4/1/2021

Fuente: Campbell Biology

Objetivo: Conocer los dominios y reinos de la vida y sus características

Valeria Ochoa Ph.D

Fuente: Biología de Solomon

Nombre científico
Los biólogos usan nombres científicos para referirse a los taxones creados por
la ciencia de la taxonomía.

Las reglas para crear nombres científicos están escritas en los Códigos
Internacionales de Nomenclatura, y hay uno para cada disciplina (plantas,
animales, bacterias y virus).

Los nombres científicos de las especies son binominales, es decir, están

compuestos por dos palabras: la primera es el nombre genérico, y la segunda,
el nombre específico.

Sin excepción, los nombres de las especies siempre aparecerán escritos en

cursivas (en el caso de los textos tipografiados) o subrayados (en el caso de los
textos escritos a mano).

Biología - Dra. Valeria Ochoa

Our understanding of the tree

of life continues to change
based on new data

1

At certain times of year, the Laguna Salada
de Torrevieja in Spain appears pink.
The pink color comes from trillions of
prokaryotes in the domains Archaea and
Bacteria, including archaea in the genus
Halobacterium. These archaea have red
membrane pigments. Halobacterium species
are among the most salt-tolerant organisms
on Earth; they thrive in salinities that
dehydrate and kill other cells.
4/1/2021
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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wGVgIcTpZkk (7:30 min)
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Structural and functional
adaptations contribute to
prokaryotic success
• Prokaryotic species are very well adapted to extreme
and “normal” habitats. Their ability to adapt to a
broad range of habitats helps explain why prokaryotes
are the most abundant organisms on Earth. The
number of prokaryotes in a handful of fertile soil is
greater than the number of people who have ever
lived.
• The first organisms to inhabit Earth were prokaryotes.
• Most prokaryotes are unicellular, although the cells of
some species remain attached to each other after cell
division. Although they are unicellular and small,
prokaryotes are well organized, achieving all of an
organism’s life functions within a single cell.
Cell-Surface Structures
• The cell wall maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment.
• In a hypertonic environment, most prokaryotes lose water and shrink away from their wall (plasmolyze). Such
water losses can inhibit cell reproduction. Thus, salt can be used to preserve foods because it causes food-
spoiling prokaryotes to lose water, preventing them from rapidly multiplying.
• Most bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short
polypeptides.
• Archaeal cell walls contain a variety of polysaccharides and proteins but lack peptidoglycan.
• Gram stain can categorize many bacterial species according to differences in cell wall composition.
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Cell-Surface Structures
• The lipid portions in the walls of many gram-
negative bacteria are toxic, causing fever or
shock.
• The outer membrane of a gram-negative
bacterium helps protect it from the body’s
defenses.
• The effectiveness of certain antibiotics, such as
penicillin, derives from their inhibition of
peptidoglycan cross-linking. The resulting cell
wall may not be functional, particularly in gram-
positive bacteria. Such drugs destroy many
species.

Cell-Surface Structures Cell-Surface Structures

• The cell wall of many prokaryotes is surrounded by a sticky • Some prokaryotes stick to their substrate or to one
layer of polysaccharide or protein. This layer is called a another by means of hair-like appendages called
capsule. Enables prokaryotes to adhere to their substrate or fimbriae (fimbria)
to other individuals in a colony. Protect against dehydration.
• Fimbriae are usually shorter and more numerous
• Certain bacteria develop resistant cells called endospores than pili (singular, pilus), appendages that pull two
when they lack water or essential nutrients. The original cell cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to
produces a copy of its chromosome and surrounds that copy the other.
with a multilayered structure, forming the endospore. Most
endospores are so durable that they can survive in boiling
water. In less hostile environments, endospores can remain
dormant but viable for centuries, able to rehydrate and
resume metabolism when their environment improves.

Motility Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

• About half of all prokaryotes are capable • Eukaryotic means “true nucleus” (from the Greek eu, true, and karyon,
of taxis, a directed movement toward or nucleus), and prokaryotic means “before nucleus” (from the Greek pro,
away from a stimulus. before).
• For example, prokaryotes that exhibit • Within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, suspended in cytosol, are a
chemotaxis change their movement variety of organelles of specialized form and function. These membrane
pattern in response to chemicals. They bounded structures are absent in almost all prokaryotic cells.
may move toward nutrients or oxygen
• In spite of the absence of organelles, some prokaryotes contain regions
(positive chemotaxis) or away from a toxic
surrounded by proteins (not membranes), within which specific reactions
substance (negative chemotaxis).
take place.
• Some species can move at velocities
• Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells . Typical
exceeding 50 μm/sec. For perspective,
bacteria are 1–5 μm in diameter. Eukaryotic cells are typically 10–100 μm in
consider that a person 1.7 m tall moving
diameter.
that fast would be running 306 km/hour.
• Of the various structures that enable
prokaryotes to move, the most common
are flagella.

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Revisar los siguientes links para complementar la clase

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W25nI9kpxtU (7 min)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-z9-9OOWC4&t=4s (11 min)

En youtube (en configuración, subtítulos, traducción automática,

español) se pueden añadir subtítulos en español

Biología - Dra. Valeria Ochoa

Leeuwenhoek wrote, “No

more pleasant sight has
met my eye than this, of so
many thousands of living
creatures in one small drop
of water.

Protists Most eukaryotes are single-celled organisms

• Protists are mostly unicellular groups of eukaryotes informally known as protists. • Unlike the cells of prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have
a nucleus and other membrane-enclosed
• Many of these organisms are just 0.5–2 μm in diameter—as small as many prokaryotes.
organelles, making the structure and organization of
• The kingdom in which all protists once were classified, Protista, has been abandoned, and various protest eukaryotic cells more complex than those of
lineages are now recognized as major groups in their own right. prokaryotic cells.
• Most biologists still use the term protist, but only as a convenient way to refer to eukaryotes that are not • Eukaryotic cells also have a well-developed
plants, animals, or fungi. cytoskeleton that extends throughout the cell. The
cytoskeleton provides the structural support that
enables eukaryotic cells to have asymmetric
(irregular) forms, as well as to change in shape as
they feed, move, or grow.
• Most eukaryotic lineages are protists, and most
protists are unicellular.

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Structural and Functional

Diversity in Protists
• Most protists are unicellular, although there are some colonial
and multicellular species.
• Single-celled protists are justifiably considered the simplest
eukaryotes, but at the cellular level, many protists are very
complex—the most elaborate of all cells.
• In multicellular organisms, essential biological functions are
carried out by organs. Unicellular protists carry out the same
essential functions, but they do so using subcellular organelles,
not multicellular organs.
• Certain protists also rely on organelles not found in most other
eukaryotic cells, such as contractile vacuoles that pump excess
water from the protistan cell.

Revisar los siguientes links para complementar la clase

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8deF3Rw4ti4 (5 min)

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Biología - Dra. Valeria Ochoa

These little mushrooms are just the aboveground
portion of a vast network of filaments located
beneath the forest floor. As they grow, these fungal
filaments absorb nutrients, some of which they
transfer to the roots of trees. In turn, the trees
provide the fungi with sugars produced in
photosynthesis.
Fungi
• Some fungi are exclusively single-celled, though most
have complex multicellular bodies.
• These diverse organisms are found in just about every
imaginable terrestrial and aquatic habitat.
• Fungi are not only diverse and widespread but also
essential for the well-being of most ecosystems. They
break down organic material and recycle nutrients,
allowing other organisms to assimilate essential chemical
elements.
• Humans make use of fungi as a food source, for
applications in agriculture and forestry, and in
manufacturing products.
• But it is also true that some fungi cause disease in plants
and animals.

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Nutrition and Ecology Nutrition and Ecology

• Like animals, fungi are heterotrophs.
• Different species live as decomposers, parasites, or mutualists.
• They cannot make their own food as plants and algae can.
• Fungi that are decomposers break down and absorb nutrients from
• Many fungi absorb nutrients by secreting hydrolytic non-living organic material, such as fallen logs, animal corpses, and the
enzymes into their surroundings. These enzymes break wastes of living organisms.
down complex molecules to smaller organic compounds
that the fungi can absorb into their cells and use. • Parasitic fungi absorb nutrients from the cells of living hosts. Some
parasitic fungi are pathogenic, including many species that cause
• Other fungi use enzymes to penetrate the walls of cells, diseases in plants and others that cause diseases in animals.
enabling the fungi to absorb nutrients from the cells.
• Mutualistic fungi also absorb nutrients from a host organism, but they
• Collectively, the different enzymes found in various fungal reciprocate with actions that benefit the host. Mutualistic fungi that
species can digest compounds from a wide range of live within the digestive tracts of certain termite species use their
sources, living or dead. enzymes to break down wood.

Body Structure Body Structure

• The most common fungal body structures are multicellular The bodies of multicellular fungi
filaments and single cells (yeasts). typically form a network of tiny
filaments called hyphae. Hyphae
• Yeasts often inhabit moist environments, including plant sap and
consist of tubular cell walls
animal tissues, where there is a ready supply of soluble nutrients,
such as sugars and amino acids. surrounding the plasma membrane
and cytoplasm of the cells.

Body Structure Body Structure

• Fungal hyphae form an interwoven
• The cell walls are strengthened by chitin, a strong but flexible polysaccharide. mass called a mycelium that
infiltrates the material on which the
• Chitin-rich walls can enhance feeding by absorption. The movement of water into fungal cells creates pressure fungus feeds.
that could cause them to burst if they were not surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
• Just 1 cm3 of rich soil may contain as
• Another important structural feature of most fungi is that their hyphae are divided into cells by cross-walls, or much as 1 km of hyphae.
septa.
• Septa generally have pores large enough to allow ribosomes, mitochondria, and even nuclei to flow from cell
to cell.
• Some fungi lack septa, these organisms consist of a continuous cytoplasmic mass having hundreds or
thousands of nuclei.

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Specialized Hyphae in
Mycorrhizal Fungi
• Some fungi have specialized hyphae that allow them to feed on living
animals, while others have modified hyphae called haustoria that
enable them to extract nutrients from plants.
• Specialized branching hyphae such as arbuscules that they use to
exchange nutrients with their plant hosts. Such mutually beneficial
relationships between fungi and plant roots are called mycorrhizae.
• Mycorrhizal fungi can improve delivery of phosphate ions and other
minerals to plants because the vast mycelial networks of the fungi
are more efficient than the plants’ roots at acquiring these minerals
from the soil. In exchange, the plants supply the fungi with organic
nutrients such as carbohydrates.
• Almost all vascular plants have mycorrhizae and rely on their fungal
partners for essential nutrients.
• Foresters commonly inoculate pine seedlings with mycorrhizal fungi
to promote growth.
Revisar los siguientes links para complementar la clase
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dj9m7Oc36wM (8 min)
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Biología - Dra. Valeria Ochoa
It is a head of romanesco, an edible relative of
broccoli. Romanesco looks as if it were generated
by a computer, it’s because its growth pattern
follows a repetitive sequence of instructions.
4/1/2021
Fungi produce spores through sexual
or asexual life cycles
• Most fungi propagate themselves by producing vast
numbers of spores.
• Spores can be carried long distances by wind or water.
If they land in a moist place where there is food, they
germinate, producing a new mycelium.
• To appreciate how effective spores are at dispersing,
leave a slice of melon exposed to the air. Even without a
visible source of spores nearby, within a week, you will
likely observe fuzzy mycelia growing from microscopic
spores that have fallen onto the melon.
Plants have a hierarchical organization consisting of
organs, tissues, and cells
• Plants, like most animals, are composed of cells, tissues, and organs.
• In a plant, as in any multicellular organism, cells undergo cell differentiation; that is, they become
specialized in structure and function during the course of development.
• Cell differentiation may involve changes both in the cytoplasm and its organelles and in the cell wall.
• The cell walls contain cellulose
• Autotroph organisms
• Multicelular
• Eukaryotic
• Photosynthetic autotrophs
• Chloroplasts with chlorophylls a and b
• Cell walls made of cellulose
• Energy stored as starch
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Plants evolved from green algae

Nonvascular plants (bryophytes) Vascular plants (tracheophytes) Seedless vascular plants

Bryophyte gametophytes generally form ground-hugging carpets, their body parts are too thin to support
a tall plant. The absence of vascular tissue, which would enable long-distance transport of water and
nutrients

Fisiología Vegetal - Dra. Valeria Ochoa Fisiología Vegetal - Dra. Valeria Ochoa

Vascular plants with seeds Gymnosperms Vascular plants with seeds Angiosperms
“Naked seed” plants because their seeds are not Huge clade consisting of all flowering plants; their seeds develop inside chambers that originate
enclosed in chambers. within flowers. Nearly 90% of living plant species are angiosperms.

Fisiología Vegetal - Dra. Valeria Ochoa Fisiología Vegetal - Dra. Valeria Ochoa

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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4L3r_XJW0I&t=1s (8 min)

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Fisiología Vegetal - Dra. Valeria Ochoa Biología - Dra. Valeria Ochoa

Characteristics Characteristics
• 1. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. In • 5. Most animals are capable of locomotion at some time
contrast to plants, algae, and fungi, animal during their life cycle.
cells lack cell walls.
• 6. Most animals have nervous systems and muscle systems
• 2. Animals are heterotrophs. As consumers, that enable them to respond rapidly to stimuli in their
they depend on producers for their raw environment.
materials and energy.
• 7. Most animals are diploid organisms that reproduce
• 3. Cells that make up the animal body are sexually, with large, nonmotile eggs and small, flagellate
specialized to perform specific functions. sperm. A haploid sperm unites with a haploid egg, forming
Cells are organized to form tissues, and a diploid zygote (fertilized egg).
tissues are organized to form organs.
• 8. Animals go through a period of embryonic development.
• 4. Animals have diverse body plans. The term
body plan refers to the basic structure and
functional design of the body. An animal’s
body plan and lifestyle are adapted to its
methods of obtaining food and reproducing.

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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wd-QnKlfZHI (8 min)

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Biología - Dra. Valeria Ochoa

A Borrowed Life
• Compared with eukaryotic and even prokaryotic cells, viruses are
much smaller and simpler in structure. Lacking the structures and
metabolic machinery found in a cell, a virus is an infectious
particle consisting of little more than genes packaged in a
protein coat.
• Are viruses living or nonliving?
• Early on, they were considered biological chemicals; the Latin
root for virus means “poison.”
• Researchers in the late 1800s saw a parallel with bacteria and
proposed that viruses were the simplest of living forms. However,
viruses cannot reproduce or carry out metabolic activities
outside of a host cell.
• Most biologists today would probably agree that they are not
alive but exist in a shady area between life-forms and chemicals.

Human immune cells (purple) infected by human immunodeficiency viruses

(HIV) are releasing more HIV viruses

In 1883, Adolf Mayer, a German scientist, discovered that he

Tulip breaking virus cause color-breaking of tulip
could transmit the disease from plant to plant by rubbing
flowers. These viruses infect plants in only two genera
sap extracted from diseased leaves onto healthy plants. After
of the family Liliaceae: tulips (Tulipa) and lilies (Lilium).
an unsuccessful search for an infectious microbe in the sap,
Mayer suggested that the disease was caused by unusually
small bacteria that were invisible under a microscope.

Beijerinck, a Dutch botanist, showed that unlike bacteria used

in the lab at that time, the mysterious agent of mosaic disease
could not be cultivated on nutrient media.

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Structure of Viruses Capsids and Envelopes

• The tiniest viruses are only 20 nm in diameter—
smaller than a ribosome. Millions could easily fit
on a pinhead.
• Even the largest known virus, which has a
diameter of 1500 nanometers (1.5 μm), is barely
visible under the light microscope.
• Some viruses could be crystallized. Not even the
simplest of cells can aggregate into regular
crystals.
• But if viruses are not cells, then what are they?
• They are an infectious particle consisting of
nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat and, for
some viruses, surrounded by a membranous
envelope.
• The protein shell enclosing the viral genome is called a capsid.
• Depending on the type of virus, the capsid may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape.
• Capsids are built from a large number of protein subunits called capsomeres.
• Some viruses have accessory structures that help them infect their hosts. For instance, a membranous
envelope surrounds the capsids of influenza viruses. These viral envelopes, which are derived from the
membranes of the host cell, contain host cell phospholipids and membrane proteins. They also contain
proteins and glycoproteins of viral origin.
• Many of the most complex capsids are found among the viruses that infect bacteria, called bacteriophages,
or simply phages. Their capsids have elongated icosahedral heads enclosing their DNA. Attached to the head
is a protein tail piece with fibers by which the phages attach to a bacterial cell.

Viruses replicate only in host cells

• Viruses lack metabolic enzymes and equipment replication. They are obligate intracellular parasites; in other words,
they can replicate only within a host cell.
• Each particular virus can infect cells of only a limited number of host species, called the host range of the virus.
• This host specificity results from the evolution of recognition systems by the virus. Viruses usually identify host cells by
a “lock-and-key” fit between viral surface proteins and specific receptor molecules on the outside of cells.
• Some viruses have broad host ranges. For example, West Nile virus can infect mosquitoes, birds, horses, and humans.
• Other viruses have narrow host ranges that they infect only a single species. Measles virus, for instance, can infect
only humans.
• Further more, viral infection of multicellular eukaryotes is usually limited to particular tissues. Human cold viruses
infect only the cells lining the upper respiratory tract.

General Features of Viral

Replicative Cycles

The lytic cycle kills the host cell, the lysogenic cycle allows
replication of the phage genome without destroying the host.
Lytic and lysogenic cycle combined in some cases.

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Revisar los siguientes links para complementar la clase

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8oHs7G_syI (8 min)

En youtube (en configuración, subtítulos, traducción automática,

español) se pueden añadir subtítulos en español

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