Porque para dar cuenta, muy poderoso seor, a vuestra real excelencia, de la grandeza, extraas y maravillosas cosas de esta

gran ciudad de Temixtitan, del seoro y servicio de este Mutezuma, seor de ella, y de los ritos y costumbres que esta gente tiene, y de la orden que en la gobernacin, as de esta ciudad como de las otras que eran de este seor, hay, sera menester mucho tiempo y ser muchos relatores y muy expertos; no podr yo decir de cien partes una, de las que de ellas se podran decir, mas como pudiere dir algunas cosas de las que vi, que aunque mal dichas, bien s que sern de tanta admiracin que no se podrn creer, porque los que ac con nuestros propios ojos las vemos, no las podemos con el entendimiento comprender. Pero puede vuestra majestad ser cierto que si alguna falta en mi relacin hubiere, que ser antes por corto que por largo, as en esto como en todo lo dems de que diere cuenta a vuestra alteza, porque me pareca justo a mi prncipe y seor, decir muy claramente la verdad sin interponer cosas que la disminuyan y acrecienten... Finalmente, que en los dichos mercados se venden todas cuantas cosas se hallan en toda la tierra, que dems de las que he dicho, son tantas y de tantas calidades, que por la prolijidad y por no me ocurrir tantas a la memoria, y aun por no saber poner los nombres, no las expreso. Hernn Corts, October 30, 1520 Segura de la Frontera, Nueva Espaa (today Tepeaca, Puebla, Mexico) Excerpt from Segunda Carta de Relacin addressed to Emperor Carlos V

(From Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: Wild Kingdom. Proceedings of the 45th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, October 13-16, 2004. Marian S. Greenfield, comp. American Translators Association, 2004. 169-228.)

TOPICS IN SPANISH LEXICAL DIALECTOLOGY: WILD KINGDOM Andre Moskowitz

Keywords: Spanish, regionalisms, terminology, dialectology, lexicography, sociolinguistics. Abstract: This paper contains information on the words used for a few animals, birds and insects whose names vary by region.1

INTRODUCTION

This article presents both the regional and General Spanish terms for certain animals, birds and insects whose names vary by region. For example, armadillo is the General Spanish term for armadillo and is a word used and understood throughout the Spanish-speaking world. Cachicamo, cuzuco, gurre, quirquincho and tat, in contrast, are all regionally marked and regionally weighted terms. What I mean by this is that when you hear someone use the word armadillo, it tells you little, if anything, about the persons origin, whereas when the word cuzuco is uttered there is specific information about the speaker embedded in this usage that you can glean if you know how to decipher the code. The purpose of this article is to give you, the reader, an overall picture, albeit an incomplete one, of the considerable lexical variation that exists in Spanish concerning a small set of fauna that includes a handful of birds, animals and insects. In so doing, I hope to expand and internationalize your Spanish vocabulary by injecting it with a healthy dose of regionalisms that you might encounter should you discuss the following topics with Spanish speakers of diverse nationalities, social groups, ethnicities and identities.2 A) Animals: 1) alligators / caimans, 2) armadillos, 3) capybaras, 4) opossums, 5) skunks, 6) tadpoles / polliwogs. B) Birds: 1) hummingbirds, 2) buzzards / vultures. 2

C) Insects: 1) dragonflies, 2) fireflies / lightning bugs, 3) locusts / grasshoppers, 4) ladybugs / ladybirds, 5) mosquitos: where is zancudo commonly used, and where not? Each of these sections can be considered a primitive sketch of a lexical roadmap of the Spanishspeaking world that charts the salient landmarks relating to a specific animal, bird or insect, an outline of a picture most of whose details are yet to be drawn. The titles are deliberately phrased in the plural__e.g. opossums rather than opossum__to emphasize the fact that the functional equivalents that will be presented are often not really equivalents but refer to different species of the animal, bird or insect in question. The terms or signifiers, as they are called in Saussurian linguistics, generally do not refer to a single referent or signified, but to a series of related species, in some cases related only in the loose sense of bearing a resemblance or sharing some identifying characteristic. In other words, the terms refer to the different types of armadillos, opossums, hummingbirds, dragonflies, fireflies, etc. that are common in each region. Not surprisingly, several of these items also show regional variation in the English-speaking world, such as the following from United States English: skunk, also called polecat in parts of the South; dragonfly, called mosquito hawk, mosquito fly, skeeter hawk and/or snake doctor in different parts of the South, snake feeder in the Midlands, darner, darning needle, devils darning needle and/or needle in the West, Upper North, and New England, spindle in Coastal New Jersey, and, in the San Francisco Bay Area, ear sewer (sewer here is pronounced like a sewer of fine clothing, not a sewer for draining off sewage); firefly, more commonly called lightning bug in much of the United States, and fire bug in Pennsylvania; grasshopper, also called hoppergrass by inversion in the South; and ladybug, with variants ladybird and lady beetle. (See Pederson, pp. 266-288, and the definitions of these terms and regional notes under dragonfly and firefly in Picketts The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language in References.) This article is hybrid in nature. The subsections entitled Terms by Country present only those lexical units I myself was given by native speakers of Spanish, whereas the Details subsections present the findings of previously published sources as well as those of my own research. Each section is divided into four subsections: 1) 2) 3) 4) 0.1 Summary Terms by Country Details Real Academia Regional Review Summary

These subsections present a synopsis of the regional variation of each item by juxtaposing more pan-Hispanic forms with more regional ones, and by contrasting regions where more international or more regional forms are used. 3

0.2

Terms by Country

These subsections consist of lexico-geographic tables in which I present the terms offered by this studys informants or respondents (the Spanish speakers I questioned about usage). The Spanishspeaking countries are listed in a more or less geographical order and the terms offered by respondents are presented in alphabetical order with the regionally marked usages generally in boldface. However, none of the terms presented in subsections A3.2 and C1.2, the capybara and the dragonfly, respectively, is in boldface, as all appear to be regional, and subsection C5.2 focuses on a single variable, the use (or lack of use) of the word zancudo in the sense of mosquito, and its title reflects this difference. I collected most of the data by means of face-to-face interviews, but some information was obtained by written questionnaires, telephone conversations and e-mail correspondence. Most respondents were monolingual native speakers of Spanish, but some were bilingual individuals who spoke Spanish and another language that has come into close contact with Spanish such as Guaran, Quechua, Quich3 or Cataln. Almost all respondents indicated they had spent their formative years in a single Spanish-speaking country. In some cases, precise information was obtained on the city or region where the respondent grew up, whereas in others only the country of origin was ascertained. No other facts, such as the respondents age or number of years of schooling, were recorded, although I was able to partially infer such information in the course of the interviews. The number of respondents who were questioned varied. Between ten and fifteen were initially queried from each of the twenty Spanish-speaking countries, except Mexico (30 respondents) and Panama and Paraguay (eight respondents each). However, up to twenty additional respondents__as many as I was able to locate__were questioned from a number of countries on the items that, based on the responses from the initial pool of respondents, showed greater intranational regional variation. In interviewing these additional respondents, I focused on a subset of the items (the tadpole, the dragonfly, the firefly, the ladybug and the hummingbird), and made a special effort to seek respondents from rural and/or peripheral areas of the respective country. The interviews were conducted by showing the respondents pictures of the animals, birds and insects in question, adding verbal comments or descriptions whenever I thought these would be helpful, and asking respondents to give the term most commonly used in their region for them. Thus I used a primarily onomastic approach which, as Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner have pointed out, is not without its pitfalls.
__

el mtodo onomasiolgico que caracteriza los atlas lingsticos. Generalmente los que hacen encuestas para elaborar un atlas lingstico no preguntan qu significa exactamente esta u otra unidad lxica, en qu circunstancias se usa, cul es su valor estilstico y cul su comportamiento sintagmtico; lo que ellos preguntan es qu palabras se usan para referirse a un objeto determinado o para expresar un concepto delimitado a priori. (Haensch and Werner, Nuevo Diccionario de Colombianismos, XVIII.) 4

One of Haensch and Werners objections to this strategy does not apply to the semantic field at hand since we are dealing with concrete nouns that do not exhibit any special grammatical behavior when used in their primary senses. Also mitigating these objections is the fact that my technique was a modified rather than strict onomastic approach in that, during the interviews, I also asked questions such as Cmo/qu es un(a) ___? and Hay alguna diferencia entre un(a) ___ y un(a) ___?. However, in addition to the problems cited by Haensch and Werner, another possible flaw in my methodology is that I showed all respondents the same set of images. For example, I showed all informants a picture of the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), an armadillo that is found in much of the Americas, and an argument can be made that I should have shown the Honduran respondents a picture of the naked-tailed armadillo (Cabassous centralis), common in Central America, and the Argentine respondents a six-banded hairy armadillo (Euphractus sexcinctus), etc. Future studies will need to be conducted to determine whether, or to what extent, this may affect the results. In this study, respondents with the richest repertoire of regionalisms tended to be rural males with little schooling. Living in the San Francisco Bay Area of California, United States of America, I had ample opportunity to interview such people from Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua. I was also able to talk to some people who appeared to have limited formal education from Ecuador, the Dominican Republic and Bolivia at their respective consulates in New York City while on a trip there in February of 2004. However, most of the respondents from the remaining Spanish-speaking countries were people from cities who probably had at least a high-school education. I took notes on all comments offered, trying not to give any single observation undue weight. However, the information presented here is conditioned by both my own limitations as an interviewer, compiler and linguist, and by the relatively small number and, in some cases, limited diversity of Spanish speakers I was able to interview. Although actual response statistics are not indicated, the terms presented in the Terms by Country subsections appear with two types of special marks: 1) a superscript appears after those terms that were given by only a single respondent from a specific country, and 2) a superscript appears after those terms that were given by only two respondents from a specific country. Words that were offered by three or more respondents from a given country appear in the Terms by Country subsections with no mark. It is important to emphasize that just because a respondent offers a term for a given item does not necessarily mean that the phenomenon exists in the wild in his or her country, such as when a Spaniard says an opossum is a zarigeya or a Chilean says an alligator is a cocodrilo. While all information contained in this article that has not been corroborated by other studies should be viewed with healthy skepticism, this is especially true of those usages that have been verified by only one or two respondents. For a discussion of the merits and pitfalls of presenting lexicographical information that has been confirmed by so few individuals, see the last part of this introduction. Despite (or perhaps because of) the considerable lexical diversity encountered in the course of this study, I believe the regional variation presented here is, in all likelihood, only the tip of the iceberg, especially in cases such as the dragonfly and the tadpole. 5

0.3

Details

In these subsections more precise information is presented regarding the terms listed in the preceding Terms by Country subsection and about other terms not encountered in the course of this study. The paragraphs in the Details subsections typically begin with the name of a country and specify in which regions of that country various terms have been found to be used with the meaning in question. If I believe the information in a published source supercedes that which I obtained through my own research, I present only the material from the published source. However, in cases in which I believe my data may add something to the findings of published sources, I also include the information I encountered. The published sources I consulted are far from exhaustive, but quite a bit of information on regional usage is cited from the following works that will be abbreviated as follows (the complete bibliographical data appear in References). DEArg DECH DECu DEUMex DRAE NDCol NDCR Diccionario del Espaol de Argentina / Espaol de Argentina-Espaol de Espaa. Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner. 2000. Diccionario Ejemplificado de Chilenismos. Flix Morales Pettorino et al. 1984. Diccionario del Espaol de Cuba / Espaol de Cuba-Espaol de Espaa. Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner. 2000. Diccionario del Espaol Usual en Mxico. Luis Fernando Lara. 1996. Diccionario de la Lengua Espaola. Real Academia Espaola. 2001. Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos. Tomo I. Nuevo Diccionario de Colombianismos. Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner. 1993. Nuevo Diccionario de Costarriqueismos. Miguel A. Quesada Pacheco. 2001.

To fully understand the usage specifications in the Details subsections, familiarity with some of the minutiae of Latin American and Iberian Peninsula geography will be helpful as references will be made to the following geographic, linguistic and cultural regions: First-order administrative divisions of Spanish-speaking countries: the names of the countries departments (departamentos), states (estados), provinces (provincias), regions (regiones), or autonomous communities (comunidades autnomas). The Sierra: the Highlands or Andean mountain region, in Ecuador and Peru. The Costa: the coastal region, in Ecuador and Peru, and the Caribbean coast region in Colombia. When Colombians speak of La Costa and costeos they are referring to the land and people of their Caribbean coast, not their Pacific coast. The Llanos: the plains that drain to the Orinoco River, in eastern Colombia and the southern two thirds of Venezuela. The Altiplano: the highland region of western Bolivia, which also extends into southeastern Peru. The Lowlands or Eastern Lowlands: in northern and eastern Bolivia, the lowland regions that drain to tributaries of the Amazon and Paraguay Rivers. The corresponding Amazonian 6

regions of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru are often called the Amazonia or Amazona, the Oriente, and the Selva, respectively. The Cuyo: in Argentina, the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan and San Luis, which are in the central-western part of the country at the foot of the Andes. The Cono Sur or Southern Cone: Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina. The countries of the Rio de la Plata or River Plate region: Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina. The Hispanic Antilles, sometimes abbreviated in this article to the Antilles: Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico. Central America: In this article, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama (all Central American countries except Belize), even though, in terms of lexicon, Panamanian Spanish typically has more in common with the Spanish of Colombia and the Hispanic Antilles than with that of the rest of Spanish-speaking Central America. 0.4 Real Academia Regional Review

These subsections present an evaluation of the 2001 edition of the DRAE and are divided into three parts: 1) 2) 3) DRAE grades DRAE definitions Questions/Comments.

In DRAE grades, the dictionarys coverage of those usages that were offered by three or more respondents in this study is evaluated using the following grading scale: A Corresponding definition, correct regions. This grade is given when the DRAE defines the term as used in a particular section of this article and correctly indicates the countries and/or regions in which the term is used in this sense. Corresponding definition, incorrect regions. This grade is given when the DRAE defines the term as used in the section and specifies a region or regions but does not specify them correctly. Its definition either fails to include regions in which the usage occurs or includes regions where the usage does not occur. However, the grade of B is raised to an A if the DRAEs definition is appropriate, Amr. (Amrica, that is, Spanish-speaking Latin America) is specified in the definition, and the term is used in ten or more (over 50%) of the nineteen Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. Corresponding definition, no regions specified. This grade is given when the DRAE defines the term as used in the section but does not specify any countries or regions in which the term is used in this sense. In essence, it fails to identify a regional usage as regional. However, the grade of C is raised to an A if the term is used in at least ten (at least 50%) of the twenty Spanish-speaking countries. No corresponding definition. This grade is given when the DRAE does not include in its definition of the term a sense that corresponds to the section. Term not listed. This grade is given when the DRAE does not list the term at all. 7

D F

In DRAE definitions, the DRAEs definitions themselves are quoted so that the reader can follow the analysis that went into their evaluations in DRAE grades and test the observations made in Questions/Comments. Most of the criticism of the DRAE on issues of who says what where will be implicit in the grades assigned in DRAE grades for the Real Academias coverage of terms, without further comment; explicit observations in Questions/Comments will generally be limited to broader lexicographical issues such as cross-referencing, glosses, etymologies and definition strategies. The purpose of these evaluations is to expose errors, gaps and inconsistencies in specific definitions in the hope that they will be modified in future editions of the DRAE so that they accurately describe usage in the Spanish-speaking world from a more international perspective. Another goal of this article is to get the Real Academia to take a holistic approach to defining synonyms. For example, when the DRAE cross-references five different words to a sixth word, or defines the former as types or varieties of the latter, I would like its editors to have compared all six entries jointly to ensure that the DRAE is internally consistent. In many cases, as will be seen, this has not been done with due diligence. One defect most of the DRAEs definitions reviewed in this article suffer from is a failure to provide precise taxonomic information on the fauna being defined. While it is true that popular names for flora and fauna often refer to several species within a particular genus or family and sometimes to completely unrelated species, the inclusion of scientific nomenclature in definitions of flora and fauna should be considered a basic lexicographical requirement, for without taxonomy it is impossible to know to what species or group of species a description refers. Unlike the leading lexicographers of the French, English, German and Portuguese languages, the Real Academia has continued to decline to do the necessary research to include scientific names, even if this were limited to checking with and copying from some of the major dictionaries of these other languages (or from Haensch and Werners contrastive dictionaries), a procedure which I am not recommending but which would still be better than nothing. As an example, let us compare the definition of opossum from the 22nd edition of the DRAE (published in 2001) with that of the 4th edition of Picketts The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (published in 2000). zarigeya. ...Mamfero marsupial de tamao mediano o pequeo y aspecto que recuerda a la rata. Las extremidades tienen cinco dedos y las de atrs el pulgar oponible; la cola es prensil, lisa y desnuda. Es mamfero noctorno y omnvoro, que hace nido en los rboles y su preez dura trece das... opossum ...Any of various nocturnal, usually arboreal marsupials of the family Didelphidae, especially Didelphis marsupialis of the Western Hemisphere, having a thick coat of hair, a long snout, and a long prehensile tail. The Real Academias reluctance to get down to brass tacks and provide taxonomical information on flora and fauna is symptomatic of its general aversion to consulting with specialists in a wide array of fields. While this institution has many fine language experts in its employ, it needs to 8

enlist the help of more doctors, scientists, mathematicians, architects, engineers and other nonliterary and nonlinguist collaborators. * * *

I will now discuss several issues that lexicographers who research and describe synchronic language variation must often address. 1) Can definitions describing regional usages be crafted based on oral sources alone, or must they derive from a corpus of written sources? If oral sources are sufficient, how many people must confirm a given usage for it to be considered reliable enough to base a definition on? In the NDCol, published in 1993, Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner state that oral sources are sufficient:
__

criterio de frecuencia y actualidad mnima, segn el cual se registran slo elementos lxicos encontrados en varios textos primarios o cuyo uso corriente ha sido corroborado por distintos informantes. (Haensch and Werner, NDCol, XXV.) In the DECu, published in 2000, however, Haensch and Werner indicate that they will only include terms whose use is supported by both written and oral sources. Segn el criterio de frecuencia y actualidad mnima, slo se registran en el DECu elementos lxicos encontrados en varios textos primarios de procedencia cubana y cuyo uso ha sido confirmado por distintos informantes. El mero hecho de que un elemento se encuentre en un texto de procedencia cubana no se consider como suficiente para la decisin de registrarlo en el diccionario. Los elementos lxicos observados en los textos primarios fueron consignados slo tras previa confirmacin de su uso corriente o, por lo menos, del conocimiento pasivo por parte de varios hablantes del espaol cubano. En los casos de elementos lxicos cuyo uso est restringido a la comunicacin dentro de los lmites de determinadas ramas del saber o de determinados sectores o grupos especficos de la sociedad se acudi a informantes especialistas en los respectivos mbitos. Al aplicar el criterio de frecuencia y actualidad mnima, no se pudieron emplear mtodos estadsticos, por lo que las afirmaciones implicadas por los datos que ofrece el diccionario tienen que interpretarse con las debidas reservas. Hay que tener en cuenta, sin embargo, que la actitud de los que han elaborado el DECu ha sido muy restrictiva con respecto a la comprobacin del uso corriente de elementos lxicos en Cuba. En casos de duda se ha preferido la supresin de un elemento documentado a la presentacin de datos no apoyados por los conocimientos de un suficiente nmero de hablantes y, en el caso del vocabulario especializado, por el juicio de expertos de reconocida competencia. (Haensch and Werner, DECu, XXV-XXVI.) 9

Haensch and Werner suggest that many usages they encountered in the course of their study of Cuban Spanish were not included in their dictionary because they were not confirmed by a sufficient number of sources. However, they do not state how many written sources are needed, or how many native speakers must confirm a usage for it to be considered reliable enough to include in their dictionary. And in the case of both written and oral sources, one may ask, How many are required, three, ten, thirty, or a hundred? Another issue is how to document terms/usages that are frequent in popular speech, but infrequent or virtually nonexistent in written language. The set of popular regional Spanish-language names for tadpole that is presented in section A6 of this article includes many that may not exist in any published text but are no less present in the language. While I believe Haensch and Werners conservative approach is reasonable and justifiable, here I have decided to be bolder and more liberal in my inclusion of terms as my purpose is to present any and all vocabulary that I believe may be used by large numbers of people from specific regions. Future studies will need to be conducted to determine or fine-tune the following with regard to the terms and usages presented in this article: a) which are used throughout the country they are presented for; b) which are primarily used in specific regions of countries and what the approximate geographical limits of those regions are; c) which are used in regions of the Spanish-speaking world that are not indicated in this study, and what those countries and regions are. d) which are used among specific speech communities (such as bilingual communities) and how those communities are to be defined; e) which refer only to specific varieties of the fauna in question, and what the scientific names of those varieties are; f) which refer to animals or insects that are different from the ones this article claims; g) in cases in which the respondents from a particular country offered no regional terms for a given item, what regional terms, if any, are used; h) what semantic distinctions, if any, do Spanish speakers from different regions make between the so-called General Spanish terms and their regional terms. Incorrect or inaccurate information contained in this article may be the result of statements I misinterpreted during the interviews with respondents, images or questions that respondents misidentified or misinterpreted, or information that respondents gave erroneously, for example, by inaccurately answering questions on issues about which they were not sufficiently knowledgeable. Although there may be debate on how many respondents or written sources need to be consulted in order to properly define regional terms (or what types of respondents or sources should be consulted), what is clear is that the larger the pool and the greater its diversity, the greater ones ability to include accurate information and the better ones chance of being able to weed out inaccurate information.

10

2) In cases where two or more spelling variants exist, which lexical form is to be considered the primary variant, and which ones should be viewed as secondary variants? Again citing the DECu, Haensch and Werner indicate that frequency of use should be the first criterion for determining the primary variant, and that the prestige or etymological clarity of the different spellings should be secondary criteria. Cuando en el DECu se hallan consignadas una o ms formas lxicas que se consideran variantes unas de otras, se distingue entre una variante principal y una o varias variantes secundarias. Como variante principal se ha elegido, siempre que haya sido posible, aquella que estaba documentada como la ms frecuente. En los casos en los que no ha podido observarse una clara diferencia con respecto a la frecuencia de uso, la decisin se basa en otros criterios, como, por ejemplo, la mayor aceptacin normativa o la mayor transparencia etimolgica. (Haensch and Werner, DECu, XLI-XLII.) Determining the frequency of use of different variants, however, depends on having a large enough and reliable enough corpus to consult, which in the case of terms that are used more in spoken language than in written language, may be scant or nonexistent. Similarly, it is difficult to draw conclusions about the levels of acceptance or prestige of a set of variants when all are of relatively low prestige in comparison to the General Spanish term. Lastly, even when the etymologies are known, choosing between spelling variants involving b or v, hu or gu/g, s or z/c, and y or ll do not always lead to greater etymological clarity, for example, in cases such as tibiriche vs. tiviriche, cusuco vs. cuzuco, and gcharo vs. hucharo. In some cases orthographical decisions seem arbitrary such as when the DRAE spells cusuco with an s but guazalo with a z. Is this decision based on the frequency of use, level of prestige, or etymological clarity of the forms they have selected? An Internet search of guasalo and guazalo conducted in mid 2004 resulted in twice as many hits for guazalo, but there were so few for each (less than 30), that the results are probably not statistically significant. Since the DRAE indicates that both cusuco and guazalo are of Nahuatl origin, are its authors claiming that in Nahuatl cusuco is pronounced with an [s], a voiceless sibilant, but that quauhzalan (from which, according to the DRAE, guazalo derives) is pronounced with a [z], a [ts], a [dz], or some other sound? If etymological clarity is the deciding factor and Nahuatl cusuco and quauhzalan are both pronounced with the same second consonantal sound, then cusuco and guazalo should both be spelled with either an s or a z. This issue arises with the names of a number of animals that have competing spellings such as tepescuint(l)e vs. tepezcuint(l)e, pisote vs pizote, guatusa vs. guatuza and cotusa vs cotuza, to name a few. 3) What is the relationship between regional and general terms, and how do different sectors of society view them? In many cases, General Spanish terms, such as armadillo, and regional terms, such as cuzuco or cachicamo, have a similar relationship to each other that is marked by diglossia (the use of more 11

prestigious/formal language or more common/colloquial forms depending on the social function the speaker or writer is performing through language). Although the basic meaning is the same, the General Spanish terms generally pertain to a higher, more urban, more formal or semitechnical register, and the regional ones to a lower, more rural, more informal or more everyday register. People who have some formal education and have interacted with people in both rural and urban settings tend to be familiar with both the General Spanish term and the regionally marked terms of the regions they know. However, city dwellers who have had little direct or indirect contact with rural people may only be familiar with the General Spanish term, and rural people with little formal education may know only the regional term. A somewhat similar diglossic relationship exists between minimal semantic pairs that occur in other languages and varieties such as the following from United States English: alligator-gator, armadillo-dillo, mosquito-skeeter, opossum-possum and raccoon-coon. The second form in these pairs, which derives from the first by a process called aphesis (dropping an unstressed syllable at the beginning of a word), tends to be more common in the everyday speech of the rural areas where the fauna in question are commonly found, whereas the first member of the pair is the higher-prestige form that would be used more frequently in educated Americans less informal speech and in writing. In English-speaking societies, and perhaps in others as well, nonstandard language, especially slang, was traditionally viewed as a corrupting force, both a sign and a cause of moral decadence and social decay. Many believed there to be a link between linguistic purity and religious piety and between purity of speech and rectitude of action (Finegan, 375 and 384). To critics of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, British or American, approbation of slang from a quarter so august as the Times [Literary Supplement] would have seemed incredible, a stinging insult to decent English speech. The critical aim, unattainable and often unexpressed, was steadily to evolve a cogent and civilizing diction suitable for all human purposes; slang, almost by definition, was antithetical to such an aim. From the days of Swift and Defoe, an article of faith for critics and grammarians alike was that unregulated, unstandardized speech served only to corrupt language, to undermine the human capacity for rational thought, and thus ultimately to hinder the wise exercise of free will. Slang was seen as both emerging from and sustaining an undisguised baseness of mind that must lead to the coarsening of both language and civilization. (Lighter, 227). Don Ramn Menndez Pidal (Spanish philologist and historian, 1869-1968) viewed the Spanish language as a two-tiered structure in which the standard is on top and popular varieties or dialects underneath (Del Valle and Gabriel-Stheeman, 90): La separacin que media entre el espaol culto comn, representante de la unidad, y el espaol popular de las varias regiones, representante de la diversidad, no puede simbolizarse en la creciente divergencia, cuya diferencia llegue a ser tanta que el espaol literario quede ininteligible para el pueblo, sino que debe figurarse por dos lneas ondulantes que caminan a la par en la misma direccin y cuyos 12

altibajos tienden frecuentemente a la convergencia y se tocan muchas veces, sin llegar nunca a confundirse. El habla literaria es siempre la meta a que aspira el lenguaje popular, y, viceversa, la lengua popular es siempre fuente en que la lengua literaria gusta refrescarse (Menndez Pidal, 186-187). Menndez Pidals claim that literary language is the pedestal to which popular language aspires may be true for upwardly mobile persons who, in given situations, have much to gain by using high-prestige forms. However, it is unlikely to be a goal for a large percentage of the worlds Spanish speakers whose lack of exposure to formal education, economic situation, social milieu and job prospects offer them little opportunity or incentive to adopt standard language. Linguists sometimes refer to substratum influences when trying to account for certain features of a language or variety of a language. For example, some attribute phonological, syntactic, lexical or semantic features of Irish English to a Gaelic or Irish substratum, or aspects of the Spanish of Cuzco4 to a Quechua substratum. According to Jeffrey Kallen, an expert on Irish English, the origins of dialectal features are often framed in substratumist or retentionist terms: Substratumist explanations rely largely on the notions of transfer or interference from Irish to English..., while a retentionist position seeks support from the history or dialectal distribution of English itself (Kallen, 191). Applying these two concepts to the origin of Spanish words, we could say that mu (firefly in Paraguay) is the result of an indigenous substratum, whereas ranacuajo and lucerna (tadpole and firefly, respectively) are variants of General Spanish renacuajo and lucirnaga that have been retained in some dialects of Spanish. Another common process is semantic change or semantic shift in which a words meaning is broadened, narrowed or altered. The use in parts of Spanish America of tigre and tigrillo for jaguars and ocelots, respectively, or, in Central America of gorrin for hummingbird, are examples of semantic shift in which Spaniards arriving in the New World applied old words to new phenomena that bore some resemblance to previously known items, in this case tigers and sparrows. As George Turner put it, Whether a language used in a new situation borrows new terms or extends the use of existing ones, change is equally real and inevitable. (Turner, 280.) With regard to usage, however, a term derived from a substrate language may figure more prominently than the corresponding word from the superstrate language. For many Jaliscienses, Poblanos and Mexicans of other regions, ajolote is the word for tadpole that is on the tip of their tongues, the lexical lava that is bubbling at the surface. Renacuajo, if they are aware of this term at all, is in the far reaches of their consciousness and provides but a faint subterranean echo to ajolote. The same can be said of guarisapo, jocollo, tepocate and a host of other regional equivalents in their respective regions. In fact, in many cases in which Spanish regionalisms coexist with General Spanish terms, it often appears as if the universal term itself plays the role of a substratum in the sense of a usage acting as a foundation that underlies and is buried beneath the popular regional terms. Thus, if one is willing to look at the linguistic variables, not from the perspective of the dominant classes, but from that of the subaltern ones__from the vantage point of those who primarily use regional and popular variants in preference to standard terms__it is also possible to view these regionalisms as occupying a higher position than the General Spanish terms. 13

If we look at words from the point of view of citizenship and nationality, we could say that the pan-Hispanic armadillo is of General Spanish stock, a citizen of the entire Spanish-speaking world. Cachicamo, quirquincho and tat are each citizens of two or more countries, and gurre is part of Colombias national linguistic heritage. There are regions of Colombia where gurre is not used in the sense of armadillo, but it appears this usage owes allegiance to no other country, nor can any other claim it as its own. Lastly, there are provincial usages such as billico (tadpole in Imbabura, Ecuador) that are of local currency only. These terms are natives of a region on their countrys periphery, but are stateless insofar as they are not favored by any group of Spanish speakers enjoying national power or prestige. 4) Fine, but is it Spanish? What is and what is not Spanish is an age-old question. While most Spanish language experts would probably agree that tat and quirquincho are Spanish-language terms, or at the very least are words that belong to certain varieties of Spanish that have come into close contact with Guaran and Quechua, respectively, the general populations views on the subject vary considerably. Some Bolivians and Peruvians will say Nosotros decimos quirquincho pero lo correcto es armadillo whereas others will say No, en nuestro pas (or aqu) decimos quirquincho; armadillo se dice en Mxico (or en Lima) (or in whatever other city or country they conjure up). Other words of indigenous origin used by smaller numbers of Spanish speakers have established a much less secure beachhead within the Spanish language and their status as members of its lexicon is even more likely to be called into question. For example, some essentially monolingual Spanish-speaking Bolivians, who regularly use jocollo when referring to a tadpole, insist that this term is not Spanish but Quechua, and refer to renacuajo as the Spanish word or, simply, the correct word. This phenomenon has been referred to as colonial cringe or the uneasy apprehension that ones own preferences, being different from those of the metropolis, [are] faults (Bailey, 479). A more objective litmus test that has been proposed to determine whether or not a word of foreign origin is part of Spanish (or of a regional variety of the language) is to ask whether the word is used by monolingual Spanish speakers, or only by bilingual Spanish speakers and monolingual speakers of the foreign language. If there are monolingual Spanish speakers who use it, then the word is to be considered part of Spanish, whereas if the only Spanish speakers who use it are bilinguals (Guaran-Spanish bilinguals, Quechua-Spanish bilinguals, CatalnSpanish bilinguals, etc.), then it is not. Again, citing Haensch and Werners NDCol, we have: Ante la dificultad de distinguir, en la prctica, los prstamos, es decir, elementos lxicos de otras lenguas integrados en el espaol, y los elementos lxicos de otras lenguas usados por hispanohablantes en situaciones de plurilingismo (p. ej. espaol-guajiro), pero no integrados en el espaol, se consignan, en el NDCol, slo aquellos elementos lxicos que estn atestiguados como usuales por hispanohablantes monolinges. (Haensch and Werner, NDCol, XXIV.) 14

Such a test, however, is problematic without a clear understanding of what we mean by bilingual since there are many different degrees of bilingualism. In the case of Paraguay, most of the population is bilingual to some degree and, therefore, depending on how bilingualism is defined and applied to this test, it is possible that relatively few Guaran words would be Paraguayan Spanish words since the few monolingual Spanish speakers in Paraguay probably use only a small percentage of the Guaran lexicon in their everyday speech. This would give a rather absurd result because an equally valid argument can be made that almost any Guaran word is also a Paraguayan Spanish word since in Paraguay any Guaran word can be interjected into an otherwise Spanish utterance. If Guaran words are to be accepted as Paraguayan Spanish words, then the question arises as to how to represent them graphically in a Spanish-language dictionary: Should they be fully Castillianized (domesticated), partially Castillianized, or left largely intact? Guaran is unique among Spanish Americas indigenous languages in that, in Paraguay, it is at the center of national popular culture and is used, albeit not in equal proportions, by both dominant and marginalized groups alike. In fact, it is so closely linked to Paraguayan national identity that the Paraguayanness of Paraguayans who do not speak Guaran may be called into question. In Bolivia, the Quechua and Aymara languages, though certainly an important part of the national culture and used in large areas of the countrys territory, are nonetheless strongly associated with the countrys lower socioeconomic strata from which most members of the upwardly mobile classes seek to disassociate themselves. The fact that Bolivia has two major indigenous languages, each with its own sphere of influence and neither of which is capable of gaining the upper hand over the other, also diminishes any claim either would have to being a national indigenous language. And then there are even more regionally marginalized languages, such as Guajiro in Colombia and Mam in Guatemala, that are used by much smaller speech communities in areas that are fartherboth geographically and in terms of cultural tiesfrom their respective countries seats of power and prestige. Whether an indigenous word is considered Spanish or not may depend to some degree on the prestige, or lack of prestige, the indigenous language enjoys among Spanish speakers within the country or region in which it is used. In this article, I have listed all terms collected that I believe may qualify as Spanish, regardless of whether they also belong to or derive from another language. However, since the focus here is on regionalisms, many of the words naturally hail from the geographic, sociocultural and ethnic periphery of the Spanish-speaking world, not the metropolis, and I leave it to you, the reader, and to Hispanists of every stripe (including Spanishlanguage mavens, pundits, shamans, teachers, interpreters, translators, linguists and literati) to decide which terms lie within the boundaries of Spanish, which are on its linguistic fringe or frontier, and which are literally beyond the pale.

15

A A1 A1.1

ANIMALS ALLIGATORS / CAIMANS Summary

Caimn, cocodrilo and/or lagarto are the terms most commonly used to refer to different types of alligators and caimans, many of which are endangered in Spanish-speaking countries and do not exist in the wild in Spain, Uruguay and Chile. In Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, regional terms are used for smaller varieties of these animals. Note: In the Terms by Country subsections, regionally marked usages are generally in boldface, a superscript appears after those terms that were given by only a single respondent from a specific country, and a superscript after those terms that were given by only two respondents from a given country. Words that were offered by three or more respondents from a country appear with no mark. (See subsection 0.2 above.) A1.2 Terms by Country (6 terms plus variants) caimn, cocodrilo caimn, cocodrilo, lagarto cocodrilo, lagarto cocodrilo, lagarto caimn, cocodrilo, lagarto caimn, cocodrilo, cuajipal, guajipal, lagarto caimn, cocodrilo, guajipal, lagarto caimn, cocodrilo, lagarto caimn, cocodrilo caimn, cocodrilo caimn, cocodrilo, lagarto baba, caimn, cocodrilo, lagarto babilla, caimn, cocodrilo, lagarto caimn, cocodrilo, lagarto caimn, cocodrilo, lagarto caimn, cocodrilo, lagarto, yacar caimn, cocodrilo, yacar caimn, cocodrilo, yacar caimn, cocodrilo, yacar caimn, cocodrilo

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

16

A1.3

Details

Spain: To what extent do Spaniards make a distinction between caimanes (New World alligators/caimans) and cocodrilos (African crocodiles)? Nicaragua & Costa Rica: Respondents indicated that cuajipal and/or guajipal refer to a small variety of alligator. Venezuela: Respondents stated that baba refers to a small variety. Colombia: The NDCol states that the caimn negro is the Melanosuchus niger and describes it as el ms grande de los cocodrilos de Colombia, one that can attain a length of up to six meters. This dictionary also indicates that babilla and babita refer to smaller two-meterlong varieties (Caiman sclerops, Caiman apoporoensis, Caiman fuscus and Caiman chiapasius), that tulisio is a synonym of babilla/babita in the Costa or Caribbean coast region, and that yacar is a synonym of babilla/babita in the Llanos and Amazonian regions. Lagarto: This term is used with some frequency in the generic sense of alligator/caiman, or some specific variety of the animal, throughout Spanish America with the possible exception of the Antilles and the Southern Cone. In this study, lagarto was offered in this sense by fifty percent or more of the respondents from Mexico, Central America, and Ecuador, and it competed favorably with caimn and cocodrilo among respondents from Peru and Bolivia as well. Yacar: The DEArg defines yacar as, Reptil similar a un cocodrilo, de tamao relativamente pequeo, que generalmente no sobrepasa los 2,50 m de largo. Se alimenta de peces y otros vertebrados. Hoy en da no es muy comn debido a la explotacin incontrolada de su piel... Fam.[ilia] Crocodylae, Caiman crocodylus y Caiman latirostris... Yacar derives from Guaran and, in this study, was not found to be used anywhere outside the part of Spanish America that has Guaran influence, that is, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and lowland Bolivia. A1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: baba (A), babilla (D), caimn (A?), cocodrilo (A?), guajipal (F), lagarto (B), yacar (B). DRAE definitions: cocodrilo, (Del lat. crocodlus, y este del gr...). Reptil del orden de los Emidosaurios, que alcanza de cuatro a cinco metros de largo, cubierto de escamas dursimas en forma de escudo, de color verdoso oscuro con manchas amarillento-rojizas. Tiene el hocico oblongo, la lengua corta y casi enteramente adherida a la mandbula inferior, los dos pies de atrs, palmeados, y la cola, comprimida y con dos crestas laterales en la parte superior. Vive en los grandes ros de las regiones intertropicales, nada y corre con mucha rapidez, y es temible por su voracidad; caimn, (Del tano kaimn). m. Reptil del orden de los Emidosaurios, propio de los ros de Amrica, muy parecido al cocodrilo, pero algo ms pequeo, con el hocico obtuso y las membranas de los pies muy poco extensas; lagarto, 5. C. Rica y Hond. Nombre genrico que se da a varias especies de reptiles emidosaurios; p. ej., el cocodrilo o el caimn; lagarto de Indias, caimn (|| reptil emidosaurio); baba2, Ven. Reptil americano del orden de los 17

Emidosaurios, que se caracteriza por su hocico ancho. Vive en ros, caos y lagunas de las zonas calientes; yacar, (De or. guar.). m. Am. Mer. caimn (|| reptil emidosaurio). Questions/Comments: For a great many Spanish speakers, caimn and cocodrilo appear to be synonyms and should, therefore, be cross-referenced to each other or defined in a way that makes it clear to the reader that they can refer to one and the same animal. The definitions of baba and yacar lack what is arguably the most useful information for the reader, namely, that they are small varieties of caimanes or cocodrilos. Since most Spanish-speaking readers are familiar with the words caimn and cocodrilo, but not with baba or yacar, the latter should be defined in terms of the former (variedad pequea de caimn...). The regional specifications of sense five of lagarto need to be considerably expanded as it is clear that lagarto is used in the sense of some kind of alligator or caiman (or in a generic sense) in many more countries than just Costa Rica and Honduras. Lagarto de Indias is defined as caimn without any regional or historical marker, but is this usage common today in the early twenty-first century in Spain, or elsewhere in the Spanish-speaking world, as the DRAEs definition implies, or is this usage now archaic (and, if so, how long ago did it die out)? Who currently says lagarto de Indias?

A2 A2.1

ARMADILLOS Summary

Armadillo is the General Spanish term, but regional names are common in most countries where armadillos commonly exist in the wild. Note: In subsection A2.2 below, armadillo is listed only in those countries where no other regional term was offered (armadillo was offered by some respondents from every country). A2.2 Terms by Country (c. 10 terms plus variants) armadillo huech abosh, armado, bosh, cuzuco, iboy cuzuco armado, cuzuco cuzuco, cuzuco armado cuzuco armadillo armadillo armadillo armadillo cachicamo cachicamo, gurre cachicambo, quirquincho quirquincho 18

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU

BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

quirquincho, tat tat mulita, peludo, tat, tat peludo mulita, peludo, quirquincho, tat, tat carreta quirquincho

A2.3

Details

General: Armadillo was the only term given by respondents from Spain, Panama, Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, and was given by the majority of respondents from Mexico, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. Mexico: Huech was given by two respondents from the Yucatn, and this is confirmed by Voces mayas y mayismos en el espaol de Yucatn (see section 1.3 of Vctor Surez Molinas article), and by El armadillo: pequeo, frgil acorazado En Yucatn se le conoce como huech (no author, see References). Guatemala: Armadillo and armado were given by an approximately equal number of monolingual Spanish-speaking respondents, but armadillo appears to be more common among urban speakers and armado among rural speakers. Cuzuco was given by three respondents from the southern part of the country, iboy or iboyj by two Quich speakers (the apostrophe represents a glottal stop), and abosh and bosh by Mam speakers. Honduras: The DRAE indicates that run and tatuejo are used in this sense, but does not specify regions. In what parts of Honduras are these terms used? Costa Rica: The NDCR defines armado as Nombre de mamfero desdentado (Dasypus fenestratus y D. Gimnurus) but cuzuco as Armadillo. Are they the same or different? Colombia: The NDCol indicates that gurre is used in Antioquia, Caldas, Cauca, Quindo, Risaralda, Tolima and el Valle (that is in most of western interior Colombia, plus el Tolima), and that cachicamo is used in the Llanos. Ecuador: Armadillo was offered by the majority of respondents, but cachicambo was given by two from Guaranda, and one from (an unspecified part of) the Sierra gave quirquincho. In what regions of Ecuador are cachicambo and quirquincho commonly used? Peru: Armadillo was given by the majority of respondents, although quite a few from the Sierra offered quirquincho. Bolivia: Quirquincho was given by the majority of Altiplano respondents (collas), and tat by most Eastern Lowlanders (cambas). Paraguay: Tat (or tat with a nasalized u) was offered as both the Guaran and the Spanish term. Some of those who stated it was strictly a Guaran term had difficulty coming up with a Spanish term for this item. Argentina: The DEArg lists the following terms with meaning and/or regional specifications: mataco, quirquincho bola and tat bola (small variety of armadillo, tat bola used in the Northeast); tat carreta (large variety, Northwest); tat mulita (medium-sized variety); tat peludo (Rioplatense and Northeast, no size specified); gualacate (Northwest = tat peludo). The DEArg indicates that Rioplatense refers to the provinces of Buenos Aires, the southern halves of Santa Fe and Entre Ros, and a bit of the southeastern part of 19

Crdoba and the northeastern part of La Pampa (according to the map provided on page XXIX). Chile: The DECH indicates that peludo is used in Chile to refer to several species (Chaetophractus nationis, Euphractus sexcintus and Zoedyus pichiy). Cuzuco or cusuco? When asked to spell the term they offered orally as [cu-SU-co], almost all of the educated respondents in this study indicated cuzuco. However, both the DRAE and the NDCR spell the word cusuco, and an Internet search conducted in mid 2004 revealed that the spelling with an s was ten times more frequent than the spelling with a z. Do the DRAE and the NDCR favor cusuco over cuzuco because writers favor this spelling, or do some writers prefer cusuco because the Real Academia prefers it? Expression: A quintessential Venezuelan expression is Cachicamo dicindole al morrocoy conchudo/concho (The pot calling the kettle black). A morrocoy is a type of tortoise, and in Venezuelan Spanish a concha can be practically any type of shell, including a cscara or a caparazn/carapacho; concha and conchudo also have the meaning of descaro and descarado, respectively. A2.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: armadillo (A), armado (D), cachicamo (B), cusuco (A or B?), cuzuco (F), gurre (F), mulita (B?), peludo (A?), quirquincho (B), tat (A?), tat carreta (F). DRAE definitions: armadillo, (De armado). m. Mamfero del orden de los Desdentados, con algunos dientes laterales. El cuerpo, que mide de tres a cinco decmetros de longitud, est protegido por un caparazn formado de placas seas cubiertas por escamas crneas, las cuales son movibles, de modo que el animal puede arrollarse sobre s mismo. Todas las especies son propias de Amrica Meridional; cachicamo, (De or. tamanaco). m. Am. armadillo; cusuco, (De or. nahua). m. Am. Cen. armadillo; mulita, 2. f. Arg. Armadillo pequeo, tmido y asustadizo, de hocico prolongado y orejas largas echadas hacia atrs. Su carne es comestible; peludo, 5. Arg. y Ur. Especie de armadillo, de orejas medianas y puntiagudas. Tiene el caparazn con pelo hirsuto y abundante, aunque no muy largo; quirquincho, (Del quechua qquirquinchu, armadillo). m. Am. Mer. Mamfero, especie de armadillo, de cuyo carapacho se sirven los indios para hacer charangos; run, Hond. armadillo; tat, (De or. guar.). m. Arg., Bol., Par. y Ur. U. para denominar diversas especies de armadillo; tatuejo, Hond. armadillo. Questions/Comments: With regard to spelling, the DRAE lists the term cusuco but should also list cuzuco since this spelling does appear to be common in the Central American countries in which this term is used. Concerning usage, the regional specification Am. in the definition of cachicamo is a gross overgeneralization. In the definition of armadillo, the phrase Todas las especies son propias de Amrica Meridional is incorrect since South America is not the exclusive domain of armadillos: few who know much about armadillos would assert that there is a shortage of them in Central and North America. Also, why are Southern Hemisphere armadillos mulita, peludo and quirquincho defined as types of armadillos with a description of their distinguishing characteristics, while Northern Hemisphere armadillos cachicamo, cuzuco, run and tatuejo are merely cross-referenced to armadillo? Is it because the Real Academia views the Venezuelan and Central American varieties as being somehow closer to an idealized Platonic armadillo (the Dasypus novemcinctus, perhaps), unlike the Southern Hemisphere varieties, or is 20

it because of differences in the type of cooperation the Real Academia has received from the corresponding academies in Spanish America? Either all varieties should be given an individualized description that pinpoints their distinguishing characteristics, or all should be simply cross-referenced to armadillo.

A3 A3.1

CAPYBARAS Summary

With the possible exception of capibara, the different names for the largest rodent in the world are all regionally weighted. A3.2 Terms by Country (4 terms plus variants) ? chigire chigiro capibara ronsoco capibara, capiguara/capihuara capibara, capiv, capivara, carpincho capincho, carpincho carpincho

PANAMA VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA

A3.3

Details

General: Dr. Eduardo Gonzlez Jimnez states that this animal currently has two subspecies: Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, which is larger and inhabits wetland areas of South America (in many parts of the lowlands east of the Andes), and Hydrochoerus isthmius, which is smaller and inhabits Panama and some (non-Amazonian) parts of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela (see Gonzlez Jimnez, sections 1.1 and 1.4). Panama: Poncho, presumably the Hydrochoerus isthmius, is listed in a written source (Gonzlez Jimnez, see section 1.2). Venezuela: In addition to chigire, the term piropiro refers to a variety of this rodent, probably the Hydrochoerus isthmius, that lives in the Lake Maracaibo basin (see El Chigire in References). Colombia: The NDCol indicates that the chigiro is also known in Colombia by its variants tigiro and titig, and that ponche is used in the Costa (note the similarity with the Panamanian usage poncho that is cited above). In addition, Gonzlez Jimnez states that capibara is used in Amazonas, Ariari Sur, Caquet and Guayabero, dia-baj in Tucumo, julo in Caquet and Guayabero, jess in Ariari Sur, bocaeburro, culopando, pataseca and tanacoa in the Intendencia del Arauca-Casanare, cabiari and ponche in the Magdalena River basin region, and sancho in the Cauca River basin (see Gonzlez Jimnez, section 21

1.2). Another source (Santamara) states that lancha, lancho and yulo are used in Colombia, but does not specify departments. Ecuador: What are the autochthonous Ecuadoran names for the capybara__the names used in the Shuar, Waorani/Huarani, Siona and Secoya languages__and why were so few of the Ecuadorans queried in this study able to recognize and identify this animal? In contrast, this was an easy task for most of the other South Americans tested, few of whom came from areas such as the Llanos, the Amazon region, or the Pantanal where this animal is common. With the loss of a large part of their Amazonian territory (especially at the hands of Peru in the early 1940s when much of the worlds attention was focused elsewhere), have Ecuadorans lost some of their Amazonian linguistic repertoire as well? Or is it the other way around, that is, given the fact that Ecuador is surrounded by more powerful neighbors, was most of its Amazon territory lost primarily because Ecuadorans never had sufficient interest in or strong enough ties to their Oriente in the first place to stake a claim? Peru: Ronsoco was given by all respondents in this study, but one written source (Gonzlez Jimnez, section 1.2) states that capibara and samanai are also used, and another (Santamara) indicates that urucumayo is used, but neither specifies departments. Paraguay: Some respondents stated that carpincho is the Spanish term and capivara, capiv (or kapiygu, kapiyv or other variants) are the Guaran terms, while others indicated that carpincho refers to a larger variety and capiv to a smaller variety. Argentina: Carpincho was offered by all respondents in this study. The DEArg lists capincho with regional specifications of Northeast and Rioplatense. Another written source (Gonzlez Jimnez, section 1.2) indicates that capibara, capivara and capiguara are also used. A3.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: capibara (B), carpincho (B), chigire (A), chigiro (F), ronsoco (F). DRAE definitions: carpincho, Am. Roedor americano de hbitos acuticos, que alcanza el metro y medio de longitud y llega a pesar ms de 80 kg. Tiene la cabeza cuadrada, el hocico romo y las orejas y los ojos pequeos. Su piel se utiliza en peletera; capibara, f. Arg. y Per. carpincho; capincho, rur. Ur. carpincho; chigire, Ven. carpincho. Questions/Comments: The DRAE lists capibara as a strictly feminine noun, but amb. (ambiguous) would be the more accurate gender designation since an Internet search done in mid 2004 of phrases with capibara(s) preceded by masculine articles (el, los, un, unos, este, estos, ese and esos) and feminine articles (la, las, una, unas, esta, estas, esa and esas) revealed that the word is somewhat more frequently masculine than feminine, although the difference was minor (190 masculine hits vs. 150 feminine hits) and suggests stiff competition between the terms two genders. The DRAEs definition of carpincho, with its full description and Pan Spanish American mark Am., places this term in a privileged position vis--vis capibara and chigire, whose definitions contain only cross-references and national marks, but where is the evidence to support the view that carpincho is somehow more general than capibara or chigire? In the NDCol, Werner and Haensch indicate that in Colombia both carpincho and capibara are semiscientific terms in contrast to chigiro, which is a national term, but the fact of the matter is that 22

most Spanish-speaking scientists who have done in-depth studies on this animal probably know at least several different common names for it in addition to their own national or provincial terms. Why not provide a shorter description for each of the national terms and reserve crossreferences for subnational or lower-prestige terms such as ponche and capincho, respectively? Using this strategy, chigire could be defined as, Ven. Roedor grande y semiacutico (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) del trpico sudamericano, con patas y cola cortas que alcanza el metro y medio de longitud. Llmase tambin capibara, carpincho, chigiro, ronsoco, etc. en otros pases. The other national terms could be defined similarly with the appropriate regional specifications and synonyms. In other words, providing the scientific names for flora and fauna, some of the more popular common names, and a succinct description is preferable to only providing an encyclopedic description full of bells and whistles. Readers who really want to know all of the capybaras particulars will, in any case, have to consult sources other than dictionaries, but those who are already familiar with the creature, albeit under a different name, will at least have their initial question answered: what is it? To the extent possible, a definition of a term should relate it to things many readers already know, and, other than a picture, nothing ties it up better for the reader than providing an exact and familiar synonym. The inclusion of synonyms in cases such as this one is especially important given the fact that the editors of the DRAE would apparently consider it a violation of their fundamental principles and time-honored traditions to include images in their dictionary.

A4 A4.1

OPOSSUMS Summary

Zarigeya is closer to a General Spanish term than any of the others, but many Spanish American countries have a more regional name for this animal. A4.2 Terms by Country (c. 20 terms plus variants) zarigeya tacuache, tlacuache, zarigeya ishjao, shijn, tacuacn, tacuatcn, uch, zarigeya guasalo, tacuacn guasalo, tacuacn zorro colapelada, zorro de cola pelada zarigeya, zorrillo, zorro, zorro peln zarigeya, zorra zarigeya zarigeya zarigeya marmosa, rabipelado, rabipelao, zarigeya chucha, chucho, fara, runcho, zarigeya, zorrochucho raposa, zarigeya, zorro 23

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR

PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

zarigeya carachupa, comadreja, zarigeya comadreja, micur, zarigeya zarigeya zarigeya zarigeya

A4.3

Details

General: The majority of respondents from Spain, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Peru and Chile were unable to name or identify the opossum. Opossums do not exist in Spain in the wild, and may not be common in the Hispanic Antilles either. To which varieties do the different terms refer in the different regions? Mexico: The vast majority of respondents indicated tlacuache and/or tacuache (tlacoache and tacoache are spelling variants), and the DEUMex lists zorro as a synonym of tlacuache. Guatemala: Most respondents pronounced the term tacuacn, but several rural speakers said tacuatcn (where the tc represents a [ts] sound). One Mam speaker offered shijn and another ishjao, and a Quich speaker gave uch, but the latter looks suspiciously similar to huech = armadillo (see section A2 above). El Salvador & Honduras: Tacuacn was given by the majority from both countries, but guasalo was offered by respondents from northern and eastern Honduras (La Ceiba, Olancho), and by one Salvadoran from La Unin, near the Honduran border. The DRAE, however, defines guazalo as a different animal (see subsection A4.4 below). Panama: Respondents stated that, in practice, zorro generally refers to a fox and zorra to an opossum (even though, in theory, zorra could refer to a female fox or vixen). Colombia: The NDCol indicates that rabipelada and zorra are General Colombian Spanish terms, that chucha is used in a wide array of the countrys departments (Antioquia, Caldas, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Guajira, Huila, Meta, Nario, Risaralda, Tolima and Valle), that runcho is used in Boyac and Cundinamarca, raposa in Cauca, Nario and Putumayo, fara in Cundinamarca, the Llanos, Santander and Norte de Santander, and chucho in el Tolima. Another source (Zarigeya Comn / Didelphis marsupialis) states that zorrachucha and jujube are also used in Colombia, but does not specify departments. Ecuador: The DRAE states that guanchaca is used in this sense, and another source (Zarigeya Comn / Didelphis marsupialis) indicates that yalu is used, but neither specifies provinces. Peru & Bolivia: The DRAE states that muca is used in Peru, and carachupa in Bolivia and Peru, and that both derive from Quechua (see subsection A4.4 below); another source (Zarigeya Comn / Didelphis marsupialis) indicates that intuto and mucura are used in Peru. However, neither specifies in which departments of these two countries the terms are used. Paraguay: Micur (or mycur, mcr, mbicur, all vowels are nasal vowels) was offered by the majority of respondents, but the DRAE seems to indicate that this term refers to a different marsupial (see A4.4 below). Comadreja was offered by one respondent and zarigeya by two as referring to opossums. How are these terms differentiated in 24

Paraguay, that is, which refer to opossums, which refer to weasels, and which refer to something else? Other terms: Colicorto, colocolo, comadreja, cuica, llaca, marmosa mbicur, yap and yupat are listed with specific modifiers for specific types of opossums in an Internet article called Lista de Marsupiales de Argentina which indicates that many of these species are also found in Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay. (See article by Rafael Ojeda and Stella Giannoni in References.) The DECH indicates that llaca refers to the Marmosa elegans which it defines as, cierto marsupial de la familia de los didlfidos de algo ms de 10 centmetros de largo y cola finamente velluda de la misma longitud, de coloracin griscea o rubia algo morena, ms oscuro en el lomo que en los costados, con orejas y dedos amarillos y con un dibujo negruzco muy llamativo cerca de los ojos... The article Las Zarigeyas by Mariano Jimnez indicates that marmosas refer to mouse opossums and fat-tailed opossums, colicortos to short-tailed opossums, and chichica is the only opossum that exhibits semi-aquatic behavior. A4.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: chucha (D), chucho (A), guazalo (A, B or D?), micur (A or D?), rabipelado (A), raposa (D), runcho (A), tacuacn (B?), tacuache (A), tlacuache (A), zarigeya (A or C?), zorro (D), zorro colapelada (F), zorro de cola pelada (F). DRAE definitions: zarigeya, (Del brasileo arigueia). f. Mamfero marsupial de tamao mediano o pequeo y aspecto que recuerda a la rata. Las extremidades tienen cinco dedos y las de atrs el pulgar oponible; la cola es prensil, lisa y desnuda. Es mamfero noctorno y omnvoro, que hace nido en los rboles y su preez dura trece das; carachupa, (Del quechua qara, pelada, y chupa, cola). f. Bol. y Per. zarigeya; chucho, 3. Col. zarigeya; guanchaca, Ecuad. zarigeya; llaca, Especie de zarigeya de Chile y Argentina, de pelaje ceniciento con una mancha negra sobre cada ojo; marmosa, llaca; muca, (Del quechua muka). f. Per. zarigeya; rabipelado, Ven. zarigeya; runcho, Col. Especie de zarigeya; tacuacn, (Del nahua tlacuatzin). m. Am. Cen. y Mx. zarigeya; tacuache, Mx. zarigeya; tlacoache, Mx. zarigeya; tlacuache, (Del nahua tlacuatzin). m. Mx. zarigeya; zorra mochilera, zarigeya; guazalo, (Del nahua quauhzalan, en medio de los rboles, de cuahuitl, rbol, y tzalan, entre o en medio de). m. Hond. Nombre comn de dos especies de marsupiales americanos, de hocico con largas vibrisas en el labio superior, orejas grandes y redondeadas, tronco alargado y flexible que termina en una cola muy larga y prensil, y extremidades fuertes, pelaje largo, fino y lanoso, coloreado con tonalidades doradas en el dorso y amarillo anaranjado en el vientre. Su carne es comestible; micur, (Del guar. mbicur). m. Marsupial americano, de aproximadamente 40 cm de longitud, cola de igual tamao, y cabeza voluminosa, de hocico largo y puntiagudo. Entre su pelambre, lanosa y basta, de coloracin variable segn las especies, sobresalen abundantes cerdas largas y fuertes. Questions/Comments: Zorra mochilera is listed with no regional specification. Where is this term used? Since the word zarigeya appears to be autochthonous in Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay, but is widely known outside this region, should its definition include regional specifications (Arg., Par. y Ur.), or should it be considered the General Spanish term? The DRAE lists the etymology of zarigeya as (Del brasileo arigueia) but the Novo Dicionrio 25

da Lngua Portuguesa by Aurelio Buarque de Holanda Ferreira spells this term sarigia, which is the feminine/female version of sarig. Not only does the Aurelio not list arigueia, but there are currently no words in the Portuguese language that begin with a . What authority did the Real Academia consult to come up with its spelling of Portuguese sarigia? If Spanish zarigeya is in fact a borrowing from sarigia, then the etymology should read Del portugus brasileo sarigia y ste del tup sariw, or better yet, del portugus sarigia y ste del tup sariw rather than Del brasileo... (a nonexistent language). If, on the other hand, the Spanish term is not borrowed from Portuguese, but instead both zarigeya and sarigia derive directly and independently from sariw or sariweya, then zarigeyas etymology should read simply Del tup sariw or Del tup sariweya. The Diccionario Crtico Etimolgico de la Lengua Castellana by Joan Corominas indicates that zarigeya derives directly from Guaran sarigweya. Should the origin of zarigeya be listed in the DRAE as guaran, tup or tupguaran?

A5 A5.1

SKUNKS Summary

Zorrillo is closer to a General Spanish term than any of the others, but many countries have a more regional term. A5.2 Terms by Country (c. 12 terms plus variants) mofeta pay-och, zorrillo par, shihuil, zorrillo, zorro zorrillo zorrillo, zorro zorrillo, zorro, zorromin zorrillo, zorro, zorro apestoso, zorro hediondo zorrillo mofeta, zorrillo zorrillo zorrillo, zorrillo apestoso mapurite, mofeta, zorrillo mapurito, mapuro, mofeta, zorrillo asgo, zorrillo, zorrillo apestoso, zorro aas, zorrillo, zorrino aatuiy, aatuya, zorrillo, zorrino yaguan, yaguan-, zorrillo, zorrino zorrillo, zorrino zorrino chingue, zorrillo 26

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

A5.3

Details

General: Educated Spanish Americans tend to be familiar with the Peninsular Spanish term mofeta. Respondents from the Hispanic Antilles indicated they believed skunks do not exist in their respective countries, and a couple of Dominicans stated that although Quisqueya has no skunks per se, it does have a type of ardilla (squirrel?) that emits a foul odor. Mexico: Zorrillo was given by the vast majority of respondents, but pay-och was offered as the Mayan term by a respondent from the Yucatn, and this is confirmed in Voces mayas y mayismos en el espaol de Yucatn by Vctor Surez Molina (see section 1.3). Guatemala: Zorrillo was given by the majority, zorro by a handful, par by two Quich-speaking respondents, and shihuil by a Mam speaker. Nicaragua: Some respondents indicated that the zorromin is brownish in color, unlike the zorrillo which is black and white. Is zorro generally a synonym of zorrillo or zorromin, or is it a third type of skunk? Should zorromin be spelled zorro men, and is this question best resolved by determining whether the plural form is generally zorromiones or zorros meones? The Nicaraguans queried on this point offered different plural forms: zorromiones, zorros miones and zorros meones, but too few were queried to draw conclusions in this regard. Costa Rica: The NDCR indicates that zorro pit is used (in the sense of an unspecified kind of skunk) in parts of the province of San Jos. Ecuador: asgo was offered by a respondent from Azuay. Aas (with no accent mark) and aascu are listed as Quichua terms in Luis Corderos Diccionario Quichua with the translation of zorro hediondo, but the DRAE indicates that as (with an accent mark) is used in Ecuador and Peru. Note that Ecuadorans generally refer to the variety of this language spoken in their country as Quichua, and consider Quechua to refer to Peruvian and Bolivian varieties. Peru: Aas (stress on the first syllable) was offered by Quechua-speaking respondents from Cuzco. Bolivia: Aatuiy was offered by a Quechua speaker from Cochabamba; another Cochabambino offered aatuya. Paraguay: Yaguan (or jaguan, yagua-n) was offered as the Guaran term. Two respondents also indicated that yaguan- refers to a small variety of skunk. (In Guaran, the suffix , as in yaguan-, sounds like a nasalized schwa and functions as a diminutive.) Argentina: The DEArg lists yaguan (with a rural Northeast specification), aango, aasco and aatuya (with rural Northwest specifications), and chie (with a rural Cuyo specification). Zorrillo vs. zorrino in South America: While the Argentines queried in this study were unanimous in offering only zorrino, competition was found to exist between zorrillo and zorrino in Peru, Bolivia and Uruguay; less so in Paraguay where the competition seems to be more between zorrino and yaguan. What is the northern most point on the South American continent where zorrino is commonly used? 27

A5.4

Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: chingue (A), mapurite (B or D?), mapuro (A), mofeta (C), yaguan (B), zorrillo (B), zorrillo apestoso (F), zorrino (B), zorro (B?), zorromin (F). DRAE definitions: mofeta, 2. Mamfero carnicero de unos cinco decmetros de largo, comprendida la cola, que es de dos, y parecido exteriormente a la comadreja, de la cual se diferencia por su tamao y el pelaje, pardo en el lomo y en el vientre, y blanco en los costados y la cola. Es proprio de Amrica, y lanza un lquido ftido que segregan dos glndulas situadas cerca del ano; as, (De or. quechua). f. Ecuad. y Per. mofeta (|| mamfero carnicero); chingue, Chile. mofeta (|| mamfero); mapurite, (Del caribe maipur). m. Especie de mofeta de Amrica Central, con el cuerpo amarillento, pecho y vientre pardos, punta de la cola blanca y una faja oscura a lo largo del lomo; mapuro, Col. mofeta (|| mamfero carnicero); yaguan, 2. Arg. mofeta (|| mamfero carnicero); yagur, Am. mofeta (|| mamfero carnicero); zorrillo, El Salv., Guat., Hond., Nic. y Ur. mofeta (|| mamfero carnicero); zorrino, Arg. mofeta (|| mamfero carnicero); zorro, 6. Am. mofeta (|| mamfero carnicero); zorro hediondo, Am. mofeta (|| mamfero carnicero). Questions/Comments: The definition of the lead term, mofeta, includes a detailed description of the colors and patterns of the animals fur. All other terms are cross-referenced to mofeta with the exception of mapurite, which is defined incorrectly as an especie de mofeta de Amrica Central.... However, it seems unlikely that all of the other animals have identical fur color as those the DRAE describes for mofeta. Should the DRAE describe the color patterns of each species, or should it make the description of the lead term sufficiently broad so that it encompasses all varieties? In any case, the lead word should be zorrillo, the least regionally marked term. Also, note that most of the synonyms have a gloss of (|| mamfero carnicero) whereas the gloss for chingue is simply (|| mamfero). Perhaps the shorter mamfero is preferable to the more precise gloss, mamfero carnicero, since a) there is only one type of mammal to which a mofeta refers, and b) the purpose of the gloss is simply to specify to which sense of mofeta the terms are being cross-referenced.

A6 A6.1

TADPOLES / POLLIWOGS Summary

Renacuajo is the General Spanish term, but regional popular terms abound: Mexico and Ecuador seem to have a particularly impressive arsenal. Note: In subsection A6.2 below, renacuajo is listed only in those countries where no regional term was offered (renacuajo was offered by some respondents from every country). A6.2
SPAIN

Terms by Country (c. 50 terms plus variants) cabezolo, cabezn, cgado, cap-gros, cucharilla, cucharita, cullereta, cullerot, gusarapo, renoc, zapaburu 28

MEXICO

GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR

PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

ajolote, bilolo, boloche, cabezn, champuzn, guarasapo, guasarapo, gisarapo, gurusapo, gusarapo, pilolo, puneche, samborojo, siboli, tepocate, teporocha, teporocho ishpec, ishtor, ishtunc, ishtuz, pupo, tepocate cabezn, juturo, ranacuajo, tepocate, ticuro, torugo mojaculo, turugo curasapo, guarasapo, guarisapo, girisapo, gusarapo cabezn, pecesapo, pejesapo gusarapo gusarapo, ranacuajo cabezn, gcharo, gusarapo, tapaculos renacuajo renacuajo guapucha, guarasapo, sarapico ambacho, billico, chugle, chugli, gilli, gilligilli, gusarapo, pilligille, pmbalo, reinacuaje, shushi, shucshi, shugshi, timbul, ultio cangulo, jocollo focollo, jocollo, oshcollo, posocollo, posogollo kurr-, yu-ra renacuajo renacuajo guarisapo, pirign, ranacuajo

A6.3

Details

General: Renacuajo was the only term for tadpole offered by respondents from Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Uruguay and Argentina, and was the word given by the majority from Spain, Panama, Cuba, Colombia, Peru and Bolivia. It should be noted, however, that relatively few rural respondents from these ten countries were queried on this topic, and this may explain the dearth of regional terms found. Ranacuajo is an archaic form that has survived in some regions, and ranita and sapito are also used by many people who do not have in their lexical repertoire a specific term for tadpole. Spain: The DRAE lists cabezn with no regional specification, and cabezudo, cuchareta and samarugo, all with an Aragn regional specification. In this study, cabezn was offered by a respondent from Navarra, cucharita and cucharilla by one each from Galicia, and gusarapo by one from La Vega Baja. Cap-gros (also spelled capgrs) was offered as a Cataln term by respondents from Barcelona along with cullereta by ones from Barcelona and Valencia, and cullerot and renoc by ones from Valencia. Cgado and cabezolo were offered as Gallego terms by respondents from Vigo, and zapaburu as a Basque term by one from Vizcaya. Cullereta and cullerot, I was told, mean little spoon and big spoon, respectively, and zapaburu toad head. The individual from Vizcaya indicated that zapaburu is also used by persons from that region when speaking Spanish, including (essentially) monolingual Spanish speakers. 29

Mexico: The following terms were offered by persons from the following states: ajolote (Distrito Federal, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Puebla, Zacatecas), bilolo (Oaxaca), boloche (Sinaloa), cabezn (Michoacn), champuzn (Guanajuato), guarasapo (Campeche, Veracruz), guasarapo (Michoacn), gisarapo and gusarapo (Guanajuato, Jalisco), gurusapo (Guanajuato), pilolo (Guerrero, Oaxaca), puneche (Michoacn), samborojo (Michoacn), siboli (Sonora), tepocate (Chiapas, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Len, Michoacn, Nayarit, Yucatn), teporocha and teporocho (Jalisco). Guatemala: Tepocate was offered by the majority of respondents, and pupo by one from Esquintla and one from San Marcos. Ishtuz, ishtor and ishpeic were offered by Quich speakers, and ishtunc by a Mam speaker. (All of the terms written with an sh could also be written with an x; the apostrophes represent glottal stops.) El Salvador: Cabezn was offered by respondents from San Salvador and San Vicente, juturo by one from Chalatenango, tepocate by two from Santa Ana, ticuro by one from Cabaas and one from La Paz, and torugo by one from Usulutn. Costa Rica: The NDCR states that guarasapo is used in this sense but does not specify provinces. Dominican Republic: Cabezn was offered by respondents from el Cibao, gcharo by one from Hato Mayor, and tapaculos by several from Santo Domingo. Colombia: Guapucha was offered in this sense by two respondents from the department of Cundinamarca, guarasapo by two from Santander, and sarapico by two from Atlntico (Barranquilla). However, the NDCol, and also two respondents in this study, state that guapucha refers to a small fresh-water fish. Ecuador: The following terms were offered by persons from the following provinces: ambacho (Riobamba), billico (Imbabura), chugle and chugli (Azuay, Caar), gilli and gilligilli (Pichincha), gusarapo (Guayas), pilligille (Cotopaxi), pmbalo (Tungurahua), shushi, shucshi and shugshi (Cuenca), timbul (Chimborazo), ultio (Guayas). Luis Corderos Diccionario Quichua lists chullchig and chullshig with the translation into Spanish of renacuajo, but no provinces are specified. Peru: Jocollo (or jocollo in Quechua) was offered by respondents from Cuzco and cangulo by one from Ancash. Bolivia: Jocollo and focollo were offered by respondents from La Paz, and oshcollo, posocollo and posogollo by ones from Cochabamba. Paraguay: Respondents indicated that Guaran kurr- means sapo pequeo and yu-ra (or jui ray, yu-i ra-) is hijo de la rana. Kurr-, however, seems to derive from curur, which the DRAE defines as Batracio del orden de los Anuros.... Different terms for different stages? A few respondents indicated they used different words to refer to the different developmental stages of the tadpole. For example, one Chilean said she used pirign for the young tadpole and guarisapo for it once the legs had appeared, and a Salvadoran indicated that cabezn was used for the first stage of development. More research needs to be done to determine how common it is for different speech communities to use different terms to make such distinctions (other than the formation of simple diminutives such as a guarisapo guarisapito).

30

A6.4

Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: ajolote (A), cabezn (C), guarasapo (F), guarisapo (A or B?), gusarapo (D), jocollo (F), pejesapo (D), pirign (F?), ranacuajo (A or C?), renacuajo (A), tepocate (F). DRAE definitions: renacuajo, (De ranacuajo). m. Larva de la rana, que se diferencia del animal adulto principalmente por tener cola, carecer de patas y respirar por branquias; ajolote, 2. Mx. renacuajo; cabezn, 5. renacuajo (|| larva de la rana); cabezudo, 6. Ar[agn] . renacuajo (|| larva de la rana); cuchareta, 4. Ar. renacuajo (|| larva de la rana); guarisapo, (Var. de gusarapo). Chile. renacuajo (|| larva de la rana); ranacuajo, (Del dim. de rana). m. renacuajo; samarugo, Ar. Renacuajo de la rana. In addition, sacabuche is defined as, (Del fr. ant. saqueboute, de saquer, tironear, y bouter, arrojar). 3. coloq. renacuajo (|| nio pequeo y travieso). Questions/Comments: The definitions for cabezn and guarisapo are cross-referenced to renacuajo and include the gloss larva de la rana, but those of ajolote, ranacuajo and samarugo do not. If the gloss is necessary (and the different gloss for sacabuche suggests that it is), it should be included consistently in all of the cross-referenced definitions.

B B1 B1.1

BIRDS HUMMINGBIRDS Summary

Colibr is the General Spanish term and every Spanish American country has one or several regional terms, many of which are formed by the verbs chupar or picar and the nouns flor, miel, mirto or rosa. Note: In subsection B1.2 below, colibr and pjaro mosca are listed only in Spain, the one country from which respondents offered no other terms (colibr was offered by some respondents from every country and pjaro mosca by respondents from many countries). B1.2 Terms by Country (c. 15 terms plus variants) colibr, pjaro mosca chupaflor, chupamiel, chuparrosa, chupamirto chupaflor, chupaflorita, chupamirtos, gorrin, pits, tsnima, tsunn chupaflor, chupamiel, gorrin, picaflor chupaflor, gorrin gorrin, picaflor gorrin, picaflor picaflor, visitaflor sunsn, zunzn 31

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA

DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

chupaflor, picaflor, zumbador picaflor, zumbador chupaflor, picaflor, tucusito chupaflor, picaflor, tominejo, zumbaflor chupaflor, picaflor, quinde picaflor, quente picaflor, quenti, queri-queri mainumb, picaflor picaflor picaflor picaflor

B1.3

Details

General: The DRAE indicates that colibr refers to both insect-eating and nectar-sucking hummingbirds, but that pjaro mosca refers only to the latter type (see definitions in subsection B1.4 below). To what extent do laypersons and ornithologists from the different countries make this distinction? Mexico: Chupaflor was offered by respondents from Guanajuato and Veracruz, chuparrosa by ones from the Distrito Federal, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacn, Nayarit, Oaxaca, San Luis Potos, Sonora and Veracruz, and chupamirto by ones from the Distrito Federal and Guerrero. Guatemala: Gorrin was offered by respondents from diverse regions. Pits was given by one from San Marcos, tsunn or tzunun by a Quich-speaking respondent, and tsnima by a Mam speaker. Cuba: Zunzn and sunsn, which refer to the colibr abeja or bee hummingbird, are spellings that were offered by many Cubans in this study and both were widely attested in an Internet search conducted in mid 2004. A handful of Internet sources also spell the word zumzum and zum-zum. For other names for hummingbirds used in Cuba, including zumbador, see Los Tres Nombres del Zumbador Sagrado Guani Guacariga Guaracacigaba in References. Venezuela: Is tucusito the diminutive form of tucuso? None of the Venezuelans queried in this study gave the form tucuso and this term is not listed in the DRAE. Tucuso is, however, listed in the Simon and Schusters International Dictionary English/Spanish Spanish/English (see Steiner in References). Colombia: The NDCol indicates that chupalina is used in this sense in Boyac and Cundinamarca, quincha in Boyac and Santander, quinche in Boyac, Cundinamarca, Nario and Santander, and tomineja and tominejo in Cundinamarca. Ecuador: Several respondents from the Sierra offered quinde and/or quindi. Quinde is the Castillianized form of the Quichua word quindi. However, since serranos often reduce and close their unstressed vowels, some say quindi even if they write quinde. Peru: Quente (or kente, kente) was offered by Quechua speakers from Cuzco. Bolivia: Queri-queri (or keri-keri) and quenti (or kenty) were offered by Quechua speakers. 32

Paraguay: Mainumb (or mainumby, mainumb) was offered as the Guaran term. Given the nature of the Guaran words third syllable, an argument could also be made that the Castillianized form should be mainumb. Argentina: The DEArg lists dominico, quenti, runrun (should it be spelled runrn?) and tumiico, all with a Northwest regional specification. Gorrin vs. gurrin: In Central America (with the exception of Panama), the majority of respondents offered gorrin or gurrin, but because in rapid speech the two sound so similar, it is often difficult to tell which phonetic variant is being used. Or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that the same sequence of sounds, when spoken quickly, can be represented graphically by either gorrin or gurrin. In other cases involving a similar phonetic environment, we note that the spellings riguroso and rigoroso are both accepted by the DRAE, but the former is preferred and derives from the latter. The spelling of vigoroso, on the other hand, did not undergo this evolution and has only one form. B1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: colibr (A), chupaflor (B), chupamiel (F), chupamirto (A), chuparrosa (A), gorrin (B), gurrin (B), mainumb (F), pjaro mosca (A or D?), picaflor (C or D?), quente (F), quinde (A), sunsn (F), tominejo (C or D?), tucusito (A), visitaflor (F), zumbador (B), zunzn (A). DRAE definitions: colibr, (De or. caribe). m. Pjaro americano, insectvoro, de tamao muy pequeo y pico largo y dbil. || 2. pjaro mosca; pjaro mosca, Ave del orden de las Paseriformes, propia de Amrica intertropical, tan pequea, que su longitud total es de tres centmetros y de cinco de envergadura. Tiene el pico recto, negro y afilado, plumaje brillante de color verde dorado con cambiantes bermejos en la cabeza, cuello y cuerpo, gris claro en el pecho y vientre, y negro rojizo en las alas y cola. Se alimenta del nctar de las flores y cuelga el nido de las ramas ms flexibles de los rboles. Hay varias especies, de tamaos diversos, pero todas pequeas y de precioso plumaje; chupaflor, Col., Hond., Mx., P. Rico y Ven. colibr; chupamirto, Mx. colibr; chuparrosa, Mx. colibr; gorrin, 2. C. Rica. colibr; gurrin, C. Rica. y Hond. colibr; picaflor, (De picar y flor). pjaro mosca; quinde, (Del quechua quindi). m. Ecuad. y Per. colibr (|| pjaro americano); tentenelaire, (De tente en el aire). m. Arg. colibr; tomineja and tominejo, (Del dim. de tomn, por su pequeez). m. pjaro mosca; tucusito, Ven. Especie de colibr; zumbador, 2. Mx. m. colibr (|| pjaro americano); zunzn, (De or. onomat., por el ruido de su zumbido al volar). m. Cuba. Pjaro pequeo, especie de colibr. Questions/Comments: To what extent is the distinction the DRAE makes between colibr (insect-eating or nectar-sucking hummingbirds) vs. pjaro mosca (nectar-sucking hummingbirds only) valid? This question is important not only for the definitions of these terms themselves, but also for those of the other synonyms cross-referenced to them. Since chupaflor, chupamirto, chuparrosa, etc. are cross-referenced to colibr whereas picaflor and tominejo are crossreferenced to pjaro mosca, the issue arises as to whether or not the DRAE is correct, that is, do chupaflor, chupamirto and chuparrosa refer to both insect-eating and nectar-sucking hummingbirds, while picaflor and tominejo refer strictly to nectar-sucking ones? This seems 33

hard to believe, and my impression is that picaflor, as it is commonly used, is no less general a term than chupaflor. If the DRAEs distinction between colibr and pjaro mosca, and/or the cross-references it provides are not correct, modifications will need to be made to many of these definitions. Which of the regional synonyms is best defined as Especie de colibr..., and which should simply be cross-referenced to colibr? The gloss (|| pjaro americano) that is included in the definition of quinde seems superfluous (it is not included in the definitions of any of the other terms cross-referenced to colibr), as does the phrase Pjaro pequeo in the definition of zunzn. To what end? Anyone who is interested in knowing what a quinde or a zunzn is, who is not yet familiar with a colibr, is going to have to first get a handle on the latter term anyway. The DRAEs editors should also consider listing the term sunsn as an alternate spelling of zunzn, as the former is commonly used by educated Cubans. In fact, in terms of language planning, an argument can be made that sunsn should be promoted over zunzn. Why? Because whether the word is spelled with ss or zs is not relevant to how Spanish Americans seeing the word in print for the first time are going to pronounce it, but if assisting persons from northern and central Spain to approximate a more authentic (Cuban) pronunciation of the word is a goal, it would be helpful to them to see the word written sunsn.5

B2 B2.1

VULTURES / BUZZARDS Summary

Buitre is a General Spanish term that is widely used to refer to both Old World and New World varieties of vultures, but most Spanish American countries have regional names for the types that exist in their region. Note: In subsection B2.2 below, buitre is listed in only two countries, Spain and Puerto Rico, where no other regional term was offered (buitre was offered by some respondents from every country). B2.2 Terms by Country (c. 25 terms plus variants) buitre aura, zopilote cuts, zope, zopilote cute, tincute, zope, zopilote cute, limpiamundo, zope, zonchiche, zopilote querque, zonchiche, zopilote zoncho, zopilote gallinazo, gallote aura, aura tiosa, tiosa laura, maura buitre zamuro 34

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

chulo, gallinazo, golero gallinazo chonto, gallinazo, suhuicara gallinazo, sucha irib, urub urub jote gallinazo, jote

B2.3

Details

General: The modifiers de cabeza roja or cabecirrojo and negro, de cabeza negra or cabecinegro can be added to the above terms to distinguish between turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) and black vultures (Coragyps atratus). For example, in Mexico and most of Central America, one could distinguish between the two by referring to them as zopilote negro (Coragyps atratus) and zopilote cabecirrojo (Cathartes aura). Mexico: Zopilote was offered by the overwhelming majority of respondents. Chom is used in the Yucatn according to Voces mayas y mayismos en el espaol de Yucatn by Vctor Surez Molina (see section 1.3). Guatemala: Zope and zopilote were offered by the majority of respondents, and a Mam speaker offered cuts. El Salvador: Zope and zopilote were offered by the majority of respondents, and cute by one from La Unin and one from Cabaas, departments that border Honduras. The respondent from La Unin also indicated that tincute refers to a type of vulture (see the DRAEs etymology of cute in subsection B2.4 below). Honduras: An article by Atanasio Herranz indicates that zope is used in the entire country, cute in the Zona Occidental, zamuro in the Zona Suroriental and zonchiche in the Zona Central, Zona Occidental and Zona Nororiental or Olancho. However , it is not clear whether Herranzs lexical data are based on his own surveys or other written sources. (See Herranzs Formacin histrica y zonas dialectales del espaol en Honduras, which contains an extensive bibliography.) Costa Rica: The NDCR indicates the zopilote is the Coragyps atratus, and defines zonchiche as variedad de zopilote de cabeza roja y sin plumas (presumably the Cathartes aura). If it is true that some Costa Ricans distinguish between zopilote (Coragyps atratus) and zonchiche (Cathartes aura), to which bird does zoncho generally refer? Dominican Republic: Some say laura and maura refer to two different types of vulture (maura = turkey vulture and laura = black vulture?), whereas others indicated they thought the terms were synonymous but regionally marked (maura more in the Sur and laura more in the Este?). In what way are the two terms distinguished? Puerto Rico: The DRAE indicates that aura is used in the sense of a type of vulture (see subsection B2.4 below). Colombia: The NDCol indicates that gallinazo is the General Colombian Spanish term, chicora is used in Antioquia, Huila and Tolima, chulo in Boyac, Caldas, Cesar, Cundinamarca, Huila, the Llanos and the Santanderes, galembo in Boyac, Cauca, Nario, Norte de 35

Santander and el Valle, golero in Antioquia, Atlntico, Bolvar, Cesar, Crdoba, Guajira, Magdalena, Norte de Santander and Sucre, gus in Antioquia, Caldas, Valle and the Costa, laura in Crdoba and Magdalena, and zamuro in Cundinamarca, the Llanos and Norte de Santander. Assuming all this to be the case, what if any subnational terms (i.e. other than gallinazo) are used in el Choc (and other points along the Pacific coast region such as Buenaventura, Tumaco, etc.), and what terms are used in Colombias Amazonian regions? Ecuador: Ushcu, ulluhuanga (and also shararan?) are listed in Luis Corderos Diccionario Quichua as Quichua words for gallinazo, or perhaps two different types of gallinazo, but no provinces are specified. Peru: The majority of respondents gave only gallinazo, but chonto was offered in this sense by a respondent from Trujillo and suhuicara (or suwikara) by a Quechua-speaking respondent from Cuzco; other Quechua speakers from Cuzco said suhuicara referred to a young condor. Bolivia: Sucha is generally masculine (un sucha). Paraguay: Both irib and urub were offered, although some respondents said that urub was the Spanish term and yryb or yryv the Guaran terms. For a discussion of how this term should be spelled in Spanish, see subsection B2.4 below. Argentina: The DEArg lists cuervo and gallinazo (with no regional specification), jote (with a Cuyo and Northwest regional specification), and pala-pala (with a Northwest specification). The one respondent in this study who offered jote was, not surprisingly, from Mendoza; all others gave only buitre. (Note that the use of jote in western Argentina coincides with Chilean usage.) Other terms: There are many other carrion-eating birds, some of which can also be considered types of vultures. Perhaps the most prominent among them is the South American cndor (whose scientific name, according to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, is Vultur gryphus; see Pickett in References). Then there are birds, which respondents have indicated also eat dead animals, such as the carancho, which the DRAE claims is also called caracar or querque, and the alcamari or alcamar (see the DRAEs definitions of these terms in subsection B2.4 below). Expressions with vultures: Botar plvora en gallinazo and Gastar plvora en gallinazos were offered by respondents from Colombia, Ecuador and Panama. The latter expression is defined by the NDCol as Emplear medios intiles e ineficaces en conseguir un fin. An Argentine indicated that gastar plvora en chimangos is used in the same sense (chimango is a type of falcon). Other expressions involving buzzards that were offered are: Despus que zamuro come, chiriguare roe (Venezuela). Slo falta que me pique un zoncho (Costa Rica). Estar en el pico del aura and Por mucho que el aura vuele, siempre la pica el pitirre (Cuba). A chiriguare is a Venezuelan bird of prey, and a pitirre is a Cuban bird that is more agile than an aura.

36

B2.4

Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: aura (A or B?), aura tiosa (F), buitre (A or D?), cute (A), chulo (A), gallinazo (B), gallote (F), golero (D), irib (F), jote (A?), laura (F), maura (F), querque (B), sucha (F), tiosa (D), urub (A or B?), zamuro (A?), zonchiche (A or B?), zoncho (F), zope (B or D?), zopilote (A or B?). DRAE definitions: buitre, (Del lat. vultur, -ris). m. Ave rapaz de cerca de dos metros de envergadura, con el cuello desnudo, rodeado de un collar de plumas largas, estrechas y flexibles, cuerpo leonado, remeras oscuras y una faja blanca a travs de cada ala. Se alimenta de carne muerta y vive en bandadas; zopilote, (Del nahua tzoplotl). m. Am. Cen. y Mx. Ave rapaz diurna que se alimenta de carroa, de 60 cm de longitud y 145 cm de envergadura, de plumaje negro irisado, cabeza y cuello desprovistos de plumas, de color gris pizarra, cola corta y redondeada y patas grises. Vive desde el este y sur de los Estados Unidos hasta el centro de Chile y la Argentina; zopilote cabecirrojo, C. Rica y Mx. aura2; aura2, (Voz americana). f. Cuba y P. Rico. Ave rapaz diurna americana, que se alimenta de carroa, de 70 cm de longitud y hasta 180 cm de envergadura, con cabeza, desprovista de plumas, de color rojizo, y plumaje negro con la parte ventral de las alas de color gris plateado; cute, (Del lenca tincute). m. El Salv. y Hond. zopilote; chulo, 9. Col. zopilote; gallinazo, (Del lat. gallinacus). m. Bol., Col., Ecuad. y Per. zopilote; guala, 2. Col. Ave de la especie del aura2; guara2, Col. Especie de aura o gallinazo, sin plumas en la cabeza y parte del cuello; jote, Arg. y Chile. zopilote; urub, (Voz guar.). m. Par. zopilote; zamuro, 2. m. Col., Hond. y Ven. zopilote; zonchiche, (Del nahua tzontli, cabellera, y chichiltic, colorado). m. C. Rica, Hond. y Nic. aura2; zope, Am. Cen. y Col. aura2; carancho, Arg., Bol., Per y Ur. Ave de la familia de las Falconiformes, de medio metro de longitud y color general pardusco con capucho ms oscuro. Se alimenta de animales muertos, insectos, reptiles, etc. Vive desde el sur de los Estados Unidos de Amrica hasta Tierra del Fuego. || 2. Bol. y Per bho (|| ave rapaz nocturna); caracar, Arg. y Hond. carancho (|| ave falconiforme); querque, El Salv. y Hond. carancho (|| ave falconiforme). Questions/Comments: Should the description in the definition of buitre be made sufficiently broad so that all of the other regional synonyms can simply be cross-referenced to it, or should the definition of each regional synonym begin Especie de buitre o zopilote... and then describe its distinguishing features and (preferably) include its scientific names? Other than Coragyps atratus, Cathartes aura and perhaps carancho-caracar-querque (scientific names?), what other New World species can be considered types of vultures? Several Nicaraguans in this study stated that querques are a type of buitre that is common in their country. Should the Paraguayan term be spelled irib or urub? The DRAE lists only urub but perhaps a case can be made for irib since the first vowel sound is somewhere between a nasalized i and a nasalized u. The other issue is etymology. The Novo Dicionrio da Lngua Portuguesa by Aurelio Buarque de Holanda Ferreira says that Portuguese urubu comes from Tupi urubu, whereas the DRAE indicates urub is a voz guaran. Should the DRAE indicate that Spanish urub derives from guaran, from tup, or from tup-guaran?

37

C C1

INSECTS DRAGONFLIES (also called darning needles, mosquito flies, mosquito hawks, snake doctors, snake feeders, etc.) Summary

C1.1

Liblula is the General Spanish term and caballito del diablo is also widely used (the DRAE claims the two are not synonyms), but most countries have other more regionally-marked terms. Note: In subsection C1.2 below, liblula is not listed in any country (liblula was offered by some respondents from every country). C1.2 Terms by Country (c. 40 terms plus variants) caballito del diablo, espiadimonis agujilla, caball(it)o (del diablo), caraballo, cola del diablo, diabl(it)o, helicptero, tibiriche, tibirichi, ttere, turish aguja del diablo, caballito del diablo, siacbac aguja del diablo, bailona, caballito del diablo, helicptero, lavandera, lavandero, limpiapoza, rin caballito (del diablo), guarito, San Vicente pipilacha avioncillo, avioncito, helicptero, compadre, diablillo, gallito caballito del diablo caballito del diablo, San Vicente bebeleche, caballito del diablo, San Juan caballito, caballito de San Pedro caballito del diablo avioncito, caballito (del diablo), chapul, chicapozo, helicptero, lavaculos achicapozo, caballito del diablo, cortapelo(s), chapulete, helicptero, robapelo brujo, caballito del diablo, cachicachi, carta, cartacarta, cartero, chasquero, chupajeringa, helicptero, pilpinto aguacil, cortapelo(s), quitapelos aguacil, caballito del diablo, helicptero, ajat aguacil, alguacil aguacil, alguacil, comepiojos, helicptero matapiojos, helicptero

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

38

C1.3

Details

General: Caballito del diablo (and its variants caballo del diablo and caballito) along with helicptero are used in many different regions to refer to some type of dragonfly. How widespread are these usages? Are they universal? The term damisela, which is not defined in the DRAE, refers to the damselfly, demoiselle or devils darning needle, a dragonfly-like insect that folds its wings together backwards when not flying. (See anonymous Adultos de Damiselas de Verano and Picketts The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language in References.) Spain: Espiadimonis was offered as a Cataln term by two respondents from Barcelona, but an Internet source implies that it is specifically the emperor dragonfly (see Alguns insectes comuns als pasos catalans in References). Mexico: The following terms were offered by persons from the following states: agujilla (Colima), caraballo (Veracruz), cola del diablo (Guanajuato), diablito or diablo (Guanajuato, Jalisco, Oaxaca), helicptero (Cuernavaca), tibiriche (Jalisco, Nayarit), tibirichi (Nayarit), ttere (Colima), turish (Campeche, Mrida). The use of turish (also spelled turix) is confirmed in Voces mayas y mayismos en el espaol de Yucatn by Vctor Surez Molina (see section 1.3). Guatemala: Aguja del diablo was given by the majority of respondents, and siacbac by a Quich speaker. El Salvador: Aguja del diablo was offered by respondents from San Salvador, San Miguel, Sonsonate and Ahuachapn, bailona by one from Ahuachapn and one from Cabaas, lavandera and lavandero by respondents from San Salvador, and rin by one from Usulutn. Honduras: Guarito was given by a respondent from San Pedro Sula, and the DRAE indicates that caballito de San Vicente is used in Honduras but does not specify departments. Costa Rica: The NDCR indicates that compadre, gallego and gallito are used in this sense with no provinces specified, that compadre del agua and chupagua are used in parts of the province of Alajuela, and that gacilla is used in the southern part of the province of Puntarenas. Cuba: Caballito del diablo was offered by the majority of respondents, San Vicente by one from Holgun (in the Oriente), and the DRAE indicates that caballito de San Vicente is used but does not specify any provinces. Dominican Republic: Caballito and/or caballito del diablo were offered by the majority of respondents, and bebeleche by one from Hato Mayor. Colombia: Chapul was offered by a respondent from el Valle, chicapozo by one from Buenaventura, and lavaculos by one from Santander. Ecuador: Cortapelo(s) was offered by almost all respondents from the Sierra, chapulete by all from Guayaquil, and achicapozo by one from Esmeraldas. Note the geographic and linguistic affinity found between Esmeraldas, Ecuador (achicapozo) and Buenaventura, Colombia (chicapozo). Peru: Cachicachi or kachi-kachi was offered by respondents from Abancay and Huancayo (Quechua term), carta, cartacarta, cartero and pilpinto (Quechua term) by ones from 39

Cuzco, brujo, cartero and chasquero by ones from Trujillo, and chupajeringa by ones from Lima. Cuchirruntuchi is reported to be used in some part of the Peruvian Amazon (see Vocabulario Costumbrista de la Selva Peruana in References). Bolivia: Cortapelo(s) was offered by almost all Altiplano respondents (except one who said quitapelos), and aguacil was given by one from el Beni. Paraguay: ajat (or ajat, ahat) was offered as the Guaran term. Argentina: Alguacil/aguacil was offered by the majority of respondents, and tinticaballo is listed in the DEArg with no regional specification. Chile: The DECH defines comecabello(s) and doncellita del agua as synonyms of matapiojos. C1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: aguacil (B), aguja del diablo (F), alguacil (A), caballito del diablo (A or D?), caballito de San Pedro (F), cachicachi (F), cortapelos (F), chapulete (F), diablo/diablito (D), gallito (A), helicptero (D), liblula (A), limpiapoza (F), matapiojos (B), ajat (F), pipilacha (B), San Juan (F), tibiriche (F), turish (F). DRAE definitions: liblula, (Del lat. cient. libellla, dim. de libella, dim. a su vez de libra, balanza; porque se mantiene en equilibrio en el aire). f. Insecto del orden de los Odonatos, de cuerpo largo, esbelto y de colores llamativos, con ojos muy grandes, antenas cortas y dos pares de alas reticulares, que mantiene horizontales cuando se posa. Pasa la primera parte de su vida en forma de ninfa acutica, muy diferente del adulto; caballito del diablo, Insecto del orden de los Odonatos, con cuatro alas estrechas e iguales y de abdomen muy largo y filiforme. De menor tamao que las liblulas, se distingue de estas por el menor nmero de venas de las alas y porque pliega estas cuando se posa; caballito de San Vicente, Cuba y Hond. liblula; aguacil, Arg. y Ur. liblula; alguacil, 6. Arg. y Ur. liblula; chapul, Col. liblula; gallito, C. Rica. liblula; matapiojos, Chile y Col. liblula; pipilacha, rur. Nic. liblula. Questions/Comments: The DRAE distinguishes between liblulas and caballitos del diablo, but to what extent do Spanish speakers from different regions, whether laypersons or entomologists, make such a distinction? No evidence of any was found in this study, but none of the respondents claimed to be a specialist in the subject. Also, if it is true that, in technical language, caballitos del diablo (unlike liblulas) fold back their wings while at rest, how, if at all, are caballitos del diablo distinguished from damiselas which also fold back their wings? The DRAE defines chapul as both a dragonfly and a species of grasshopper or locust, both senses with a regional specification of Colombia, which begs the question: In what regions of Colombia does chapul refer to each sense, and where can it mean both? The DRAE defines pipilacha as rural Nicaraguan usage, but in this study I had no trouble coming up with many urban Nicaraguans, including educated Nicaraguans from downtown Managua, who stated this was their own usage. How should the following terms be spelled? San Juan, san juan or sanjuan? San Vicente, san vicente or sanvicente? In other words, should terms having derived meanings be spelled the same way as the saints they derive from, or should new words be created as in santateresa = praying mantis? The issue also arises in other languages which may seek different solutions. For example, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (see Pickett in References) spells the noun Granny Smith (type of tart apple with green skin) with initial capital letters, but what if this word is used as an adjective? Should the term be spelled 40

Granny Smith apple, granny smith apple, granny-smith apple, grannysmith apple, or some other variant?

C2 C2.1

FIREFLIES / LIGHTNING BUGS Summary

Lucirnaga is the General Spanish term, but many countries have regional names for different types of flying bugs that glow in the dark. Note: In subsection C2.2 below, lucirnaga is listed only in Chile, the one country from which respondents offered no other terms (lucirnaga was offered by some respondents from every country). C2.2 Terms by Country (c. 22 terms plus variants) cuca de llum, lluerna, llumeneta copechi, lucerna chupla-ac, cucs lucerna candelilla, currunco, lucerna quiebraplata candileja, carbunco cocuyo, cucuyo cocuyo cocuyo, cucuyo, nimita cucubano cocuyo candelilla, cocuyo, cucuyo cucoya, cucuya, ninacuro pichincuro, pinchincuro curucus, ninanina bichito de luz, mu bich(it)o de luz bich(it)o de luz, tucu-tucu lucirnaga

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

C2.3

Details

General: Which species are most common in each region, and which terms are used to refer to them? In each region where lucirnaga and another more regional term are used, do most people consider them synonyms or different insects? 41

Spain: Cuca de llum, lluerna and llumeneta were given by Cataln speakers. Are there regional preferences within Cataln-speaking regions, and are any of these terms used by people when speaking Spanish? Mexico: Copechi was offered by two respondents from Sonora, lucerna by one from Chiapas and one from Jalisco, and kokay is used in the Yucatn according to Voces mayas y mayismos en el espaol de Yucatn by Vctor Surez Molina (see section 1.3). Guatemala: Chupla-ac (chupla qaq) was offered by a Quich-speaking respondent, and cucs by a Mam speaker. Honduras: One respondent indicated that currunco refers to a larger type of firefly than candelilla. Nicaragua: Is there a difference between a lucirnaga and a quiebraplata? A few respondents indicated there was but were unable to clearly articulate it. Costa Rica: The DRAE and the NDCR define candelilla as lucirnaga and carbunco or carbunclo as cocuyo and, in this study, one respondent indicated that a carbunco refers to an insect that has the incandescent part on its head, whereas the lucirnaga lights up in the rear part of its body. Panama: One respondent indicated that lucirnaga refers to a smaller firefly that blinks on and off about once every second, whereas the cocuyo or cucuyo is a larger one that stays lit for about seven to ten seconds and then blinks off for about the same amount of time. Cuba: The DECu defines cocuyo as, 3. Nombre de varias especies de colepteros que emiten luminiscencia (Fam.[ilia] Elaterideae, Pyrophorus spp. [varias especies indeterminadas]. Dominican Republic: Respondents indicated that cocuyo and cucuyo refer to a larger variety (or varieties?), and nimita to a smaller variety. Colombia: The NDCol indicates that cocuyo and its variants, cocuy, cucuy and cucuyo, as well as lucirnaga, are General Colombian Spanish terms, but that candelilla is used in Boyac, Cauca and Cundinamarca, minacuro and minancuro in Nario, and tuco in Caquet and Huila. It defines cocuyo as, Coleptero que emite luminiscencia. Este nombre se aplica a varias especies de escarabajos que tienen esta caracterstica, pero sobre todo a los de las familias de los elatridos (Gen. [gnero] Pyrophorus) y de los lampridos (Gen. Cratomorphus). Los primeros tienen dos vesculas luminosas a cada lado del trax, los segundos tienen luminiscencia en los dos segmentos abdominales. Peru: Pichincuro (or pichinquro) and pinchincuro (or pinchinquro) were offered by Quechuaspeaking respondents from Cuzco. What terms are commonly used in the Peruvian Amazon? Bolivia: Curucus (or curuqus) was offered by respondents from the Eastern Lowlands, and ninanina by a Quechua-speaking person from Cochabamba. Paraguay: Mu (or mu) was offered by respondents as the Guaran term. Argentina: The DEArg defines bichito de la luz (with a Rioplatense regional specification), and tuco, tucu-tuco and tucu-tucu (with a Northwest regional specification) as, Nombre de varias especies de insectos del orden de los colepteros, de cuerpo alargado, que pueden llegar a los 50 mm de largo. Pueden presentar dos rganos luminiscentes dispuestos a los lados del trax (Fam.[ilia] Elateridae, Pyrophorus spp. [varias especies indeterminadas] o en dos segmentos del abdomen (Fam. Lampyridae).

42

C2.4

Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: bichito de luz (B), bicho de luz (B), candelilla (A or B?), carbunco (A), cocuyo (A?), cucubano (A), cucuya (A), cucuyo (B), curucus (A?), lucirnaga (A), mu (F), nimita (F). DRAE definitions: lucirnaga, (Del lat. lucerna, candil, lmpara, y el suf. dialect. -aga). f. Insecto coleptero, de tegumento blando y algo ms de un centmetro de largo. El macho es de color amarillo pardusco, y la hembra carece de alas y litros, tiene las patas cortas, y el abdomen, cuyos ltimos segmentos despiden una luz fosforescente, muy desarrollado; cocuyo, (Voz caribe). Insecto coleptero de Amrica tropical, de unos tres centmetros de longitud, oblongo, pardo y con dos manchas amarillentas a los lados del trax, por las cuales despide de noche una luz azulada bastante viva; cocuyo ciego, Cuba. Variedad menor del insecto cocuyo, de color negro y sin fosforescencia; bichito de luz, Arg. lucirnaga; bicho de luz, Arg. y Ur. lucirnaga; candelilla, 5. Chile, C. Rica y Hond. Lucirnaga, gusano de luz; carbunco, 2. C. Rica. cocuyo (|| insecto coleptero); cocuy, Am. Mer. y Ant. cocuyo (|| insecto); cucubano, P. Rico. cocuyo (|| insecto coleptero); cucuy, Am. Mer. y Ant. cocuyo (|| insecto); cucuya, Ecuad. cocuyo (|| insecto); cucuyo, Am. Mer. y Ant. cocuyo (|| insecto); curucus, Bol. Especie de cocuyo menos luminoso; lucerna, 4. p. us. [poco usado] lucirnaga; lucirnago, desus. lucirnaga; tuco2, (Del quechua tucu, brillante). m. Arg. Nombre de diversos colepteros que al saltar se arquean en forma brusca y sonora. Algunos de estos, mayores en tamao, poseen luminosidad en el abdomen. Questions/Comments: The DRAEs glosses in its definitions of carbunco, cocuy, cucubano, cucuy, etc. should be made uniform and consistent, but which gloss is preferable, the more succinct (|| insecto) or the more precise (|| insecto coleptero)? While an argument can be made that the gloss with the greater level of precision is preferable, especially since in this case only one extra word coleptero is added, the opposite position also has merit in that the purpose of the gloss is not to define the term, but merely to point the reader in the appropriate direction (i.e. cucubano = cocuyo-insect, not cocuyo-tree). Do the DRAEs editors really believe that bicho de luz is used in Argentina and Uruguay but bichito de luz is used only in Argentina, as their definitions indicate, or would they confess that they really meant to indicate that both terms are used in both countries? In either case, Paraguay may need to be added to these terms regional specifications.

C3 C3.1

LOCUSTS / GRASSHOPPERS Summary

Langosta and saltamontes are used practically everywhere, but each probably refers to different insects in different places. Many countries have regional terms that are used more frequently to refer to specific types of grasshoppers or locusts that are common in the respective regions.

43

Note: In subsection C3.2 below, langosta and saltamontes are listed only in those countries where no other regional term was offered (saltamontes was offered by some respondents from every country, and langosta by respondents from many countries). C3.2 Terms by Country (c. 13 terms) cigarrn, llagosta chapuln, chocho chapuln, cuch, esperanza chapuln, esperanza chapuln, esperanza chapuln, esperanza, saltador chapuln, esperanza langosta, saltamontes esperanza esperanza esperanza tara chapul, paco-paco chipo pita-pita, tisco-tisco tititi tuc langosta, saltamontes tucura langosta, saltamontes

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

C3.3

Details

General: Saltamontes was given by a majority of respondents from Spain, Nicaragua, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. Saltamontes is often pronounced and written saltamonte, especially in regions where word-final s is aspirated or eliminated. Spain: Llagosta (Cataln term) was given by respondents from Barcelona. Mexico: Chapuln was offered by the vast majority of respondents and chocho by ones from Colima, Guanajuato and Michoacn, but are they the same insect? The DEUMex defines chapuln as (Schistocerca americana) Insecto ortptero, generalmente de color verde amarillento... and chocho as (Mich[oacn] ) Mosquito ortptero saltador. Guatemala: Cuch was offered by a Mam speaker. Nicaragua: The DRAE states that tapachiche refers to a large, red-winged grasshopper. Costa Rica: The NDCR defines esperanza as a variedad de saltamontes de color verde claro, de unos 8 cm de largo and chapuln as langosta, insecto ortptero. It also indicates that tapachiche refers to a large, red-winged grasshopper in Guanacaste (a province that borders Nicaragua), and that chichimeco refers to a saltamontes in the Upala region of Alajuela province. 44

Venezuela: Several respondents indicated that a tara is a type of large, flying grasshopper/locust, but others described it as a type of praying mantis, and still others characterized it as a type of large moth. To what species (singular or plural) does this term refer? Colombia: The NDCol indicates that saltamontes is the General Colombian Spanish term, chapul is used in Nario and Valle, chapuln in Huila and Tolima, and saltn in el Tolima. In my interviews, chapul was offered by one respondent from Buenaventura and paco-paco by several from Barranquilla. Ecuador: Chipo was offered by a respondent from Cuenca, and Luis Corderos Diccionario Quichua defines chipu as Insecto de la clase de los Saltones and ugshachipu as Saltn largo y delgado, que parece una paja. Peru: Tisco-tisco (or tisqo-tisqo) and pita-pita (Quechua terms) were offered by respondents from Cuzco; pita-pita by ones from Llactapampa, Cuzco, Peru. Paraguay: Tuc (or tuk) was offered as the Guaran term and the Spanish equivalent generally given was langosta. Argentina: The DEArg states that tucura is a synonym of langosta and defines the former term as, Insecto ortptero, que se caracteriza por tener poderosas mandbulas y un tercer par de patas muy desarrolladas, adaptadas para el salto (Ord.[en] Orthoptera, Fam.[ilia] Acrididae). Langosta: Is the distinction made between saltamontes and langosta the same distinction throughout the Spanish-speaking world? When shown a picture of a grasshopper from the United States and asked to name the insect, the majority of respondents from Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina (and a substantial number from Bolivia as well) indicated that it is a langosta. One Argentine indicated that a distinction is made between a langosta voladora (orange or brown colored locust) and a langosta saltona (green or light brown grasshopper). Esperanza Esperanza was described by many respondents from Central America and the Antilles as being green in color, in some cases in contrast to other grasshoppers (such as chapulines) that were described as being darker in color. Other terms: Chacuatete was given by several Salvadoran respondents, and two Internet sources indicate that the chacuatete is greenish brown in color, grows up to five centimeters in length, is a pest that attacks coffee, plantains and chayote squash plants, and is common in Central America and southern Mexico (see Juan Barreras Aspectos Bioecolgicos del Chacuatete... and El Chacuatete in References). What regional variation occurs with the use of grillo, cigarra and chicharra? Although these are generally considered types of crickets rather than grasshoppers, some respondents indicated that they use these terms in the sense of grasshoppers. C3.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: chacuatete (F), chapuln (A?), chocho (D), esperanza (D), langosta (A), pacopaco and paco-paco (F), tara (A), tuc (F).

45

DRAE definitions: saltamontes, Insecto ortptero de la familia de los Acrdidos, de cabeza gruesa, ojos prominentes, antenas finas, alas membranosas, patas anteriores cortas y muy robustas y largas las posteriores, con las cuales da grandes saltos. Se conocen numerosas especies, todas herbvoras y muchas de ellas comunes en Espaa; langosta, (De lagosta). f. Insecto ortptero de la familia de los Acrdidos, de color gris amarillento, de cuatro a seis centmetros de largo, cabeza gruesa, ojos prominentes, antenas finas y alas membranosas; el tercer par de patas es muy robusto y a propsito para saltar. Es fitfago, y en ciertas circumstancias se multiplica extraordinariamente, formando espesas nubes que arrasan comarcas enteras; cigarrn, saltamontes; chapul, 2. Col. Especie de langosta o saltamontes; chapuln, (Del nahua chapolin). m. Am. Cen., Col. y Mx. Langosta, cigarrn; saltn, 4. m. Saltamontes, especialmente cuando tiene las alas rudimentarias; tapachiche, Nic. Insecto, especie de langosta grande de alas rojas; tara, 2. Ven. Especie de langosta de tierra, mayor que la comn; tucura, (Del port. brasileo tucura). m. Arg. y Ur. langosta (|| insecto). Questions/Comments: The DRAE distinguishes between saltamontes and langosta in its definitions of these two terms. However, by defining chapul as Especie de langosta o saltamontes and chapuln as langosta, cigarrn, the DRAE seems to be conflating the terms saltamontes, langosta and cigarrn, which contradicts its own definitions of saltamontes and langosta.

C4 C4.1

LADYBUGS / LADYBIRDS Summary

Mariquita is the General Spanish term, but many countries have regional terms that are used more frequently than mariquita. Many of these terms, such as cotorrita, conchita, chinita, petilla, tortolita and vaquita, are also diminutive forms, and many of the base forms, such as cotorra, gallina, loro, peta, trtola and vaca, can refer to birds or animals. Note: In subsection C4.2 below, mariquita is listed only in those countries where no other regional term was offered (mariquita was offered by some respondents from every country). C4.2 Terms by Country (c. 25 terms plus variants) marieta, mariquilla catarina, cajita, conchita, gallinita, vaquita tortolita periquita, tortuguilla, tortuguita mariquita conchita, tortuguita vaquita mariquita cotorrita chincha de palo, vaquita 46

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

vaquita, vaquita de San Pedro coquito petaquita periquita, vaquita de San Antn cochinilla (de San Antn), cucarach(it)a martina, lorito, uchu-uchucuru, vaquita (de San Antn) lorito, petilla, petita, vaquita de San Antonio lembu, lemb pyt, vaquita de San Antonio bichito de San Antonio, San Antonio bich(it)o de la suerte, vaquita de San Antonio chinita, catita

C4.3

Details

General: Mariquita was given by a majority of respondents from Spain, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Spain: Marieta (Cataln term) was given by two respondents from Barcelona. The DRAE defines cochinilla de San Antn and vaca de San Antn as synonyms of mariquita, without specifying provinces or comunidades autnomas, and indicates that gallinita is used in Aragn, Burgos, Crdoba and La Rioja, and margarita in lava, Cdiz, Len and Zaragoza. Mexico: Catarina was offered by respondents from diverse regions, gallinita by ones from Jalisco, Michoacn and Nayarit, cajita by one from Len, and vaquita by one from Chihuahua. Nicaragua: There is some evidence to suggest that conchita is used in the central and southern part of the country whereas tortuguita is used more in the North. Colombia: The NDCol indicates that mariquita is the General Colombian Spanish term, and that petaquita is used in Antioquia, Cundinamarca and el Tolima. Ecuador: Vaquita de San Antn was given by respondents from Guayaquil, and periquita by one from Cotopaxi. Peru: Cucarachita martina was offered by respondents from different regions, cochinilla de San Antn by ones from Lima, lorito by ones from Cuzco and Huancayo, and uchu-uchu-curu (Quechua term) by ones from Cuzco. Bolivia: Petilla and petita were offered by respondents from the Eastern Lowlands, and lorito by one from La Paz; a peta, in the Lowlands, is a turtle. Paraguay: Lembu and lemb pyt were offered as Guaran terms. Lembu means beetle and lemb pyt means little red beetle.

47

C4.4

Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: catarina (F), catarinita (A), conchita (F), coquito (D), cotorrita (A), chinita (D), gallinita (B?), lorito (F), mariquita (A), petilla (F), San Antonio (F), tortolita (D), tortuguita (F), vaca de San Antn (C), vaquita (F), vaquita de San Antn (F), vaquita de San Antonio (F). DRAE definitions: mariquita, (Del dim. de marica). 1. f. Insecto coleptero del suborden de los Trmeros, de cuerpo semiesfrico, de unos siete milmetros de largo, con antenas engrosadas hacia la punta, cabeza pequea, alas membranosas muy desarrolladas y patas muy cortas. Es negruzco por debajo y encarnado brillante por encima, con varios puntos negros en los litros y en el dorso del metatrax. El insecto adulto y su larva se alimentan de pulgones, por lo cual son tiles al agricultor. 2. f. Insecto hemptero, sin alas membranosas, de cuerpo aplastado, estrecho, oval, y como de un centmetro de largo, cabeza pequea, triangular y pegada al coselete, antenas de cuatro artejos, litros que cubren el abdomen, y patas bastante largas y muy finas. Es por debajo de color pardo oscuro y por encima encarnado con tres manchitas negras, cuyo conjunto se asemeja al tao de San Antn o al escudo de la Orden del Carmen. Abunda en Espaa y se alimenta de plantas; catarinita, (Del dim. de Catalina, n. p. [nombre propio]; cf. catana2). f. Mx. Coleptero pequeo y de color rojo; cochinilla de San Antn, mariquita (|| insecto coleptero); cotorrita, Cuba. Nombre genrico de varios insectos colepteros de pequeo tamao, cuerpo abombado casi hemisfrico, de colores muy vivos; gallinita, (Del dim. de gallina). f. Ar.[agn] , Burg.[os] , Crd.[oba] y Rioja. mariquita (|| insecto coleptero); margarita, 7. l[ava] ., Cd[iz] ., Len y Zar[agoza] . mariquita (|| insecto coleptero); vaca de San Antn, mariquita (|| insecto coleptero). Questions/Comments: The DRAE provides two different insect-related senses for mariquita: sense one, Insecto coleptero... and sense two, Insecto hemptero... and it crossreferences several terms to the former sense (cochinilla de San Antn, gallinita, margarita and vaca de San Antn), and none to the latter. But is it true that the terms cross-referenced to mariquita refer only to the insecto coleptero, and not to the insecto hemptero? This seems hard to believe, especially in the case of vaca de San Antn, given that the description of the hemipteran sense of mariquita includes the phrase cuyo conjunto se asemeja al tao de San Antn. In other words, it seems likely that vaca de San Antn can also refer to the insecto hemptero since its patterns are similar to those worn by knights of the Order of San Antonio Abad.

C5 C5.1

MOSQUITOS: Where is zancudo commonly used, and where not? Summary

Zancudo is used in the sense of some type of mosquito (sometimes a generic mosquito, sometimes specifically a long-legged one) in most of the Spanish-speaking world, but in Spain, parts of the Hispanic Antilles, and parts of the River Plate region, zancudo appears not to be used or less commonly used in this sense. 48

C5.2

Zancudo: Commonly used in the sense of (some kind of) mosquito, or not? no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no yes no yes yes yes yes yes, but more said they used only mosquito no no no in some regions, yes in others yes

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

C5.3

Details

General: To what species do the terms zancudo and mosquito refer in the different regions of the Spanish-speaking world? Cuba: Zancudo was not offered by any of this studys Cuban respondents and is not listed in the DECu. Puerto Rico: Several respondents indicated that they believed zancudo is used in the sense of mosquito by older and rural Puerto Ricans, but no independent confirmation of this was obtained. (All Puerto Rican respondents in this study stated that mosquito was the only term they used, generically, to refer to this insect, but none was rural and elderly.) Argentina: Zancudo is listed in the DEArg in the sense of long-legged mosquito with no regional specification, and this was confirmed by a handful of respondents in this study. However, the majority of respondents from the province of Buenos Aires were not familiar with this term and indicated that mosquito was the only term they used to refer, generically, to all mosquitos. An Argentine from Santa Fe indicated that zancudo refers to the long-legged mosquito that does not bite. Other terms: The following are a few other words for mosquitos and/or gnats that were offered by respondents or found in written sources: chitra (Panama, small mosquito; is it more like a jejn, gnat?); chuspi (Peru, Bolivia, Quechua term); marigu (Beni, Bolivia) and 49

mbarigu (Paraguay, Guaran term, small mosquito = polvorn, see below); ati (or ati, ati, at, Paraguay, Guaran term); utuchuspi (Ecuador, listed as the Quichua term in Luis Corderos Diccionario Quichua); polvorn (Paraguay, small mosquito = mbarigu); puguilla (Beni, Bolivia, long-legged mosquito); pumahuacachi (Peru, type of particularly fierce mosquito near the Apurmac River; according to an article by Toby Fenton in the magazine Amricas, pumahuacachi in Quechua means hace llorar al puma, Fenton, 11); yahuar choncaj (Cuzco, Peru, Quechua term). The term mosco is also used in many countries in the sense of mosquito. Is this usage universal? C5.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Zancudo is defined as 3. Am. mosquito. Is the regional specification Am. adequate here, or should the DRAE specify the regions of Spanish America in which zancudo is commonly used in this sense?

APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL TOPICS The following is a small selection of miscellaneous topics in the field of Spanish lexical dialectology relating to animals, birds and insects. badger. Tejn is the General Spanish term, and tlalcoyote is used in Mexico. bite or sting (mosquito bite, bee sting, etc.). Who says picada, who says piquete, who says picado, who says picadura, who says all of the above, who uses other nouns, and who only uses forms of the verb picar? coati. Coat and coatimundi are generic terms but specific varieties include pisote/pizote (Central America), cusumbe/cuzumbe and cusumbo/cuzumbo (parts of South America). dog. In addition to standard perro and literary can, there are regional terms many of which tend to be used to refer to dogs in a pejorative way, to mutts, or to stray dogs: chin (Guatemala, Mam term; the n is velar); choco (Mendoza, Argentina); chucho (Spain, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras); lebrel, gosque, chandoso and chanchoso (Colombia); quiltro and quilto (Chile); sato (Puerto Rico?); zaguate/saguate (Costa Rica); yagu (Paraguay, Guaran term). frog (special type in the Antilles). The frog that in Puerto Rico is called coqu (smbolo nacional borinqueo) goes by the name of maco in the Dominican Republic. What is this frog called in Cuba? horns. The DRAE defines cacho as Am. cuerno (|| de animal) but is cacho used in this sense throughout Spanish America, or only in certain countries? Which ones? jaguar. Jaguar is the General Spanish term, but tigre appears to be widely used in this sense in Spanish America. A more offbeat equivalent is yaguaret (Argentina, Paraguay, Guaran term). The DRAE also lists yaguar with no regional specification, according to which yaguar means jaguar and the suffix et means true. 50

ocelot / bobcat. In addition to tigrillo, which appears to be widely used in Spanish America to refer to different types of ocelotes and gatos monteses, are the following regional names: caucel (Honduras?, Nicaragua, Costa Rica); cunaguaro (Venezuela); len breero (Costa Rica); manigordo (Costa Rica, Panama); yaguaret-, yagu pyt, yagua tirica and tirica (Paraguay, Guaran terms); zonte (El Salvador). jellyfish. Medusa is used in Spain, but most other Spanish-speaking countries have another word for (some kind of) jellyfish that is more common in everyday language: aguamala (Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Cuba, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, often spelled agua mala); aguaviva (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, Argentina, often spelled agua viva); chichicaste (El Salvador; this term also refers to a type of plant that causes irritation); fragata brasilera (Colombia, according to the NDCol); gelatina (Honduras?); hilo de oro (Costa Rica); malagua (Peru); moca grumer (Mallorca, Spain, Cataln term, and elsewhere in Cataln/Valenciano-speaking Spain?). The DRAE also lists aguamar (as a synonym of medusa) and aguaverde (as a synonym of medusa verde), neither with any regional specification. mice / rats. Ratn and rata are the General Spanish terms for mouse and rat, respectively, but there are many other regional terms for different types of mice and rats: anguch or anguy (Paraguay, Guaran term, mouse?); cururo (Chile, type of rat, according to the DRAE); guarn (Chile, large rat; the DECH indicates it is a synonym of pericote); guayabito (Cuba, small mouse); jucucha (Bolivia, Peru, mouse, Quechua term); juta (Cuba, large rat); laucha (Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, small mouse); pericote (Chile, Peru, large rat); rajiero (Puerto Rico, mouse). The problem with trying to find, if not equivalences, at least commonalities, is that the field quickly opens up to include not only mice and rats but also guinea pigs, agouties and a host of other small to medium-sized rodents with a dizzying array of regional names. monkey. Mono is the General Spanish term for a generic monkey, but many Mexicans use chango in this sense. In addition, mico, although part of General Spanish with the meaning of long-tailed monkey, is quite common in Colombia in the generic sense of mono (monkey). Indigenous terms include the following: ca (or ka, Paraguay, Guaran term); coy (or cooy, Guatemala, Quich term); cusillo (or qusillo, Peru, Quechua term; cushillu is listed in Luis Corderos Diccionario Quichua with the translation of desus. Mono); ishmash (Guatemala, Mam term). owls (and owl-like birds). Bho and lechuza are used everywhere, but they most likely refer to different birds in different places. According to the DRAE (and presumably in Spain), the bho is a type of horned owl whereas the lechuza is lighter in color and has a rounded head and face, similar in appearance to what in the United States would be called a snowy owl. But when different Spanish speakers speak of bhos and lechuzas to what species are they referring? The following are some regional terms for different types of owls, many of which, like bhos and lechuzas, are considered to be bad omens: cavure (Paraguay, Guaran term, also spelled cavure-i); cuscungu (Ecuador, Quichua term, according to Luis Corderos Diccionario Quichua); chuncho (Chile); currusposa, curruspusa, estucur, gua, oropopo, pa de len, hu de len, sorococa and corococa (Costa Rica, according to the NDCR; oropopo is defined as bho and the remaining 51

terms as types of lechuzas, some with provincial specifications); jucu (Bolivia); mcaro (Puerto Rico); mussol (Catalua, Spain; Cataln term); acurut (Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Guaran term); quitilipi (the Northwest of Argentina, according to the DEArg); shipu-ch (Guatemala, Mam term); sij and sij platanero (Cuba); tecolote (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras); tuco or tucu (Peru, Bolivia); tucur (Guatemala); tucquere and tuccaro (Chile, large owl), urukurea (Paraguay, Guaran term). There are also mochuelos and autillos, which the DRAE describes as looking similar to lechuzas. Which countries have mochuelos or autillos, and what are the species that the terms refer to in each country? praying mantis. Mantis religiosa appears to be the closest thing there is to a General Spanish term, but it is also one of the scientific names for this insect. Santateresa and rezadora are listed in the DRAE and predicador in the Pequeo Larousse Ilustrado (see Garca-Pelayo y Gross in References), none with any regional specification. Most of the following terms were offered in this sense by respondents: alma de caballo (Bucaramanga, Colombia); azatador (Michoacn, Mexico); botella (Guerrero, Mexico?); caballo del monte (Colombia); calentura (Guerrero, Mexico?); campamocha (Mexico); caspicuro (or kaspikuro, Cuzco, Peru, Quechua term?); cerbatana (Venezuela); juanpalo (Costa Rica, according to the NDCR); madreculebra (Honduras, Nicaragua); mamboret (Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay); mangosta (San Luis Potos, Mexico?); marapalito(s) (Dominican Republic, Colombia); maraseca (Costa Rica; should it be spelled mara seca, maraseca or mariaseca?); matacaballo(s) (Colombia, Ecuador?, Nayarit, Mexico?); mboi-sy (Paraguay, Guaran term); mula del diablo (Costa Rica); ponemesa (Comayagua, Honduras?); quiebrapalillos and quiebrapalitos (El Salvador, Guatemala); tatadis (Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay); tucura (Santa Cruz, Bolivia?); visita (Beni, Bolivia?). raccoon. Mapache is the General Spanish term, but the following are more regionally weighted: mapachn (El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and elsewhere in Central America?); osito lavador and mano pelada (Argentina?, Uruguay?); zorro lavamanos and zorro manipelado (Colombia, according to the NDCol). snake. Culebra and serpiente are the General Spanish terms for a generic snake (though the latter is perhaps more literary for many Spanish speakers), but many Mexicans use vbora in this general sense (not specifically a viper) more often than culebra. In what other countries is vbora used more frequently than culebra in a generic sense? Mboy (or mboi) is the Guaran term (Paraguay). tarantula. Tarntula is the General Spanish term, and regional equivalents include the following: araa mona (Venezuela); araa caballo (El Salvador and elsewhere?); araa picacaballo and picacaballo (Central America); araa peluda or araa pela (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and elsewhere?); araa pollito (Argentina); cacata (Dominican Republic); conga (Antioquia, Colombia?); pasallalli (Cochabamba, Bolivia, Quechua term); pasanca and apasanca (Lowland Bolivia); and guas and and cabay (Paraguay, Guaran terms). woodpecker. Pjaro carpintero is the General Spanish term, but the following are some regional equivalents that refer to different types of woodpeckers: Copete, cosorr and equi (Costa Rica, according to the NDCR; copete is listed with no regional specification, and 52

coscorr and equi as used in the province of San Jos); cheje (El Salvador); picachengue (El Salvador); picapalo (Sonora, Mexico; Chile, Uruguay, Argentina? Note the similarity to Portuguese pica-pau = woodpecker); sachatacaj (Cuzco, Peru, Quechua term); yaquilo (Bolivia); ypek (Paraguay, Guaran term). Alas, due to the influence of Disney, when asked to name the bird that pecks away at trees, many Spanish speakers reply Ah, s, el Pjaro Loco (Woody Woodpecker). NOTES 1. I would like to express my appreciation to Lucrecia Hug and Sharlee Merner Bradley for editing earlier drafts and making a number of valuable suggestions, to Clary Loisel for directly and indirectly providing ideas, and to Kirk Anderson for going out of his way to put me in contact with informants/respondents. Last but not least, I would like to thank all those who generously gave of their time to answer questions on usage. 2. If you are interested in obtaining information on items in other domains or semantic fields whose names in Spanish vary by region (and have not yet overdosed on Spanish regionalisms after reading this article), see the following works by Andre Moskowitz: Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: back to basics. Proceedings of the 44th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A., November 5-8, 2003. Ed. Scott Brennan. American Translators Association, 2003. 287343. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: la ciudad y los fueros. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A., November 6-9, 2002. Ed. Scott Brennan. American Translators Association, 2002. 353-399. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: folks. Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A., October 31November 3, 2001. Ed. Thomas L. West III. American Translators Association, 2001. 268-301. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: kids stuff. Proceedings of the 41st Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A., September 20-23, 2000. Ed. Thomas L. West III. American Translators Association, 2000. 328-366. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: food and drink. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., November 3-6, 1999. Ed. Ann G. Macfarlane. American Translators Association, 1999. 275-308. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: the home. Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, U.S.A., November 4-8, 1998. Ed. Ann G. Macfarlane. American Translators Association, 1998. 221-253. Fruit and vegetable terminology in the Spanish-speaking world: regional variation. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, San Francisco, 53

California, U.S.A., November 5-9, 1997. Ed. Muriel M. Jrme-OKeeffe. American Translators Association, 1997. 233-261. Clothing terminology in the Spanish-speaking world: regional variation. Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Colorado Springs, Colorado, U.S.A., October 30-November 3, 1996. Ed. Muriel M. Jrme-OKeeffe. American Translators Association, 1996. 287-308. Car terminology in the Spanish-speaking world. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A., November 8-12, 1995. Ed. Peter W. Krawutschke. American Translators Association, 1995. 331-340. Contribucin al estudio del espaol ecuatoriano. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Department of Romance Languages and Literatures, University of Florida. Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A. 1995. A box of office supplies: dialectological fun The Georgetown Journal of Languages & Linguistics. Vol 1.3. Ed. Richard J. OBrien, S.J. 1990. 315-344. 3. How to refer to the indigenous languages themselves is often as much a social, political and identity issue as a linguistic one. For example, the Maya Quich respondents from the Yucatan Peninsula referred to their language as Maya whereas those from Guatemala called theirs Quich and I have followed their designations even though the two are varieties of a single language. In the case of Quechua, Ecuadorans refer to their variety as Quichua (and consider Quechua to be varieties spoken in Peru and Bolivia). Similarly, one may ask __in the case of a words etymology, for example__when Spanish dictionaries should refer to guaran, when to tup and when to tup-guaran. As the Brazilian modernist Oswald de Andrade put it in his famous phrase, Tupi or not tupi, that is the question. 4. The spelling of words can also be a social, political and identity issue: When asked how to spell the city of Cusco/Cuzco, some Peruvians accept both spellings, some prefer Cuzco, and some reply that Los espaoles lo escriben con z, nosotros con s. While the Peruvians who make this last claim are ostensibly referring to todays Spaniards, their comments also appear to invoke the (mis)deeds of Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and others who participated in the sanguinary conquest of the Tawantinsuyo or Incan Empire. 5. The pronunciation of sunsn by a Spanish American and a Spaniard from Castilla will generally not be identical as the latter will tend to use an apical s, a consonant that sounds in between a Spanish American s and an English sh. In addition, there is the question of whether sunsns final n is realized as a velar or an alveolar. This is the difference between the final consonantal sound in English thing or sing (velar n) vs. thin or sin (alveolar n). The two allophones for word-final n are about equally distributed in the Spanish-speaking world (roughly half the regions are velar and the other half alveolar), but a Cubans word-final n is generally velar and a Castilians alveolar. The pronunciations of s, c/z, and word-final n have long been issues that are central to Spanish phonetic and phonological dialectology; how s and c/z have been pronounced (at different times and in different places) is also fundamental to Spanish historical 54

linguistics. When and if Spanish lexical dialectology becomes established as a field of inquiry, the words used for hummingbirds will be one of its classic topics.

REFERENCES Adultos de Damiselas 200201.htm de Verano. www.rios-y-senderos.com/baul/aguas-silen-ciosas-

Alguns insectes comuns als pasos catalans. www.gra-vi.com/ac-tivitats/se-cun-daria/suport/bio-web/Imatges/in-sects.htm. Asociacin Cultural Antonio de Nebrija. www.antonio-denebrija.org-/biografia Bailey, Richard W. 2001. American English abroad (Chapter 14) in The Cambridge History of the English Language. Volume VI. English in North America. John Algeo, ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 456-496. Barrera, Juan, et al. Aspectos Bioecolgicos del Chacuatete Idiarthron Subquadratum (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) en Cafetales de Chiapas, Mxico. www.ih-cafe.org/xx-simposio/caca-huate-.htm. El Chacuatete. 2001. El Caf, Mitos y Realidades. R. D. Comercial, S .A. de C.V. www.portaldel-cafe.com/por-taldelcafe/mo-dulos/ar-ticulos/ar-ti-culo-.asp-?art-num=31. El Chigire. www.mi-punto.com/vene-zuela-virtual/temas/2do_tri-mestre03/chi-guire.html Cordero, Luis. 1989. Diccionario Quichua / Quichua Shimiyuc Panca. Quito, Ecuador: Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, Corporacin Editora Nacional. Corominas, Joan. 1954. Diccionario Crtico Etimolgico de la Lengua Castellana. Bern, Switzerland: Editorial Francke. Corts, Hernn. 1975. Cartas de Relacin. Foreword by Manuel Alcal. Mexico City, Mexico: Editorial Porra, S.A. (Epigraph from pp. 61-63.) Del Valle, Jos and Luis Gabriel-Stheeman, eds. 2002. The Battle over Spanish between 1800 and 2000 / Language ideologies and Hispanic intellectuals. Routledge Studies in the History of Linguistics. London, England and New York, U.S.A.: Routledge. El armadillo: pequeo, frgil acorazado En Yucatn se le conoce como huech in Diario Yucatn El Peridico de la Vida Peninsular, Especies locales en peligro de extincin. www.yucatan.com.mx/es-peciales/fauna-enextincion/ar-madillo.asp 55

Fenton, Toby. El Otro Camino del Inca in June 2004 issue of Amricas. Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States. pp. 8-15. Finegan, Edward. 2001. Usage (Chapter 11) in The Cambridge History of the English Language. Volume VI. English in North America. John Algeo, ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 358-421. Garca-Pelayo y Gross, Ramn, ed. 1988. Pequeo Larousse Ilustrado. 12th edition. Mexico City, Mexico: Ediciones Larousse. Gonzlez Jimnez, Eduardo. 1995. El capibara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) Estado actual de su produccin. Estudio FAO produccin y sanidad animal 122. Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentacin. www.fao.org-/docrep-/004/v4590s-/v4590-s00.htm. Haensch, Gnther and Reinhold Werner. 2000. Diccionario del Espaol de Argentina / Espaol de Argentina-Espaol de Espaa. (DEArg) Madrid, Spain: Editorial Gredos, S.A. Haensch, Gnther and Reinhold Werner. 2000. Diccionario del Espaol de Cuba / Espaol de Cuba-Espaol de Espaa. (DECu) Madrid, Spain: Editorial Gredos, S.A. Haensch, Gnther and Reinhold Werner. 1993. Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos. Tomo I. Nuevo Diccionario de Colombianismos. (NDCol) Bogot, Colombia: Instituto Caro y Cuervo. Herranz, Atanasio. 2001. Formacin histrica y zonas dialectales del espaol en Honduras in II Congreso Internacional de la Lengua Espaola. Unidad y diversidad del espaol. El espaol de Amrica. Valladolid, Spain, October 16-19, 2001. Found at www.cvc.cer-vantes.es/ob-ref/con-gresos/valla-dolid/ponen-cias/uni-dad_diver-sidad_del_es-panol/2_el_es-pa-nol_de_ameri-ca/herranz_a.htm. Jimnez, Mariano. 2002-2003. Las Zarigeyas. supialia/didel-phi-dae/nom-bres.htm www.dami-sela.com/zoo-/mam/mar-

Kallen, Jeffrey L. 1994. English in Ireland (Chapter 4) in The Cambridge History of the English Language. Volume V. English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Robert Burchfield, ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 148-196. Lara, Luis Fernando. 1996. Diccionario del Espaol Usual en Mxico. (DEUMex) Mexico City, Mexico: El Colegio de Mxico.

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Lighter, Jonathan E. 2001. Slang (Chapter 6) in The Cambridge History of the English Language. Volume VI. English in North America. John Algeo, ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 219-252. Los Tres Nombres del Zumbador Sagrado Guani Guacariga Guaracacigaba. www -.tai-notribe-.org-/co-libri-s.htm Menndez Pidal, Ramn. 1945. La unidad del idioma in Castilla, la tradicin, el idioma. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Espasa-Calpe Argentina, S.A. pp. 171-218. (Discurso inaugural de la Asamblea del Libro Espaol, celebrada en Madrid el 31 de mayo de 1944.) Morales Pettorino, Flix, scar Quiroz Mejas and Juan Jos Pea lvarez. 1984. Diccionario Ejemplificado de Chilenismos y de otros usos diferenciales del espaol de Chile. (DECH) 4 volumes. Academia Superior de Ciencias Pedaggicas de Valparaso. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Universitaria. Ojeda, Ricardo A. and Stella M. Giannoni. 2000. Lista de Marsupiales de Argentina / The Marsupials of Argentina: An Annotated Checklist of their Distribution and Conservation 2000. www.cri-cyt-.edu-.ar/insti-tutos/iadiza/oje-da/mar-supiales.htm#ca-luromys Pederson, Lee. 2001. Dialects (Chapter 7) in The Cambridge History of the English Language. Volume VI. English in North America. John Algeo, ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 253-290. Pickett, Joseph P., ed. 2000. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 4th edition. Boston, New York, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Quesada Pacheco, Miguel A. 2001. Nuevo Diccionario de Costarriqueismos. (NDCR) 3rd edition. Instituto Tecnolgico de Costa Rica. Cartago, Costa Rica: Editorial Tecnolgica de Costa Rica. Real Academia Espaola. 2001. Diccionario de la Lengua Espaola. (DRAE) 22nd edition. Madrid, Spain: Editorial Espasa-Calpe, S.A. Santamara, Francisco J. 1942. Diccionario General de Americanismos. 1st edition. Mexico City, Mexico: Editorial Pedro Robredo. Steiner, Roger, ed. 1997. Simon & Schusters International Dictionary English/Spanish Spanish/English. 2nd edition. New York, USA: Simon & Schusters, Inc. Surez Molina, Vctor. 2000. Voces mayas y mayismos en el espaol de Yucatn www.uady.mx/si-tios/ma-yas/in-vestigaciones/socio-lin/voces.html. (This work is based on El espaol que se habla en Yucatn: Apuntamientos filolgicos. 3rd edition corrected by 57

Miguel Gmez Pineda. Ediciones de la Universidad Autnoma de Yucatn, Mrida, Yucatn, 1996.) Turner, George W. 1994. English in Australia (Chapter 6) in The Cambridge History of the English Language. Volume V. English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Robert Burchfield, ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 277-327. Vocabulario Costumbrista de la Selva Peruana. www.in-for-ma-tik.uni-stutt-gart.de/-ifi/-bs/schlebbe/-peru/mis-celaneos/vocabulario.html Zarigeya Comn / Didelphis marsupialis www.am-biente-eco-logico.com/edi-cion-es-/072-072000-/072-pub_fan-bolivia.html

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ANTONIO DE NEBRIJA (1444-1522)

From the province of Sevilla, Spain, Antonio de Nebrija was a philologist, historian, teacher, grammarian, astronomer and poet. At age fifteen he enrolled at the University of Salamanca and four years later graduated with a degree in rhetoric and grammar. He then traveled to Italy and for ten years studied Greek, Latin, Hebrew, theology, medicine, law, cosmography, mathematics, geography, history, grammar and ethics at the University of Bologna. In 1470, Nebrija returned to Spain as a spokesperson for the humanism he was exposed to in Italy and became an outspoken critic of Spains intellectual backwardness, a position which landed him in trouble with Inquisition authorities on more than one occasion. At the University of Salamanca, he revolutionized the teaching of Latin and, in 1481, published Introductiones Latinae, which he then translated into the lengua vulgar as Spanish was called at that time. In t he 1490s, he completed his Gramtica de la lengua castellana, which was the first grammar ever written of a Romance language in a Romance language. His Gramtica gave rise to other similar works in other European languages as people began to realize that their languages were just as worthy of study and analysis as Latin and Greek. There were also political reasons why Nebrija wrote his Gramtica for, as he explained upon presenting it to Queen Isabel la Catlica, it was necessary to fijar la lengua which would be la compaera del Imperio to be spread throughout Spanish America. At the time, no one knew what the consequences of Columbuss Discovery or Encuentro de dos mundos would be, but it was as if Nebrija foresaw that his obscure language, born in the north of Spain, would one day become the second most spoken international language on the planet that Spanish is today. In 1495, he published the Spanish languages first dictionary, the Vocabulario espaol-latn, latn-espaol. Nebrija was not only a philologist and linguist, but a Renaissance man who published works in theology (Quinquagenas), law (Lexicon Juris Civilis), archeology (Antigedades de Espaa), and pedagogy (De Liberis Educandis). Although he was interested in spreading the teachings of the classics, he was also intent on organizing the knowledge he had acquired and making it accessible to as many people as possible. (See www.antoniodenebrija.org/biografia.)

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