!
-.NC.$#-3$#!%%.'#$5#!#!A.$!A3N#N.(-.!#%-#?!9%!.B-.$*,$!0.!%#!.A6.$#!1FA,(!*$$#0*#!3(#!
$#0*#/*4(!*(6$#$$,\#!#%!.AC#/*,?!@!/#3A#!0.!%#A!'$#(0.A!0*N.(A*,(.A!0.!%#!.A6.$#>!.%!
6%3\,! *(6$#$$,\,! 0.! 3(#! .A6.$#! 1FA,(! 0.+.! A.$! 0.-./-#+%.! 0.A0.! '$#(0.A! 0*A-#(/*#A>!
/,(!%#!#/-3#%!-./(,%,'5#!*(6$#$$,\#>!.(!0*A-#(/*#A!0.!/.(-.(#$.A!0.!N*%.A!0.!#Q,O%3X?!
9A! 0.! $.A#%-#$! #m35! .%! D./D,! 0.! m3.! .(! #Q,A! $./*.(-.A! A.! D#(! 0.-./-#0,! '$#(0.A!
,+\.-,A! *(6$#$$,\,A! 0.! 0*N.(A*,(.A! C#$./*0#A! #! %#A! 0.%! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! F! /,(!
-.NC.$#-3$#A! 0.! N.(,A! 0.! b77! "! {8777! p|?! E,$! A3C3.A-,>! dA-#A! (,! A,(!
(./.A#$*#N.(-.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! 1FA,(?! E3.0.(! A.$! .(,$N.A! (3+.A! m3.! $,0.#(! #!
.A-$.%%#A! .(! C$,/.A,! 0.! 6,$N#/*4(?! E.$,! .A-#N,A! /,N.(X#(0,! #! 0.A/3+$*$! ,+\.-,A!
m3.!(,!A,(!N3F!0*6.$.(-.A!#!%,A!#$-.6#/-,A!0.!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!#2#(X#0#A?!
I#F!N3/D,A!6.(4N.(,A!.(!%#!#A-$,(,N5#!/,(-.NC,$h(.#!m3.!(,!A.!.(-*.(0.(?!c,A!
m3#A#$A>!C,$!.\.NC%,>!A,(!3(,!0.!.%%,A?!c#A!,(0#A!0.!'$#2*-#/*4(!0.!#%-#!*(-.(A*0#0!
C$,/.0.(-.A! 0.%! /.(-$,! 0.! (3.A-$#! Z#%#B*#! A,(! ,-$,A?! c#! %*A-#! C,0$5#! #%#$'#$A.! 0.!
N#(.$#! /,(A*0.$#+%.?! K*.(-$#A! (,! .(-.(0#N,A! .A-,A! 6.(4N.(,A>! (,! C,0.N,A!
.B/%3*$!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!m3.!A.#(!N#(*6.A-#/*,(.A!0.!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.?!9A-,!
#C.(#A!0.N3.A-$#!%#!C$,+#+*%*0#0!0.!%#!.B*A-.(/*#!0.!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.>!,>!#%!
N.(,A>!(,!.(!N#F,$!N.0*0#!m3.!(3.A-$#!*(/#C#/*0#0!0.!/,NC$.(0.$!%,A!/#N+*,A!0.!
.A-#/*4(! .(! K#$-.! ]/#C5-3%,! 8T_>! #A3N*.(0,! m3.! D#F! *NC,$-#(-.A! C$3.+#A! 0.! %#!
.B*A-.(/*#! 0.! 2.'.-#/*4(! .(! 0*/D,! C%#(.-#?! ",N,! 0*/.! .%! #A-$,65A*/,! A,2*d-*/,! :?! &?!
&Dq%,2Aq**M!
Sujetndonos a los principios de la ley, debemos suponer que todos los fenmenos
astronmicos son naturales hasta que se demuestre lo contrario.
@%'3(,A!/*.(-56*/,A!D#(!C$.'3(-#0,>!#(-.!%,! m3.!C,0$5#N,A!%%#N#$!$.6,$N3%#/*4(!0.!
%#! C$.'3(-#! 0.! p.$N*>! kC,$! m3d! %#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! #2#(X#0#A! (,! A.! D#/.(! NhA!
.2*0.(-.Al! kE,$! m3d! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! (,! A.! D#(! $.6,$N#0,! .(! /3#0$,A! .(-.$#N.(-.!
#$-*6*/*#%.A! .(! .%! /*.%,>! m3*Xh! C#$C#0.#(0,! /,(! A3A! %3/.A! #(3(/*#(0,! .(! 0*A-#(/*#A!
*(-.$'#%h/-*/#A! #%'3(#! +.+*0#! $.6$.A/#(-.! /4AN*/#l! 9A-.! .\.NC%,! C#$-*/3%#$>! C,$!
A3C3.A-,>! (,! .A! N3F! 0.6.(0*+%.M! %#! +.+*0#! $.6$.A/#(-.! 0.! 3(#! A,/*.0#0! C3.0.! A.$!
2.(.(,! C#$#! ,-$#?! KhA! A.$*#N.(-.>! %#A! N#(*6.A-#/*,(.A! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! N3F!
#2#(X#0#A!C3.0.!m3.>!C#$#!(,A,-$,A>!/*2*%*X#/*4(!#-$#A#0#>!C#A.(!*(#02.$-*0#A>!0.!%#!
N*AN#!N#(.$#!m3.!C#A#!*(#02.$-*0#!C#$#!%#!D,$N*'#!m3.!-$#+#\#!\3(-,!#!%#!C*A/*(#!0.!
3(#! /*30#0! /3#%m3*.$#>! %#! A3C.$*,$! /*2*%*X#/*4(! -d/(*/#! m3.! %#! $,0.#! .(! .A,A!
N,N.(-,A?!
!
34. Veinte preguntas: una clasificacin de civilizaciones csmicas
!

!
Civilizacin tipo 1.4 M. Ilustracin de Jon Lomberg.

!
E#$#!-$#-#$!/,(!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!m3.!D#F#!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A!.(,$N.N.(-.!
#2#(X#0#A>! .%! #A-$,65A*/,! A,2*d-*/,! <?! &?! u#$0#AD.2! D#! C$,C3.A-,! 3(#! 0*A-*(/*4(! .(!
-d$N*(,A! 0.! %#! .(.$'5#! 0*AC,(*+%.! C#$#! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! F! C#$#! C$,C4A*-,A! 0.!
/,N3(*/#/*4(?!
H(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! -*C,! :! .A! /#C#X! 0.! $.3(*$>! C#$#! C$,C4A*-,A! 0.! /,N3(*/#/*4(>! .%!
.m3*2#%.(-.! 0.! -,0#! %#! C$,03//*4(! .(.$'d-*/#! 0.%! C%#(.-#! L*.$$#>! m3.! #D,$#! A.! 3A#!
C#$#!/#%.6#//*4(>!.%./-$*/*0#0>!-$#(AC,$-.!F!0.NhAo!3(#!'$#(!2#$*.0#0!0.!C$,C4A*-,A!
0*6.$.(-.A!#!%#!/,N3(*/#/*4(!/,(!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A?!E,$!.A-#!0.6*(*/*4(>!%#!
L*.$$#!(,!C.$-.(./.!-,0#25#!#%!-*C,!:!0.!/*2*%*X#/*4(?!
c#! 3-*%*X#/*4(! ,! 3A,! 0.! 63.$X#! 0.! (3.A-$#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! .A-h! #3N.(-#(0,! /,(! A3N#!
$#C*0.X?!c#!#/-3#%!C$,03//*4(!0.!.(.$'5#!0.%!C%#(.-#!L*.$$#!.A!#%',!#A5!/,N,!878b!4!
878[!2#-*,Ao!.A!0./*$!0.!3(!N*%%4(!0.!N*%%,(.A!#!0*.X!N*%%,(.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!2#-*,A?!
c#! /*6$#! .BC,(.(/*#%! *(0*/#! A*NC%.N.(-.! .%! (GN.$,! 0.! /.$,A! m3.! A*'3.(! #%! 8?! E,$!
.\.NC%,>! 878b! A*'(*6*/#! m3*(/.! /.$,A! 0.-$hA! 0.%! 8?! 9%! /,(/.C-,! 0.! C,-.(/*#! .(! 65A*/#!
.A!.%!0.!'#A-,!0.!.(.$'5#!C,$!3(*0#0!0.!-*.NC,?!H(!2#-*,!.m3*2#%.!#!0*.X!N*%%,(.A!0.!
.$'*,A! 0.! .(.$'5#! '#A-#0#! C,$! A.'3(0,?! L,0#! %#! .(.$'5#! .NC%.#0#! .(! %#! L*.$$#!
.m3*2#%.! #! .(/.(0.$>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! /*.(! N*%%,(.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! +,N+*%%#A! 0.! /*.(!
2#-*,A?!9AC./*#%N.(-.!A*!.A-#!.(.$'5#!+$,-#$#!.(!%#!C#$-.!0.!$#0*,!0.%!.AC./-$,!C,0$5#!
0.-./-#$A.!0.A0.!/,(A*0.$#+%.A!0*A-#(/*#A?!

!
Representacin esquemtica de una civilizacin tipo I, probablemente unos cuantos siglos
ms avanzada que la nuestra. Ilustracin de Jon Lomberg.

H(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! -*C,! ::! C3.0.! 3A#$! /,(! C$,C4A*-,A! 0.! /,N3(*/#/*4(! 3(#! C$,03//*4(!
0.!.(.$'5#!.m3*2#%.(-.!#!%#!0.!3(#!-5C*/#!.A-$.%%#>!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!87`[!2#-*,A?!J#!
2.N,A! .A-$.%%#A! A3N#N.(-.! +$*%%#(-.A! .(! 6$./3.(/*#A! 4C-*/#A! .(! %#A! NhA! /.$/#(#A!
'#%#B*#A?!H(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-*C,!::!%#(X#(0,!.(!(3.A-$#!0*$.//*4(!87`W!2#-*,A!.(!#%'3(#A!
,(0#A! 0.! $#0*,! .A-$./D#A! C,0$5#! 0.-./-#$A.! #! .(,$N.A! 0*A-#(/*#A! *(-.$'#%h/-*/#A?!
&.$5#! N3F! 6h/*%! 0.! 0.A/3+$*$! A*! .NC%.h$#N,A! %,A! C$,/.0*N*.(-,A! *04(.,A! 0.!
+GAm3.0#>! F! A*! -#%! /*2*%*X#/*4(! A.! D#%%#$#! .(! %#! NhA! C$4B*N#! '#%#B*#! .AC*$#%! #! %#!
(3.A-$#>! KV8>! %#! '$#(! '#%#B*#! 0.! %#! /,(A-.%#/*4(! @(0$4N.0#?! KV8! .A>! A*(! 030#>! %#!
'#%#B*#! NhA! '$#(0.?! E,$! .\.NC%,>! 3(#! '#%#B*#! .%5C-*/#>! %#! KWU! n-#N+*d(! /,(,/*0#!
/,N,!R*$',!@n!/,(-*.(.>!m3*Xh>!0*.X!N*%%,(.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!.A-$.%%#A?!
E,$!G%-*N,>!u#$0#AD.2!A3C,(.!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-*C,!:::!m3.!.NC%.#$5#>!/,(!C$,C4A*-,A!
0.! /,N3(*/#/*4(>! %#! C$,03//*4(! 0.! .(.$'5#! 0.! -,0#! 3(#! '#%#B*#>! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!
87V[!2#-*,A?!H(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-*C,!:::!*$$#0*h(0,(,A!#A5!A.!C,0$5#!0.A/3+$*$!A*!.A-32*.$#!
.(! /3#%m3*.$! %3'#$! 0.%! H(*2.$A,?! <,! D#F! (#0#! C$.2*A-,! C#$#! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! -*C,! :R?!
<,!D#F!(./.A*0#0!0.!m3.!.B*A-#(!N3/D#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!-*C,!::!,!-*C,!:::!C#$#!m3.!A.!
A*.(-#! A3! C$.A.(/*#! 3(#! 2.X! A.! ,$'#(*/.! /3*0#0,A#N.(-.! %#! +GAm3.0#! 0.!
/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.A?!K3F!+*.(!C,0$5#!,/3$$*$!m3.!3(#A!/3#(-#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!
-*C,!::!,!-*C,!:::!A.!0.-./-#A.(!/,(!NhA!6#/*%*0#0!m3.!3(!'$#(!(GN.$,!0.!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!
-*C,!:>!A*!.%*'*.A.(!.%!D#/.$(,A!A.Q#%.A!]2d#A.!.%!/#C5-3%,!V8_?!
9%!2#/5,!0.!.(.$'5#!.(-$.!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-*C,!:!F!,-$#!-*C,!::!,!.(-$.!%#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!
0.%!-*C,!::!F!:::>!.A!.(,$N.>!3(!6#/-,$!0.!#%$.0.0,$!0.!0*.X!N*%!N*%%,(.A!.(!/#0#!C#A,?!
E#$./.! /,(2.(*.(-.>! A*! A.! D#! 0.! /,(A*0.$#$! .%! #A3(-,! A.$*#N.(-.>! 0*A/$*N*(#$! .(!
N.0*0#!NhA!6*(#>!C,$!#A5!0./*$%,?!&3'.$*$5#!3(!-*C,!8?7!/,N,!/*2*%*X#/*4(>!3A#(0,!878[!
2#-*,A!C#$#!%#!/,N3(*/#/*4(!*(-.$.A-.%#$o!-*C,!8?8>!878U!2#-*,Ao!-*C,!8?`>!878W!2#-*,A>!F!
#A5! A3/.A*2#N.(-.?! <3.A-$#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! #/-3#%! C,0$5#! /%#A*6*/#$A.! #%',! #A5! /,N,! 3(!
-*C,!7?U?!
E.$,!C3.0.!D#+.$!6,$N#A!NhA!A*'(*6*/#-*2#A!C#$#!/#$#/-.$*X#$!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!N.0*#(-.!
%#! .(.$'5#! m3.! C3.0#(! 3A#$! .(! A3A! /,N3(*/#/*,(.A?! p#/-,$! *NC,$-#(-5A*N,! 0.! 3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(! .A! %#! /#(-*0#0! -,-#%! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(! m3.! #%N#/.(.?! 9A-#! *(6,$N#/*4(! A.!
C3.0.!0.A/$*+*$!.(!-d$N*(,A!0.!+*-A>!.%!(GN.$,!0.!0./%#$#/*,(.A!A*O(,!$.%#-*2#A!#!A5!
N*AN#!F!#%!H(*2.$A,!m3.!-#%!/*2*%*X#/*4(!/,(,/.?!
H(!.\.NC%,!0.!.A-.!/,(/.C-,!.A!.%!C,C3%#$!\3.',!0.!fR.*(-.!C$.'3(-#Ag>!-#%!F!/,N,!
A.!\3.'#!.(!%#!L*.$$#?!
H(!\3'#0,$!*N#'*(#!3(!,+\.-,!,!/,(/.C-,!F!$.#%*X#!3(#!/%#A*6*/#/*4(!*(*/*#%!0.!d%!.(!.%!
/#NC,!#(*N#%>!2.'.-#%>!N*(.$#%>!,!.(!(*('3(,!0.!.A-,A!-$.A?!E#$#!*0.(-*6*/#$!.%!,+\.-,!
,!/,(/.C-,>!%,A!,-$,A!\3'#0,$.A!C3.0.(!D#/.$!3(!-,-#%!0.!2.*(-.!C$.'3(-#A!m3.!A4%,!
A.! C3.0.(! $.AC,(0.$! /,(! fA5g! ,! f(,g?! k"3h(-#! *(6,$N#/*4(! A.! C3.0.! ,+-.(.$! 0.!
.A-#!N#(.$#l!
&.! C3.0.! C.(A#$! .(! %#! /#$#/-.$*X#/*4(! *(*/*#%! /,N,! -$.A! C$.'3(-#A! 0.! A5.A! ,! (,.AM!
k",(/.C-3#%!3!$.#%l!k)*,%4'*/,!,!(,l!kE%#(-#!,!#(*N#%l!&*!.A-#N,A!0.!#/3.$0,!.(!
m3.! 3(#! C#$-*0#! 0.! f2.*(-.! C$.'3(-#Ag! C.$A*'3.! #%',! 2*2,>! D.N,A! $.AC,(0*0,>! .(!
.6./-,>!F#!#!-$.A!C$.'3(-#A!/3#(0,!/,N*.(/.!%#!C#$-*0#?!c#!C$*N.$#!C$.'3(-#!0*2*0*4!
#%!H(*2.$A,!.(!0,A!C#$-.A!]0.A*'3#%.A_?!c#!A.'3(0#!C$.'3(-#!0*2*0*4!#!3(#!0.!.A-#A!
0,A!C#$-.A!.(!0,A!NhA>!F!%#!-.$/.$#!0*2*0*4!#!,-$#!0.!.A-#A!G%-*N#A>!.(!,-$#A!0,A?!9(!
-#%!N,N.(-,!D.N,A!0*2*0*0,!#%!H(*2.$A,!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!.(M!
`B`B`!!`V!!W!C#$-.A!
"3#(0,! -.$N*(.N,A! /,(! (3.A-$#A! 2.*(-.! C$.'3(-#A>! D#+$.N,A! 0*2*0*0,! #%! H(*2.$A,!
.(!``7!C#$-.A!#0*/*,(#%.A!]C$,+#+%.N.(-.!0.A*'3#%.A_?!@D,$#>!`87!.A!87`a?!E,0.N,A!
.6./-3#$!-#%.A!/h%/3%,A!N3F!$hC*0#N.(-.!A*!#C$,B*N#N,A!`87!C,$!8777!!87Vo!C,$!%,!
-#(-,>!``7!.A!*'3#%!#!]`87_`>!m3.!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!.A!*'3#%!#!]87V_`!!87[?!9%!(GN.$,!
-,-#%!0.!C$.'3(-#A!.6./-*2#A>!2.*(-*-$dA>!D#!0*2*0*0,!#%!H(*2.$A,!.(!#%$.0.0,$!0.!``V!,!
87U!C#$-.A!,!$.-#X,A!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(?!@A5>!.A!C,A*+%.!m3.!%,A!\3'#0,$.A!Dh+*%.A!'#(.(!
.(!f2.*(-.!C$.'3(-#Ag!-#(!A4%,!A*!2*2.(!.(!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!m3.!C,A..!3(!/,(-.(*0,!
0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!0.!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!87U!+*-A?!
E.$,>! /,N,! 0*',! NhA! #0.%#(-.>! (3.A-$#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! A.! /#$#/-.$*X#! C,$>! m3*Xh>! 878a!
+*-A?!E,$!/,(A*'3*.(-.>!%,A!\3'#0,$.A!Dh+*%.A!0.+.(!'#(#$!.(!f2.*(-.!C$.'3(-#Ag!.(!
#%$.0.0,$!0.!87U!.(-$.!878a!2./.A>!,!3(#!.(!87U>!,!3(#!.(!0*.X!N*%%,(.A!0.!2./.A?!
s3.!%#!C#$-*0#!A.!'#(.!NhA!#!N.(30,!.(!%#!C$h/-*/#!A.!0.+.!#!m3.!D#F!3(#!$.'%#!
#0*/*,(#%!nC,$!%,!'.(.$#%>!(,!.A-#-3*0#>!C.$,!A5!+*.(!.(-.(0*0#M!A,+$.!-,0,!C,$m3.!.%!
,+\.-,! ,! /,(/.C-,! N.(/*,(#0,! 0.+#! A.$! #%',! m3.! 6*'3$.! .(! %#! D.$.(/*#! /3%-3$#%!
'.(.$#%!0.!-,0,A!%,A!\3'#0,$.A?!E.$,!.A-,!0.+.!A*'(*6*/#$!m3.!87U!+*-A!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!
C3.0.(!%%.2#$!.(!A5!3(#!'$#(!/#(-*0#0!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!A,+$.!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(>!A*(!030#!
#%'3(#?!ED*%*C!K,$$*A,(!D#!/#%/3%#0,!m3.!%#!/,(-$*+3/*4(!.A/$*-#!-,-#%!#!(3.A-$#!#/-3#%!
/*2*%*X#/*4(! C,$! C#$-.! 0.! %#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! /%hA*/#! '$*.'#>! A4%,! .A! 0.! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!
87T!+*-A?!@A5>!3(!N.(A#\.!0.!3(#!A,%#!0*$.//*4(>!m3.!/,(-*.(.>!A.'G(!%#A!(,$N#A!0.!
%#!N,0.$(#!$#0*,#A-$,(,N5#>!3(!(GN.$,!N3F!C.m3.Q,!0.!+*-A!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(>!C3.0.!
/,(-.(.$! 3(#! A*'(*6*/#-*2#! /#(-*0#0! 0.! (3.2#! *(6,$N#/*4(! F! .\.$/.$! 3(#! C,0.$,A#!
*(6%3.(/*#!A,+$.!3(#!A,/*.0#0>!#!%#!%#$'#?!
k"3h%! .A! .%! (GN.$,! -,-#%! 0.! +*-A! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(! m3.! D#F! .(! 3(#! C#%#+$#! *('%.A#l!
k9(! -,0,A! %,A! %*+$,A! .(! .%! K3(0,l! E,$! %,! '.(.$#%>! A.! .NC%.#(! .(! *('%dA! 2.*(-*Ad*A!
%.-$#A! NhA! 0*6.$.(-.A! N#$/#A! 0.! C3(-3#/*4(?! "#%/3%.N,A! m3.! D#F! -$.*(-#! F! 0,A! 0.!
-#%.A!f%.-$#Ag!m3.!A,(!.6./-*2#A?!E.$,!V`!!`bo!.A!0./*$>!D#F!#%',!#A5!/,N,!/*(/,!+*-A!
C,$!%.-$#?!&*!3(#!C#%#+$#!-5C*/#!-*.(.!/3#-$,!#! A.*A!%.-$#A!]C#$#!3(!C$,N.0*,!0.!A.*A!
%.-$#A!C,$!C#%#+$#>!-.(0$5#!m3.!D#+.$!N3/D#A!C#%#+$#A!/#C$*/D,A#A_!D#+$h!.(-,(/.A!
0.!2.*(-.!#!-$.*(-#!+*-A!C,$!C#%#+$#?!H(!%*+$,!/,$$*.(-.!n0.!3(#A!-$.A/*.(-#A!C#%#+$#A!
C,$! Ch'*(#! F! 0.! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! -$.A/*.(-#A! Ch'*(#An! -.(0$5#! #%$.0.0,$! 0.! /*.(! N*%!
C#%#+$#A!,>!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.>!-$.A!N*%%,(.A!0.!+*-A!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(?!c#A!NhA!'$#(0.A!
+*+%*,-./#A! 0.%! N3(0,>! /,N,! %#! 0.%! K3A.,! )$*-h(*/,>! %#! )*+%*,-./#! ),0%.*#(! 0.!
;B6,$0>! %#! )*+%*,-./#! EG+%*/#! 0.! <.r! J,$q>! %#! )*+%*,-./#! t*0.(.$! 0.! I#$2#$0>! ,! %#!
)*+%*,-./#! c.(*(! 0.! K,A/G>! (,! -*.(.(! NhA! 0.! 0*.X! N*%%,(.A! 0.! 2,%GN.(.A?! 9A-,! .A!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!V!z!878V!+*-A!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(?!
H(#!6,-,'$#65#!N#%!$.2.%#0#!C3.0.!0*AC,(.$!0.!3(!N*%%4(!0.!+*-A?!H(#!/#$*/#-3$#!N3F!
/,NC%*/#0#!C3.0.!-.(.$!-#(!A4%,!3(,A!N*%!+*-A?!E,$!,-$#!C#$-.>!3(#!6,-,'$#65#!'$#(0.!
F!.(!/,%,$!C3.0.!-.(.$!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!+*-A?!",(/.0#N,A!Nh$'.(.A!#!%#!/#(-*0#0!0.!
*(6,$N#/*4(! 63(0#N.(-#%! /,(-.(*0#! .(! '$h6*/,A>! 6,-,'$#65#A! F! #$-.! .(! (3.A-$#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(>!#A5!/,N,!%#!-$#0*/*4(!,$#%!'$#+#0#?!L$#-.N,A!-#N+*d(!0.!/#%/3%#$!n.A-,!
A4%,!C3.0.!D#/.$A.!0.!N#(.$#!N3F!A3C.$6*/*#%n!%#!*(6,$N#/*4(!/,(!%#!m3.!(#/.N,A!
A,+$.!/4N,!-$#-#$!/,(!.%!K3(0,?!]c,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A>!#%!(#/.$>!A,(>!.(!$.%#/*4(!/,(!
,-$,A! #(*N#%.A>! A.$.A! /,(! N3F! C,/#! *(6,$N#/*4(>! C3.A! -$#-#N,A! /,(! .%! K3(0,!
N3/D,! NhA! .(! -d$N*(,A! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(! #C$.(0*0#! m3.! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(! *(A-*(-*2#! ,!
D.$.0#0#?_!"#%/3%,>!.(-,(/.A>!m3.!(,A,-$,A!F!(3.A-$#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!C,0.N,A!N3F!+*.(!
/#$#/-.$*X#$(,A!C,$!#%',!#A5!/,N,!878a!,!878b!+*-A!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(?!
9(-$.! C#$d(-.A*A>! .%! 2*.\,! #0#'*,! /D*(,! 0.! m3.! 2#%.! NhA! 3(#! *N#'.(! m3.! 0*.X! N*%!
C#%#+$#A! ]-$.A/*.(-,A! N*%! +*-A! .(! *('%dA>! C.$,! kF! .(! /D*(,l_! .A! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!
/,$$./-,!/,(!-#%!0.!m3.!%#!*N#'.(!(,!A.#!0.N#A*#0,!/,NC%*/#0#?!
E,0.N,A! *N#'*(#$! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! m3.! -*.(.(! 3(! (GN.$,! N3/D,! NhA! .%.2#0,! 0.!
$.-#X,A!m3.!/#$#/-.$*X#(!#!A3!A,/*.0#0!.(!N#F,$!'$#0,!m3.!#!%#!(3.A-$#?!9(!'.(.$#%>!
0.+.$5#N,A!.AC.$#$!m3.!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!A3C.$0.A#$$,%%#0#!.(!%#!.A/#%#!0.!.(.$'5#!
0.+*.$#! A.$! A3N#N.(-.! #0.%#(-#0#! .(! %#! .A/#%#! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(?! E.$,! .A-,! (,!
(./.A*-#! A.$! /*.$-,! 0.%! -,0,?! 9(! .6./-,>! C3.0,! *N#'*(#$! A,/*.0#0.A! m3.! A.#(! N3F!
/,NC%.\#A!F!(./.A*-.(!N3/D,A!NhA!$.-#X,A!C#$#!/#$#/-.$*X#$%#A!m3.!%,!m3.!(./.A*-#!
(3.A-$#!A,/*.0#0>!C.$,!m3.!(,!.A-h(!*(-.$.A#0#A!.(!%#!/,N3(*/#/*4(!*(-.$.A-.%#$?!c#!
/#$#/-.$*X#/*4(! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! *(-.$.A-.%#$.A! $.m3*.$.! m3.! 0*A-*('#N,A! A3!
/,(-.(*0,!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!-#N+*d(?!
&*! D.N,A! .NC%.#0,! (GN.$,A! C#$#! 0.A/$*+*$! %#! .(.$'5#>! m3*Xh! 0.+#N,A! 3A#$! %.-$#A!
C#$#!0.A/$*+*$!%#!*(6,$N#/*4(?!I#F!2.*(-*Ad*A!%.-$#A!.(!.%!#%6#+.-,!*('%dA?!&*!/#0#!3(#!
0.!.%%#A!/,$$.AC,(0.!#!3(!6#/-,$!0.!0*.X!.(!.%!(GN.$,!0.!+*-A>!.B*A-.!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!
/#$#/-.$*X#$!/,(!.%!#%6#+.-,!*('%dA!3(#!'#N#!0.!/,(-.(*0,A!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!A,+$.!3(!
6#/-,$! 0.! 87`[>! '#N#! N3F! #NC%*#! m3.! C#$./.! #0./3#0#! #! (3.A-$,A! C$,C4A*-,A?!
E$,C,(',!%%#N#$!#!3(!-*C,!0.!/*2*%*X#/*4(!@!/,N,!3(#!#!(*2.%!0.!f2.*(-.!C$.'3(-#Ag>!
/#$#/-.$*X#0#! C,$! 87[! +*-A?! 9(! %#! C$h/-*/#>! dA-#! .A! 3(#! A,/*.0#0! .B-$.N#0#N.(-.!
C$*N*-*2#! nN3/D,! NhA! C$*N*-*2#! m3.! /3#%m3*.$! A,/*.0#0! D3N#(#! m3.! /,(,X/#N,A!
+*.(n!F!3(!+3.(!C3(-,!0.!/,N*.(X,?!c#!/#(-*0#0!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!m3.!D.N,A!$./*+*0,!
0.! %#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! '$*.'#! /#$#/-.$*X#$5#! #! .A#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! /,N,! 0.! -*C,! ">! #3(m3.! %#!
/#(-*0#0!$.#%!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(!m3.!/#$#/-.$*X4!#!%#!@-.(#A!0.!E.$*/%.A!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!
.A! .m3*2#%.(-.! #%! -*C,! 9>! ,! #A5?! 1d! #/3.$0,! /,(! .A-#A! (,$N#A>! (3.A-$#! /*2*%*X#/*4(!
/,(-.NC,$h(.#>!A*!A.!/#$#/-.$*X#!N.0*#(-.!878a!+*-A!0.!*(6,$N#/*4(>!/,$$.AC,(0.!#!
3(!-*C,!I!0.!/*2*%*X#/*4(?!
H(#! /#$#/-.$*X#/*4(! /,N+*(#0#! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(v.(.$'5#! 0.! (3.A-$#! #/-3#%! A,/*.0#0!
'%,+#%!-.$$.A-$.!.A!0.%!-*C,!7?UI?!9%!C$*N.$!/,(-#/-,!/,(!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!
A.$5#>!/$.,!F,>!/,(!3(#!0.%!-*C,!8?bP!,!8?Wu?!&*!D3+*.A.!3(#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!'#%h/-*/#!0.!
3(! N*%%4(! 0.! N3(0,A>! F! A*! /#0#! 3(,! A.! /#$#/-.$*X#$#! C,$! N*%! 2./.A! .%! /,(-.(*0,! 0.!
*(6,$N#/*4(!0.!(3.A-$#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!-.$$.A-$.>!%#!/*2*%*X#/*4(!'#%h/-*/#!A.$5#!0.%!-*C,!s?!
K*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! -#%.A! '#%#B*#A! 6.0.$#0#A! /,(! -,0#! %#! *(6,$N#/*4(! N#(-.(*0#!
/,%./-*2#N.(-.!A.!/#$#/-.$*X#$5#!/,N,!/*2*%*X#/*4(!0.%!-*C,!?!
E.$,>! /,N,! .BC,(.N,A! .(! .%! /#C5-3%,! A*'3*.(-.>! (,! D#F! A36*/*.(-.! -*.NC,! .(! %#!
D*A-,$*#! 0.%! ",AN,A! C#$#! m3.! A.! D#F#! 0.A#$$,%%#0,! -#%! -*C,! 0.! A,/*.0#0!
*(-.$'#%h/-*/#?!
!
35. Intercambios culturales galcticos
!

!
Smbolo de una galaxia unificada, por Jon Lomberg. La galaxia representada es la M74, en la
constelacin de Piscis.

!
9A! C,A*+%.! .AC./3%#$! .(! .%! 63-3$,>! N3F! 0*A-#(-.>! 0.! %#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! #2#(X#0#A?!
E,0.N,A! *N#'*(#$! -#%.A! A,/*.0#0.A! .(! .B/.%.(-.! #$N,(5#! /,(! A3A! N.0*,A!
#N+*.(-.A>!A3!+*,%,'5#>!F!%#A!.B-$#2#'#(/*#A!,!/#C$*/D,A!0.!A3A!C,%5-*/#A>!0.!N#(.$#!
m3.! ',X#(! 0.! C.$5,0,A! 0.! 2*0#! .B-$#,$0*(#$*#N.(-.! %#$',A?! c#! /,N3(*/#/*4(! -*.(.!
m3.!D#+.$A.!.A-#+%./*0,!D#/.!F#!N3/D,!-*.NC,!/,(!,-$#A!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A?!c#!0*63A*4(!
0.!/,(,/*N*.(-,A>!-d/(*/#A!F!C3(-,A!0.!2*A-#!A.!.B-.(0.$5#(!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X?!
",(! .%! -*.NC,>! %#A! 0*2.$A#A! /3%-3$#A! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#>! m3.! *NC%*/#! 3(! '$#(! (GN.$,! 0.!
,$'#(*AN,A! N3F! 0*6.$.(-.A! .(! A3! #AC./-,>! +#A#0,A! .(! 0*6.$.(-.A! +*,m35N*/#A! F!
0*6.$.(-.A!/3%-3$#A!*(*/*#%.A>!A.!D,N,'.(*X#$5#(>!#A5!/,N,!%#A!0*2.$A#A!/3%-3$#A!0.!%#!
L*.$$#!.A-h(!D,F!05#!.(!C$,/.A,A!0.!D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(?!
E.$,! -#%! D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(! /3%-3$#%! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#! /,A-#$h! %#$',! -*.NC,?! H(#!
/,N3(*/#/*4(! C,$! $#0*,! 0.! *0#! F! 23.%-#! .(-$.! (,A,-$,A! F! .%! /.(-$,! 0.! %#! R5#! ch/-.#!
$.m3*.$.!A.A.(-#!N*%!#Q,A?!c#!D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(!/3%-3$#%!0.!%#!Z#%#B*#!C$./*A#$5#!0.!
N3/D,A!0.!-#%.A!/#N+*,A>!#3(!/3#(0,!/#0#!/#N+*,!*NC%*/#$#!'$#(0.A!/#(-*0#0.A!0.!
*(6,$N#/*4(!.(2*#0#!.6*/*.(-.N.(-.?!",(A*0.$,!0*65/*%!/$..$!m3.!A.$5#(!#0./3#0,A!(,!
N.(,A! 0.! /*.(! *(-.$/#N+*,A! .(-$.! %,A! %3'#$.A! NhA! $.N,-,A! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#! C#$#! %#!
D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(!/3%-3$#%?!
9(!/,(A./3.(/*#>!.%!N5(*N,!C.$5,0,!0.!2*0#!C#$#!%#!D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(!0.!%#!Z#%#B*#!
A.! .B-.(0.$5#! #! N3/D,A! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A?! E,$! A3C3.A-,>! %#A! A,/*.0#0.A! 0.+.(!
C.$N#(./.$! .A-#+%.A! 03$#(-.! C.$5,0,A! 0.! -*.NC,! /,NC#$#+%.A?! L#%!
D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(! (,! C$./*A#! A.$! 0.A.#0#>! C.$,! A.! 0#(! -,0#25#! C$.A*,(.A! 63.$-.A! F!
.2*0.(-.A! C#$#! m3.! ,/3$$#>! /,N,! .A! -#N+*d(! .%! /#A,! .(! %#! L*.$$#?! &*! D#F! 3(#!
/,N3(*0#0! '#%h/-*/#! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! m3.! #+#$/#! '$#(! C#$-.! 0.! %#! R5#! ch/-.#>! F! A*!
.A-#N,A! .(! %,! /*.$-,! /,(! $.AC./-,! #! m3.! (,! A.! C3.0.! -$#(AN*-*$! *(6,$N#/*4(! #! 3(#!
2.%,/*0#0!N#F,$!m3.!%#!0.!%#!%3X>!.(-,(/.A!%#!N#F,$!C#$-.!0.!A3A!N*.N+$,A!nF!-,0,A!
%,A!N*.N+$,A!63(0#0,$.An!0.!-#%!/,N3(*0#0!0.+.(!.A-#$>!C,$!%,!N.(,A>!N*%%,(.A!0.!
#Q,A!NhA!#2#(X#0,A!m3.!(,A,-$,A?!E,$!.A-#!$#X4(>!/$.,!m3.!.A!#%',!N3F!6#(-hA-*/,!
,! NhA! +*.(! 3(#! 2.$0#0.$#! %,/3$#! .%! A3C,(.$! m3.! #/-3#%N.(-.! A.! C3.0#! .A-#+%./.$!
/,(-#/-,A! C,$! $#0*,! /,(! %,A! .B-$#-.$$.A-$.A! F! %%.'#$! #! A.$! N*.N+$,! 0.! %#! 6.0.$#/*4(!
'#%h/-*/#>! #%',! A*N*%#$! #! /,N,! A*! 3(! #$N#0*%%,! A,%*/*-#$#! *('$.A#$! .(! %#A! <#/*,(.A!
H(*0#A?!
9A-#A!%*N*-#/*,(.A!0.!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X>!.(!/3#(-,!A.!$.6*.$.!#!%#!/,N3(*/#/*4(>!
-#N+*d(!A.!C3.0.(!#C%*/#$!#!%#!D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(!0.!/3%-3$#A!0.!0*6.$.(-.A!'#%#B*#A>!
0.AC3dA! 0.! -$#(A/3$$*0,! 3(! D*C,-d-*/,! C.$5,0,! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A>! .(! .%! /3#%! %#A!
/*2*%*X#/*,(.A! .A-.%#$.A! 0.! 3(#! 0.-.$N*(#0#! '#%#B*#! #%/#(X#$h(! 3(#! /3%-3$#! /,NG(?!
E,0.N,A!*N#'*(#$!m3.!,-$#A!'#%#B*#A!.A-d(!-$#-#(0,!0.!.(-$#$!.(!/,(-#/-,!/,(!.A-#A!
6.0.$#/*,(.A!'#%h/-*/#A?!
c#A!'#%#B*#A!.AC*$#%.A!NhA!/.$/#(#A!A.!.(/3.(-$#(!#!2#$*,A!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,AO%3X!0.!
0*A-#(/*#?! 9A-,! A*'(*6*/#! m3.! 3(! A,%,! .%.N.(-,! 0.! 0*h%,',! n3(! N.(A#\.! F! A3!
$.AC3.A-#n! (./.A*-#$5#! .AC#/*,A! 0.! -*.NC,! 0.! 2#$*,A! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A>!
C$,+#+%.N.(-.! 3(,A! 0*.X! .(! -,-#%?! &*! A.! C$./*A#(! /*.(! 0.! -#%.A! *(-.$/#N+*,A>! %#!
.A/#%#! 0.! -*.NC,! C#$#! %#! D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(! 0.! 3(! '$3C,! 0.! '#%#B*#A! /.$/#(#A! .A!
.(-,(/.A!0.%!,$0.(!0.!%,A!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A?!c#A!A,/*.0#0.A!'#%h/-*/#A!-.(0$5#(!
m3.! A.$! .A-#+%.A! F! C$.A.$2#$! %#! /,(-*(3*0#0! C#$#! -#%.A! C.$5,0,A! 0.! -*.NC,?! 9A-,!
A*'(*6*/#$5#! m3.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! A3N#N.(-.! 2*.\#! .(! (3.A-$#! Z#%#B*#! C,0$5#! -.(.$!
.(,$N.A! A.N.\#(X#A! /3%-3$#%.A! /,(! 6.0.$#/*,(.A! '#%h/-*/#A! A*N*%#$.A! .(! ,-$,A!
N*.N+$,A! 0.! %,A! m3.! %,A! #A-$4(,N,A! %%#N#(! N,0.A-#N.(-.! .%! '$3C,! f%,/#%g! 0.!
'#%#B*#A?!
9A-#A! .A/#%#A! 0.! -*.NC,! .(! %#! D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(! .A-h(! /,N.(X#(0,! #! #%/#(X#$! 3(!
C3(-,! m3.! C,(.! #! C$3.+#! %#! /$.03%*0#0?! I#F! A36*/*.(-.A! /#-hA-$,6.A! (#-3$#%.A! F!
6%3/-3#/*,(.A! .A-#05A-*/#A! .(! .%! H(*2.$A,! n#3(! $.A*0*.(0,! .(! N3/D,A! C%#(.-#A!
A*N3%-h(.#N.(-.! 03$#(-.! NhA! 0.! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,An! /,N,! C#$#! m3.! 3(#!
A,/*.0#0! .A-#+%.! /,N*.(/.! #! A.$! C,/,! C$,+#+%.?! L#N+*d(>! 03$#(-.! .A-,A! *(N.(A,A!
C.$5,0,A! 0.! -*.NC,>! %#A! N*AN#A! A,/*.0#0.A! '#%h/-*/#A! /,N3(*/#(-.A! .A-#$h(!
.2,%3/*,(#(0,?!&.!C$./*A#$h(!N3/D,A!/,(-#/-,A!C#$#!N#(-.(.$!%#!D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(?!
c#A!'#%#B*#A!.A-h(!-#(!#%.\#0#A!3(#!0.!,-$#!m3.!A*.NC$.!$.-.(0$h(!A3!*(0*2*03#%*0#0!
/3%-3$#%?!
9(! -,0,! /#A,>! C#$#! C,A..$! D,N,'.(.*X#/*4(! /3%-3$#%! /,(! .%! '$3C,! NhA! C$4B*N,! 0.!
'#%#B*#A! /,N,! %#! (3.A-$#>! F! .NC.Q#$(,A! .(! 3(! /.(-.(#$! 0.! *(-.$/#N+*,A! 0.!
N.(A#\.A! A.! (./.A*-#$5#! 3(! -*.NC,! A3C.$*,$! #! %#! .0#0! 0.%! H(*2.$A,?! 9A-,! (,! .A!
.B/%3*$!%#$',A!N.(A#\.A!*(0*2*03#%.A!0.!3(#!'#%#B*#!#!,-$#?!E3.0.!A.$!m3.!.(,$N.A!
/#(-*0#0.A! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(>! C,$! .\.NC%,! nA,+$.! %#! D*A-,$*#! 0.! 3(#! 6.0.$#/*4(!
'#%h/-*/#n!m3*Xh!A.#(!/,(,/*0#A!C#$#!/*2*%*X#/*,(.A!0.!,-$#A!'#%#B*#A?!E.$,!(,!D#+$h!
-*.NC,! A36*/*.(-.! C#$#! 0*h%,',A?! ",N,! NhB*N,>! A.$5#! C,A*+%.! 3(! *(-.$/#N+*,! .(-$.!
%#A! NhA! 0*A-#(-.A! '#%#B*#A! .(! .%! H(*2.$A,?! 1,A! *(-.$/#N+*,A! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(! #! %#!
2.%,/*0#0! 0.! %#! %3X! (./.A*-#$5#(! NhA! -*.NC,! 0.%! m3.! .B*A-.>! 0.! #/3.$0,! /,(! %#!
N,0.$(#!/,AN,%,'5#?!
",(/%3*N,A! m3.! (,! C3.0.! D#+.$! 3(#! $.0! 63.$-.N.(-.! /,D.$.(-.! 0.! /,N3(*/#/*4(>!
3(*6*/#(0,! *(-.%*'.(/*#A! #! -$#2dA! 0.! -,0,! .%! H(*2.$A,! A*M! 8_! -#%.A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A!
'#%h/-*/#A! *NC%*/#(! .2,%3/*4(! D#/*#! #$$*+#! 0.! A,/*.0#0.A! *(0*2*03#%.A! C%#(.-#$*#Ao! F!
`_! %#! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.! %#! %3X! .A! *(030#+%.N.(-.! 3(! %5N*-.! 6*\,! .(! %#! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.!
-$#(AN*A*4(! 0.! *(6,$N#/*4(! /,N,! %#! $.%#-*2*0#0! .AC./*#%! $.m3*.$.! ].A! 0./*$>! A*!
*'(,$#N,A!/*.$-#A!C,A*+*%*0#0.A!/,N,!%#!0.!3A#$!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!C#$#!.%!-$#(AC,$-.!
$hC*0,M!2d#A.!/#C5-3%,!VT_?!9A-#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!3(*2.$A#%!.A!3(#!.AC./*.!0.!0*,A!m3.!(,!
C3.0.!.B*A-*$?!
9(! /*.$-#! 6,$N#>! A#(! @'3A-5(! F! ,-$,A! -.4%,',A! D#(! %%.'#0,! #! %#! N*AN#! /,(/%3A*4(M!
1*,A! (,! 0.+.! 2*2*$! .(! 3(,! #! ,-$,! N,N.(-,>! A*(,! 03$#(-.! -,0,! .%! -*.NC,!
A*N3%-h(.#N.(-.?! 9A-,! .A>! .(! /*.$-,! A.(-*0,>! /,N,! 0./*$! m3.! %#! $.%#-*2*0#0! .AC./*#%!
(,! A.! #C%*/#! #! w%?! E.$,! %,A! 0*,A.A! 0.! %#! A3C.$/*2*%*X#/*4(>! m3*Xh! %,A! G(*/,A! m3.!
#0N*-.(! .A-#! /%#A.! 0.! .AC./3%#/*4(! /*.(-56*/#>! .A-h(! 63(0#N.(-#%N.(-.! %*N*-#0,A?!
E3.0.!D#+.$!-#%.A!0*,A.A!0.!'#%#B*#A>!C.$,!(,!0.%!H(*2.$A,!/,N,!3(!-,0,?!
!
36. Entrada al Infinito
!

!
Ilustracin posterior de La mquina del tiempo de H. G. Wells. De Clsicos Ilustrados.
!
H(#!0.!%#A!*0.#A!NhA!C.(.-$#(-.A!F!6#A/*(#(-.A!0.!%#!/*.(/*#!6*//*4(!.A!.%!2*#\.!.(!.%!
-*.NC,?! 9(! La mquina del tiempo>! .%! $.%#-,! /%hA*/,! .A/$*-,! C,$! I?! Z?! t.%%A>! F! .(!
,-$#A! 2#$*#/*,(.A! 3%-.$*,$.A! 0.! %#! D*A-,$*#>! D#F! 3(#! C.m3.Q#! Nhm3*(#! /,(A-$3*0#>!
(,$N#%N.(-.>!C,$!3(!A,%*-#$*,!/*.(-56*/,!.(!3(!$.N,-,!%#+,$#-,$*,?!&.!N#$/#!.(!3(!0*#%!
.%!#Q,!m3.!*(-.$.A#>!A.!A3+.!#!%#!Nhm3*(#>!A.!C$.A*,(#!3(!+,-4(>!F!#%!*(A-#(-.>!#m35!
.A-h!.%!C#A#0,!,!.%!63-3$,?!9(-$.!%,A!0*AC,A*-*2,A!/,N3(.A!m3.!#C#$./.(!.(!-,0,A!%,A!
$.%#-,A!0.%!2*#\.!.(!.%!-*.NC,!.A-h(!%#A!C#$#0,\#A!%4'*/#A!m3.!#/,NC#Q#(!#%!D./D,!
0.! .(/,(-$#$A.! #! A5! N*AN,! D#/.! 2#$*,A! #Q,A>! .(! .%! C#A#0,o! A3C$*N*.(0,! 3(!
#(-./.0.(-.! %*(.#%>! D.$.0*-#$*,o! *(-.$6*$*.(0,! 0*$./-#N.(-.! /,(! *NC,$-#(-.A!
#/,(-./*N*.(-,A! D*A-4$*/,A! ,/3$$*0,A! .(! %,A! G%-*N,A! N*%.(*,Ao! ,! C*A#(0,!
#//*0.(-#%N.(-.! 3(#! N#$*C,A#! C$./#N+$*#(#>! A*.NC$.! A.! .A-h! /#N+*#(0,! -,0#! %#!
D*A-,$*#!A3+A*'3*.(-.!0.!%#!2*0#?!
L#%.A!C#$#0,\#A!%4'*/#A!(,!A.!0#(!.(!%,A!$.%#-,A!A,+$.!.%!2*#\.!.(!.%!63-3$,?!9B/.C-,!
.%!.%.N.(-,!(,A-#%'*#!n.%!0.A.,!m3.!-,0,A!A.(-*N,A!0.!$.2*2*$!,!$.*2*(0*/#$!#%'3(,A!
.%.N.(-,A! 0.%! C#A#0,n>! 3(! 2*#\.! D#/*#! 0.%#(-.! 0.%! -*.NC,! A.'3$#N.(-.! .A! -#(!
.N,/*,(#(-.! /,N,! .%! D./D,! 0.! $.-$,/.0.$! .(! .%! -*.NC,?! &#+.N,A! N3/D#A! /,A#A!
A,+$.!.%!C#A#0,>!C.$,!(#0#!A,+$.!.%!63-3$,?!c,A!2*#\.A!D#/*#!.A-.!G%-*N,!C,A..(!3(!
N#F,$! '$#0,! 0.! .N,/*4(! F! D#A-#! 0.! .B/*-#/*4(! *(-.%./-3#%! m3.! (,! -*.(.(! %,A! m3.!
C,0$5#N,A!/#%*6*/#$!0.!2*#\.A!D#/*#!#-$hA>!.A!0./*$!0.!$.-$,/.A,!.(!.%!-*.NC,?!
<,!/#+.!%#!N.(,$!030#!0.!m3.!.%!2*#\.!D#/*#!.%!63-3$,!.A!C,A*+%.M!%,!$.#%*X#N,A!-,0,A!
%,A! 05#A>! #! /#0#! *(A-#(-.>! #%! .(2.\./.$! (,$N#%N.(-.?! E.$,! D#F! ,-$#A! C,A*+*%*0#0.A!
NhA!*(-.$.A#(-.A?!L,0,!.%!K3(0,!D#!,50,!D#+%#$>!.!*(/%3A,!D,F!05#!D#F!N3/D#!'.(-.!
m3.!%#!.(-*.(0.>!A,+$.!%#!-.,$5#!0.!%#!$.%#-*2*0#0!0.!9*(A-.*(?!p3.!.%!'.(*,!0.!9*(A-.*(!
.%! m3.! A,N.-*4! (3.A-$,A! 3A3#%.A! C3(-,A! 0.! 2*A-#! #/.$/#! 0.%! .AC#/*,>! -*.NC,! F!
A*N3%-#(.*0#0>!#!3(!C$,63(0,!F!%4'*/,!#(h%*A*A>!m3.!C30,!D#+.$A.!.6./-3#0,!D#/.!F#!
0,A!A*'%,A?!E.$,!%#!$.%#-*2*0#0!.AC./*#%!$.m3.$5#>!C#$#!A3!0.A/3+$*N*.(-,>!3(#!N.(-.!
m3.!.A-32*.$#!-,-#%N.(-.!#%.\#0#!0.!%,A!C$.\3*/*,A!/,(2.(/*,(#%.A!F!/*.'#!#0D.A*4(!#!
%#A!/$..(/*#A!C$.0,N*(#(-.Ao!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!$#$#!*(-.%*'.(/*#!.(!/3#%m3*.$!dC,/#?!
@%'3(#A! 0.! %#A! /,(A./3.(/*#A! 0.! %#! $.%#-*2*0#0! .AC./*#%! A,(! /,(-$#*(-3*-*2#A! .(! .%!
A.(-*0,!0.!m3.!(,!/,$$.AC,(0.(!#!%,!m3.!-,0,!.%!K3(0,!2.!,+A.$2#(0,!/3#(-,!%.A!
$,0.#?!E,$!.\.NC%,>!%#!-.,$5#!0*/.!m3.!3(#!2#$#!0.!N.0*$!A.!/,(-$#.!.(!%#!0*$.//*4(!
.(! m3.! A.! N3.2.?! "3#(0,! 3(,! #2#(X#>! #(0#(0,>! #0.%'#X#! .(! %#! 0*$.//*4(! .(! m3.!
#2#(X#>! C.$,! (,! #! /#3A#! 0.! 3(#! Cd$0*0#! 0.! C.A,?! 9(! .%! N,N.(-,! .(! m3.! 3(,! A.!
0.-*.(.>!*(N.0*#-#N.(-.!$./3C.$#!A3!0*N.(A*4(!/,$C,$#%!(,$N#%?!9(!6,$N#!C#$./*0#>!
/3#(0,! /,$$.N,A! -.(.N,A! NhA! C.A,>! NhA! A,%*0.X>! m3.! /3#(0,! C.$N#(./.N,A!
*(N42*%.A?!9A-#A!C$,C,A*/*,(.A!C#$./.(!.A-GC*0#A!.!*(/%3A,!m3*XhA!#+A3$0#A>!C,$m3.!
%#! N#'(*-30! 0.%! .6./-,! .A! 0.N#A*#0,! C.m3.Q,! C#$#! N.0*$%,! #! 2.%,/*0#0.A! 0.!
*NC3%A,?!E.$,!A*!63dA.N,A!/#C#/.A!0.!N,2.$(,A!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X!]V77777!qN!
C,$!A.'3(0,_>!.A-,A!.6./-,A!A.$5#(!N#(*6*.A-,A?!1.!D./D,>!%,A!/,A-,A,A!A*(/$,-,(.A!
nNhm3*(#A! C#$#! #/.%.$#$! C#$-5/3%#A! /#$'#0#A! N3F! /.$/#! 0.! %#! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.! %#! %3Xn!
-*.(.(!.(!/3.(-#!.A-,A!.6./-,A!F!-$#+#\#(!A,%#N.(-.!C,$m3.!,/3$$.!m3.!.A!/,$$./-#!
%#! $.%#-*2*0#0! .AC./*#%?! c#! $#X4(! 0.! m3.! .A-#A! /,(A./3.(/*#A! 0.! %#! $.%#-*2*0#0!
C#$.X/#(!/,(-$#*(-3*-*2#A!.A!m3.!(,!.A-#N,A!#/,A-3N+$#0,A!#!2*#\#$!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!
0.!%#!%3X?!J!(,!.A!m3.!%.!,/3$$#!(#0#!N#%,!#%!A.(-*0,!/,NG(o!.%!A.(-*0,!/,NG(!,/3C#!
C.$6./-#N.(-.!A3!%3'#$?!
I#F! 3(#! -.$/.$#! /,(A./3.(/*#! 0.! %#! $.%#-*2*0#0>! 3(! .6./-,! $#$,! .! *NC,$-#(-.! A4%,!
/.$/#! 0.! %#! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.! %#! %3XM! .%! 6.(4N.(,! %%#N#0,! 0*%#-#/*4(! 0.%! -*.NC,?! &*! (,A!
N,2*dA.N,A!C$4B*N,A!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X>!.%!-*.NC,>!-#%!F!/,N,!A.!C3.0.!N.0*$!
/,(! (3.A-$,! $.%,\! 0.! C3%A.$#! ,! N.0*#(-.! %,A! %#-*0,A! 0.%! /,$#X4(>! -$#(A/3$$*$5#! NhA!
%.(-#N.(-.! m3.! .%! 0.! 3(! $.%,\! /,NC#$#+%.>! C.$,! .A-#/*,(#$*,?! @0.NhA>! dA-#! (,! .A!
3(#! .BC.$*.(/*#! 0.! (3.A-$#! 2*0#! 0*#$*#>! A*(,! m3.! .A! 3(#! .BC.$*.(/*#! 0.! C#$-5/3%#A!
(3/%.#$.A! m3.! C,A..(! $.%,\.A! .(! A3! *(-.$*,$! ]A3A! -*.NC,A! 0.! 0./%*(#/*4(! ,!
0./#0.(/*#_!/3#(0,!A.!N3.2.(!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X!,!NhA!+*.(!C$4B*N#A!#!.A-#!
G%-*N#?!c#!0*%#-#/*4(!0.%!-*.NC,!.A!3(#!$.#%*0#0!N.0*0#!F!$.6$.(0#0#!0.%!H(*2.$A,!.(!
m3.!2*2*N,A?!
c#!0*%#-#/*4(!0.%!-*.NC,!*NC%*/#!%#!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!2*#\#$!.(!.%!-*.NC,!D#/*#!.%!63-3$,?!
H(!2.D5/3%,!.AC#/*#%!m3.!C30*.$#!N,2.$A.!#$+*-$#$*#N.(-.!C$4B*N,!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!
%#!%3X!/,(0*/*,(#!.%!-*.NC,!N.0*0,!.(!.%!2.D5/3%,!C#$#!N,2.$A.!-#(!%.(-#N.(-.!/,N,!
A.!0.A..?!E,$!.\.NC%,>!(3.A-$#!'#%#B*#!-*.(.!3(!0*hN.-$,!0.!#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!3(,A!
A.A.(-#!N*%!#Q,AO%3X?!@!.A-#!2.%,/*0#0>!0*/D,!2.D5/3%,!-#$0#$5#!A.A.(-#!N*%!#Q,A!.(!
/$3X#$!0.!3(!.B-$.N,!#!,-$,!0.!%#!Z#%#B*#?!E.$,!.A-.!-*.NC,!A.!N*0.>!C,$!A3C3.A-,>!
C,$! 3(! ,+A.$2#0,$! .A-#/*,(#$*,?! H(! 2.D5/3%,! .AC#/*#%! /#C#X! 0.! #2#(X#$! /#A*! #! %#!
2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X!#-$#2.A#$5#!%#!Z#%#B*#!0.!3(!%#0,>!#!,-$,!.(!N.(,A!0.%!-*.NC,!m3.!
A.!#-$*+3F.!#!3(#!2*0#!D3N#(#?!",(!.%!2.D5/3%,!*04(.,>!C,0$5#N,A!/*(/3((#2.'#$!%#!
Z#%#B*#! F! $.'$.A#$! /#A*! 0,A/*.(-,A! N*%! #Q,A! NhA! -#$0.>! -#%! F! /,N,! A.! N*0.! .(! %#!
L*.$$#?! <#-3$#%N.(-.>! (3.A-$,A! #N*',A! F! C#$*.(-.A! D#+$5#(! /#N+*#0,! 3(! C,/,! .(!
.A-.!*(-.$2#%,>!/,N,!D#+$5#!,/3$$*0,!/,(!(3.A-$#!A,/*.0#0!F!.A!C$,+#+%.!m3.!D#A-#!
/,(!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#?!
1.! #/3.$0,! /,(! %#! $.%#-*2*0#0>! *(/%3A,! .A! C,A*+%.! /*$/3((#2.'#$! -,0,! .%! H(*2.$A,!
0.(-$,! 0.%! C.$5,0,! 0.! -*.NC,! 0.! 3(#! 2*0#! D3N#(#>! $.'$.A#(0,! #! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#!
N3/D,A!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!.(!.%!63-3$,?!1.!#/3.$0,!/,(!%#!$.%#-*2*0#0>!(,!D#F!
%#!N.(,$!C.$AC./-*2#!,!.AC.$#(X#!0.!2*#\#$!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X!F!(*!-#(!A*m3*.$#!
#/.$/#$(,A!#!A.N.\#(-.!N.0*0#?!J!-#NC,/,!D#F!C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!2*#\#$!$.-$,/.0*.(0,!
.(! .%! -*.NC,o! A*NC%.N.(-.! C,0.N,A! $.03/*$! .%! -*.NC,>! C.$,! (,! 0.-.(.$%,! ,! D#/.$%,!
$.-$,/.0.$?!
c,A! C$,+%.N#A! 0.! *('.(*.$5#! m3.! *NC%*/#(! %#! /,(A-$3//*4(! 0.! 2.D5/3%,A! .AC#/*#%.A!
/#C#/.A! 0.! 0.A#$$,%%#$! -#%.A! 2.%,/*0#0.A>! A,(! .(,$N.A?! 9%! Pioneer 10>! .%! *('.(*,!
NhA! $hC*0,! 6#+$*/#0,! C,$! .%! D,N+$.>! F! m3.! D#! C,0*0,! #+#(0,(#$! (3.A-$,! &*A-.N#!
&,%#$>!2*#\#!#!3(#!2.%,/*0#0!0*.X!N*%!2./.A!N.(,$!m3.!%#!0.!%#!%3X?!@A5!C3.A>!.%!2*#\.!
D#/*#!.%!63-3$,!(,!.A>!(*!N3/D5A*N,!N.(,A>!C.$AC./-*2#!*(N.0*#-#>!C.$,!A5!/,(/.+*+%.!
C#$#!%#!#2#(X#0#!-./(,%,'5#!0.!C%#(.-#A!0.!,-$#A!.A-$.%%#A?!
@G(!D#F!,-$#!C,A*+*%*0#0!m3.! 0.+.!N.(/*,(#$A.M!.A!3(#!C.$AC./-*2#!m3.>!A*(!030#>!
.(/*.$$#!NhA!.AC./3%#/*4(?!@%!6*(#%!0.!A3A!-*.NC,A!0.!2*0#>!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!m3.!-.('#(!
3(#!N#A#!`?b!2./.A!N#F,$!m3.!(3.A-$,!&,%!A36$*$h(!3(!/,%#CA,!-#(!C,0.$,A,!m3.!(,!
D#+$h!63.$X#A!/,(,/*0#A!m3.!C3.0#(!.2*-#$%,?!c#A!.A-$.%%#A!C$,2,/#(!3(#!.AC./*.!0.!
C%*.'3.!,!#$$3'#!.(!%#!-.%#!A*0.$#%!nNhA!+*.(!3(!f,$*6*/*,!,!#'3\.$,!(.'$,gn!.(!.%!/3#%!
0.A#C#$./.(?! c#! 65A*/#! 0.! %,A! #'3\.$,A! (.'$,A! (,! /,NC$,N.-.! %#! -.,$5#! 0.! %#!
$.%#-*2*0#0!0.!9*(A-.*(o!A5!*NC%*/#!N3/D#A!NhA!0*6*/3%-#0.A!#!%#!-.,$5#!'.(.$#%!0.!%#!
$.%#-*2*0#0?!c#!65A*/#!0.!%,A!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!nC#$-*/3%#$N.(-.!0.!%,A!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!
m3.! '*$#(n! A.! .(-*.(0.! .(! %#! #/-3#%*0#0! +#A-#(-.! N#%?! &*(! .N+#$',>! .B*A-.! 3(#!
/,(\.-3$#!m3.!(,!A.!C3.0.!$./D#X#$!F!m3.!2#%.!%#!C.(#!#(,-#$M!c,A!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!
C3.0.(!A.$!3(#!.AC./*.!0.!C#A,!,!#+.$-3$#A!#%!:(6*(*-,>!#!#%',!0.A/,(,/*0,!*(/%3A,!
C#$#! %#! N.(-.! D3N#(#?! &*! (,A! %#(Xh$#N,A! #%! *(-.$*,$! 0.! 3(,! 0.! .A-,A! #'3\.$,A>!
A.'3$#N.(-.>!F!#A5!A.!.AC./3%#>!.N.$'.$5#N,A!.(!,-$,!%3'#$!0.%!H(*2.$A,!F!.(!,-$#!
dC,/#!.(!.%!-*.NC,?!<,!A#+.N,A!A*!.A!C,A*+%.!#%/#(X#$!.A-#!C#$-.!0.%!H(*2.$A,!NhA!
$hC*0#N.(-.!#-$#2.A#(0,!3(!#'3\.$,!(.'$,>!m3.!A*'3*.(0,!%#!$3-#!(,$N#%?!:'(,$#N,A!
A*! .A! C,A*+%.! 2*#\#$! .(! .%! C#A#0,! %#(Xh(0,(,A! #%! *(-.$*,$! 0.! 3(,! 0.! .A-,A! #'3\.$,A!
(.'$,A?! c#A! C#$#0,\#A! m3.! *NC%*/#$5#! .A-#! G%-*N#! C,A*+*%*0#0! C,0$5#(! .NC%.#$A.! .(!
/,(-$#!0.!A.N.\#(-.!C$,+#+*%*0#0>!C.$,!.(!$.#%*0#0!(,!%,!A#+.N,A?!
I#A-#! #D,$#>! -,0,! /3#(-,! A#+.N,A>! ,! /$..N,A! A#+.$>! .A! m3.! %,A! #'3\.$,A! (.'$,A!
A,(! %,A! /#(#%.A! 0.! -$#(AC,$-.! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! -./(,%4'*/#N.(-.! #2#(X#0#A>! m3*Xh!
/#(#%.A!-#(-,!.(!.%!-*.NC,!/,N,!.(!.%!.AC#/*,?!I#F!3(!'$#(!(GN.$,!0.!.A-$.%%#A!m3.!
C,A..(!3(#!N#A#!`?b!2./.A!N#F,$!m3.!%#!0.%!&,%o!A3C,(.N,A!m3.!-,0#A!.%%#A!0.+.(!
/,(2.$-*$A.!.(!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!03$#(-.!A3!.2,%3/*4(!$.%#-*2#N.(-.!$hC*0#?!
c,A! #'3\.$,A! (.'$,A! C3.0.(! A.$! .(-$#0#A! #%! E#5A! 0.! %#A! K#$#2*%%#A?! kI#+$h! #%%5!
@%*/*#A!,!/,(.\,A!+%#(/,Al!
!
37. Habitantes de las estrellas - 1. Una fbula
!

!
La nebulosa Trfida, una densa nube de polvo y gas, fuera de la cual se estn formando
brillantes estrellas. Cortesa del Steward Observatory, University of Arizona.
!
&3/.0*4!3(#!2.X>!D#/.!0*.X!,!m3*(/.!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A>!m3.!.%!H(*2.$A,!(,!-.(5#!
6,$N#?! <,! D#+5#! '#%#B*#A?! <,! D#+5#! .A-$.%%#A?! <,! D#+5#! C%#(.-#A?! J! (,! D#+5#! 2*0#?!
=.*(#+#! %#! ,+A/3$*0#0! A*0.$#%?! 9%! H(*2.$A,! .$#! D*0$4'.(,! F! D.%*,?! c#! .BC%,A*4(! 0.%!
)*'! )#('! D#+5#! #/#+#0,! F! %,A! 63.',A! 0.! #m3.%! #/,(-./*N*.(-,! -*-h(*/,! n+*.(! %#!
/$.#/*4(! 0.%! H(*2.$A,>! ,! +*.(! %#A! /.(*X#A! 0.! 3(#! #(-.$*,$! .(/#$(#/*4(! 0.%! N*AN,n!
-$,(#+#(!0d+*%N.(-.!#!-$#2dA!0.!%,A!/,$$.0,$.A!0.%!.AC#/*,?!
E.$,! %,A! '#A.A! 0.! D*0$4'.(,! F! D.%*,! (,! A.! D#%%#+#(! #0./3#0#N.(-.! 0*A-$*+3*0,A?!
@m35! F! #%%h>! .(! %#! '$#(! ,+A/3$*0#0>! C,$! #//*0.(-.>! A.! #N,(-,(#+#! 3(#! /#(-*0#0! 0.!
'#A! N#F,$! m3.! %#! $.'3%#$?! L#%.A! '$3C,A! '#A.,A,A! #3N.(-#+#(! 0.! N#(.$#!
*NC.$/.C-*+%.!#!/,A-#!0.!%,!m3.!%.A!$,0.#+#>!#-$#F.(0,!'$#2*-#/*,(#%N.(-.!/#0#!2.X!
NhA!F!NhA!/#(-*0#0.A!0.!'#A!/.$/#(,?!@!N.0*0#!m3.!.A-#A!#/3N3%#/*,(.A!0.!'#A!
#3N.(-#$,(! .(! A3! N#A#>! A3A! C#$-.A! NhA! 0.(A#A>! ',+.$(#0#A! C,$! %#A! *(.B,$#+%.A!
%.F.A! 0.! %#! '$#2*-#/*4(! F! 0.! /,(A.$2#/*4(! 0.%! N,N.(-,! #('3%#$>! A.! /,(-$#\.$,(!
D#/*d(0,A.!NhA!/,NC#/-#A>!#!%#!2.X!m3.!'*$#+#(!/#0#!2.X!#!NhA!2.%,/*0#0?!9(!.%!
*(-.$*,$! 0.! .A-#A! '$#(0.A! +,%#A! '*$#-,$*#A! F! $.N,%*(,A! 0.! '#A>! A.! /,(0.(A#+#(!
6$#'N.(-,A! NhA! C.m3.Q,A! 0.! 3(#! N#F,$! 0.(A*0#0o! .A-,A! 6$#'N.(-,A! A.! D*/*.$,(!
C.0#X,A>!6,$N#(0,!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!/,(-$#50#A!+,%#A!0.!'#A!NhA!C.m3.Q#A?!
c#! /,(-$#//*4(! /,(03\,! #! 2*,%.(-#A! /,%*A*,(.A! 0.! %,A! h-,N,A! .(! %,A! /.(-$,A! 0d! %#A!
+,%#A! 0.! '#A?! c#A! -.NC.$#-3$#A! A.! D*/*.$,(! -#(! #%-#A! m3.! %,A! .%./-$,(.A! A.!
0.AC$.(0*.$,(!0.!%,A!C$,-,(.A!.(!%,A!h-,N,A!0.!D*0$4'.(,!/,(A-*-3F.(-.A?!",N,!%,A!
C$,-,(.A! -*.(.(! /#$'#A! .%d/-$*/#A! C,A*-*2#A>! A.! $./D#X#(! N3-3#N.(-.?! E.$,! /,(! .%!
-*.NC,! %#A! -.NC.$#-3$#A! .(! %,A! /.(-$,A! 0.! %#A! .A6.$#A! 0.! '#A! %%.'#$,(! #! A.$! -#(!
'$#(0.A! m3.! %,A! C$,-,(.A! /D,/#$,(! /,(! .B-$#,$0*(#$*#! .(.$'5#>! 3(#! .(.$'5#! -#(!
.(,$N.!m3.!A.!%%.'4!#!C.(.-$#$!%#!+#$$.$#!0.!$./D#X,!.%d/-$*/,!m3.!$,0.#!#%!C$,-4(?!
H(#! 2.X! C$,03/*0#! .A-#! C.(.-$#/*4(>! %#A! 63.$X#A! (3/%.#$.A! n%#A! m3.! N#(-*.(.(!
3(*0,A! .%! (G/%.,! 0.! %,A! h-,N,An! A.! C3A*.$,(! .(! N#$/D#?! 1.%! '#A! 0.! D*0$4'.(,!
A*NC%.!A.!6,$N4!.%!h-,N,!NhA!/.$/#(,!.(!/,NC%.\*0#0>!.%!D.%*,?!9(!%#!A5(-.A*A!0.!3(!
h-,N,! 0.! D.%*,! .(-$.! /3#-$,! h-,N,A! 0.! D*0$4'.(,>! D#F! 3(#! C.m3.Q#! /#(-*0#0! .(!
.B/.A,!0.!.(.$'5#!A,+$#(-.?!9A-#!.(.$'5#>!#-$#2.A#(0,!%#!.A6.$#!0.!'#A>!#%/#(X4!%#!
A3C.$6*/*.!F!A.!*$$#0*4!#%!.AC#/*,?!c#!.A6.$#!0.!'#A!A.!.(/.(0*4!F!A.!6,$N4!%#!C$*N.$#!
.A-$.%%#?!I3+,!%3X!.(!%#!6#X!/.%.A-*#%?!
c#A! .A-$.%%#A! .2,%3/*,(#$,(! 03$#(-.! N*%.A! 0.! N*%%,(.A! 0.! #Q,A>! -$#(A6,$Nh(0,A.!
%.(-#N.(-.!.%!D*0$4'.(,!.(!D.%*,!.(!A3A!C$,63(0,A!*(-.$*,$.A>!/,(2*$-*.(0,!#!%#!2.X!%#!
0*6.$.(/*#!0.!N#A#!.(!.(.$'5#>!.!*(3(0#(0,!0.!%3X!%,A!/*.%,A?!9(!#m3.%%,A!N,N.(-,A!
(,! D#+5#! C%#(.-#A! m3.! $./*+*.$#(! %#! %3X>! F! (*('3(#! 6,$N#! 0.! 2*0#! #0N*$#+#! .%!
$.AC%#(0,$!0.%!/*.%,?!
c#! /,(2.$A*4(! 0.! D*0$4'.(,! .(! D.%*,! (,! C30,! /,(-*(3#$! 0.! N,0,! *(0.6*(*0,?! E,$!
G%-*N,>! .(! %,A! #$0*.(-.A! *(-.$*,$.A! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! 0,(0.! %#A! -.NC.$#-3$#A! .$#(!
A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! #%-#A! /,N,! C#$#! 2.(/.$! #! %#A! 63.$X#A! 0.! $./D#X,! .%d/-$*/,>! A.!
/,(A3N*4! -,0,! .%! D*0$4'.(,?! &.! #-*X4! .%! 63.',! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A?! c#A! C$.A*,(.A!
*(-.$*,$.A!F#!(,!C30*.$,(!A,C,$-#$!.%!.(,$N.!C.A,!0.!%#A!A3C.$C3.A-#A!/#C#A!0.!%#A!
.A-$.%%#A?!9(-,(/.A!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!/,(-*(3#$,(!A3!C$,/.A,!0.!/,%#CA,>!m3.!D#+5#!A*0,!
*(-.$$3NC*0,!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!#(-.A!C,$!%,A!63.',A!(3/%.#$.A?!
@%! C$,03/*$A.! 3(#! N#F,$! /,(-$#//*4(>! A.! #%/#(X#$,(! -.NC.$#-3$#A! NhA! .%.2#0#A>!
-.NC.$#-3$#A! -#(! #%-#A! m3.! %,A! h-,N,A! 0.! D.%*,! n/.(*X#A! 0.! dC,/#A! #(-.$*,$.A! 0.!
$.#//*4(! (3/%.#$n! A.! /,(2*$-*.$,(! .(! G-*%.A! /,N,! /,N+3A-*+%.! .A-.%#$?! 9(! .%! *(-.$*,$!
0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! A.! 0*.$,(! $.#//*,(.A! (3/%.#$.A! NhA! /,NC%.\#A>! #! %#! 2.X! m3.! %#A!
.A-$.%%#A!#C#$./5#(!/,N,!D*(/D#0#A>!/,N,!.A-$.%%#A!'*'#(-.A/#A!F!$,\#A?!
9%! D.%*,! A.! /,(2*$-*4! .(! /#$+,(,>! .%! /#$+,(,! .(! ,B5'.(,! F! N#'(.A*,>! .%! ,B5'.(,! .(!
(.4(>!.%!N#'(.A*,!.(!A*%*/*,>!.%!A*%*/*,!.(!#X36$.>!F!D#/*#!#$$*+#!#!-$#2dA!0.!%#!.A/#%#!
0.! %#! -#+%#! C.$*40*/#! 0.! %,A! .%.N.(-,A>! 3(#! N#A*2#! #%m3*N*#! .A-.%#$?! Z$#(0.A! F!
/,NC%*/#0,A!%#+.$*(-,A!0.!$.#//*,(.A!(3/%.#$.A!6,$N#$,(!#%'3(,A!(G/%.,A?!;-$,A!A.!
3(*.$,(! C#$#! 6,$N#$! (G/%.,A! N3/D,! NhA! /,NC%.\,A?! J! ,-$,A! A.! 6$#'N.(-#$,(! ,!
/,N+*(#$,(!/,(!C$,-,(.A!C#$#!6,$N#$!(G/%.,A!A4%,!%*'.$#N.(-.!NhA!/,NC%.\,A?!
E.$,! %#! '$#2.0#0! .(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! '*'#(-.A! .A! +#\#>! C,$m3.! %#A!
A3C.$6*/*.A! A.! 0.A#$$,%%#$,(! #! C#$-*$! 0.! %,A! *(-.$*,$.A?! c#A! /#C#A! .B-.$*,$.A! 0.! %#A!
'*'#(-.A! $,\#A! A.! 0*A*C#$,(! %.(-#N.(-.! .(! .%! .AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$>! .($*m3./*.(0,! #%!
2#/5,! .(-$.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! /,(! /#$+,(,>! ,B5'.(,>! N#'(.A*,! F! D*.$$,>! F! /,(! -,0,A! %,A!
.%.N.(-,A! NhA! C.A#0,A! m3.! .%! D*0$4'.(,! F! .%! D.%*,?! 9(! #%'3(,A! /#A,A>! %#A! /#C#A!
.B-.$*,$.A! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#! A.! 0.AC$.(05#(! /,N,! A*! 63.A.(! %#A! A3/.A*2#A! -.%#A! 0.! 3(#!
/.+,%%#?!9(!,-$,A!/#A,A>!3(#!/,%,A#%!.BC%,A*4(!(3/%.#$!A#/30*4!#!%#!.A-$.%%#!%#(X#(0,!
#%! .AC#/*,! #! *(N.(A#! 2.%,/*0#0! %#! C#$-.! NhA! .B-.$*,$! 0.! %#! N*AN#?! )*.(! C,$! 63'#! ,!
.BC%,A*4(>! C,$! 0*A*C#/*4(! %.(-#! ,! $hC*0#>! .%! N#-.$*#%! .A-.%#$! A.! .BC#(0*4! #%! .AC#/*,!
/,N,!6*(,!'#A!0.%!m3.!A.!D#+5#(!6,$N#0,!%#A!.A-$.%%#A?!
E.$,!#m35!F#!.A-#+#(!(#/*.(0,!'.(.$#/*,(.A!C,A-.$*,$.A!0.!.A-$.%%#A?!H(#!2.X!NhA>!
%#A! /,(0.(A#/*,(.A! 0.%! '#A! -$#X#$,(! A3A! C*$3.-#A! 0.! '$#2*-#/*4(! C#$#! NhA! -#$0.!
/,(2.$-*$A.! .(! .A-$.%%#A?! E.$,! .A-#A! (3.2#A! F! A.'3(0#A! '.(.$#/*,(.A! .A-.%#$.A! A.!
.($*m3./*.$,(! .(! .%.N.(-,A! C.A#0,A>! C#-$*N,(*,! 0.! A3A! C$./.0.(-.A?! 9(-,(/.A>! #%!
6,$N#$A.!(3.2#A!.A-$.%%#A>!-#N+*d(!A.!6,$N#$,(!/.$/#!0.!.%%#A!NhA!/,(0.(A#/*,(.A!
C.m3.Q#A>! /,(0.(A#/*,(.A! 0.N#A*#0,! C.m3.Q#A! /,N,! C#$#! C$,03/*$! 63.',A!
(3/%.#$.A! F! /,(2.$-*$A.! .(! .A-$.%%#A?! 9$#(! C.m3.Q#A! #'$3C#/*,(.A! 0.! N#-.$*#! 6$5#>!
N3F!C,/,!0.(A#A>!m3.!A.!6,$N#+#(!%.(-#N.(-.!#!/#3A#!0.!%#!$,-#(-.!(3+.>!C#$#!A.$!
*%3N*(#0#A!NhA!-#$0.!C,$!%,A!63.',A!(3/%.#$.A!m3.!.%%#A!(,!D#+5#(!C,0*0,!'.(.$#$?!
9A-#A! #'$3C#/*,(.A! 0.! C,/#! *NC,$-#(/*#! A.! /,(2*$-*.$,(! .(! C%#(.-#AM! #%'3(,A>!
'*'#(-.A/,A!F!'#A.,A,A>!/,NC3.A-,A!.(!A3!N#F,$!C#$-.!C,$!D*0$4'.(,!F!D.%*,>!6$5,A!
F!#%.\#0,A!0.!A3!.A-$.%%#!N#0$.o!,-$,A>!NhA!C.m3.Q,A!F!NhA!/#%*.(-.A>!C.$0*.(0,!.%!
/,(\3(-,!0.!A3!D*0$4'.(,!F!D.%*,!#!/#3A#!0.!3(#!%.(-#!63'#!#%!.AC#/*,>!6,$N#$,(!3(#!
/%#A.!0*6.$.(-.!0.!C%#(.-#>!$,/,A,>!N.-h%*/,!F!/,(!A3C.$6*/*.!03$#?!
9A-,A! $.A-,A! /4AN*/,A! NhA! C.m3.Q,A>! /,('.%h(0,A.! F! /#%.(-h(0,A.>! %*+.$#$,(!
C.m3.Q#A! /#(-*0#0.A! 0.! '#A.A! .($*m3./*0,A! /,(! D*0$4'.(,>! #-$#C#0,! .(! A3A!
*(-.$*,$.A! 03$#(-.! .%! C$,/.A,! 0.! 6,$N#/*4(?! @%'3(,A! '#A.A! A.! /,(0.(A#$,(! .(! %#!
A3C.$6*/*.!6,$N#(0,!%#A!C$*N.$#A!#-N4A6.$#A!n#-N4A6.$#A!0*6.$.(-.A!#!%#!#/-3#%!0.!%#!
L*.$$#>!/,NC3.A-#A!C,$!N.-#(,>!#N,(5#/,>!A3%63$,!0.!D*0$4'.(,>!#'3#!.!D*0$4'.(,n>!
3(#!0.A#'$#0#+%.!.!*(A,C,$-#+%.!#-N4A6.$#!C#$#!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A?!E.$,!dA-#!(,!.A!
-,0#25#!3(#!D*A-,$*#!A,+$.!A.$.A!D3N#(,A?!
c#! %3X! .A-.%#$! /#F4! A,+$.! .A-#! #-N4A6.$#?! 9%! &,%! *NC3%A4! F! 0*$*'*4! %#A! -,$N.(-#A!
C$,03/*d(0,A.! -$3.(,A! F! $.%hNC#',A?! c,A! 2,%/#(.A! .(-$#$,(! .(! .$3C/*4(! F! %#! %#2#!
#$0*.(-.!/#%.(-4!%#!#-N4A6.$#!/.$/#!0.!%#!A3C.$6*/*.?!9A-,A!C$,/.A,A!0.A-$,X#$,(!%#A!
N,%d/3%#A! 0.! 3(#! #-N4A6.$#! C$*N*-*2#?! E.$,! %,A! 6$#'N.(-,A! A.! 3(*.$,(! C#$#! 6,$N#$!
N,%d/3%#A! /#0#! 2.X! NhA! /,NC%.\#A>! /#F.(0,! .(! %,A! C$*N.$,A! ,/d#(,A>! F! #%%5>!
$.%#/*,(h(0,A.! 3(#A! /,(! ,-$#A>! 0.AC%,Nh(0,A.! C,$! /#A3#%*0#0! A,+$.! -.$$.(,A!
#$/*%%,A,A>! .(! 2.$-*'*(,A,! C$,/.A,! 0.! $,-3$#>! 0.! $.A5(-.A*A>! 0.! -$#(A6,$N#/*4(>!
N,2*d(0,A.!%.(-#N.(-.!D#/*#!N,%d/3%#A!0.!3(#!N#F,$!/,NC%.\*0#0>!,+.0./*.(0,!#!
%#A! %.F.A! 0.! %#! 65A*/#! F! %#! m35N*/#?! @%! /#+,! 0.%! -*.NC,>! %,A! ,/d#(,A! #%/#(X#$,(!
/,(A*A-.(/*#!0.!3(!/#%0,!0*%3*0,!F!/h%*0,?!
9(-$.!%#A!(3N.$,A#A!.AC./*.A!0.!N,%d/3%#A!,$'h(*/#A!/,NC%.\#A!m3.!A.!6,$N#+#(!F!
0*A*C#+#(! .(! .A-.! /#%0,>! A3$'*4>! /*.$-,! 05#>! 3(#! N,%d/3%#! C.$6./-#N.(-.! /#C#X! 0.!
6,$N#$! /,C*#A! 0.! A5! N*AN#! n3(#! N,%d/3%#! m3.! 0*$*'5#! 0d+*%N.(-.! %,A! C$,/.A,A!
m35N*/,A!0.!A3!2./*(0#0!C#$#!C$,03/*$!N,%d/3%#A!/,N,!.%%#n>!3(#!N,%d/3%#!C#-$4(>!
3(#! N,%d/3%#! D.%*,'$h6*/#>! 3(#! N,%d/3%#! #3-,$$.C$,03/-,$#?! 9A-#! N,%d/3%#! (,! .$#!
N3F! .6*/*.(-.?! &3A! /,C*#A! .$#(! *(.B#/-#A?! E.$,! N3F! C$,(-,! ,+-32,! A*'(*6*/#-*2#!
2.(-#\#! A,+$.! %#A! ,-$#A! N,%d/3%#A! .(! %#A! -.NC$#(#A! #'3#A?! c#A! N,%d/3%#A! m3.! (,!
C,05#(! /,C*#$A.! #! A5! N*AN#A! (,! %,! /,(A*'3*.$,(?! c#A! m3.! C,05#(! D#/.$%,! A5! %,!
D*/*.$,(?!9%!(GN.$,!0.!N,%d/3%#A!#3N.(-4!#A5!/,(A*0.$#+%.N.(-.?!
@!N.0*0#!m3.!-$#(A/3$$5#!.%!-*.NC,>!.%!C$,/.A,!0.!/,C*#!A.!63.!D#/*.(0,!NhA!.B#/-,?!
;-$#A!N,%d/3%#A!A.!$.C$,/.A#$,(!.(!%#A!#'3#A!C#$#!6,$N#$!C*.X#A!0.!$,NC./#+.X#A!
m3.! A.! #0#C-#$,(! #! %#A! N,%d/3%#A! m3.! C$,03/5#(! /,C*#A?! c#! C.m3.Q#! 2.(-#\#>! %#!
*NC.$/.C-*+%.!2.(-#\#!.A-#05A-*/#!0.!%#A!N,%d/3%#A!m3.!C,05#(!/,C*#$A.!#!A5!N*AN#A>!
A.!-$#(A6,$N4!C$,(-,!.(!C$,/.A,!0,N*(#(-.!.(!%,A!,/d#(,A!N.0*#(-.!.%!/h%/3%,!0.!%#!
C$,'$.A*4(!'.,Nd-$*/#?!
&3$'*.$,(! A*A-.N#A! $.C$,03/-,$.A! /#0#! 2.X! NhA! .%#+,$#0,A?! c,A! A*A-.N#A! m3.!
/,C*#+#(! N.\,$! C$,03/5#(! NhA! /,C*#A?! c,A! m3.! /,C*#+#(! C,+$.N.(-.! C$,03/5#(!
N.(,A! /,C*#A?! E$,(-,>! %#! N#F,$! C#$-.! 0.! %#A! N,%d/3%#A! A.! ,$'#(*X#$,(! .(!
.A-$3/-3$#A! N,%./3%#$.A>! .(! A*A-.N#A! C$*2#0,A?! <,! A.! -$#-#+#! 0.! m3.! #%'3(#A!
N,%d/3%#A! %%.'#$#(! #! -.(.$! 3(#! *0.#! ,! A.(-*$! 3(#! (./.A*0#0>! 0.A.,>! ,! #AC*$#/*4(o!
A*NC%.N.(-.>! -#%.A! N,%d/3%#A! m3.! C$,03/5#(! /,C*#A! /,(-*(3#$,(! D#/*d(0,%,! F! N3F!
C$,(-,!%#!A3C.$6*/*.!0.%!C%#(.-#!A.!-$#(A6,$N4!C,$!.%!C$,/.A,!0.!/,C*#?!",(!.%!-*.NC,>!
%,A!N#$.A!A.!%%.(#$,(!0.!.A-#A!N,%d/3%#A!m3.!6,$N#+#(!.A-$3/-3$#A>!N.-#+,%*X#(0,>!
N3%-*C%*/h(0,A.???! F! $.C*-*.(0,! .A-,A! C$,/.A,A! 3(#! F! ,-$#! 2.X?! c3.',! A3$'*.$,(!
A*A-.N#A! NhA! /,NC%*/#0,A>! %#A! .A-$3/-3$#A! N,%./3%#$.A! /,N.(X#$,(! #! #/-3#$!
N,2*d(0,A.! D#/*#! 0,(0.! %,A! /*N*.(-,A! 0.! /,C*#! .$#(! NhA! #+3(0#(-.A>! .2*-#(0,! #!
%#A! .A-$3/-3$#A! N,%./3%#$.A! m3.! *(/,$C,$#+#(! #! A3A! 2./*(,A?! c#! A.%.//*4(! (#-3$#%!
%%.'4! #! A.$! 3(! -#N*X! N,%./3%#$>! .%*'*.(0,! %#A! /,N+*(#/*,(.A! 0.! N,%d/3%#A! N.\,$!
0,-#0#A!C#$#!3(#!C,A-.$*,$!N3%-*C%*/#/*4(?!
K*.(-$#A! -#(-,>! A.! .A-#+%./5#(! %,A! /*N*.(-,A>! %,A! #%*N.(-,A>! %#A! C*.X#A! C#$#! /,C*#A!
C,A-.$*,$.A>!C$*(/*C#%N.(-.!N.0*#(-.!%#!%3X!A,%#$>!%,A!$.%hNC#',A!F!%,A!-$3.(,A>!-,0,!
.%%,! '3*#0,! C,$! %#! /.$/#(#! .A-$.%%#?! c,A! C$,/.A,A! (3/%.#$.A! .(! .%! *(-.$*,$! 0.! %#A!
.A-$.%%#A!63.$,(!%,A!m3.!0*.$,(!*NC3%A,!#!%,A!C$,/.A,A!C%#(.-#$*,A!m3.!/,(03\.$,(!#!
3(#!2*0#!A,A-.(*0#?!
@!N.0*0#!m3.!A.!63.$,(!#',-#(0,!%,A!#%*N.(-,A>!A3$'*4!0.!(3.2,!3(#!(3.2#!.AC./*.!
0.!.A-$3/-3$#!N,%./3%#$!/#C#X!0.!C$,03/*$!C$*(/*C*,A!N,%./3%#$.A!*(-.$(,A>!%.\,A!0.%!
#'3#>! 0.%! #*$.! F! 0.! %#! %3X! 0.%! &,%?! @! %,A! C$*N.$,A! #(*N#%.A! A.! 3(*.$,(! %#A! C$*N.$#A!
C%#(-#A?!c,A!#(*N#%.A!A.!/,(2*$-*.$,(!.(!C#$hA*-,A!0.!%#A!C%#(-#A!/,N,!F#!%,!D#+5#(!
A*0,! .(! 3(! C$*(/*C*,! .(! .%! N#(h! .A-.%#$! /#50,! 0.! %,A! /*.%,A?! c#A! C%#(-#A! /#N+*#$,(!
%.(-#N.(-.!%#!/,NC,A*/*4(!0.!%#!#-N4A6.$#o!.%!D*0$4'.(,!A.!C.$0*4!.(!.%!.AC#/*,>!.%!
#N,(5#/,! A.! -$#(A6,$N4! .(! (*-$4'.(,! F! .%! N.-#(,! .(! #(D50$*0,! /#$+4(*/,?! E,$!
C$*N.$#! 2.X>! A.! C$,03/5#! .%! ,B5'.(,! .(! %#! #-N4A6.$#! .(! /#(-*0#0.A! *NC,$-#(-.A>! .%!
,B5'.(,>! 3(! '#A! 2.(.(,A,! /#C#X! 0.! /,(2.$-*$! -,0#A! %#A! N,%d/3%#A! ,$'h(*/#A!
#3-,/,C*#0,$#A!.(!'#A.A!A*NC%.A!/,N,!.%!#'3#!F!.%!#(D50$*0,!/#$+4(*/,?!
E.$,!%#!2*0#!-$,C.X4!/,(!.A-.!A3C$.N,!$.-,?!9(!#%'3(,A!/#A,A!D,$#0#(0,!,!N*(#(0,!
D#/*#! N.0*,A! #N+*.(-.A! .(! %,A! /3#%.A! .%! ,B5'.(,! .A-#+#! #3A.(-.>! C.$,! n.(! %#A!
2#$*#(-.A! 0.! NhA! dB*-,n! .2,%3/*,(#(0,! (,! A4%,! C#$#! m3.! A,+$.2*2*.A.! .%! ,B5'.(,>!
A*(,!-#N+*d(!C#$#!3A#$%,!.(!.%!NhA!.6*/#X!N.-#+,%*AN,!0.!#%*N.(-,A?!
92,%3/*,(#$,(! .%! A.B,! F! %#! N3.$-.! C$,/.A,A! m3.! #3N.(-#$,(! (,-#+%.N.(-.! .%!
C$,/.A,! 0.! A.%.//*4(! (#-3$#%?! @%'3(,A! ,$'#(*AN,A! .2,%3/*,(#$,(! .(! A3A! C#$-.A!
03$#A>!/$./*.$,(!F!A,+$.2*2*.$,(!.(!.%!-.$$.(,?!&.!#/.%.$4!.%!C$,/.A,!0.!C$,03//*4(!
0.!6,$N#A!N3/D,!NhA!/,NC%.\#A?!92,%3/*,(4!-#N+*d(!.%!23.%,?!9(,$N.A!+.A-*#A!0.!
/3#-$,! C#-#A! #-$,(#+#(! %#A! D3N.#(-.A! A.%2#A?! &3$'5#(! C.m3.Q#A! +.A-*#A! F!
A,+$.2*25#(! .(-$.! #A-3/*#A! F! $#C*0.X! 0.! %#! 2*0#! .(! C.$5,0,A! m3.! A.! *+#(!
#/$./.(-#(0,!/#0#!2.X!NhA?!
K*.(-$#A! -#(-,>! .%! /%*N#! -#N+*d(! 2#$*#+#?! c*'.$,A! /#N+*,A! .(! %#! C$,03//*4(! 0.! %3X!
A,%#$>!N,2*N*.(-,!,$+*-#%!0.%!C%#(.-#>!(3+.A>!,/d#(,A!F!/#Am3.-.A!C,%#$.A>!-,0,!.%%,!
C$,2,/#+#! /#N+*,A! /%*Nh-*/,A! #(*m3*%#(0,! #A5! '$3C,A! .(-.$,A! 0.! ,$'#(*AN,A! F!
C$,2,/#(0,!%#!6,$N*0#+%.!C$,%*6.$#/*4(!0.!,-$,A!'$3C,A!#%!C$*(/*C*,!*(A*'(*6*/#(-.A?!
J! .(-,(/.A???! %#! L*.$$#! A.! .(6$*4! 3(! -#(-,?! c,A! +,Am3.A! *(*/*#$,(! A3! $.-*$#0#?!
E.m3.Q,A! #(*N#%.A! #$+,$5/,%#A! 0.A/.(05#(! 0.! %,A! h$+,%.A! C#$#! +3A/#$A.! 3(! N,0,!
0.! 2*0#! .(! %#A! %%#(3$#A?! &.! *$'3*.$,(! F! 3A#$,(! D.$$#N*.(-#A?! &.! /,N3(*/#+#(!
C$,03/*.(0,! .(! .%! #*$.! ,(0#A! 0.! /,NC$.(A*4(! /,(! A3A! 4$'#(,A! 0.! $.AC*$#/*4(! F!
(3-$*/*4(?! 1.A/3+$*.$,(! m3.! .%! N#-.$*#%! ,$'h(*/,! #! -.NC.$#-3$#! A36*/*.(-.N.(-.! #%-#!
A.!/,N+*(#+#!/,(!.%!,B5'.(,!#-N,A6d$*/,!C#$#!C$,03/*$!.%!C%#AN#!#$0*.(-.!F!.A-#+%.!
%%#N#0,! 63.',?! K.0*#(-.! 3(#! *(-.$#//*4(! A,/*#%>! A.! #/.%.$4! .%! #C$.(0*X#\.! C,A-!
C#$-3N?! &.! 0.A#$$,%%4! %#! /#X#! /,N3(#%>! A.! *(2.(-4! %#! .A/$*-3$#>! %#A! .A-$3/-3$#A!
C,%5-*/#A>!%#!A3C.$A-*/*4(!F!%#!/*.(/*#>!%#!$.%*'*4(!F!%#!-./(,%,'5#?!
J!.(-,(/.A>!3(!05#>!%%.'4!3(#!/$*#-3$#!/3F,!N#-.$*#%!'.(d-*/,!(,!.$#!N3F!0*6.$.(-.!0.!
%#A!.A-$3/-3$#A!N,%./3%#$.A!$.C$,03/-,$#A!0.!/3#%m3*.$!,-$#!/%#A.!0.!,$'#(*AN,A!0.%!
C%#(.-#>! m3.! 0*/D#! /$*#-3$#! %%#N4! L*.$$#?! E.$,! .$#! /#C#X! 0.! $.6%.B*,(#$! A,+$.! .%!
N*A-.$*,! 0.! A3! ,$*'.(>! 0.! .A-30*#$! .%! .B-$#Q,! F! -,$-3,A,! A.(0.$,! C,$! .%! /3#%! D#+5#!
A3$'*0,! 0.A0.! %#! N#-.$*#! .A-.%#$?! 9$#! .%! N#-.$*#%! 0.%! ",AN,A! /,(-.NC%h(0,A.! #! A5!
N*AN,?!",(A*0.$4!%#!.(*'Nh-*/#!F!C$,+%.Nh-*/#!/3.A-*4(!0.!A3!63-3$,?!&.!%%#N4!#!A5!
N*AN,!D,N+$.?!J!#(A*4!$.'$.A#$!#!%#A!.A-$.%%#A?!
!
38. Habitantes de las estrellas - 2. Un futuro
!

!
Densas nubes estelares en direccin a la constelacin de Sagitario, hacia el centro de la
Galaxia. Las obscuras sendas son nubes de polvo donde se estn formando molculas
orgnicas complejas. Entre estas estrellas hay algunas que nacen, y otras, que mueren. En el
espacio captado por esta fotografa, probablemente hay innumerables planetas habitados, que
giran alrededor de las estrellas. Cortesa de Hale Observatories.
c#!D*A-,$*#!0.%!/#C5-3%,!#(-.$*,$!.A!3(#!.AC./*.!0.!6h+3%#!/*.(-56*/#?!9A!NhA!,!N.(,A!
%,!m3.!%,A!/*.(-56*/,A!N,0.$(,A!/$..(!+#Ah(0,A.!.(!/3#(-#A!C$3.+#A!-*.(.(!#!N#(,?!
9A!.%!.A+,X,!0.!%#!#C#$*/*4(!0.%!D,N+$.>!3(!C$,/.A,!m3.!C#A4!C,$!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!
0.! #Q,A>! C,$! %#! 65A*/#! (3/%.#$! F! %#! '$#2*-#/*4(>! C,$! %#! m35N*/#! ,$'h(*/#! F! C,$! %#!
A.%.//*4(!(#-3$#%?!9%!/#C5-3%,!#(-.$*,$!(,A!/3.(-#!/4N,!A.!'.(.$4!.%!N#-.$*#%!0.!m3.!
.A-#N,A!D./D,A!.(!,-$,!%3'#$!F!.(!,-$,!-*.NC,>!.(!%,A!*(-.$*,$.A!0.!3(#!N,$*+3(0#!
.A-$.%%#!D#/.!/*(/,!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A!,!NhA?!
I#F!-$.A!#AC./-,A!0.!%#!D*A-,$*#!m3.!/,(A*0.$,!C#$-*/3%#$N.(-.!*(-.$.A#(-.A?!E$*N.$,>!
m3.! .%! H(*2.$A,! A.! 6,$N#! 0.! -#%! N#(.$#! /,N,! C#$#! C.$N*-*$>! F#! m3.! (,! '#$#(-*X#$>!
m3.!A.C#N,A!/3h%!.A!.%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#!F!.%!0.A#$$,%%,!0.!/$*#-3$#A!/,NC%.\#A?!9A!
6h/*%! *N#'*(#$! %.F.A! 65A*/#A! m3.! (,! C.$N*-*$5#(! A.! 3(*.$#(! #0./3#0#A! .A-$3/-3$#A!
N,%./3%#$.A?! E.$,! (,! 2*2*N,A! .(! -#%.A! 3(*2.$A,A?! R*2*N,A! .(! 3(! H(*2.$A,!
(,-#+%.N.(-.!#0./3#0,!C#$#!%#!2*0#?!
&.'3(0,>! m3.! .(! %#! 6h+3%#! (,! D#F! 3(! .A/#%4(! G(*/,! #! (3.A-$,! &*A-.N#! &,%#$! F! #!
(3.A-$,! C%#(.-#?! I#F! `b7! N*%! N*%%,(.A! 0.! A,%.A! .(! (3.A-$#! R5#! ch/-.#>! F! N*%.A! 0.!
N*%%,(.A!0.!,-$#A!'#%#B*#A!.(!%,A!/*.%,A?!E$,+#+%.N.(-.>!%#!N*-#0!0.!.A-#A!.A-$.%%#A!
-*.(.(!C%#(.-#A!#!0*A-#(/*#A!#0./3#0#A!+*,%4'*/#N.(-.!0.%!A,%!%,/#%?!c,A!.%.N.(-,A!
m35N*/,A!*(*/*#%.A!C#$#!.%!,$*'.(!0.!%#!2*0#!A,(!%#A!N,%d/3%#A!m3.!NhA!#+3(0#(!.(!.%!
H(*2.$A,?!@%',!A*N*%#$!#!%,A!C$,/.A,A!m3.!.(!%#!L*.$$#!/,(03\.$,(!#%!D,N+$.!0.+.(!
D#+.$!-.(*0,!%3'#$!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!,-$#A!2./.A!.(!%#!D*A-,$*#!0.!(3.A-$#!Z#%#B*#?!
1.+.!D#+.$!,-$,A!D#+*-#(-.A?!
E,$!A3C3.A-,>!%,A!0.-#%%.A!0.!%#!.2,%3/*4(!(,!A.$5#(!%,A!N*AN,A?!:(/%3A,!A*!%#!L*.$$#!
A.!*(*/*#A.!,-$#!2.X!F!A,%#N.(-.!%#A!63.$X#A!,C.$#A.(!#%!#X#$!(,!A.!C$,03/*$5#!(#0#!
C#$./*0,!#!3(!A.$!D3N#(,>!C,$m3.!%,A!A.$.A!D3N#(,A!A,(!.%!C$,03/-,!6*(#%!0.!3(#!
A.(0#! .2,%3/*,(*A-#! .Bm3*A*-#N.(-.! /,NC%*/#0#>! %%.(#! 0.! 6#%A,A! /,N*.(X,A>! 0.!
/#%%.\,(.A!/#A*!A*(!A#%*0#!F!0.!#//*0.(-.A!.A-#05A-*/,A?!E.$,!+*.(!C,0$5#N,A!.AC.$#$>!
F#! m3.! (,! A.$.A! D3N#(,A>! A5! ,$'#(*AN,A! m3.! 63(/*,(#%N.(-.! (,! 63.A.(! N3F!
0*6.$.(-.A!#!(,A,-$,A?!E3.A-,!m3.!D#F!A.'3(0#A!F!-.$/.$#A!'.(.$#/*,(.A!0.!.A-$.%%#A!
N3/D,!NhA!2*.\#A!m3.!(3.A-$,!&,%>!0.+.!D#+.$>!/$.,>!N3/D,A!%3'#$.A!.(!%#!Z#%#B*#!
0,(0.!D#F#!A.$.A!N3/D,!NhA!#2#(X#0,A!m3.!(,A,-$,A!.(!/*.(/*#!F!-./(,%,'5#>!.(!
C,%5-*/#>!d-*/#>!C,.A5#!F!NGA*/#?!
9%! -.$/.$! C3(-,! .A! .%! NhA! #-$#/-*2,?! 9A! %#! 5(-*N#! /,(.B*4(! m3.! D#F! ,! C3.0#! D#+.$!
.(-$.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!F!%#!2*0#?!<3.A-$,!C%#(.-#!A.!6,$N4!0.!%,A!$.A-,A!,!A.0*N.(-,A!0.%!
N#-.$*#%! .A-.%#$?! c,A! h-,N,A! (./.A#$*,A! C#$#! %#! 2*0#! A.! 6,$N#$,(! .(! .%! *(-.$*,$! 0.!
'*'#(-.A/#A! .A-$.%%#A! $,\#A?! 9A-,A! h-,N,A! A.! 3(*.$,(! 6,$X,A#N.(-.! C#$#! 6,$N#$!
N,%d/3%#A! ,$'h(*/#A! /,NC%.\#A! N.0*#(-.! %#! %3X! 3%-$#2*,%.-#>! -$3.(,A! F! $.%hNC#',A>!
-,0,!.%%,!C$,03/*0,!C,$!%#!*$$#0*#/*4(!0.!(3.A-$,!2./*(,!&,%?!"3#(0,!%#!C$,2*A*4(!0.!
#%*N.(-,! .A/#A.4>! A.! 0.A#$$,%%4! %#! 6,-,A5(-.A*A! 0.! %#A! C%#(-#A! 2.$0.A>! *NC3%A#0#! 0.!
(3.2,!C,$!%#!%3X!A,%#$>!%#!%3X!A,%#$!m3.!/#A*!-,0,A!%,A!,$'#(*AN,A!0.!%#!L*.$$#!F>!C,$!
A3C3.A-,>! -,0,A! (,A,-$,A! /,(,/.N,A>! F! /*.$-#N.(-.! A.! A*'3.! 2*2*.(0,! D,F! 05#!
'$#/*#A! #! .%%#?! E.$,! dA-.! (,! C3.0.! A.$! .%! 6*(#%! 0.! %#! 6h+3%#?! <3.A-$,! &,%! A.! .A-h!
#C$,B*N#(0,! #! A3! N.0*#(#! .0#0?! s3*XhA! #G(! %.! m3.0.(! 0.! 2*0#! ,-$,A! /*(/,! N*%!
N*%%,(.A!,!0*.X!N*%!N*%%,(.A!0.!#Q,A>!0.!2*0#!.A-.%#$>!A.!.(-*.(0.?!
kJ!m3d!D#F!A,+$.!%#!2*0#!.(!%#!L*.$$#!F!.%!D,N+$.l!L#N+*d(>!m3.!A.C#N,A>!-*.(.(!
3(!63-3$,?!J!A*!(,>!D#F!N*%.A!0.!N*%%,(.A!0.!,-$#A!.A-$.%%#A!F!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!N*%.A!0.!
N*%%,(.A! 0.! ,-$,A! C%#(.-#A! 0.AD#+*-#0,A! .(! (3.A-$#! Z#%#B*#?! k"3h%! .A! %#! #//*4(!
$./5C$,/#!.(-$.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!F!%#!2*0#l!
c#! N3.$-.! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! .A-h! %%.2#(0,! #! %,A! #A-$4(,N,A! #! *(.AC.$#0,A! F! /#A*!
*$$.#%.A! C#*A#\.A! /.%.A-.A?! H(,! 0.! dA-,A! .A! %#! .BC%,A*4(! A3C.$(,2#>! %#! #('3A-*#! 0.!
N3.$-.!0.!3(#!.A-$.%%#!%*'.$#N.(-.!NhA!A4%*0#!m3.!(3.A-$,!&,%?!9(!.%!+$.2.!C.$5,0,!
0.! 3(#A! A.N#(#A! ,>! C$,+#+%.N.(-.>! 0.! 3(,A! N.A.A>! -#%! .BC%,A*2#! .A-$.%%#! C3.0.!
%%.'#$!#!A.$!N3/D,!NhA!+$*%%#(-.!m3.!.%!$.A-,!0.!%#!'#%#B*#!.(!%#!/3#%!$.A*0.?!9(!3(#!
A3C.$(,2#>! %,A! .%.N.(-,A! /,N,! .%! ,$,! F! .%! 3$#(*,! A.! '.(.$#(! 0.%! D*.$$,?! c#A!
A3C.$(,2#A!A,(!%#!-#(!+3A/#0#!C*.0$#!6*%,A,6#%>!/,(2*$-*.(0,!%,A!N.-#%.A!+hA*/,A!.(!
C$./*,A,A?!
I#+*.(0,!.BC3%A#0,!%#!N#F,$!C#$-.!0.!A3!N#-.$*#%!.A-.%#$!n0.A-*(#0,>!C#$-.!0.!d%>!#!
3%-.$*,$.A!6,$N#/*,(.A!0.!(3.2#A!.A-$.%%#A>!C%#(.-#A!F!2*0#n>!%#!.A-$.%%#!A.!0*AC,(.!#!
0*A6$3-#$!-$#(m3*%#N.(-.!0.!3(#!C#/56*/#!2.\.X>!/,(!A3A!63.',A!.B-*('3*0,A>!/,N,!3(#!
.(#(#! +%#(/#?! H(#! .(#(#! +%#(/#! .A-h! /,(A-*-3*0#! 0.! N#-.$*#! .(! 3(! .A-#0,! m3.! %,A!
65A*/,A>! A*(! (*('3(#! *NC3-#/*4(! N,$#%>! %%#N#(! 0.'.(.$#0,?! c,A! .%./-$,(.A! A.!
0.AC$.(0.(! 0.%! (G/%.,! 0.! h-,N,A?! c,A! .A/30,A! C$,-./-,$.A! 0.! %#! .%./-$*/*0#0!
(.'#-*2#! A.! 0.AN,(-#(?! 9%! (G/%.,! C3.0.! 3(*$A.! N3/D,! NhA>! %,! m3.! -$#.! /,N,!
/,(A./3.(/*#! 3(! .A-#0,! 0.! .B-$#,$0*(#$*#! 0.(A*0#0?! c#! N#-.$*#! 0.'.(.$#0#! C.A#!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! 3(#! -,(.%#0#! C,$! 0.0#%?! @%'3(#A! .(#(#A! +%#(/#A>! /,(A*0.$#0#A!
#0./3#0#N.(-.>!A,(!'$#(0.A!/$*A-#%.A!.A-.%#$.A!/#C#/.A!0.!A,C,$-#$!.%!C.A,!0.!%#A!
/#C#A! A3C.$C3.A-#A! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#?! @%'3(#A! .(#(#A! +%#(/#A! A,(! C$*(/*C#%N.(-.!
/#$+,(,?!E,0.N,A!D#+%#$!0.!3(#!.A-$.%%#!D./D#!0.!0*#N#(-.?!
E.$,! .(! /3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$.! #! .A-$.%%#A! NhA! A4%*0#A>! %#A! .(#(#A! +%#(/#A! n/,(! A3A!
+$#A#A! #C#'h(0,A.! %.(-#N.(-.>! $.03/*d(0,A.! #! .(#(#A! (.'$#An! (,! A,(! .%! .A-#0,!
6*(#%?! c#! N#-.$*#! 0.'.(.$#0#! (,! C3.0.! A,C,$-#$! .%! C.A,! 0.! 3(#! .A-$.%%#! 0.! N#F,$!
N#A#>! F>! .(! /,(A./3.(/*#>! A*'3.! ,-$,! /*/%,! 0.! /,(-$#//*4(! .A-.%#$>! #C%#A-h(0,A.! %#!
N#-.$*#!C#$#!6,$N#$!0.(A*0#0.A!/#0#!2.X!NhA!*(/$.5+%.A>!D#A-#!m3.!A.!C$.A.(-#!3(!
(3.2,! ,$0.(! 0.! 65A*/#>! D#A-#! m3.! 3(#! (3.2#! 63.$X#! A3$'.! C#$#! 0.-.(.$! .%! /,%#CA,!
.A-.%#$?!&,%#N.(-.!D#F!3(#!63.$X#!/,(,/*0#>!/,(!.A-#!#NC%*-30M!.A!%#!63.$X#!(3/%.#$!
m3.! N#(-*.(.! 3(*0,! .%! (G/%.,! 0.%! h-,N,?! 9A-#! 63.$X#! (3/%.#$! .A! $.AC,(A#+%.! 0.! %#!
.A-#+*%*0#0! 0.! %,A! h-,N,A>! F>! C,$! -#(-,>! 0.! -,0#! %#! m35N*/#! F! +*,%,'5#?! L#N+*d(! .A!
$.AC,(A#+%.! 0.! %#A! $.#//*,(.A! -.$N,(3/%.#$.A! .(! .%! *(-.$*,$! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! m3.!
D#/.(! +$*%%#$! #! dA-#A! F! m3.>! C,$! .%%,>! 0.! 6,$N#! /,NC%.-#N.(-.! 0*6.$.(-.>! *NC3%A#! %#!
+*,%,'5#!C%#(.-#$*#!
:N#'*(.N,A!3(#!.A-$.%%#!NhA!,!N.(,A!C#$./*0#!#%!&,%>!C.$,!3(!C,/,!NhA!A4%*0#>!F#!
/.$/#! 0.%! 6*(! 0.! A3A! 05#A! 0.! /,(2.$-*$! .%! (G/%.,! A*NC%.! .(! ,-$,! NhA! /,NC%.\,?!
E$,03/.! %#! G%-*N#! A.$*.! 0.! $.#//*,(.A! (3/%.#$.A! /,NC%.\#A! m3.! .A! /#C#X! 0.!
C$,03/*$>! F! %3.',! A36$.! .%! /,%#CA,?! "3#(0,! A3! -#N#Q,! A.! $.03/.>! '*$#! NhA! F! NhA!
$hC*0#N.(-.! F! -#(! A4%,! /3#(0,! A3! *(-.$*,$! A.! D#/.! /,NC#$#+%.! #! %#! 0.(A*0#0! 0.! %#!
N#-.$*#! 0.(-$,! 0.%! (G/%.,! #-4N*/,! .A! /3#(0,! A.! 0.-*.(.! .%! /,%#CA,?! 9A! 3(#! A*NC%.!
/3.A-*4(!0.!65A*/#!.%.N.(-#%!/#%/3%#$!.(!m3.!.-#C#!A.!0.-.(0$h!.%!/,%#CA,?!L.$N*(#!
/3#(0,! %#! .A-$.%%#! -*.(.! 3(! C#$! 0.! q*%4N.-$,A! 0.! 0*hN.-$,! F! '*$#! 0*.X! 2./.A! C,$!
A.'3(0,?!
L#%! ,+\.-,! .A! 3(#! .A-$.%%#! 0.! (.3-$,(.A! m3.! '*$#! $hC*0#N.(-.?! 9(! 2.$0#0>! .A! 3(!
(G/%.,! #-4N*/,! '*'#(-.A/,! m3.! N*0.! 0,A! q*%4N.-$,A! 0.! 0*hN.-$,?! c#! N#-.$*#! 0.! %#!
.A-$.%%#!0.!(.3-$,(.A!.A!-#(!0.(A#!m3.!3(#!C#$-5/3%#!A3F#!n#C.(#A!2*A*+%.n!C.A#$5#!
3(!N*%%4(!0.!-,(.%#0#A?!c#!L*.$$#!(,!A.$5#!/#C#X!0.!A,C,$-#$%#?!H(!-$,X,!0.!N#-.$*#!
0.!.A-$.%%#!(.3-$4(>!A*!C30*.$#!-$#(AC,$-#$A.!#!%#!L*.$$#!A*(!$,NC.$A.>!A.!D3(0*$5#!A*(!
.%!N.(,$!.A63.$X,!#-$#2.A#(0,!%#!/,$-.X#>!N#(-,!F!(G/%.,!0.!(3.A-$,!C%#(.-#!/,N,!
A*!63.$#!3(#!D,\#!0.!#6.*-#$!m3.!/,$-#$#!N#(-.m3*%%#?!
L#%.A! .A-$.%%#A! (.3-$4(! .$#(! C$,03/-,A! -.4$*/,A>! 6$3-,! 0.! %#! *N#'*(#/*4(! 0.! 65A*/,A!
.AC./3%#-*2,A>! D#A-#! m3.! A.! 0.A/3+$*.$,(! %,A! C3%A#$A?! c,A! C3%A#$A! A,(! 63.(-.A! 0.!
.N*A*4(! 0.! $#0*,?! @%'3(,A! 0.! .%%,A! .A-h(! #A,/*#0,A! /,(! #(-*'3#A! .BC%,A*,(.A! 0.!
A3C.$(,2#A?! <,A! C#$C#0.#(! /,N,! A*! .%! $#F,! 0.! %#! %3X! 0.! #%'G(! 6#$,! /4AN*/,! (,A!
*%3N*(#$#! 0*.X! 2./.A! C,$! A.'3(0,?! c,A! 0.-#%%.A! 0.! %#! .N*A*4(! 0.! %,A! C3%A#$A! A.!
.(-*.(0.(!N.\,$!A*!A,(!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!0.!(.3-$,(.A!0.!%#!6h+3%#?!@!/#3A#!0.!%#!Cd$0*0#!
0.! .(.$'5#! #%! .AC#/*,! m3.! ,+A.$2#N,A>! .%! 5(0*/.! 0.! $,-#/*4(! 0.! 3(#! .A-$.%%#! 0.!
(.3-$,(.A!#*A%#0#!0.+.!0./%*(#$!%.(-#N.(-.>!#3(!/3#(0,!A.#!3(!/$,(4N.-$,!.A-.%#$!
0.! .B-$#,$0*(#$*#! .B#/-*-30?! c#! 0./#0.(/*#! ,+A.$2#0#! .(! %,A! C.$5,0,A! C3%A#$! .A!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!%,!m3.!A.!.AC.$#+#!0.!%#!65A*/#!0.!%#!.A-$.%%#!0.!(.3-$,(.A?!
9%! C$*N.$! C3%A#$! m3.! A.! 0.A/3+$*4! 63.! %%#N#0,! C,$! A3A! 0.A/3+$*0,$.A>! 3(! -#(-,!
+3$%,(#N.(-.>!cZKO8?!c#A!A*'%#A!cZK!/,$$.AC,(0.(!#!%#!6$#A.!fC.m3.Q,A!D,N+$.A!
2.$0.Ag! {f%*--%.! '$..(! N.(g|?! k9$#>! A.! C$.'3(-#+#(>! 3(! 6#(#%! ,! 6#$,! 0.! 3(#!
/*2*%*X#/*4(!.B-$#-.$$.A-$.!#2#(X#0#l!K*!C$,C*,!C3(-,!0.!2*A-#>!/3#(0,!,5!D#+%#$!C,$!
2.X! C$*N.$#! 0.! %,A! C3%A#$A>! 63.! m3.! .$#(! C.$6./-,A! 6#(#%.A! 0.! (#2.'#/*4(!
*(-.$.A-.%#$>!%#!/%#A.!0.!A.Q#%*X#0,$.A!m3.!3(#!A,/*.0#0!.AC#/*#%!*(-.$.A-.%#$!A*-3#$5#!
.(!%#!'#%#B*#!C#$#!,$*.(-#$A.!.(!.%!-*.NC,!F!.%!.AC#/*,!.(!A3A!2*#\.A?!@D,$#!D#F!N3F!
C,/#A! 030#A! 0.! m3.! %,A! C3%A#$A! A,(! .A-$.%%#A! 0.! (.3-$,(.A?! E.$,! (,! .B/%3*$5#! %#!
C,A*+*%*0#0!0.!m3.!A*!D#F!A,/*.0#0.A!2*#\.$#A!*(-.$.A-.%#$.A>!%,A!C3%A#$A!(#-3$#%N.(-.!
6,$N#0,A!A.!3A#(!/,N,!%3/.A!0.!A*-3#/*4(!C#$#!%#!(#2.'#/*4(!F!/,(!C$,C4A*-,A!0.!
/,N3(*/#/*4(?!
@G(! (,! A.! D#! .(-.(0*0,! .%! .A-#0,! 0.! %#! N#-.$*#! 0.%! *(-.$*,$! 0.! -#%.A! .A-$.%%#A! 0.!
(.3-$,(.A?! <,! A#+.N,A! A*! 3(#! /,$-.X#! 0.! A3C.$6*/*.! /,(-.(*.(0,! 3(#! /.%,A5#! 0.!
/$*A-#%! (.3-$4(! /3+$.! 3(! (G/%.,! 0.! (.3-$,(.A! %5m3*0,A?! &*! .%! (G/%.,! 63.$#! A4%*0,>!
A.$5#(! 0.! .AC.$#$! A.5AN,A! .A-.%#$.A>! 3(#! 0.A2*#/*4(! 0.! %#! N#-.$*#! +#\,! .(,$N.A!
.A63.$X,A! .(! .%! *(-.$*,$! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#?! L#%.A! A.5AN,A! C$,03/*$5#(! 3(! /#N+*,!
*(-.$N*-.(-.! .(! .%! C.$5,0,! 0.! $,-#/*4(! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#! (.3-$4(?! &.! ,+A.$2#(! -#%.A!
/#N+*,A!%%#N#0,A!/.(-.%%.,A?!
@%'3(,A! A.! A*(-*.$,(! 0./.C/*,(#0,A! #%! A#+.$! m3.! %,A! C3%A#$A! .$#(! .A-$.%%#A! 0.!
(.3-$,(.A! F! (,! /#(#%.A! 0.! /,N3(*/#/*4(! 0.! $#0*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$?! E.$,! %,A! C3%A#$A! (,!
0.\#(!0.!A.$!*(-.$.A#(-.A?!&*(!030#!#%'3(#>!3(#!.A-$.%%#!NhA!A4%*0#!m3.!.%!&,%>!m3.!
A.! #0#C-#! #! 3(#! .A6.$#! m3.! N*0.! `! qN! 0.! 0*hN.-$,! F! m3.! '*$#! 0*.X! 2./.A! C,$!
A.'3(0,>! .A>! .(! /*.$-,! A.(-*0,>! N3/D,! NhA! $#$#! m3.! 3(#! /*2*%*X#/*4(! N3/D,! NhA!
#2#(X#0#!m3.!(,A,-$,A!.(!.%!C%#(.-#!0.!,-$#!.A-$.%%#?!
E.$,! D#F! ,-$#! 6,$N#! NhA! C$,63(0#! .(! %#! m3.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! 0.! (.3-$,(.A! F! %#A!
.BC%,A*,(.A!A3C.$(,2#!.A-h(!$.%#/*,(#0#A!/,(!%#!2*0#?!9(!3(#!.BC%,A*4(!A3C.$(,2#>!
/,N,! D.N,A! N.(/*,(#0,! #(-.$*,$N.(-.>! A.! .BC3%A#(! .(,$N.A! /#(-*0#0.A! 0.!
h-,N,A! 0.A0.! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! %#! .A-$.%%#! #%! .AC#/*,! *(-.$.A-.%#$?! 9(! .%! /#A,! 0.! %#A!
.A-$.%%#A!0.!(.3-$,(.A>!F!#!/#3A#!0.!A3!$hC*0#!$,-#/*4(>!D#F!3(#!X,(#!(,!N3F!%.\,A!
0.! A3! A3C.$6*/*.! m3.! '*$#! /#A*! #! %#! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.! %#! %3X?! c#A! C#$-5/3%#A! A#%-#(! 0.A0.!
.A#! X,(#! #! -#(! #%-#! 2.%,/*0#0! m3.! D#! 0.! -.(.$A.! N3F! .(! /3.(-#! %#! -.,$5#! 0.! %#!
$.%#-*2*0#0!C#$#!0.A/$*+*$%#A?!L#(-,!%#A!.BC%,A*,(.A!A3C.$(,2#!/,N,!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!0.!
(.3-$,(.A! .(! A3! X,(#! 0.! #%-#! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.+.(! C$,03/*$! $#F,A! /4AN*/,A>! C#$-5/3%#A!
/#$'#0#A! N3F! $hC*0#N.(-.! ].(! A3! N#F,$! C#$-.! C$,-,(.A>! C.$,! /,(-.(*.(0,! %,A!
$.A-#(-.A!.%.N.(-,A!-#N+*d(_>!m3.!%%.(#(!.%!.AC#/*,!.(-$.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A?!
c,A! $#F,A! /4AN*/,A! /#.(! .(! %#! #-N4A6.$#! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! c#A! C#$-5/3%#A! N.(,A!
.(.$'d-*/#A!A,(!#+A,$+*0#A!C,$!%#!#-N4A6.$#!,!0.A2*#0#A!C,$!.%!/#NC,!N#'(d-*/,!0.!
%#! L*.$$#?! E.$,! %#A! C#$-5/3%#A! NhA! .(.$'d-*/#A>! %#A! m3.! 63.$,(! C$,03/*0#A! C,$!
.A-$.%%#A! 0.! (.3-$,(.A! ,! A3C.$(,2#A>! %%.'#(! #! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! %#! L*.$$#?! J! #m35!
/D,/#(!/,(!%#!2*0#?!@%'3(,A!$#F,A!/4AN*/,A!C.(.-$#(!#!-$#2dA!0.%!N#-.$*#%!'.(d-*/,!
0.! 6,$N#A! 0.! 2*0#! .(! %#! A3C.$6*/*.! 0.! (3.A-$,! C%#(.-#?! 9A-,A! *NC$.2*A*+%.A! $#F,A!
/4AN*/,A!C$,03/.(!/#N+*,A>!N3-#/*,(.A>!.(!.%!N#-.$*#%!D.$.0*-#$*,?!c#A!N3-#/*,(.A!
A,(! 2#$*#/*,(.A! .(! %,! m3.! C,0$5#N,A! %%#N#$! D.%*,'$#65#>! *(A-$3//*,(.A! D.$.0*-#$*#A>!
/,(-.(*0#A!.(!(3.A-$#A!C$,C*#A!N,%d/3%#A!0.!#3-,$$.C$,03//*4(!,!/,C*#?!:'3#%!m3.!A*!
3(! $.%,\! 0.! +3.(#! /#%*0#0! .A! ',%C.#0,! /,(! 3(! N#$-*%%,! $.C.-*0#A! 2./.A>! .%!
63(/*,(#N*.(-,! 0.! %#! 2*0#! (,! N.\,$#$h! C$,+#+%.N.(-.! +#\,! -#%.A! 6,$-3*-,A! C,$$#X,A?!
E.$,>!/,N,!,/3$$.!#%'3(#A!2./.A!/,(!%,A!$.%,\.A!,!/,(!%,A!#C#$#-,A!0.!-.%.2*A*4(>!3(!
',%C.! #C%*/#0,! #%! #X#$! N.\,$#! A3! 63(/*,(#N*.(-,?! =.A3%-#! C.$\30*/*#%! .%! 2#A-,!
/,(\3(-,! 0.! N3-#/*,(.A>! C.$,! %#! C.m3.Q#! 6$#//*4(! 0.! %#A! N*AN#A! m3.! A,(! 3(#!
N.\,$#! C$,C,$/*,(#(! %#A! C$*N.$#A! N#-.$*#A! C#$#! .%! #2#(/.! 0.! %#! .2,%3/*4(?! c#! 2*0#!
%%.'#$5#!#!3(!/#%%.\4(!A*(!A#%*0#!#%!/#$./.$!0.!N3-#/*4(?!@A5>!.(!,-$#!6,$N#>!%#!2*0#!.(!
%#! L*.$$#! .A-h! 5(-*N#N.(-.! %*'#0#! #! %,A! #/,(-./*N*.(-,A! .A-.%#$.A?! c,A! A.$.A!
D3N#(,A!.A-h(!#m35!#!/#3A#!0.!%,A!C#$,B*AN,A!m3.!A.!0#(!.(!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!A*-3#0#A!
#!N*%.A!0.!#Q,AO%3X!0.!0*A-#(/*#?!
9%!(#/*N*.(-,!0.!.A-$.%%#A!'.(.$#!%,A!A.N*%%.$,A!C%#(.-#$*,A!0.!%#!2*0#?!c#A!2*0#A!0.!
%#A!.A-$.%%#A!C$,C,$/*,(#(!%#!.(.$'5#!0.!%#!m3.!0.C.(0.!%#!2*0#?!c#A!N3.$-.A!0.!%#A!
.A-$.%%#A! C$,03/.(! %#A! D.$$#N*.(-#A! C#$#! .%! /,(-*(3,! 0.A#$$,%%,! 0.! %#! 2*0#! .(! ,-$,A!
%3'#$.A! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#?! &*! D#F! .(! %,A! C%#(.-#A! 0.! %#A! .A-$.%%#A! N,$*+3(0#A! A.$.A!
*(-.%*'.(-.A! *(/#C#/.A! 0.! D3*$! 0.! A3! 0.A-*(,>! #%! N.(,A! C,0$h(! /,(A,%#$A.! /,(! .%!
C.(A#N*.(-,! 0.! m3.! %#! N3.$-.! 0.! A3! .A-$.%%#>! .%! #/,(-./*N*.(-,! m3.! C$,2,/#$h! A3!
C$,C*#! N3.$-.! ,! .B-*(/*4(! C$,C,$/*,(#$h>! A*(! .N+#$',>! %,A! N.0*,A! 0.! 3(! C$,'$.A,!
+*,%4'*/,!/,(-*(3#0,!0.!%#!2*0#!.(!3(!N*%%4(!0.!,-$,A!N3(0,A?!
!
39. Habitantes de las estrellas - 3. Los gatos de Cheshire csmicos
!

!
La unificacin del Cosmos: hipottico sistema de trnsito rpido en los agujeros negros. Por
Jon Lomberg.

c#! .A-$.%%#! 0.! (.3-$,(.A! (,! .A! .%! D#+*-#(-.! NhA! $#$,! 0.%! +.A-*#$*,! .A-.%#$?! H(#!
.A-$.%%#!m3.!C,A..!3(#!N#A#!-$.A!2./.A!N#F,$!m3.!%#!0.!(3.A-$,!&,%!.A!0.N#A*#0,!
'$#(0.! *(/%3A,! C#$#! m3.! %#A! 63.$X#A! (3/%.#$.A! 0.-.('#(! A3! /,%#CA,?! H(#! 2.X! A.!
*(*/*#!dA-.>!(,!D#F!(#0#!m3.!%,!0.-.('#?!c#!.A-$.%%#!A.!/,(-$#.!D#A-#!#%$.0.0,$!0.!`!
qN! F! /,(-*(G#! /,(-$#Fd(0,A.?! 9%! /#NC,! 0.! '$#2*-#/*4(! /.$/#(,! #! .A-#! .A-$.%%#!
N,$*+3(0#! /,(-*(G#! #3N.(-#(0,?! E,$! G%-*N,>! %#! '$#2.0#0! .A! -#(! 63.$-.! m3.! (,!
A,%#N.(-.! %#! N#-.$*#! .A! *(/#C#X! 0.! #+#(0,(#$! %#! .A-$.%%#>! A*(,! m3.! -#N+*d(! m3.0#!
#-$#C#0#!%#!%3X?!H(!6,-4(!m3.!2*#\.!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X!#%.\h(0,A.!0.!%#!.A-$.%%#>!
.A-h!,+%*'#0,!#!A.'3*$!3(#!-$#F./-,$*#!/3$2#!F!/#.$!0.!(3.2,!A,+$.!%#!.A-$.%%#>!/,N,!
A3/.0.!/,(!%#!'$#2.0#0!0.!%#!L*.$$#>!m3.!.A!0.N#A*#0,!C,-.(-.!C#$#!m3.!/3#%m3*.$#!
0.! (,A,-$,A! C3.0#! #$$,\#$! 3(#! C*.0$#! #! 2.%,/*0#0! 0.! .A/#C.?! L#%.A! .A-$.%%#A! A,(!
0.N#A*#0,! A4%*0#A! *(/%3A,! C#$#! m3.! .A/#C.(! %,A! 6,-,(.A?! 9(! /,(A./3.(/*#>! A,(!
,+A/3$#A?! <,! A.! C3.0.(! 2.$! 0*$./-#N.(-.! C,$m3.! (,! .N#(#(! (*('3(#! %3X?! 9A-h(!
C$.A.(-.A! '$#2*-#/*,(#%N.(-.>! C.$,! (,! .(! .%! #AC./-,! 4C-*/,?! &.! %%#N#(! f#'3\.$,A!
(.'$,Ag?! &,(! +.A-*#A! .NC#$.(-#0#A! /,(! %#! A,($*A#! 0.%! '#-,! 0.! "D.AD*$.?! &,(!
.A-$.%%#A!.(,$N.A!m3.!D#(!0.\#0,!0.!C#$C#0.#$>!C.$,!-,0#25#!.A-h(!#%%5?!
c,A!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!A,(>!+hA*/#N.(-.>!/,(/.C-,A!-.4$*/,A?!E3.0.!m3.!(,!A.#(!NhA!
m3.! .A-,! F! m3.! -#NC,/,! A.#(! -#(! .(/#(-#0,$.A! /,N,! %,A! .%6,A! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! K.0*#?!
E.$,!C$,+#+%.N.(-.!.A-h(!#%%5?!1.!D./D,>!'$#(!C#$-.!0.!%#!N#A#!0.!%#!Z#%#B*#!C3.0.!
$.A*0*$>!(,!.(!.A-$.%%#A!m3.!(,!2.N,A!(*!.(!.%!'#A!,!C,%2,!m3.!D#F!.(-$.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A>!
A*(,! NhA! +*.(! .(! %,A! #'3\.$,A! (.'$,A! m3.! %%.(#(! %#! Z#%#B*#! /,N,! A*! 63.$#(! %,A!
#'3\.$,A!0.!3(!m3.A,!9NN.(-D#%.$?!
E3.0.! D#+.$! A*0,! 0.A/3+*.$-,! .%! C$*N.$! #'3\.$,! (.'$,?! "F'(3A! zO8! .A! 3(#! 63.(-.>!
m3.!2#$5#!$hC*0#N.(-.>!0.!$#F,A!z>!%3X!2*A*+%.>!F!,(0#A!0.!$#0*,?!&3!.N*A*4(!0.!$#F,A!
z! 63.! /#C-#0#! C,$! .%! A#-d%*-.! 0.! %#! <@&@>! HIH=H>! %#(X#0,! 0.A0.! 3(! /,NC%.\,! 0.!
%#(X#N*.(-,!*-#%*#(,!/.$/#!0.!%#!/,A-#!0.!u.(*#?!L,0,A!%,A!*(0*/*,A!A.Q#%#(!#!"F'!zO
8!/,N,!.A-$.%%#!+*(#$*#>!0,A!.A-$.%%#A!m3.!'*$#(!3(#!#%$.0.0,$!0.!%#!,-$#!.(!*(-$*(/#0,!
2#%A?!E,$!.%!N,2*N*.(-,!0.!3(#!.A-$.%%#!m3.!2.N,A>!C,0.N,A!0.03/*$!%#!N#A#!0.!%#!
m3.! (,! 2.N,A?! =.A3%-4! A.$! 3(#! .A-$.%%#! 0.! .(,$N.! N#A#>! m3*Xh! 0*.X! 2./.A! %#! 0.!
(3.A-$,!&,%?!L#%!.A-$.%%#!(,$N#%N.(-.!0.+.$5#!A.$!N3F!+$*%%#(-.>!C.$,!(,!A.!%#!2.!.(!
#+A,%3-,?!c#!.A-$.%%#!+$*%%#(-.!.(!"F'!zO%!'*$#!#%$.0.0,$!0.!3(!,+\.-,!N#A*2,!m3.!.A-h!
C$.A.(-.! '$#2*-#/*,(#%>! C.$,! (,! 4C-*/#N.(-.?! 9A! N3F! C$,+#+%.! m3.! A.! -$#-.! 0.! 3(!
#'3\.$,!(.'$,!A*-3#0,!#!3(#!0*A-#(/*#!0.!%#!L*.$$#!0.!N*%.A!0.!#Q,AO%3X?!
E3.0.!m3.!-.('#(!A3!3-*%*0#0!%,A!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A?!c,!m3.!D#A-#!#D,$#!A#+.N,A!0.!
.%%,A! .A! -,-#%N.(-.! -.4$*/,>! A*(! C$,+#$! /,(-$#! %,A! .A/dC-*/,A! A-#(0#$0A! 0.! %#!
,+A.$2#/*4(?! I#F! #%'3(#A! C,A*+*%*0#0.A! $#$#A! m3.! A.! D#(! A3'.$*0,! .(! /3#(-,! A.!
$.6*.$.!#!.A-,A!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A?!",N,!(,!D#F!6,$N#!0.!A#%*$!0.!3(!#'3\.$,!(.'$,>!.A>!
.(!/*.$-,!A.(-*0,>!3(!H(*2.$A,!#C#$-.?!
1.! D./D,>! (3.A-$,! C$,C*,! H(*2.$A,! .A! N3F! C#$./*0,! #! 3(! 2#A-,! #'3\.$,! (.'$,?!
:'(,$#N,A!m3d!.A!%,!m3.!D#F!63.$#!0.!d%?!9A-,!.A!2.$0#0!C,$!0.6*(*/*4(>!C.$,!-#N+*d(!
#!/#3A#!0.x!%#A!C$,C*.0#0.A!0.!%,A!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A?!c,A!,+\.-,A!m3.!D#F!.(!.%%,A!(,!
%.A! C3.0.(! #+#(0,(#$?! 9(! A.(-*0,! 3(! -#(-,! .B-$#Q,>! (3.A-$,! H(*2.$A,! A.! C3.0.!
%%.(#$! /,(! ,+\.-,A! m3.! (,! .A-h(! #m35?! <,! A,(! 3(*2.$A,A! A.C#$#0,A?! <,! -*.(.(! %#!
N#A#! 0.%! (3.A-$,?! E.$,! .(! A3! A.C#$#/*4(! F! .(! A3! #*A%#N*.(-,! A,(! 3(*2.$A,A!
#3-4(,N,A?!
:(/%3A,! D#F! 3(#! C.$AC./-*2#! NhA! #30#X?! 1.A0.! 3(! C3(-,! 0.! 2*A-#! .AC./3%#-*2,!
]/#C5-3%,!V[_!3(!,+\.-,!m3.!C.(.-$#!.(!3(!#'3\.$,!(.'$,!$,-#-*2,!C3.0.!A3$'*$!.(!,-$#!
C#$-.M! .(! ,-$,! %3'#$>! .(! ,-$,! -*.NC,?! c,A! #'3\.$,A! (.'$,A! C3.0.(! A.$! #+.$-3$#A! ,!
C#A,A!#!,-$#A!'#%#B*#A!F!#!dC,/#A!$.N,-#A?!E3.0.!m3.!A.#(!#-#\,A!.(!.%!.AC#/*,!F!
.(! .%! -*.NC,?! &*! .B*A-.(! -#%.A! #'3\.$,A! .(! %#! -.%#! 0.%! -*.NC,O.AC#/*,>! C,$! A3C3.A-,!
m3.! A.$h! /*.$-,! m3.>! C,$! .\.NC%,>! 3(#! (#2.! .AC#/*#%! C,0$h! 3A#$! 3(! #'3\.$,! (.'$,!
C#$#!2*#\#$!#!-$#2dA!0.%!.AC#/*,!F!0.%!-*.NC,?!9%!,+A-h/3%,!NhA!A.$*,!A.$5#!%#!63.$X#!
0.! N#$.#! .\.$/*0#! C,$! .%! #'3\.$,! (.'$,! 03$#(-.! %#! #C$,B*N#/*4(>! 3(#! 63.$X#! m3.!
-.(0.$5#! #! 0.A-$,X#$! /3#%m3*.$! N#-.$*#?! J! #3(! #A5>! /$.,! m3.! /3#%m3*.$! /*2*%*X#/*4(!
#2#(X#0#! C,0$5#! %3/D#$! /,(! dB*-,! .(! /,(-$#! 0.! .A-#! -.$$*+%.! 63.$X#! 0.! 3(! #'3\.$,!
(.'$,?!
k"3h(-,A!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!D#F!.(!.%!/*.%,l!<#0*.!%,!A#+.!.(!%#!#/-3#%*0#0>!C.$,>!0.!
#/3.$0,! /,(! #%'3(,A! /h%/3%,A! -.4$*/,A>! (,A! C#$./.! N,0.A-#! %#! /#(-*0#0! 0.! 3(!
#'3\.$,! (.'$,! C,$! /#0#! /*.(! .A-$.%%#A?! E3.0,! *N#'*(#$>! #3(m3.! A.#! C3$#!
.AC./3%#/*4(>!3(#!6.0.$#/*4(!0.!A,/*.0#0.A!.(!%#!Z#%#B*#!m3.!D#F#!.A-#+%./*0,!3(!
A*A-.N#!0.!$hC*0,!-$h(A*-,!.(!%,A!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A?!H(!2.D5/3%,!A.!0*$*'.!$hC*0#N.(-.!
#!-$#2dA!0.!3(#!$.0!0.!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!C#$#!%%.'#$!#%!#'3\.$,!(.'$,!NhA!/.$/#(,!#!
A3!0.A-*(,?!
9(! 3(! %3'#$! -5C*/,! 0.! %#! Z#%#B*#>! /*.(! .A-$.%%#A! A.! D#%%#(! A*-3#0#A! 0.(-$,! 0.! 3(!
2,%3N.(! 0.! $#0*,! 0.! #C$,B*N#0#N.(-.! 2.*(-.! #Q,AO%3X?! &*! *N#'*(#N,A! 2.D5/3%,A!
.AC#/*#%.A! #0./3#0,A! C#$#! %,A! 2*#\.A! /,$-,A! n%,A! -$.(.A! ,! %#(X#0.$#A! %,/#%.An! A.!
-#$0#$5#! A,%#N.(-.! 3(,A! C,/,A! #Q,A! .(! *$! 0.A0.! .%! #'3\.$,! (.'$,! D#A-#! %#! .A-$.%%#!
NhA! %.\#(#! 0.%! /.(-.(#$?! H(! #Q,! #! +,$0,! 0.! %#! (#2.! A.! ,/3C#$5#! #/.%.$#(0,! #!
#C$,B*N#0#N.(-.!8!'>!%#!#/.%.$#/*4(!m3.!(,A!.A!6#N*%*#$!#!/#3A#!0.!%#!'$#2.0#0!0.!
%#!L*.$$#?!@%!/#+,!0.!3(!#Q,!0.!8!'>!(,A!#/.$/#$5#N,A!#!%#!2.%,/*0#0!0.!%#!%3X?!;-$,!
#Q,!A.!,/3C#$5#!%%.2#(0,!#!/#+,!3(#!#/.%.$#/*4(!A*N*%#$!#!8!'>!#%!6*(#%!0.%!2*#\.?!H(#!
'#%#B*#! /,(! -#%! A*A-.N#! 0.! -$#(AC,$-.>! 3(! N*%%4(! 0.! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! A.C#$#0#A! F!
'$#(0.A! (GN.$,A! 0.! N3(0,A! /,(! /,%,(*#A>! '$3C,A! 0.! .BC%,$#/*4(! F! .m3*C,A! 0.!
-$#+#\,! n3(#! '#%#B*#! 0,(0.! A.! /,(A.$2.! %#! *(0*2*03#%*0#0! 0.! %#A! /3%-3$#A>! C.$,! #! %#!
2.X!N#(-.(*.(0,!3(#!/,NG(!D.$.(/*#!'#%h/-*/#o!3(#!'#%#B*#!.(!%#!/3#%!%,A!-*.NC,A!
0.!%,A!%#$',A!2*#\.A!D#'#(!0*65/*%!.%!/,(-#/-,!-$*2*#%!F!%#!$.0!0.!#'3\.$,A!(.'$,A!D#'#!
C,A*+%.!.%!/,(-#/-,!*NC,$-#(-.n!dA#!A.$5#!3(#!'#%#B*#!0.!6#(-hA-*/,!*(-.$dA?!
:N#'*(,! .(! 0*/D#! '#%#B*#! '$#(0.A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! m3.! A.! 0.A#$$,%%#$5#(! /.$/#! 0.! %,A!
#'3\.$,A! (.'$,A>! /,(! %,A! C%#(.-#A! %.\,A! 0.! .%%,A>! C.$,! 0*A.Q#0,A! /,N,! N3(0,AO
'$#(\#>!$.A.$2#A!./,%4'*/#A>!%3'#$.A!C#$#!*$!0.!2#/#/*,(.A!,!#!0*2.$-*$A.>!6#+$*/#(-.A!
0.!.AC./*#%*0#0.A>!C3(-,A!0.!#*A%#N*.(-,!C#$#!C,.-#A!F!NGA*/,A>!F!$.-*$,A!C#$#!-,0,A!
#m3.%%,A! #! m3*.(.A! 0.A#'$#0#! %#! 2*0#! 0.! %#A! '$#(0.A! #'%,N.$#/*,(.A! 0.! '.(-.?! 9%!
0.A/3+$*N*.(-,! 0.! .A-.! -*C,! 0.! /3%-3$#! '#%h/-*/#! C,0$5#! -.(.$! %3'#$! .(! /3#%m3*.$!
N,N.(-,o! C,$! .\.NC%,>! N.0*#(-.! A.Q#%.A! 0.! $#0*,! .(2*#0#A! #! %#! L*.$$#! C,$!
/*2*%*X#/*,(.A! m3.! D#+*-#(! C%#(.-#A! 0.! ,-$#A! .A-$.%%#A?! ;! .A! C,A*+%.! m3.! -#%!
0.A/3+$*N*.(-,! (,! A.! %%.2.! #! /#+,! .(! N3/D,A! A*'%,A! D#A-#! m3.! 3(#! A,%*-#$*#! (#2.!
.AC#/*#%! 0.! %#! L*.$$#! A.! #C$,B*N.! #! 3(! #'3\.$,! (.'$,! F! #%%5! 0.A/3+$#! .%! 3A3#%!
/,(\3(-,! 0.! +#%*X#A! m3.! C$,D5+#(! %#! %%.'#0#! ,! .%! C#A,! 0.! (#2.A! N#%! C$.C#$#0#A! F!
0.A/3+$#! -#N+*d(! #! %,A! 63(/*,(#$*,A! 0.! *(N*'$#/*4(! .(-$.! /3F,A! 0.+.$.A! 6*'3$.!
.BC%*/#$! #! %,A! $./*d(! %%.'#0,A! 0.! (3.2#A! /*2*%*X#/*,(.A! -,0,! /3#(-,! A.! $.6*.$.! #!
/,(2.(/*,(.A!F!(,$N#A!0.!-$#(AC,$-.A?!
c#!N3.$-.!0.!%#A!.A-$.%%#A!C.A#0#A!C3.0.!C$,C,$/*,(#$!%,A!N.0*,A!0.!#-$#2.A#$!%,A!
#/-3#%.A!%5N*-.A!,!6$,(-.$#A!0.%!.AC#/*,!F!0.%!-*.NC,>!D#/*.(0,!m3.!-,0,!.%!H(*2.$A,!
$.A3%-.!#//.A*+%.!#!%#!2*0#>!F>!.(!G%-*N,!/#A,>!#!3(*6*/#$!.%!",AN,A?!
!