Aspectos relevantes a considerar

para un apropiado muestreo de

minerales

Sampling Theory and Methods

Extracted from Francis F. Pitard
CRC PRESS
2nd Edition - 1993
 Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

Your decisions are only as good as your samples!

Un buen muestreo buena decisin gerencial

Identificacin de los componentes del error de muestreo

Estrategias para un buen muestreo:

a) Estudio de la heterogeneidad del material de un determinado lote

b) Minimizacin de las fuentes de error
c) Verificacin del protocolo correcto de muestreo
 Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

Lo ideal sera conocer la variabilidad en gran escala, en

tiempo y en distancia.

El enemigo de un buen muestreo es la pequea escala:

Interesa definir un protocolo, tamao de la muestra, tamao
de partculas, equipos muestreadores, cuidado de la muestra.

Problemas con el protocolo: efecto pepita, dimetro de la

perforacin, cantidad de muestra, segregacin de la muestra,
error de muestreo (% ?)
 Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

Muetreo Correcto:

IDE + IEE + IWE + IPE = despreciable

IDE: Error incremental por delimitacin de la muestra

IEE: Error incremental al colectar la muestra

IWE: Error incremental al pesar la muestra

IPE: Error incremental al preparar la muestra

 The Practical Implementation
Of Sampling Protocols
The nightmare of sampling
Three major sources of sampling bias:
Increment Delimitation Error IDE
(Every part of the lot to be sampled must have exactly the same chance of becoming
part of the sample.)

Increment Extraction Error IEE

(The sample recovery error: The sampling system must not be selective.)

Increment Weighting Error IWE

(Sampling systems must be reasonably proportional.)
5
 Preserving the Integrity
of Samples

Another major source of sampling bias:

Increment Preparation Errors IPE
(Errors taking place between sampling stages)

Contamination
Losses
Alteration
Human errors, ignorance
Fraud 6
 Optimization of
Sampling protocols

Three critically important issues:

In situ Nugget Effect INE
(e.g., Selection of diameter/length of a core sample)

Fundamental Error FSE (e.g., sample and sub-samples mass)

(Se denomina as por ser el nico que no se puede eliminar, este es el error que
permanece incluso en un muestreo perfecto, por lo que puede estimarse de
antemano)

Grouping & Segregation Error GSE

(e.g., Homogenization and number of increments)

7
Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

Heterogeneidad estadstica de la
poblacin
En un primer anlisis, se pueden identificar dos clases de
heterogeneidad, si consideramos el lote como una
poblacin estadstica:

The Constitution Heterogeneity

(CH)

The Distribution Heterogeneity

(DH)

8
Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

Heterogeneidad de una poblacin estadstica

9
Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

Error Fundamental de Muestreo

y
Error de Agrupamiento y Segregacin

CH es responsable por el Error Fundamental de

Muestreo FSE

DH es responsable por ambos, el Error Fundamental de

Muestreo y el
Error de Agrupamiento y Segregacin GSE

10
Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

La SEGREGACIN es la regla, no la excepcin, es imposible

eliminarla.

No existen materiales particulados homogneos. Deberamos

calificarlos como ms o menos homogneos/heterogneos.

! El roleo es el mejor proceso de segregacin jams inventado !

No debiera usarse nunca. Es preferible tomar muchas muestras
pequeas para formar la muestra primaria.

Si estamos frente a un caso de oro liberado, no hay solucin.

Una prueba de concentracin gravitacional puede entregarnos
mejor informacin que un test de heterogeneidad por
microscopa.
Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

Teniendo en cuenta los alcances vistos

anteriormente

Veamos algunos ejemplos de buenos y

malos muestreos:
 Cono y cuarteo

Esta antigua tcnica, generalmente se restringe a lotes con partculas infeiores a 5 cm en tamao, con
un peso no mayor a 1 ton.

Lote

B
A C

Muestra con
N=2
A C

incrementos

Este mtodo no es recomendado. Es preferible la divisin en mltiples paladas.

13
 Paleo Alternado

Un modo ms rpido, barato, como alternativa, es la tcnica del paleo alternado.

Muestra potencial escogida al

azar
..
, 7 , 9.
,5
p 1, 3
o
Sco

Sco
op
2, 4
, 6,
8...

Rechazo

2
S SE
S 2
=
N =?
GSE
14
 Paleo fraccional

Razn de muestreo = 1 / 5

S1

N
S2
Select one sample
at random

Lot S3

S4

S5

2
S SE
S 2
=
N =?
GSE
15
 Mala seleccin de muestra fraccional

Razn de muestreo = 1 / 5

Authoritative
sample

Lot

Reject

16
 Riffle Splitter

El separador de spliter o de riffle, conocido como el Jones Riffle o Jones Splitter, consiste
de una estructura con cierto nmero de chutes idnticos por lado, entre 10 y 20.
Estos chutes forman un ngulo cercano a los 45o o ms con el plano horizontal. Estos
conducen el material cayendo alternadamente hacia las bandejas recolectoras derecha e
izquierda, como se muestra en la figura con 14 chutes.

2
S SE
N=7 2
S GSE =
7
17
 Segregation is a relative concept

The amount of measured segregation from samples may highly depend on their weight.
Collecting a few, small samples may be misleading.
If the objective is to map segregation, then the collection of many small samples is
necessary.
18
 Segregation is often a transient
phenomenon changing all the time.

Stream

Small density material

High density material

Segregation of dense fragments from lighter ones in a same size fraction, at the
discharge of a conveyor belt.

19
 Changing one piece of equipment
can completely change segregation.
Falling stream
in a chute Angular, or light

Round, or heavy

Case #1: Segregation of dense fragments from lighter ones in a roughly similar size fraction.
Case #2: Segregation of angular fragments from round ones in a roughly similar size
fraction.

20
 Segregation because of fragment
size heterogeneity

Stream

Segregation of fine particles from larger fragments in

Similar density classes.

21
The effect of air drag on particle
trajectory is a function of
Particle size.

Chute

Large particles: No air drag

influence

Fine particles: strong air

drag influence

22
 Very slow stream and sifting
of free flowing fines

Slow stream

Fines sift inside the pile while coarse fragments rol down the outside.

23
 Segregation because of fragment
Shape heterogeneity

Slow stream

Segregation generated by different angles of repose

25
 Segregation introduced by the
use of a laboratory vibrospatula

Trajectory of the vibrating spatula

Material
trajectory

Mixture quartz-chromite
Almost pure quartz Almost pure chromite

This kind of segregation can be devastating for the accuracy of laboratory assays.

26
 Segregation in stockpile:
Sending a costly cycle
to the SAG mill

ROM

SAG

Cyclic tons/hour
Cyclic power consumption
Stockpile level going up: Cyclic particle size
Flow rate to SAG with too much fines
distribution fed to Ball Mill
Stockpile level going down:
Flow rate to SAG with too much coarse fragments

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 The INCREMENT DELIMITATION ERROR
at the laboratory

Sample
increment

This sampling procedure is very important at the laboratory.

However, it has been misused in a fascinating fraud case in commercial sampling.

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The simplicity of sampling using
a one-dimensional model

Sample
increment

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 The sampling tool may not respect
the rules of delimitation correctness.

A B

Incomplete, Complete,
incorrect correct
increment increment

30
 Correct design of a shovel,
scoop, and spatula

Incorrect design Correct design

Spatula

Scoop

Shovel

31
 The INCREMENT DELIMITATION ERROR at the plant

The INCREMENT DELIMITATION ERROR IDE introduces the largest

biases encountered in sampling.
y

z
x

1. A sample must be equiprobabilistic.

2. A process stream is always segregated.
3. A process stream is 3-dimensional.
4. But, it is up to us to perform 3-dimensional, 2-dimensional,
or 1-dimensional sampling. 32
 One-dimensional sampling

Flowing
stream

Consistent slice
across the stream

For accurate metallurgical accounting, it is a must to perform 1-

dimensional sampling.
For effective process control, it is recommended to perform 1-
dimensional sampling.
33
Increment Delimitation Correctness:
It does not take fragments into account.

Flowing stream

The width of the

increment must remain
constant all the way
across the stream.

34
 The Rotating Vezin Sampler

Stream

u 3d

Stream

Cutter direction Width of cut

kept constant
Sample
Stream increment

Top view

35
 A common, incorrect Vezin Sampler

Top view

Sample
Stream increment
36
 Stationary in-stream probes

Stream

Sample

Stream

Sample

Stream

Sample

The intolerable assumption:

The stream is not segregated, therefore collecting any part of the stream is good 37
enough.
Introduction of a stream turbulence
to minimize segregation across the stream

Stream

Sample

Moving from very bad to bad!

38
Flushing the probe is a must,
prior to collecting the sample.

Stream

Sample

39
 The INCREMENT EXTRACTION ERROR
at the plant

Like the INCREMENT DELIMITATION ERROR, the INCREMENT EXTRACTION ERROR

IEE introduces the largest biases encountered in sampling.
The Rule of the Center of Gravity must be respected:
All fragments having their center of gravity inside the model extended increment belong
to the model extracted increment.

Must fall on either

side
at random
40
 Conditions of extraction correctness
relative to the cutter characteristics

Conditions likely to play an important role:

1. Straightness of the cutter edges
2. Thickness of the cutter edges
3. Shape of the cutter edges
4. Length of the cutter opening
5. Inclination of the cutter opening
6. Cutter width
7. Cutter speed
8. Depth, capacity and general design of the cutter
9. Stream turbulences and stream velocity
41
Straightness of the Cutter Edges

Correct

We assume that both cutter edges are straight and

perpendicular to the cutter trajectory.

Incorrect

The main condition to fulfill is to ensure that the

trailing edge is perfectly superposable to the
leading edge,
1. By a translation for straight path cutters, or
2. By a rotation for circular path cutters.
42
 Adjustable cutter edges:
They may ruin the correctness of the sampling system.

Adjustable Accumulated
plate material

Cutter
trajectory

The leading edge of a rotating cutter may always be dirty, while the trailing edge
stays clean.
Also, adjustable plates are rarely kept perfectly symmetrical.

43
Design of the Cutter Edges

Bad Designs

Good Design

X
70o

Y > X
44
 Many cutters are poorly designed.

Stream
?

Increment Stream

45
 The cutter must cross a quiet stream.

Needle
tank

a m
Stre

Diverging
chute

Cutter

Working
platform

Stream

For extraction correctness to take place, the stream should not travel faster than 2
meters/second.
46
 Recommended cutter design

Very hard steel,

perfectly symmetrical
cutter blades

<20

47
Extremely narrow cutter openings cannot work properly.

48
 Extraction correctness of riffle splitters

Do not feed riffle splitters too fast.

Correct Incorrect

49
Riffle splitters are easily misused.

50
 Responsabilidad de una Compaa Minera

Si los involucrados en la toma de muestra no valoran la importancia de esta, es la

empresa la responsable de hacerles saber las implicacncias que esta tiene en las
decisiones de la empresa.

Education of management to get resources,

Training of key personnel to get results,
Education of geologists, miners, metallurgists
to monitor and verify the quality of data,

So statisticians can perform reliable, believable risk assessments.

51
 Acquisition of a reliable
database as a company asset

A correct, balanced strategy is needed:

The three-legged Table

Company $ benefits,
added stakeholder value,
and market perception

Emphasis on causes Capability to understand

of problems by variability and to perform
proactive management A strong commitment to reliable statistical studies
good sampling
and good laboratory practices

Francis Pitard's drawing

p rotected by cop y right law, 2004

52
 However,
implementing correct sampling
is easier said than done.
Exactly like safety issues, it must

be internally standardized through:

correctness,
internal guidelines,
sustained training,
enforcement auditing.

be monitored for its added value through:

improved metal recovery,
improved conciliation,
added stakeholder value. 53
 Course attendees must learn
to better understand variability:

Small-scale variability,
which can be called the Irrelevant Variability:
It is a nuisance.

Large-scale variability,
which can be called the Relevant Variability:
It is the one we must measure to know our
processes better. 54
 Small-scale Variability:
The term V[0] in a variogram

The four solutions to minimize a catastrophic

inflation of V[0] are:

Optimizing Sampling Protocols,

Implementing Sampling Protocols
using correct sampling systems,
Preserving samples integrity,
Minimizing the Analytical Error. 55
 Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

La pregunta que nos hacemos con mayor frecuencia cunta muestra es necesaria?

Veamos un ejemplo particular usando una frmula de PG simplificada:

s2FE la varianza del error fundamental.

f es un factor que est tabulado y se usa para asimilarlo al factor de forma de las
partculas, si todas fueran cubos f = 1, si todas fueran esferas f= 0.5, una mica tiene un
f = 0.1, en este ejemplo consideraremos el f ms cercano = 0.5

es la densidad del material en gr/cc

d es el dimetro de partcula, tamao de la malla que deja pasar el 95% (cm)

Ms la masa de muestra (gr)

Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

Supongamos el caso en que de un lote de 2 Ton de mineral, con 1 % de

Cu, como calcopirita, hemos tomado 10 Kg como muestra representativa
de este, en que:

m densidad del mineral, supondremos = 4.4 gr/cc

g densidad de la ganga, supondremos = 2.5 gr/cc

d= dimetro de partcula considerando el 5% retenido = 2 cm

= 0.018
Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales

S FE = 0.134 , es decir, estamos considerando un error fundamental mnimo posible en

el muestreo del orden del +/- 13.4% al tomar una muestra de 10.000 gr.

Supongamos que no estamos de acuerdo con una desviacin estandar > que 10%,
entonces:

= 18.000 gr
Aspectos relevantes a considerar para un apropiado muestreo de minerales
Otra manera de calcular la masa ahora, si lo hacemos para el cobre
(calcopirita),

En este caso, d resulta irrelevante, (no representa a la cpy), no lo usamos

ms.

conocido como factor mineralgico,

0.01 corresponde a la ley 1%.

gcu (factor de distribucin de tamao), tomaremos el valor como material no

calibrado = 0.25 (adimensional). Para material calibrado g = 0.5

dM el tamao de la especie mineral que estudiamos en el microscopio, en nuestro

caso el ms grande = 0.5 cm

En estos trminos, siempre nos quedamos con el clculo que de la muestra ms

grande, es decir en este caso 18 Kg.
Tambin hay una tercera forma de calcular, mediante el test de heterogeneidad,
en todo caso siempre nos quedamos con la que indique la mayor muestra.