INGLÉS

46411 - Comunicación oral y escrita, inglés B1, para un
contexto educativo II
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Mª Victoria Domínguez Rodríguez
Versión julio/2022
Unit 1. English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. No difunda este documento sin consentimiento expreso de su autor.
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 Introduction
1.1. CONTENTS
El Marco Común Europeo de Referencia para las Lenguas (MCERL, o CEFRL en inglés) se enmarca
en la política común establecida por el Consejo de Europa respecto al fomento del
plurilingüismo, habida cuenta de la diversidad lingüística y cultural europea. Se trata, pues, de
fomentar no sólo el plurilingüismo sino también la pluriculturalidad. Esto supone, en la práctica,
la integración e interrelación de conocimientos y experiencias en diversas lenguas y culturas. El
aprendizaje de lenguas se concibe como un todo integrado donde no sólo prima la competencia
lingüística del hablante, sino también su capacidad de relacionarse en distintos contextos
socioculturales de manera efectiva.
En esta primera unidad de aprendizaje se expone la diferencia entre Inglés como Lengua
Extranjera (EFL) e Inglés como Segunda Lengua (ESL) en el contexto educativo y cómo cada uno
contribuye a fomentar la competencia lingüística, comunicativa y sociocultural del hablante. Se
tratan, además, los distintos tipos de motivación y sus respectivas funciones e importancia en el
proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera (FL), y se presentan algunas
estrategias efectivas para fomentarla en el aula.
En cuanto al contenido relativo al uso práctico de la lengua inglesa y a las distintas destrezas de
la competencia lingüística necesarias para que sea efectivo, se revisan los tiempos verbales
(presente, pasado, futuro) y se trabaja con los phrasal verbs para seguir avanzando en el nivel
B1/+ (umbral, usuario independiente) a lo largo del curso.
1.2. LEARNING OUTCOMES

This unit will give you practice in:
• Reviewing and consolidating grammar content: verb tenses (present, past, future).
• Acquiring and using general and specific vocabulary.
• Selecting, outlining, and summarizing relevant information from sources.
• Consolidating reading comprehension skills.
• Improving your listening comprehension skills.
• Writing short accurate definitions and explanations.
• Improving your overall expression and writing skills.
1.3. OUTLINE
1. Introduction 1.1. Content

1.2. Learning outcomes
1.3. Outline
2. Grammar 2.1. Review: Verb tenses – Present, past, future

2.2. Exercises
3. Reading 3.1. English as a Foreign Language (EFL) vs. English as a Second

Language (ESL)
3.1.1. Comprehension
3.1.2. Vocabulary
3.1.3. Language focus: Phrasal verbs (I)
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3.2. The importance of motivation in foreign language acquisition

3.2.2. Vocabulary
3.2.3. Language focus: Phrasal verbs (II)
3.3. Motivational strategies for foreign language acquisition
3.3.2. Vocabulary
3.3.3. Language focus: Phrasal verbs (III)
4. Listening 4.1. Creating a positive learning environment

4.1.2. Vocabulary
5. Writing 5.1. Review: Opinion essay (I) – Stating your ideas

5.2. Topics
References
Answer key
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 Grammar
2.1. REVIEW: VERB TENSES – PRESENT, PAST, FUTURE
[Source: Test-English (2022): https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b1-b2/review-verb-tenses-b1-b2/. Here you

can also find more information and exercises that allow you to check your answers online.]
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2.2. EXERCISES
a) Choose the correct alternative: present simple or continuous?
1 Hi Katrina. Do you wait / Are you waiting for your friends?

2 It is very hot outside. Why are you wearing / do you wear a sweater?
3 Who’s that boy over there? He is waving / waves at you.
4 Let’s eat at the Japanese restaurant. They are serving / serve wonderful sushi.
5 The shoe shop sells / is selling everything at half price today.
6 Jo rarely listens / is rarely listening to dance music.
7 How many languages do you speak / are you speaking?
8 Excuse me! Are you using / Do you use that computer at the moment?
9 I weigh / am weighing myself once a week because the doctor told me so.
10 They don’t watch / aren’t watching the TV in the mornings.
11 Is she ever arriving / Does she ever arrive on time?
12 Don’t eat that fish. It isn’t smelling / doesn’t smell very good.
13 The library doesn’t close / isn’t closing until ten o’clock every evening.
14 Does Jim live / Is Jim living here right now?
b) Write the verbs in the most suitable form: present simple or continuous?
1 They ________________ (play) football on Mondays and Fridays.

2 I like this hat. How much ________________ (it/cost)?
3 Don’t talk to me right now. I ________________ (try) to concentrate on my homework.
4 That’s a lie. I ________________ (not believe) it at all.
5 Sally ________________ (not/have) a good time at the party.
6 ________________ (you/think) a culture test is an innovative idea?
7 In this school, their home economics teacher often ________________ (give) the students
interesting new recipes to try.
8 This bill is really expensive. I think they ________________ (overcharge) me.
9 Alan and his friends ________________ (stay) there for the whole day.
10 My mother ________________ (drive) me to the bus station every day.
c) Write six sentences using your own ideas: two affirmative, two negative and two questions.
Use present simple or continuous, or a combination of both. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
5 _____________________________________________________________________________.
6 _____________________________________________________________________________.
d) Choose the correct alternative: past simple or continuous?
1 About a year ago, Kate got / was getting a job at a trendy shop.
2 They played / were playing tennis when it began / was beginning to rain.
3 We were already in our seats when the lights went / were going off.
4 Did you visit / Were you visiting the Louvre when you stayed at Paris?
5 The phone started / was starting to ring before they walked in.
6 The sun didn’t come / wasn’t coming out during the picnic.
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7 He broke a leg when he climbed / was climbing the mountain.

8 The child fell / was falling while he ran / was running for the bus.
9 I listened / was listening to an interesting podcast while I was / was going on my way to school.
10 Online lessons became / were becoming much more popular from March 2020.
11 The prisoner escaped / was escaping from the policemen who held / were holding him.
12 Yesterday, the reporters interviewed / were interviewing the couple whose house had a gas
explosion.
e) Complete the sentences below, changing the cues in brackets to the past simple or continuous.
1 When I saw Tom last week, he ________________. (He smokes again.)

2 We decided to take a jumper with us because ________________. (The wind howls.)
3 As soon as Penny saw her mother, she ________________. (She hugs her.)
4 Why were you outside in the pouring rain? I ________________. (I bring in the washing.)
5 I had a cup of black coffee when I ________________. (I run out of tea.)
6 At two o’clock yesterday, the professor ________________. (He comes back from Oxford.)
7 The moment I saw his face, I ________________. (I know something is wrong.)
8 By the time Tom was 15 years old, he ________________. (He spends more than 30 euros a week
on comics.)
f) Complete the sentences using your own ideas: two must be affirmative, two negative and two
questions. Use past simple or continuous. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 We were in a very difficult position and we ___________________________________________.
2 How long _____________________________________________________________________?
3 Tom burnt his hand _____________________________________________________________.
4 I was cycling home yesterday when suddenly _________________________________________.
5 We had a chat while _____________________________________________________________.
6 Was Carol ____________________________________________________________________ ?
g) Read the sentences and answer the two questions for each one related to the use of the future
simple (will+inf. or ‘be going to’+inf.) and continuous.
1 I’m sorry I can’t come. I’m going to have lunch with my brother tomorrow.
2 I think I’ll be at home before midnight.
3 At 08:15 on Wednesday I’ll be taking the children to school.
a. Did the person make the decision at the moment of speaking, or before?
b. Look at the chart above and decide what the use of each tense is (prediction, decision,
promise, arrangement, etc.)
h) Choose the correct alternative: present simple or continuous (with future meaning), future
simple (will+inf. or ‘be going to’+inf.) or continuous?
1 Can we meet tomorrow, please? Sure, but not in the afternoon because I work / will be working.
2 This food looks horrible. I’m afraid I don’t eat / am not going to eat it.
3 Shall I open / Will I be opening the window?
4 There are a lot of black clouds in the sky. It will rain / is going to rain.
5 We are having / will be having a party next Saturday starting at 21:30. Would you like to come?
6 I don’t want to go out to the conference alone. Do you come / Will you come with me?
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7 There is a hole in the bottom of the boat and a lot of water is coming in. The boat is sinking / will
be sinking.
8 What time does your train leave / will your train leave?
9 If you need to contact me, I am going to stay / will be staying at the Lion Hotel until Friday.
10 Did you collect it for me? Oh, I’m sorry. I completely forgot. I am going to do / am doing it now.
i) What would you say in these situations? Write six sentences using your own ideas: two
affirmative, two negative and two questions. Use future simple or continuous. (8-10 words/each
minimum)
1 Your friend says he left his money at home. Offer to help. _______________________________.
2 You notice a car coming straight towards you which your driver hasn’t seen because he is
speaking to you. Warn him. _______________________________________________________.
3 Tell Stella you can’t meet her tomorrow. Giver her a reason. _____________________________.
4 Your mother says you haven’t written lately. Promise to do it. ____________________________.
5 Your car is old. You’ve already decided to buy a new one ________________________________.
6 A new photographic exhibition starts tomorrow. Ask your partner for the opening and closing
times. ________________________________________________________________________.
 Reading
3.1. ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (EFL) VS. ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL)
There are 1.5 billion English speakers in the world, according to Babbel. Learning the English language can
have many benefits in a person’s life. It can help you access more opportunities in academia and in the
workforce. And not only is English beneficial for non-native English speakers, but it can also be for native
English speakers who are looking for a rewarding job teaching English to students around the world.
What is English as a Foreign Language?
English as a Foreign Language, otherwise known as EFL, is the study of English by non-native speakers who
live in a country where English is not the official language (or the official second language).
Because English is the world’s lingua franca (a common language that’s used to bridge together speakers
of other languages), non-native speakers are learning EFL in order to take advantage of the benefits which
come with it.
Differences between EFL and ESL
If you’ve heard of the term “English as a Foreign Language”, then you may have also heard the term
“English as a Second Language” (ESL). The two are often used interchangeably, but they are actually
different.
While EFL refers to the study of English in a country where English is not the dominant language or second
language, ESL refers to the study of English in a country where it is (but may not be the native language
of most of the population).
Highlights of EFL
• EFL classrooms and communities share a native language, which is not English.
• One of the challenges for EFL teachers is finding English models that work for their students,
as many instructors are either non-native English speakers or are native English speakers
who don’t speak the local language.
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Highlights of ESL
• ESL classrooms share a target language, but individual learners may not share a common
native language.
• Most ESL teachers are native English speakers, but students may come from different
mother-tongues which may make it hard to cater to student’s individual learning needs.
Terminology and types of EFL
Within the context of EFL, there are different terminologies and types that are important to understand,
whether you’re a teacher of EFL, a student, or you’re just curious.
Umbrella terms
There are a few umbrella terms that include EFL and ESL and other forms of English language learning
and instruction.
United States of America

• ELL – English Language Learning
• ESL – English as a Second Language
• EL – English Learner
• CLD – Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
• TESOL – Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
• TESL – Teaching English as a Second Language
• TEFL – Teaching English as a Foreign Language
United Kingdom
• ELT – English Language Teaching
Canada and Australia
• ESL – English as a Second Language
• ESD – English as a Second Dialect
Exams for learners of EFL
There are many tests that EFL and ESL students can take to demonstrate their English proficiency. Many
of these tests are required by institutions of higher education. Though they may fall within the term
“TOEFL Test” category, TOEFL is just one type of test, when there are in fact many different tests with all
sorts of abbreviations:
• IELTS
• CaMLA
• TOEFL
• iTEP
• PTE Academic
• TOEIC
• Trinity College London ESOL
• Cambridge English Language Assessment
• London Tests of English/Pearson Language Tests
• Secondary Level English Proficiency Test
• MTELP
Challenges of learning EFL
Learning another language can be exciting, but it can also be hard. In particular, students learning English
typically struggle with common issues, depending on what their native language is.
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1. Pronunciation
English has a number of sounds that do not exist in other languages, making it hard for EFL
students to pronounce. An example of this is how some Korean, Japanese, and Chinese dialects
may have trouble distinguishing between the “L” sound and “R” sound. This is called “lallation.”
2. Grammar
English grammar and sentence structure can be difficult for English learners. These can include:
• Functions and auxiliaries, e.g., “do/does/did”

• Modal verbs, e.g., “can”, “must”, “have to”
• Idiomatic usage, e.g., “make” vs. “do”
• Articles, e.g., “the” and “a/an”
3. Vocabulary
There are over 170,000 words in the English language. In fact, according to World Atlas, English
has the most words out of any language, and understanding when and how to use vocabulary
depending on tense, context, who you’re talking to, etc., can be difficult for learners. Some
specific challenges come with:
• Phrasal verbs, e. g., “get along with”, “drop out of”

• Prepositions/prepositional phrases, e. g, “into”/”into the cup”
• Word formation/prefixes/suffixes, e. g., “unable”, “happiness”
4. Literacy
Learning to read in any language can be hard but learning to read in a foreign language can be
very tricky.
• First-language literacy: if you have not completed literacy instruction in your native
language before learning to read in English.
• Second-language literacy: it refers to students who are proficient in speaking in a language

but have not learned to read or write.
5. Social and academic language acquisition
The type of English that needs to be learned in order to function in a social situation is known as
“Basic Interpersonal Language Skills” or BICS, which can take two years to acquire. For the
classroom, “Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency” or CALP, refer to academic learning
abilities, which can take seven years to master.
6. Class placement and dropout rates
One of the biggest challenges among EFL/ESL students who are studying higher education in an
English-speaking country is the struggle with appropriate class placement. Often, a student’s
entire academic abilities are based on their level of English, and they are usually placed in low-
performance groups which can set them back.
Along with this, ESL students make up a large percentage of drop-out students in North America.
This is because students (especially those who may immigrate as teenagers), may have a hard
time acclimating to mainstream classes due to their language acquisition difficulties. Many don’t
get the support they need to be successful, and end up dropping out, even if they would have
been successful in their native language.
Benefits of learning EFL
Now that we know the challenges of learning English as a foreign language or learning ESL, you may be
wondering what the benefits are. After all, since learning English presents many difficulties, some people
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may wonder if it’s worth it to begin studying English in the first place. However, learning English has
innumerable benefits that can set you up for a promising future.
1. Access to higher education
Many institutions of higher education use English as the language of instruction, even if they are
not based in an English-speaking country. And what are considered some of the best universities
in the world are in places where English is the native language. By learning EFL, you can have access
to these programs. If you’re a student from a non-native English-speaking country, then learning
English can help you study at an institution of higher education to earn your degree from a tuition-
free university.
2. Interaction with native speakers
One of the fun benefits of learning any language is the ability to interact with native speakers. But
in the case of English, because it is the common language in so many countries, learning English
also allows you to communicate with people with whom you do not speak each other’s native
language.
3. Better job propositions
There’s no question that those who learn English will likely have better job propositions than other
non-native speakers who do not learn English. As English is the most widely spoken language and
the official language across the globe, knowing the language will give you access to a lot more roles
and opportunities.
4. Social and cultural benefits
Learning EFL or learning ESL can have many social and cultural benefits. Because you’ll be able to
actively engage and communicate with others, you’ll be able to expand your social circle and make
friends all around the world! When you travel, you’ll be able to use English to get by, which will be
extremely useful. This will lead you to make connections and learn about others, since English will
ideally be your shared common language.
[Source: University of the People (2022): “How can learning English as a Foreign Language benefit you?”
https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/english-as-a-foreign-language/ Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
3.1.1. COMPREHENSION
a) Outline the main ideas by filling in the graphic below. Write two or three short sentences in
each column that help understand what is explained in the sections selected. Use your own words
as much as possible.
Differences between EFL and

Challenges of learning EFL Benefits of learning EFL
ESL
• ... • ... • ...

• ... • ... • ...
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b) Answer the questions using your own words. (15-20 words/each minimum)
1. Why is it difficult to deal with individual learning needs in ESL classes?

______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
2. In EFL classes, what is the difference between BIC and CALP?

______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3. What is the meaning of ‘class placement’ in this case?

______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3.1.2. VOCABULARY
a) Organize the underlined words and expressions in the following table. Then write a definition
for each one, using your own words.
Nouns Adjectives Expressions Definition/meaning
b) Choose four of them and write sentences in which the meaning is clear in context. (8-10
words/each minimum)
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3.1.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PHRASAL VERBS (I)

Multi-word verbs are verbs which consist of a verb and one or two particles or prepositions like up,
over, in, down… There are three types of multi-word verbs:
a) phrasal verbs: The first book came out in 1997 (= was published)
b) prepositional verbs: Somebody broke into his car and stole his mobile
c) phrasal-prepositional verbs: Ken’s just chatting to a friend. He’ll catch up with us in a minute (= reach,
join)
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Sometimes, the name ‘phrasal verb’ is used to refer to all three types.
[Source: Cambridge Dictionary of English > English Grammar Today (2022). Full text explanation here.]
[Source: BBC Learning English Channel at YouTube. Full video here as well.]
a) Find four phrasal verbs in the text and give a single-word synonym for it. Then, write a sentence
in which you can use it properly in context; one must be in the present continuous, another in the
past simple and two in the future (will+inf. and present simple used to express future), and they
can be either affirmative, negative or interrogative.
Phrasal verb Synonym Sentence
3.2. THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION ON LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Motivation can be defined as an “individually, dynamically, and adaptively defined phenomenon which
varies across time frameworks and contexts” (Saito et al. 2017: 629). As this phenomenon consists of
different aspects, it seems necessary to take a closer look at the term motivation.
Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

If we talk about motivation, there are two aspects which need to be considered. Motivation can be either
intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to behaviours which are performed for interest and
enjoyment in the first place (Levesque et al. 2010: 618). Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, “underlies
behaviours performed to obtain separable rewards or avoid negative outcomes” (ibid.). A student whose
motivation to learn is intrinsic, for instance, focusses on the studying itself rather than the benefits arising
from it. This student enjoys acquiring new skills and improving knowledge for personal reasons and does
not pay much attention to external rewards. A student with extrinsic motivation to learn is more
interested in the external reward, which, for example, might enable him to find a better paid job in the
future (Zaccone & Pedrini 2019: 2).
Levesque et al. distinguish between self-determined and non-self-determined forms of extrinsic
motivation. Whereas self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation as well as intrinsic motivation
contribute to positive outcomes like well-being, non-self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation turn
out in the context of negative outcomes like anxiety (Levesque et al. 2010: 618).
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Zaccone and Pedrini claim that feeling well is the consequence of satisfying one’s need for competence,
which means believing in being able to carry out tasks in the environment. People who are doing so act
according to their intrinsic motivation. On the contrary, those who are not able to fulfil such needs act
according to extrinsic motivation (Zaccone & Pedrini 2019: 1).
In the context of learning, the differentiation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation plays an
important role. According to Zaccone and Pedrini, students with high intrinsic motivation and low extrinsic
motivation learn more effectively than students who are motivated in a more extrinsic way.
To sum up, motivation guides behaviour in order to achieve the desired goal (Sansone & Harackiewicz
2000: 1). In learning situations, students’ goals differ and therefore the motivational aspects differ, too.
Acquisition vs. learning
The terms ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning' are often used interchangeably in the context of first and second
language. Nevertheless, researchers like Krashen make a clear distinction between these concepts. In his
Monitor Model Krashen claims that whereas acquiring a language is a subconscious process, learning a
language is an active and conscious process. Learning therefore depends on the learner’s mood and his
feelings towards learning a second language (Derivic & Spahic 2018: 391). The subconscious process of
acquisition is often compared with the process of children acquiring their native language. In this process,
people pay less attention to the form of their utterances but rather to the messages they try to convey
and understand (Krashen 1981: 1).
Language learning, on the other hand, “results in knowing about the language” (Derivic & Spahic 2018:
393) by using rules and being instructed and corrected. The conscious process of learning is often used in
the context of school settings. Acquisition, however, is said to take place outside of school contexts, often
in the country of the target language. Hence, it is a more naturalistic environment in which the term
acquisition is used (Mitchell et al. 2013: 42).
However, the contrast between the naturalistic and the classroom environment is not the main issue of
differentiation. Furthermore, it is also difficult to determine whether the process is conscious or
subconscious. For this reason, the important claim is to differentiate between meaningful communication
and conscious attention to form (Mitchell et al. 2013: 42). Both can occur in the language classroom and
in naturalistic settings. Besides, language processes in the school setting “will supposedly trigger
subconscious acquisition processes” (ibid). In short, the learning environment is not a reliable predictor
of conscious versus subconscious processes.
Motivation in language learning
According to Gardner, motivation in language learning is defined as “the extent to which a person tries to
learn the language because of the desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity”
(Gardner 1985: 10). The concept of motivation can be described as a multifaceted construct involving
“effort (motivational intensity), cognitions (desire), affect (attitude), and goal” (Choubsatz & Choubsatz
2014: 393). Gardner remarks that effort alone cannot signify motivation as effort can be also produced by
the desire to please someone or by social pressures. However, those aspects do not necessarily motivate
students to learn a language (Gardner 1985:10). Therefore, it is the combination of the facets of effort,
desire, affect and goal which defines motivation.
The goal of motivation in the context of second language acquisition is to learn the language and to feel
satisfied by experiencing the activity of learning (Gardner 1985: 10). Even though the learners’ goal of
motivation is the same for everybody in second language acquisition, the reasons for having this goal vary.
Whereas some learners’ motivation is to gain social recognition, other learners look up to gain economic
advantages through knowing a foreign language.
Choubsatz and Choubsatz distinguish between instrumental and integrative motivation. Instrumental
motivation refers to language learning for “education, vocational reasons, status achievement, personal
success, self-enhancement, self-actualization, and so forth” (Choubsatz & Choubsatz 2014: 393).
Integrative motivation, on the other hand, focusses more on social and interpersonal issues. Learners with
integrative motivation aspire to become a representative member of the second language community.
The environment in which a student acquires the second language plays a significant role in the
development of students’ motivation. Pfenninger and Singleton (2016: 313) observed that learners
perceive the motivational states of their peers and in some cases adjust to them. They speak of a positive
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group affect, which can increase motivation. Furthermore, teaching in small groups with more intensity
contributes to a more motivational attitude towards language learning for young learners.
[Source: Anon. (2020), The importance of motivation in second language acquisition, in GRIN -
https://www.grin.com/document/899796 / Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
a) Complete the chart with information that helps to understand the difference between
‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’ motivation as well as their subtypes. Use your own words as much as
possible.
MOTIVATION
Intrinsic Extrinsic
... ...
Self-determined Non self-determined
... ...
1. What is the difference between the concepts of ‘learning’ and ‘acquisition’?
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________.
2. Name and explain two factors that actively influence on the high/low motivation of students
regarding EFL.
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________.
3. According to Choubsatz & Choubsatz (2014), which subtypes of motivation can be identified in the
field of language acquisition?
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________.
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3.2.2. EXTENSION
a) Read the blog entry on Stephen Krashen’s five hypotheses on language acquisition by Sarah
A. Almaden (Jan 2022). Complete the graphic below so that each hypothesis is briefly explained
in simple terms.
•......
Acquisition-learning
hypothesis
•......
Monitor hypothesis
•......
Natural order
hypothesis
•......
Input hypothesis
•......
Affective filter
hypothesis
3.2.3. VOCABULARY
a) Organize the underlined words and expressions in the text into the following table. Then, write
a definition for each one using your own words.
words/each minimum)
1 ______________________________________________________________________.
2 ______________________________________________________________________.
3 ______________________________________________________________________.
4 ______________________________________________________________________.
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3.2.4. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PHRASAL VERBS (II)

a) Identify four phrasal verbs in the text and give a single word synonym for it. Write a sentence
in which you can use it properly in context; one in the present simple, another in the past
continuous and two in the future (be going to+inf. and future continuous), either affirmative,
negative or interrogative.
3.3. MOTIVATION STRATEGIES IN EFL CLASSES

Language teachers cannot effectively teach a language if they do not understand the relationship between
motivation and its effect on language acquisition. The core of motivation is what might be called passion,
which relates to a person's intrinsic goals and desires. Successful learners know their preferences, their
strengths, and weaknesses, and effectively draw on strengths and compensate for weaknesses. Successful
language learning is linked to the learner’s passion. And instructors should find out ways to connect to
this passion.
Learners need quality instruction, input, interaction, and opportunities for meaningful output, not only to
make progress, but also to maintain motivation for language learning. A good teacher, then, must tap into
the sources of intrinsic motivation and find ways to connect them with external motivational factors that
can be brought to a classroom setting. This is especially significant when English is not seen as important
to the students' immediate needs, other than to pass exams. Because learners have different purposes
for studying a language, it is important for instructors to identify students' purposes and needs and to
develop proper motivational strategies. Students should understand why they need to make an effort,
how long they must sustain an activity, how hard they should pursue it, and how motivated they feel
toward their pursuits.
Motivation fluctuates, and it is challenging to keep language learners' motivation at a high level all the
time. When designing out a language course, teachers must take into consideration that each learner has
different interests and expectations. The following strategies are effective ways to increase language
learners' external motivation.
1. Create a friendly atmosphere in the classroom

Develop a friendly climate in which all students feel recognized and valued. Many students feel more
comfortable participating in classroom activities after they know their teacher and their peers.
Creating a safe and comfortable environment where everyone feels like a part of the whole is one of
the most significant factors in encouraging motivation. Doing so may take time as students adjust
themselves to a new setting.
At the beginning of the school year, you can provide students with a bright and colorful classroom
with pictures and projects completed by the previous year's students. This gives students the
impression that learning the target language will be easy and enjoyable. It also gives students a
chance to learn from what is present in the environment. Pair and group activities can be used from
the very outset, reducing the pressure of teacher–student interaction and allowing students to feel
recognized by their peers. The feeling of becoming a part of the whole is one of the strongest
motivational factors at the beginning of a school year.
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2. Encourage students to personalize the classroom environment

Providing students with a learner-centered, low-anxiety classroom environment has a great impact
on language acquisition. Personalizing the environment can relax the students and enhance the
friendly atmosphere, which will increase their desire to learn and develop their language skills.
Students who feel safe and comfortable will feel more secure taking chances; they will display greater
motivation to read aloud in class or write an essay without the fear of being criticized.
3. Create situations in which students will feel a sense of accomplishment
A sense of accomplishment is a great factor in motivating students. Be sure to give positive feedback
and reinforcement. Doing so can increase students' satisfaction and encourage positive self-
evaluation. A student who feels a sense of accomplishment will be better able to direct his or her
own studies and learning outcomes. Positive as well as negative comments influence motivation, but
research consistently indicates that students are more affected by positive feedback and success.
Praise builds students' self-confidence, competence, and self-esteem.
However, giving positive feedback should not be mistaken for correcting mistakes without giving
explanations. Some teachers correct students' mistakes without really explaining the reason for
doing so. It is very important for teachers to point out the good aspects of a student's work and to
provide a clear explanation of his or her mistakes. Students value the teacher's ideas when they feel
that their good work is appreciated, and this encourages them to start evaluating themselves for
further studies.
4. Encourage students to set their own short-term goals
Language learners can achieve success by setting their own goals and by directing their studies
toward their own expectations. Students can help themselves achieve their goals by determining
their own language needs and by defining why they want to learn the language. Having goals and
expectations leads to increased motivation, which in turn leads to a higher level of language
competence. We as teachers should encourage students to have specific short-term goals such as
communicating with English speakers or reading books in English.
5. Provide pair and group activities to develop students’ confidence
Students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, and solving. Passivity decreases
students' motivation and curiosity. Students' enthusiasm, involvement, and willingness to
participate affect the quality of class discussion as an opportunity for learning. Small-group activities
and pair work boost students' self-confidence and are excellent sources of motivation. Group work
can give quiet students a chance to express their ideas and feelings on a topic because they find it
easier to speak to groups of three or four than to an entire class. Once students have spoken in small
groups, they usually become less reluctant to speak to the class as a whole. Group activities allow
students not only to express their ideas but also to work cooperatively, which increases class
cohesion and thus motivation.
6. Connect language learning to students' interests outside of class
In today’s high-tech learning environment, it would be unfair to limit students to traditional
methods. Encouraging students to relate their classroom experience to outside interests and
activities makes developing language skills more relevant. Listening to English language songs,
watching English language films or videos, and reading English language web sites can lead students
to broaden their perspective on their language acquisition process.
Motivational teaching strategies such as these can easily increase language learners' motivation levels.
The idea that student motivation is a personality trait and that students are either motivated or
unmotivated is incorrect. Without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the most remarkable
abilities cannot achieve their long-term goals. As instructors, we may be the most important factor in
influencing our students' motivation, which is a key element in the language acquisition process.
[Source: S. Karaoglu (2008), “Motivating language learners to succeed”, Journal of the TESOL International
Association 5 (2): https://bit.ly/2J1FH55 / Note: adapted from the original.]
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a) Complete the graphic with the advantages (highlights) or strengths of the motivational
strategies mentioned in the text. Do not copy literally but use short sentences that help to convey
the main ideas.
Their own short- Development of Connecting with

term goals students' confidence outside interests
•Highlights: •Highlights: •Highlights:
Promoting friendly Personal classroom Sense of

atmosphere environment accomplishment
•Highlights: •Highlights: •Highlights:
1. Why should instructors identify students’ different learning purposes and needs?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________.
2. Giving feedback is a complex process that involve good and “less good” aspects of a student’s
work. What should the instructor do during this process?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________.
3. Explain why the idea that student motivation is just a personality trait is incorrect.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________.
3.3.2. VOCABULARY
a) Organize the underlined words and expressions in the following table. Then, write a definition
for each one using your own words.
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words/each minimum)
1 ______________________________________________________________________.
2 ______________________________________________________________________.
3 ______________________________________________________________________.
4 ______________________________________________________________________.
3.3.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PHRASAL VERBS (III)

a) Find four phrasal verbs in the text and give a single word synonym for it. Write a sentence in
which you can use it properly in context; one in the present simple, another in the past continuous
and two in the future (will+inf. and present continuous with future meaning), either affirmative,
negative or interrogative.
 Listening
4.1. CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
[Source: Edutopia Channel at YouTube. Full video here as well]
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a) Considering the information that comes up in the video, explain these ideas using your own
words. (15-20 words/each minimum)
1. “The environment has a large impact on student learning.”
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
2. “Classroom routine reduces cognitive load.”
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3. “Attending to physical needs is crucial to healthy brain development.”
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
4.1.2. VOCABULARY
a) Identify ten different adjectives mentioned in the video that are used to define the school dealt
with. Then, look for the opposite words (antonyms) on your own. Consult a dictionary if
necessary.
Adjectives Opposite (antonyms)
b) Choose five adjectives from your list and write sentences in which the meaning is clear in
context. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 ____________________________________________________________________.
2 ____________________________________________________________________.
3 ____________________________________________________________________.
4 ____________________________________________________________________.
5 ____________________________________________________________________.
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 Writing
5.1. REVIEW: OPINION ESSAY (I) – STATING YOUR IDEAS
 HOW TO WRITE A CONVINCING OPINION ESSAY
One essential skill for writers of any age is learning how to write an opinion essay that shows you know
how to back up your opinions with evidence. Whether you’re in 5th grade, middle or high school, and
even college, being able to write a well-organized opinion essay will help you score a great grade and get
your point across about important topics.
1. Start with an awesome opinion essay topic

The first step in writing an opinion essay is to choose a topic you really care about. Pick a topic about
which you naturally have an opinion. It should also be something you can research easily.
If you can’t think of an idea right away, try one of these great opinion essay topics:
• Is it morally wrong to use animals for medical testing?

• Is distance education better or worse than regular school?
• Should public schools be open all year round?
• Is it better to be a vegetarian than it is to eat meat?
• Should people have to pay to go to the doctor?
• What kind of animal makes the best pet?
• Should parents be responsible for the consequences of their kids’ behavior?
• What factors cause too much stress for students?
• Who is the best musical performer or band?
• Does homework help kids learn?
2. Use opinion essay phrases to write your opinion

Once you have a great topic, you can write your opinion as a sentence. This sentence will become the
thesis statement for your opinionated paper. Your thesis statement is the main idea of your essay. In an
opinion paper, this statement will be your view on the topic.
There are certain opinion essay phrases you can use to make writing this statement easier. Try starting
with one of these:
“I believe….” / “I think….” / “The best….” / “The worst….” / “My favorite….” / “In my opinion….”
3. Come up with supporting details

You know what your opinion is, and now it’s time to support it. Saying what you think is important, but
the point of an opinion essay is to show that you know how to give supporting details to make your opinion
more convincing.
For example, imagine your opinion or thesis statement is, “I believe it is better to be a vegetarian than a
person who eats meat.” You might choose supporting details like these:
• Eating meat is bad for the planet because it creates more greenhouse gases to feed animals than
it does to simply eat plants.
• Eating meat is inhumane because it requires that animals be raised and killed for their meat.
• Eating a vegetarian diet fulfills all the nutritional needs people have.
After you have some supporting details, you may need to find some evidence to support them. Look for
journal articles and other good sources to show that your supporting details are true.
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4. Make an opinion essay outline

Now that you know the main idea for your opinion essay, you can write an outline. An ‘outline’ is a plan
for what your essay will include. You can make it very detailed or keep it simple, but either way, there are
a lot of reasons an outline makes your essay better. It helps you stay on topic and makes it easier for the
reader to follow your thinking. It also helps you put your ideas in order.
Here’s a basic sample opinion essay outline for you to use:
• Introduction: Get the reader’s attention and state your opinion.

• Body: In about two or three paragraphs, give the supporting details for your opinion and the
evidence you have found to back them up.
• Conclusion: Summarize your opinion.
FIGURE 1. SAMPLE OPINION ESSAY STRUCTURE

[Source: IELTS Progress by Cictalks (2022): https://ieltsprogress.com/ielts-discuss-both-views-essay-structure/]
5. Write a great opinion essay Introduction
Your introduction is one of the most important parts of your essay. It needs to capture your reader’s
attention right away using a hook. Here are some ideas to help you write a hook for an opinion essay:
• Give a surprising statistic that matches your opinion. For example, you might start an essay about
being a vegetarian with the fact that there are 375 million vegetarians worldwide.
• Ask the reader a question that leads into your opinion. For instance, if you’re writing about being
a vegetarian, you might ask the reader about the last time he or she ate a meal that was entirely
plant-based.
• Tell an anecdote that relates to your opinion. For example, in an essay about vegetarianism, you
might share about a time you visited a farm and interacted with the animals.
Your introduction should start with the hook, but it also needs to include your thesis statement. You can
write it word-for-word or paraphrase it to make it different. Either way, this part is essential because it
clearly tells the reader the topic of your essay.
6. Write the Body of your opinion paper
The body of your opinion essay is made up of your supporting details. Each detail gets its own body
paragraph. At the beginning of each paragraph, state how the detail is connected to your opinion. Then
talk about the evidence that supports that detail.
For example, in an opinionated paper about vegetarianism, you might include the supporting detail that
eating meat creates more greenhouse gases. You would then include a source as evidence to support your
claim.
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One reason a vegetarian diet is better than eating meat is that it is better for the planet. According to the
University of Michigan, a vegetarian diet is a great way to reduce your carbon footprint. Per calorie, meat is much
worse for the planet, since animals require many plant-based calories to grow. If people simply eat these calories
in plant form, they can eliminate much of the food-based carbon emissions that contribute to global climate
change.
7. Create a strong Conclusion
End your essay with a strong conclusion. Your conclusion should relate back to your introduction. If you
used an anecdote, talk about that again. If you quoted a statistic, mention that statistic here in a new way.
If you asked the reader a question, refer back to it in the conclusion.
You should also clearly state your opinion again. Don’t use the same words you did in the Introduction,
but do say the same ideas. This sums things up for your reader and helps make your point clear.
→ MORE TIPS FOR A CONVINCING OPINION ESSAY
Throughout the process of writing an opinion essay, keep these tips in mind.
a) Pay attention to transitions

Use transition words to help make the connection between your supporting details and your
opinion. This also helps your essay flow nicely. Some of the transition words and phrases you
might use in your opinion essay include the following:
“For these reasons….” / “Consequently….” / “Next….” / “Furthermore….” / “In addition….”
FIGURE 2. LIST OF TRANSITION WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS

[Source: GrammarSimple.com (2022): https://grammarsimple.com/essay/essay-vocabulary-opinion-
sequence-addition-emphasis-contrast/]
b) Stay on topic
It’s easy to ramble when writing an essay, but staying on topic makes your opinion more
powerful. Stick to your outline. If you don’t deviate from the plan you set when writing it, your
essay will be on topic.
c) Use formal language

Keep the tone formal. Avoid slang and informal language as much as possible. Reduce the
number of contractions you use and try to choose words that have a more formal feeling.
d) Consider avoiding first-person pronouns

Consider writing without using first person pronouns. Knowing how to write an opinion essay
without using “I” can help you create a more convincing argument. To do this, simply eliminate
the first-person part of your opinion statement.
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• Ex. with first person pronoun: “I believe it is better to be a vegetarian than a person who
eats meat.”
• Ex. without first person pronoun: “It is better to be a vegetarian than a person who eats
meat.”
e) Ask a friend to read your work
Before you turn in your essay, ask a friend or family member to look it over for you. Have them
read the entire thing and note any places that are unclear or that feel weak. Then take some time
to revise your essay to make it the best it can be.
[Source: K. Miller-Wilson (2022): https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/writing/how-to-write-a-convincing-opinion-

essay.html / Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
5.2. TOPICS
[140-160 words/each]
• Challenges of learning EFL (see 3.1. above). Of the six common issues mentioned, which
are the ones you have typically struggled with more often? Explain why and support your
ideas with examples or evidence.
• Motivation and foreign language acquisition (see 3.2. above). Do you think that you are
motivated to learn EFL? Which type of motivation moves you? Explain why and support
your ideas with examples or evidence.
• Motivational strategies and FL acquisition (see 3.3. above). Out of the six motivational
strategies mentioned, which two are more relevant to you (as a pre-service or active
teacher)? Explain why and support your ideas with examples or evidence.
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References
[Note: written and online references already mentioned are excluded to avoid unnecessary repetition.]
I. Sources
Hashemi, L. & Thomas, B. (2010). Objective PET. Student’s Book with Answers. Cambridge: CUP.
Hornby, A. S. (2020). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (10th edn.). Oxford:
OUP.
Lawrence, J. & Williams, A. (2006). Valid Choice 2. Limassol, Cyprus: Burlington Books.
Murphy, R. (2019). English Grammar in Use, with Answers. A Self-Study Reference and Practice
Book for Intermediate Students. Cambridge: CUP.
Newbury, K. & Bowden, S. (2017). Upgrade your English Student’s Book - B1. London: Sterling
Language Learning.
Redman, S. (2017). English Vocabulary in Use Pre-Intermediate and Intermediate. Book with
Answers (4th edn.). Cambridge: CUP.
Swan, M. (2016). Practical English Usage (4th edn.). Oxford: OUP.
Wildman, J., Myers, C. & Thacker, C. (2019). Insights Intermediate Student’s Book. Oxford: OUP.
Wildman, J. & Wheeldon, S. (2006). Oxford English in Context – Student’s Book 2. Oxford: OUP.
II. Further reference & practice online
GRAMMAR
• All Things Grammar: Past and present simple

• English Grammar – Online exercises (tenses)
• English Practice: Tenses by level
• English at Home: English tenses exercises
• Gallaudet University – List of irregular English verbs
• GrammarBank.com: Verb tenses practice
• Test-English – Review of all tenses
• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] – Oxford English Now – All English tenses in 20 minutes
WRITING
• British Council > Learn English Teens > An opinion essay

• Teacher Julieta Fluency: How to write an opinion essay A2/B1
• Test-English: Writing an opinion essay
• Manchester University > Academic Phrasebank
• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] – Smrt English – Basic essay structure
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Answer key
[Note: Answers are provided just for grammar, vocabulary and language focus exercises. Those in which you have to
write your own ideas, state an opinion or summarize require individual answers and usually obey to your own reading
or listening comprehension. In any case, sample answers are included in some cases.]
GRAMMAR / 2.2.
a) 1. Are you waiting / 2. are you wearing / 3. is waving / 4. serve / 5. is selling / 6. listens / 7. do you speak
/ 8. Are you using / 9. weigh / don’t watch / 11. Does she ever arrive / 12. isn’t smelling (also: doesn’t
smell) / 13. doesn’t close /14. Is Jim living
b) 1. play / 2. does it cost? / 3. am trying / 4. don’t believe / 5. is not having / 6. Do you think / 7. gives /
8. are overcharging / 9. are staying / 10. drives
d) 1. got / 2. were playing … began / 3. went / 4. Did you visit / 5. started / 6. didn’t come / 7. was climbing
/ 8. fell … was running / 9. listened (also: was listening) … was going / 10. became / 11. escaped … were
holding /12. interviewed
e) 1. was smoking again / 2. was howling / 3. hugged her / 4. was bringing in the washing / 5. ran out of
tea / 6. came back from Oxford / 7. knew something was wrong / 8. spent more than 30 euros a week on
comics.
h) 1. will be working / 2. am not going to eat / 3. Shall I open / 4. is going to rain / 5. are having / 6. Will
you come / 7. is sinking / 8. does your train leave / 9. will be staying / 10. am doing
VOCABULARY / 3.1.2.
a) Nouns: academia, challenges, literacy, abilities / Adjectives: tricky, proficient, successful, promising /
Expressions: rewarding job, dominant language, umbrella terms, academic learning, low-performance
groups, drop-out students, mainstream classes, tuition-free university, job propositions, social circles.
PHRASAL VERBS (I) / 3.1.3.

a) Ex.: looking for, bridge together, set (them) back, end up, dropping out, set (you) up, get by. /
Synonyms: check e. g. https://www.thesaurus.com/e/grammar/phrasal-verbs/
VOCABULARY / 3.2.3.
a) Nouns: utterances, recognition, development / Adjectives: meaningful / Expressions: negative
outcomes, external rewards, students’ goals, subconscious process, school contexts, target language,
naturalistic settings.
PHRASAL VERBS (II) / 3.2.4.

a) Ex.: carry out, sum up, turn out, look up to.
VOCABULARY / 3.3.2.
a) Nouns: input, output, expectations, outset, willingness / Adjectives: comfortable, enjoyable,
willingness, reluctant, high-tech, remarkable / Expressions: quality instruction, classroom setting,
immediate needs, significant factors, sense of accomplishment, positive self-evaluation, short-term goals.
PHRASAL VERBS (III) / 3.3.3.

a) Ex.: draw on, find out, tap into, designing out, point out.
VOCABULARY / 4.1.2.
a) Ex.: calm, peaceful, positive, safe, welcoming, secure, reliable, consistent, good, productive. /
Antonyms: check e. g. https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus
Page 25 of 25
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Versión julio/2022
Unit 2. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
U2_CLT
 Introduction
1.1. CONTENTS
En esta segunda unidad de aprendizaje se introducen nociones básicas sobre el enfoque

comunicativo (Communicative Language Approach, CLA en inglés), cuáles son sus objetivos y
cómo la competencia lingüística y la comunicativa desempeñan un papel fundamental para su
práctica en el aula de lengua extranjera. En segundo lugar, se ofrecerá un breve repaso histórico
por los distintos enfoques y métodos que han precedido al CLA y cuál ha sido su influencia en su
configuración durante el siglo XX y hasta la actualidad. Por último, se retoma el concepto de
‘metodologías activas’ y se amplía el conocimiento adquirido durante el primer curso de la
titulación.
En lo que respecta al uso práctico de la lengua inglesa y a las distintas destrezas de la

competencia lingüística necesarias para que sea efectivo, se estudia el presente perfecto simple
y continuo y se sigue trabajando con los phrasal verbs para avanzar en el nivel B1/+ (umbral,
usuario independiente).

• Reviewing and consolidating grammar content: present perfect simple and continuous.
1.3. OUTLINE

1.3. Outline
2. Grammar 2.1. Verb tenses: Present perfect simple and continuous

2.2. Exercises
3. Reading 3.1. Communicative Language Teaching Today

3.1.1. Pre-reading task
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3.1.3. Vocabulary
3.1.4. Language focus: Phrasal verbs (IV)
3.2. The background to CLT
3.2.3. Vocabulary
3.2.4. Language focus: Phrasal verbs (V)
3.3. Active methodologies
3.3.3. Language focus: Phrasal verbs (VI)
4. Writing 4.1. Summarizing information (I)
5. Listening 5.1. Putting problem-based learning into practice

References
Answer key
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 Grammar
2.1. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS
[Source: Test-English.com (2022): https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b1-b2/review-verb-tenses-b1-b2/. Here

you can also find more information and exercises that allow you to check your answers online.]
TIME ADVERBS AND MEANINGS
[Source: 7ESL.com (2022): https://7esl.com/time-adverbs-used-with-the-present-perfect-tense/]
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PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE VS. PAST SIMPLE
[Source: Twinkl.com (2022): https://www.twinkl.es/resource/au-t2-e-2579-using-the-present-perfect-form-of-

verbs-in-contrast-to-past-tense-powerpoint / Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
2.2. EXERCISES
a) Choose the correct meaning for each sentence.
1 By the time the match started, the rain has stopped.

a. The rain stopped soon after the start of the match.
b. It wasn’t raining when the match started.
2 She had never been to New York until she went there on business.
a. She didn’t go to New York for business.
b. The first time she went to New York, it was for business.
3 Jack grew a beard but now he has shaved it off.

a. He still has a beard.
b. He had a beard at some time in the past.
4 The Browns moved to the country after their children had left home for university.
a. The children left home and then the Browns moved to the country.
b. The Browns moved to the country and then the children left home.
5 My family has had this dog since it was a puppy.

a. They no longer have the dog.
b. They still have the dog.
6 I have realised I made a serious mistake just now.

a. It is now that I know about my mistake.
b. I knew about my mistake but couldn’t fix it.
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b) Choose the correct alternative: present perfect simple or continuous?
1 The singer was exhausted. He has performed / has been performing non-stop for a week.
2 I’ve read / been reading the book you lent me, but I haven’t finished / haven’t been finishing it
yet.
3 You look bored. Have you waited / Have you been waiting long?
4 How long have you saved / have you been saving money?
5 My hands are very dirty. I have repaired / have been repairing the car since 10 o’clock.
6 The actor has forgotten / has been forgetting his lines even though he has practiced / has been
practicing them all day.
7 Look! Somebody has broken / has been breaking that window.
8 Mary is still writing letters. She has written / has been writing letters all day.
c) Complete the sentences using the time adverbs below just once.
ever never yet already for since just
1 Mike has been a member of the teaching staff ________________ 2019.

2 The postman has _______________ brought your last package.
3 Have you ________________ ridden a motorbike?
4 What an original performance! I have ________________ seen anything like it before.
5 Has she received the score of the test ________________?
6 We have ________________ bought the tickets, so we don’t have to wait in the queue.
7 Sue’s parents have been waiting ________________ several months to visit her.
d) Complete the sentences with ‘just’, ‘already’ or ‘yet’ so that they match the ideas expressed in
brackets.
1 She has ________________ booked the tickets. (She did it a few minutes ago.)
2 My friends have _______________ booked a table. (They did it some time before now.)
3 I have ________________ lost my key twice this year. (It is probable that I lose it again.)
4 The monitor hasn’t arrived ________________. (He is not here, but he’ll probably come soon.)
5 Has our classmate finished reading ________________? (That’s a nice surprise!)
6 I have ________________ thrown away the rubbish. (I’m coming back right now.)
7 Has your sister painted the room ________________? (I want to know!)
8 Haven’t they arrived ________________? (They are too late!)
e) Match the beginning of the sentences in A to suitable endings in B.
A B
1. Sally graduated from university a. by the time the match started.
2. They know each other very well b. she had made.
3. We thanked Jane for the delicious meal c. everyone was sleeping.
4. At one o’clock in the morning, d. I have been sitting in the sun too much.
5. Evelyn has worked in this company e. since we haven’t got the exam results yet.
6. It had stopped raining f. since 1990.
7. Why are you so sunburnt? g. thirty years ago.
8. We are all tense h. because they have been friends for almost 20
years.
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f) Write six sentences using your own ideas: two affirmative, two negative and two questions.
Use present perfect simple or continuous. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
5 _____________________________________________________________________________.
6 _____________________________________________________________________________.
 Reading
3.1. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING TODAY
3.1.1. PRE-READING TASK

a) Which of the statements below characterizes communicative language teaching? Then, check
your ideas reading the text.
1. People learn a language best when using it to do things rather than through studying how
language works and practicing rules.
2. Grammar is no longer important in language teaching.
3. People learn a language through communicating in it.
4. Errors are not important in speaking a language.
5. CLT is only concerned with teaching speaking.
6. Classroom activities should be meaningful and involve real communication.
7. Dialogs are not used in CLT.
8. Both accuracy and fluency are goals in CLT.
…………………………
ELT vs. CLT: Introduction
The ever-growing need for good communication skills in English has brought about a huge demand for English
Language Teaching (ELT) around the world. Millions of people today want to improve their command of
English or to ensure that their children achieve a good command of English. And opportunities to learn
English are provided in many different ways such as through formal instruction, travel, study abroad, as
well as through the media and the Internet. The worldwide demand for English has created an enormous
need for quality language teaching and language teaching materials and resources. Learners set
themselves demanding goals. They want to be able to master English to a high level of accuracy and fluency.
Employers, too, insist that their employees have good English language skills, and fluency in English is a
prerequisite for success and advancement in many fields of employment in today’s world. The demand for an
appropriate teaching methodology is therefore as strong as ever.
What is Communicative Language Teaching?
Perhaps the majority of language teachers today, when asked to pick up the methodology they employ in
their classrooms, mention “communicative” as the methodology of choice. However, when pressed to give
a detailed account of what they mean by “communicative,” explanations vary widely. Does communicative
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language teaching, or CLT, mean teaching conversation, an absence of grammar in a course, or an emphasis
on open-ended discussion activities as the main features of a course? What do you understand by
communicative language teaching?
Communicative language teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language
teaching, how learners learn a language, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom.
The goals of language teaching
Communicative language teaching sets as its goal the teaching of communicative competence. What does
this term mean? Perhaps we can clarify this term by first comparing it with the concept of grammatical
competence. Grammatical competence refers to the knowledge we have of a language that accounts for
our ability to produce sentences in a language. It refers to knowledge of the building blocks of sentences
(e. g., parts of speech, tenses, phrases, clauses, sentence patterns) and how sentences are formed. Grammatical
competence is the focus of many grammar practice books, which typically present a rule of grammar on one
page and provide exercises to practice using the rule on the other page. The unit of analysis and practice is
typically the sentence. While grammatical competence is an important dimension of language learning, it is
clearly not all that is involved in learning a language since one can master the rules of sentence formation in
a language and still not be very successful at being able to use the language for meaningful communication. It
is the latter capacity which is understood by the term communicative competence.
Communicative competence includes the following aspects of language knowledge:

• Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions
• Knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the participants (e. g., knowing
when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language appropriately for written as
opposed to spoken communication)
• Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e. g., narratives, reports,
interviews, conversations)
• Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language knowledge
(e. g., through using different kinds of communication strategies)
How learners learn a language
Our understanding of the processes of second language learning has changed considerably in the last 30
years and CLT is partly a response to these changes in understanding. Earlier views of language learning
focused primarily on the mastery of grammatical competence. Language learning was viewed as a process of
mechanical habit formation. Good habits are set up by having students produce correct sentences and
not through making mistakes. Errors were to be get around by means of controlled opportunities for
production (either written or spoken). By memorizing dialogs and performing drills, the chances of making
mistakes were minimized. Learning was very much seen as under the control of the teacher.
In recent years, language learning has been viewed from a very different perspective. It is seen as resulting
from processes such as:
• Interaction between the learner and users of the language
• Collaborative creation of meaning
• Creating meaningful and purposeful interaction through language
• Negotiation of meaning as the learner and his or her interlocutor arrive at understanding
• Learning through attending to the feedback learners get when they use the language
• Paying attention to the language one hears (the input) and trying to incorporate new forms into
one’s developing communicative competence
• Trying out and experimenting with different ways of saying things
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The role of teachers and learners in the classroom
The type of classroom activities proposed in CLT also implied new roles in the classroom for teachers and
learners. Learners now had to participate in classroom activities that were based on a cooperative rather
than individualistic approach to learning. Students had to become comfortable with listening to their peers
in group work or pair work tasks, rather than relying on the teacher for a model. They were expected to take
on a greater degree of responsibility for their own learning. And teachers now had to assume the role of
facilitator and monitor. Rather than being a model for correct speech and writing and one with the primary
responsibility of making students produce plenty of error-free sentences, the teacher had to develop a different
view of learners’ errors and of her/his own role in facilitating language learning.
[Source: University of the People (2022): https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/english-as-a-foreign-language/ Note:

adapted from the original.]
…………………………
each column that help understand what is explained in the sections selected. Do not copy literally
from the text.
Communicative competence
Role of teachers & students
What is CLT? = aspects of language
in language classrooms
knowledge
• ... • ... • ...

• ... • ... • ...
3.1.3. VOCABULARY
a) Find in the text words that match the following definitions.
1 Ability to use or control something correctly (noun): ___________________________________.

2 Gain considerable knowledge or skill in something (verb): _______________________________.
3 Centre of activity or interest (noun): ________________________________________________.
4 Being able to achieve the desired end or effect (adjective): ______________________________.
5 Information about the student’s performance (noun): __________________________________.
6 Become involved in an activity (verb): _______________________________________________.
b) Write one or two antonyms for each the words you found in the previous exercise.
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
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3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
5 _____________________________________________________________________________.
6 _____________________________________________________________________________.
c) Write sentences in which the meaning of the words you found in a) is clear in context. Use the
present perfect simple or continuous either in the affirmative, negative or question form. (8-10
words/each minimum)
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
5 _____________________________________________________________________________.
6 _____________________________________________________________________________.
d) Give a short definition or explanation for the expressions underlined in the text. Use your own
1 Quality language teaching: ________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 Open-ended discussion activities: __________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
3 Communication strategies: _______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 Controlled opportunities for production: _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
3.1.4. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PHRASAL VERBS (IV)

in which you can use it properly in context; use present perfect simple and continuous, either
affirmative, negative or interrogative.
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3.2. THE BACKGROUND TO CLT

In planning a language course, decisions have to be made about the content of the course, including
decisions about what vocabulary and grammar to teach at the beginning, intermediate, and advanced
levels, and which skills and micro-skills to teach and in what sequence. Decisions about these issues belong
to the field of syllabus design or course design. Decisions about how best to teach the contents of a
syllabus belong to the field of methodology.
Language teaching has seen many changes in ideas about syllabus design and methodology in the last 50
years, and CLT prompted a rethinking of approaches to syllabus design and methodology. We may
conveniently group trends in language teaching in the last 50 years into three phases:
• Phase 1: traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s)

• Phase 2: classic communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s)
• Phase 3: current communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present, see section
3.1. above).
Phase 1: Traditional Approaches (up to the late 1960s)

Traditional approaches to language teaching gave priority to grammatical competence as the basis of
language proficiency. They were based on the belief that grammar could be learned through direct
instruction and through a methodology that made much use of repetitive practice and drilling. The
approach to the teaching of grammar was a deductive one: students are presented with grammar rules
and then given opportunities to practice using them, as opposed to an inductive approach in which
students are given examples of sentences containing a grammar rule and asked to work out the rule for
themselves. It was assumed that language learning meant building up a large repertoire of sentences and
grammatical patterns and learning to produce these accurately and quickly in the appropriate situation.
Once a basic command of the language was established through oral drilling and controlled practice, the
four skills were introduced, usually in the sequence of speaking, listening, reading and writing.
Techniques that were often employed included memorization of dialogs, question-and-answer practice,
substitution drills, and various forms of guided speaking and writing practice. Great attention to accurate
pronunciation and accurate mastery of grammar was stressed out from the very beginning stages of
language learning, since it was assumed that if students made errors, these would quickly turn into a
permanent part of the learner’s speech.
Methodologies based on these assumptions include Audiolingualism (in North America, also known as the
Aural-Oral Method), and the Structural-Situational Approach in the United Kingdom (also known as
Situational Language Teaching). Syllabuses during this period consisted of word lists and grammar lists,
graded across levels.
In a typical audiolingual lesson, the following procedures would be observed (Richards and Rodgers 2001,
64–65):
1. Students first hear a model dialog containing key structures that are the focus of the lesson. They
repeat each line of the dialog, individually and in chorus. The teacher pays attention to
pronunciation, intonation, and fluency. Correction of mistakes of pronunciation or grammar is
direct and immediate. The dialog is memorized gradually, line by line. A line may be broken down
into several phrases if necessary. The dialog is read aloud in chorus, one half saying one speaker’s
part and the other half responding. The students do not consult their book throughout this phase.
2. The dialog is adapted to the students’ interest or situation, through changing certain key words
or phrases. This is acted out by the students.
3. Certain key structures from the dialog are selected and used as the basis for pattern drills of
different kinds. These are first practiced in chorus and then individually. Some grammatical
explanation may be offered at this point, but this is kept to an absolute minimum.
4. The students may refer to their textbook, and follow-up reading, writing, or vocabulary activities
based on the dialog may be introduced.
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5. Follow-up activities may take place in the language laboratory, where further dialog and drill
work is carried out.
In a typical lesson according to the situational approach, a three-phase sequence, known as the P-P-P
cycle, was often employed:
• Presentation: The new grammar structure is presented, often by means of a conversation or

short text. The teacher explains the new structure and checks students’ comprehension of it.
• Practice: Students practice using the new structure in a controlled context, through drills or
substitution exercises.
• Production: Students practice using the new structure in different contexts, often using their
own content or information, in order to develop fluency with the new pattern.
The P-P-P lesson structure has been widely used in language teaching materials and continues in modified
form today. Many speaking- or grammar-based lessons in contemporary materials, for example, begin
with an introductory phase in which new teaching points are presented and illustrated in some way and
where the focus is on comprehension and recognition. Examples of the new teaching point are given in
different contexts. This is often followed by a second phase in which the students practice using the new
teaching point in a controlled context using content often provided by the teacher. The third phase is a
free practice period during which students try out the teaching point in a free context and in which real
or simulated communication is the focus.
Phase 2: Classic Communicative Language Teaching (1970s to 1990s)
In the 1970s, a reaction to traditional language teaching approaches began and soon spread around the
world as older methods such as Audiolingualism and Situational Language Teaching fell out of fashion.
The centrality of grammar in language teaching and learning was questioned, since it was argued that
language ability involved much more than grammatical competence. While grammatical competence was
needed to produce grammatically correct sentences, attention shifted to the knowledge and skills needed
to use grammar and other aspects of language appropriately for different communicative purposes such
as making requests, giving advice, making suggestions, describing wishes and needs, and so on. Traditional
grammatical and vocabulary syllabuses and teaching methods did not include information of this kind.
The notion of communicative competence was developed within the discipline of linguistics (or more
accurately, the subdiscipline of sociolinguistics) and appealed to many within the language teaching
profession, who argued that communicative competence, and not simply grammatical competence,
should be the goal of language teaching. The next question to be solved was, what would a syllabus that
reflected the notion of communicative competence look like and what implications would it have for
language teaching methodology? The result was CLT and it first appeared as a new approach to language
teaching in the 1970s and 1980s, and language teachers and teaching institutions all around the world
soon began to rethink their teaching, syllabuses, and classroom materials. In planning language courses
within a communicative approach, grammar was no longer the starting point. New approaches to
language teaching were needed.
Rather than simply specifying the grammar and vocabulary learners needed to master, it was argued that
a syllabus should identify the following aspects of language use (van Ek and Alexander 1980):
1. The purposes for which the learner wishes to acquire the target language; for example, using
English for business purposes, in the hotel industry, or for travel.
2. Some idea of the setting in which they will want to use the target language; for example, in an
office, on an airplane, or in a store.
3. The socially defined role the learners will assume in the target language; for example, as a
traveller, as a salesperson talking to clients, or as a student in a school.
4. The communicative events in which the learners will participate: everyday situations, vocational
or professional situations, academic situations, and so on; for example, making telephone calls,
engaging in casual conversation, or taking part in a meeting.
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5. The language functions involved in those events, or what the learner will be able to do with or
through the language; for example, making introductions, giving explanations, or describing
plans.
6. The notions or concepts involved, or what the learner will need to be able to talk about; for
example, leisure, finance, history, religion.
7. The skills involved in the “knitting together” of discourse: discourse and rhetorical skills; for
example, storytelling, giving an effective business presentation.
8. The variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, such as American, Australian,
or British English, and the levels in the spoken and written language which the learners will need
to reach.
9. The grammatical content that will be needed.
10. The lexical content, or vocabulary, that will be needed.
Proposals for a communicative syllabus

A traditional language syllabus usually specified the vocabulary students needed to learn and the grammatical
items they should master, normally graded across levels from beginner to advanced. But what would a
communicative syllabus look like?
Several new syllabus types were proposed by advocates of CLT. These included, for example:
1. A skills-based syllabus: This focuses on the four skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking,
and breaks each skill down into its component micro-skills. For example, the skill of listening might
be further described in terms of the following micro-skills:
• Recognizing key words in conversations
• Recognizing the topic of a conversation
• Recognizing speakers’ attitude toward a topic
• Recognizing time reference of an utterance
• Following speech at different rates of speed
• Identifying key information in a passage
2. A functional syllabus: This is organized according to the functions the learner should be able to
carry out in English, such as expressing likes and dislikes, offering and accepting apologies,
introducing someone, and giving explanations. Communicative competence is viewed as mastery
of functions needed for communication across a wide range of situations. Vocabulary and grammar
are then chosen according to the functions being taught. A sequence of activities like the P-P-P
lesson cycle is then used to present and practice the function. Functional syllabuses were often
used as the basis for speaking and listening courses.
[Source: J. C. Richards (2006), Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge: CUP, pp. 6-14.]
…………………………
a) Using your own words, explain the difference between a typical audiolingual and situational-
approach-based lesson- (30-40 words approx.)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
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b) Using your own words, explain the difference between a skills-based and a functional syllabus
according to the CLT approach. (30-40 words approx.)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
3.2.3. VOCABULARY
a) Find in the text words that match the following definitions.
1 Way of dealing with a person or thing; tackling of a task, problem, etc. (noun): ______________.
2 Thorough training by practical and usually repetitive exercises (noun): _____________________.
3 Lasting, or expected to last, for a long time or for ever (adjective): _________________________.
4 Made suitable for a new use, situation; modified (adjective): _____________________________.
5 Power or skill of understanding (noun): ______________________________________________.
6 Become more widely known (verb): ________________________________________________.
7 Reconsider something again, especially to change it (verb): ______________________________.
8 Producing the intended result (adjective): ___________________________________________.
b) Write one or two antonyms for each the words you found in the previous exercise.
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
5 _____________________________________________________________________________.
6 _____________________________________________________________________________.
7 _____________________________________________________________________________.
8 _____________________________________________________________________________.
c) Write sentences in which the meaning of six out of the eight words in a) is clear in context. Use
the present perfect simple or continuous either in the affirmative, negative or question form. (8-
10 words/each minimum)
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
5 _____________________________________________________________________________.
6 _____________________________________________________________________________.
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d) Give a short definition or explanation for the expressions that have been underlined in the
text. Use your own words. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 language proficiency: ____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 follow-up reading: ______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
3 fell out of fashion: _______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 communicative competence: ______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
3.2.4. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PHRASAL VERBS (V)

3.3. ACTIVE METHODOLOGIES
3.3.1. PRE-READING TASK

a) Review the basics on active methodologies. Check the content in the first-year course.
What are active methodologies for learning?

The most widely known and practiced model in educational institutions is that in which the
student follows the subject taught by the teacher through lectures, with the application of
assessments and assignments. This traditional method is known as passive, as the teacher
is the protagonist of education.
In the active methodology, the student is the main character and the major responsible for
the learning process. Thus, the objective of this teaching model is to encourage the
academic community to develop the ability to absorb content in an autonomous and
participatory manner.
[Source: J. Faias (2019) > UKRothe - https://www.ukrothe.eu/en/blog/active-methodologies-
learning/ Note: adapted from the original.]
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According to Richards (2006: 12-13), the communicative approach to language teaching has prompted a
rethinking of classroom teaching methodology. It was argued that learners learn a language through the
process of communicating in it, and that communication that is meaningful to the learner provides a better
opportunity for learning than through a grammar-based approach. The principles of CLT can be
summarized as follows:
• Make real communication the focus of language learning.

• Provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they know.
• Be tolerant of learners’ errors as they indicate that the learner is building up his or her
communicative competence.
• Provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency.
• Link the different skills such as speaking, reading, and listening together, since they usually occur so
in the real world.
• Let students induce or discover grammar rules.
In applying these principles in the classroom, new classroom techniques and activities were needed and
new roles for teachers and learners in the classroom. Instead of making use of activities that demanded
accurate repetition and memorization of sentences and grammatical patterns, activities that required
learners to negotiate meaning and to interact meaningfully are required.
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Therefore, CLT usually implements one or more of the active methodologies listed above because, in the
EFL classroom, promoting effective student communication is the basis of good educational outcomes.
Studies confirm that teachers who communicate better lead classes to better grades and retention rates,
while higher dropout rates are partially attributable to poor classroom communication. A positive
relationship between teachers and students is both a result of better communication and contributes to
an environment that supports it. Within this framework student communication is also extremely
important. Good teacher communication can encourage, model and coach effective student
communication, including learning about expression, persuasion, self-advocacy and questioning. Effective
communicators are more effective students, and good classroom communication from teachers can help
close the gap between privileged and disadvantaged students in this regard.
[Sources: J. C. Richards (2006), Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge: CUP, pp. 6-14; Rise Vision
Blog: https://www.risevision.com/blog/classroom-communication-why-it-matters-and-how-to-improve-it / Note:
both adapted from the original.]
…………………………
I. Design thinking
• DEFINING THE CONCEPT

‘Design thinking’ is part of the broader project-based learning educational model. It uses a creative,
systematic approach to teach problem-solving. Students progress through the stages of Discovery,
Ideation, Experimentation, and Evolution in search of innovative solutions to problems. The learning
process integrates many activities: observation, collaboration, fast-learning, visualization of ideas, and
rapid prototyping. The integration of research, development, and evaluative activities, makes it
particularly useful for all courses, particularly for those with complicated, multi-faceted, and trans-
disciplinary topics.
Design thinking can be applied to nearly any course where innovation and creative problem solving is
required. Design Thinking fits within the real-world of complicated problems because it promotes the
search for many possible options, not a single right answer. Design Thinking is used widely in various
entrepreneurial-minded organizations (e.g., Apple, Google, Nike, etc.) and has been integrated into
innovative pedagogies and design practices for years. Good design, after all, can be found in elegant
solutions within every discipline.
• WHAT MAKES ‘DESIGN THINKING’ DIFFERENT?

Traditional courses progress the student learning from conceptual understanding towards
demonstrations of skill and capacity in a linear, topically focused manner. However, in design thinking,
they are discovering knowledge through exploration.
Students help define the problems, identify, and develop potential solutions, and determine ways to
assess the work. Instructors serve as facilitators and advisors to this learning. Embedded throughout the
process is capacity-building through linked-learning experiences, collaborative exercises, and creative
problem-solving. Learning often involves hands-on experiences focused on real-world challenges. By
centering course activities around a problem and generating creative solutions, the development of
essential competencies is supported such as critical thinking, reflective learning, adaptability, effective
collaboration, and systems thinking.
[Source: Iowa State University – Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching - ibit.ly/ZV4X / Note: adapted from
the original.]
II. Flipped learning

A definition is always a good place to start. So, just what is ‘blended learning’ and what does it have to do
with a ‘flipped classroom’ (whatever that may be)? Well, blended learning is an umbrella term used to
describe a way of teaching that combines online resources with in-person instruction to create a more
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personalised learning environment. Additionally, with blended learning teachers often make some or all
of the content available to students outside of class time. Now, a ‘flipped classroom’, which is a rotational
model of blended learning, takes this to the extreme: students consume all of the traditional input
material at home at their own pace, and during class time they get through work assignments traditionally
given as homework, as well as other activities such as team-based or project-based learning. This, in short,
describes the flipped classroom model, because it flips what students do at home and in the classroom.
• HOW’S THIS BETTER?

Typically, when teachers plan a lesson, they have to make an educated guess about the knowledge-level
of their class, since there is usually very little information available about what each student really knows
or remembers. The problem here is that if the content is too difficult, then most of the students will be
lost and if it’s too easy then most of them will be bored. This results in teachers teaching to the ‘middle
of the class’ and hoping for the best: not an ideal situation. So, by flipping the class and putting content
online, students can move on at their own pace. Those who are familiar with the material can go through
it quickly, while others who aren’t as familiar with it can take their time and do additional research in
order to understand the concept being explained. An additional benefit for all students is that they can
choose to engage with the material when they are most alert: from early in the morning to late at night.
Students can also take the breaks they need without having to worry about missing out or distracting
others.
• SPEAKING OF TIME …
In a traditional classroom, the approach is generally time-based. This means that the whole class moves
at the same pace; all students get the same lesson on the same day, and then they all move on to the next
topic regardless of their individual performance or if they have gaps in their knowledge. The flipped
classroom is flexible enough to allow the use of a mastery-based model, which acknowledges that not all
students are going to understand the material at the same time. Some students might need more time to
understand a topic, while at other times those same students will speed ahead. By giving students as
much time as they need on a topic and letting them decide when they are ready to continue, flipped
classes can help to ensure that students move forward only when they have shown that they can apply
what they have learned with confidence.
• SO, WHERE’S THE CATCH?

The flipped classroom, like any teaching approach, brings with it some important challenges. Obviously,
as this approach depends on technical resources, they have to be affordable, reliable and easy-to-use for
both students and teachers. Also, there is likely to be a learning curve that has to be navigated, especially
for those that have never used technology in the classroom. Another challenge is making sure that
students are reliably and independently studying the materials, so that they are coming to class prepared.
There will be students who come to class underprepared. Unfortunately, outside of tracking their progress
with learning platforms and sending gentle reminders, there is not much more that can be done to tackle
this.
[Source: Macmillan Education – One Stop English: https://www.onestopenglish.com/professional-
development/challenges-in-elt-the-flipped-classroom/556121.article / Note: adapted from the original.]
III. Problem-based learning

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as
the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of
facts and concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking
skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in
groups, finding out and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).
PBL can be incorporated into any learning situation. In the strictest definition of PBL, the approach is used
over the entire semester as the primary method of teaching. However, broader definitions and uses range
from including PBL in lab and design classes, to using it simply to start a single discussion. PBL can also be
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used to create assessment items. The main thread connecting these various uses is the real-world
problem.
• MAXIMIZING THE USE OF PBL IN CLASS

Any subject area can be adapted to PBL with a little creativity. While the core problems will vary among
disciplines, there are some characteristics of good PBL problems that transcend fields (Duch, Groh, and
Allen, 2001):
• The problem must motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts.
• The problem should require students to make reasoned decisions and to defend them.
• The problem should incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to connect it to previous
courses/knowledge.
• If used for a group project, the problem needs a level of complexity to ensure that the students
must work together to solve it.
• If used for a multistage project, the initial steps of the problem should be open-ended and
engaging to draw students into the problem.
The problems can come from a variety of sources: newspapers, magazines, journals, books, textbooks,
and television/ movies. Some are in such form that they can be used with little editing; however, others
need to be rewritten to be of use.
The method for distributing a PBL problem falls under three closely related teaching techniques: case
studies, role-plays, and simulations. Case studies are presented to students in written form. Role-plays
have students improvise scenes based on character descriptions given. Today, simulations often involve
computer-based programs. Regardless of which technique is used, the heart of the method remains the
same: the real-world problem.
[Source: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign > Center for Innovation in Teaching and Learning:
https://citl.illinois.edu/citl-101/teaching-learning/resources/teaching-strategies/problem-based-learning-(pbl) /
Note: adapted from the original.]
IV. Service learning

‘Service learning’ is an educational approach where a student learns theories in the classroom and at the
same time volunteers with an agency (usually a non-profit or social service group) and engages in
reflection activities to deepen their understanding of what is being taught.
It is a cycle of theories, practices, and reflection tools to broaden knowledge and critical thinking skills for
social change. In fact, you might commonly hear it related to terms such as civic engagement, community
development, advocacy, philanthropy, social change, volunteerism, community service and experiential
learning. As a result of service learning, students learn more about the community and themselves while
fulfilling a need in the community and meeting classroom or degree requirements.
• WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF SERVICE-LEARNING PROJECTS?

Service Learning involves almost any helping activity. We generally refer to direct service to individuals,
indirect service to people, and advocacy work.
 Direct service includes tutoring, serving meals, working with patients, helping a refugee family,
walking foster dogs, or participating in events at a nursing home. Many psychology and education
courses incorporate direct service.
 Indirect service is doing something behind the scenes to help, such as organizing a fundraising
event, working in a resale shop, stocking a food pantry, collecting donations or planting trees to
help the environment. Fields such as environmental studies and sociology tend to offer more
indirect service opportunities.
 Advocacy can take the form of students writing letters to government officials, demonstrating in
a picket line, or educating others about possible policy changes. Political science and criminal
justice classes often feature more advocacy work.
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• WHY IS SERVICE LEARNING IMPORTANT?

For starters, service learning is important because it connects student learning in the classroom with real-
world experiences in the community. Students who participate in it are more deeply engaged in their local
communities, gain practical skills, develop their career and personal interests, and are usually more
engaged citizens. At a societal level, it is important for people to be involved and aware of their
communities so they can assist each other and be more conscientious individuals. Creating opportunities
for young people increases their involvement. Finally, it instils the habit of performing a service for others.
Students who engage early on often continue service work for the rest of their lives.
[Source: Elmhurst University (2022) - https://www.elmhurst.edu/blog/what-is-service-learning/ Note: adapted from

the original.]
…………………………
a) Complete the chart with information that helps to have an overview of the different active
methodologies explained above. Use your own words as much as possible.
Main goal Types of activities Benefits Student’s role

Design
thinking
Flipped
learning
Problem-
based learning
Service
learning
3.3.3. VOCABULARY
a) Find in the text ten verbs that mean the learner is actively involved in an EFL class (e. g.
‘participate’).
1) … 6) …
2) … 7) …
3) … 8) …
4) … 9) …
5) … 10) …
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U2_CLT
b) Choose eight from the list above and write sentences that include the words or expressions
given. The meaning must be clear in context. Use the present perfect simple or continuous, either
in the affirmative, negative or question form. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 opportunity: __________________________________________________________________ .
2 environment: __________________________________________________________________.
3 observation: ___________________________________________________________________.
4 innovative: ____________________________________________________________________.
5 creative problem-solving: ________________________________________________________.
6 underprepared: ________________________________________________________________.
7 critical thinking: ________________________________________________________________.
8 sources: ______________________________________________________________________.
3.2.4. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PHRASAL VERBS (VI)

 Writing
4.1. SUMMARIZING INFORMATION (I)

In your coursework, you may be asked to write a summary of an essay, book, film, video, or presentation.
A summary is generally short, written objectively and in present tense.
What is a summary?
A summary is a short objective overview of the main ideas of a larger work. It includes only the broader
points or purpose of a work rather than the details or smaller plot points. You can think of a summary as
how you might boil down the main points of a book or film to describe it to other people.
Often, a summary is a paragraph in length, but it can span several paragraphs for longer works. Always
follow the guidelines of the assignment or project, including citing the original source.
What should you include in a summary?
• Include an opening line listing the author’s name, title of the work, and a broad overview of the
work, such as the genre or overall idea of the work.
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• A summary should include all of the main points or ideas in the work but avoid smaller details or
ideas. You don’t want to provide every aspect of the plot or smaller points in your summary.
• Your summary should be written using your own words.
• Present the main ideas objectively, avoiding your own opinion and thoughts about the work.
• Avoid including direct quotes from the work within your summary. Rather, present the main points
in your own words.
• Close your summary by restating an overview of the work in one sentence.
[Source: The University of Arizona Global Campus > Writing Center (2021) - https://writingcenter.uagc.edu/writing-
summary]
 Listening
5.1. DESIGN THINKING: A PROBLEM-SOLVING FRAMEWORK
[Source: Edutopia Channel at YouTube. Full video here as well.]
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a) Using your own words, summarize the step-by-step process shown in the video to solve the
problem: creating a water filtration system using natural resources. (80-100 words approx.)
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________.
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References
I. Sources
OUP.
Language Learning.
GRAMMAR
• AutoEnglish.Org > Present perfect + adverbs

• British Council – Learn English > Present perfect
• British Council – Learn English > Present perfect simple and continuous
• British Council – Learn English > Just, yet, still and already
• English-Hilfen.de – English tenses
• English Practice: Tenses by level
• English at Home: English tenses exercises
• GrammarBank.com: Verb tenses practice
• Perfect English Grammar: Present perfect or past simple?
• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] – BBC Learning English: Present perfect and past simple – 6-minute grammar
WRITING
• Open Oregon Educational Resources > Writing summaries

• Keys to Literacy > Writing > How to write a summary
• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] – Smrt English Channel > How to write a summary
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Answer key
GRAMMAR / 2.2.
a) 1a / 2b / 3b / 4a / 5b / 6a
b) 1. has been performing / 2. been reading … haven’t finished / 3. Have you been waiting / 4. have
you been saving / 5. have been repairing / 6. has forgotten … has practiced (also: has been
practicing) / 7. has broken / 8. has been writing
c) 1. since / 2. just / 3. ever / 4. never / 5. yet / 6. already / 7. for
d) 1. just / 2. already / 3. yet / 4. already / 5. already / 6. just / 7. yet / 8. yet
e) 1g / 2h / 3b / 4c / 5f / 6a / 7d / 8e
VOCABULARY / 3.1.3.
a) 1. command / 2. master / 3. focus / 4. successful / 5. feedback / 6. participate
b) Antonyms: check e. g. https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus
PHRASAL VERBS (IV) / 3.1.4.

a) Ex.: brought about, pick up, set up, get around, trying out.
b) Synonyms: check e. g. https://www.thesaurus.com/e/grammar/phrasal-verbs/
VOCABULARY / 3.2.2.
a) 1. approach / 2. drilling / 3. permanent / 4. adapted / 5. comprehension / 6. spread (around) / 7.
rethink / 8. effective
PHRASAL VERBS (V) / 3.2.3.

a) Ex.: taking in, building up, stressed out, turn into, broken down (into), acted out.
VOCABULARY / 3.3.3.
a) Ex.: 1. progress / 2. search / 3. discover(ing) / 4. identify / 5. develop / 6. understand / 7. engage
/ 8. apply / 9. connect / 10. improvise.
PHRASAL VERBS (VI) / 3.3.4.

a) Ex.: get through, move on, go through, speed ahead, finding out, seek out.
Page 24 of 24
46411 - Comunicación oral y escrita, inglés B1, para el
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Versión julio/2022
Unit 3. Linguistically diverse classes
U3_LDS
 Introduction
1.1. CONTENTS
En esta tercera unidad de aprendizaje se introducen nociones básicas sobre el concepto de

estudiante con diversidad lingüística (o de diversas lenguas maternas), incluyendo referencias a
los aspectos culturales, étnicos o sociales que influyen en su desempeño en la clase de inglés
como lengua extranjera (EFL) o segunda lengua (ESL). Asimismo, se habla de la relevancia de
este conocimiento para el profesorado y de aquellos aspectos que ayudan a identificar y manejar
la situación en el entorno educativo. Por otro lado, se ofrecen pautas para desarrollar un
correcto proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje en el aula de lengua extranjera (FL) teniendo en
cuenta este tipo de diversidad y variedad lingüística y sociocultural, se exponen los retos que
supone y se recomiendan algunas estrategias didácticas efectivas.
la competencia lingüística necesarias para que sea efectivo, se tratan tres de los verbos modales
y se practica con las colocaciones idiomáticas para seguir avanzando en el nivel B1/+ (umbral,
usuario independiente) a lo largo del curso.

• Reviewing and consolidating grammar content: modal verbs (can, could, be able to).
1.3. OUTLINE

1.3. Outline
2. Grammar 2.1. Modal verbs (I): can, could, be able to

2.2. Exercises
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3. Reading 3.1. The concept of ‘linguistically diverse students’ (LDS)

3.1.2. Vocabulary
3.1.3. Language focus: Collocations (I)
3.2. Effective instruction of linguistically diverse groups
3.2.2. Vocabulary
3.2.3. Language focus: Collocations (II)
4. Listening 4.1. ELL: Culture, equity and language

4.1.2. Vocabulary
5. Writing 5.1. Summarizing information (II)
References
Answer key
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 Grammar
2.1. MODAL VERBS (I): CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO + INF.
[Source: Woodward English > Modal verbs (2022) - https://www.grammar.cl/english/can-could.htm]
CAN/COULD vs. BE ABLE TO + INF.
• Be able to is like can. We use it to talk about abilities. We often use it in places where it
is not possible to use can. For example, it isn’t possible to use can after another modal
verb:
She won’t be able to concentrate.
Not: *She won’t can concentrate.
He should be able to work in a team.
Not: *He should can work in a team.
• Be able to is a more formal alternative to can:

I am very sorry, but I am not able to give you that information. (or, less formal: I cannot
give you that information.)
• Was/were able to, not could, is commonly used to talk about past achievements in
affirmative clauses. This is because they are facts, rather than possibilities:
Only one person was able to beat the record.

Not: *Only one person could beat the record.
• We use couldn’t or, more formally, wasn’t/weren’t able to in negative clauses:

We weren’t able to finish the marathon in under four hours. (or: We couldn’t finish the
marathon …).
[Source: Cambridge Dictionary of English > Grammar (2022):

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/be-expressions-be-able-to-be-due-to / Note:
adapted from the original.]
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2.2. EXERCISES
a) Complete the sentences using ‘can’ or ‘be able to’, in the most suitable tense and either in
affirmative or negative form.
1 Gary has travelled a lot. He ________________ speak five languages.

2 I haven’t ________________ sleep very well recently.
3 Finn ________________ send the assignment. His computer wasn’t working properly.
4 Nicole ________________ drive, but she doesn’t have a car.
5 I used to ___________________ stand on my head, but I ________________ do it any more.
6 ________________ borrow your mobile phone? I need to call a taxi.
7 People ________________ talk to each other in internet chat rooms since 1988.
8 My date with Ben ________________ be a disaster because we have nothing in common.
9 Michael has lived in Italy a long time, so he should ________________ speak Italian.
10 Ask Katherine. She might ________________ help you.
b) Write sentences about yourself using the ideas in brackets, either in affirmative, negative or
interrogative form. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 (something you used to do: ability) _________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 (something you would like to do: possibility) __________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
3 (something you need to ask permission to do) _________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 (something you were not allowed to do: prohibition) ___________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
c) Complete the following text with suitable modals (can, could, be able to), either in affirmative
or negative form. Choose the suitable verb for each gap from the box. Do not repeat them (one
for each gap).
sleep work teach see step touch
WINTER AT THE SOUTH POLE, FEBRUARY 17TH
Antarctic winter is approaching. The forecast is cold and dark – we will (1) ________________ sunlight
until September and have temperatures of -70 degrees, which means you (2) ________________ outside
and you must be careful what you touch. You (3) _________________ bare metal because it burns your
skin. Last night, I (4) ________________ because of the cold – my eyelashes froze and clicked together.
Although some maintenance work has to be done every day, technicians (5) ________________ work all
the time, so I (6) _______________ myself to play the guitar.
d) Decide the most suitable option in each case (can, could, be able to) and then write sentences
using the affirmative (+), negative (-) or interrogative (?) form. Add any word to complete the
information if necessary.
1 We / wear / school uniform (?) ____________________________________________________.
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2 You / train / hard / win the competition (+) ___________________________________________.

3 My parents / work / starting next June (-) ____________________________________________.
4 Toby / go / to the party / last week (?) _______________________________________________.
5 A lot of people / understand / what he will say (+) ______________________________________.
6 Sarah / didn’t swim / younger age / now she performs well (-) ____________________________.
e) Complete the sentences with can/can’t, could/couldn’t or be able to plus the following verbs.
Do not repeat them (one for each gap)
rest hear climb believe stay come
1 I’m afraid I ________________ to your birthday party next month.

2 When Daniel was 20 years old, he ____________________ the mountain in two hours.
3 Are you in a hurry? Yes, I haven’t got plenty of time and I ______________ here any longer.
4 Can you speak a little louder? I _______________ your last words very well.
5 I’m not feeling good this morning. I had stomach pain during the night and I _______________
at all.
6 I was truly surprised when I watched the news. I was ________________ it!
 Reading
3.1. THE CONCEPT OF ‘LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE STUDENTS’

Background
Worldwide classrooms are becoming more diverse every year, which means cultural diversity in the
classroom is becoming an increasingly important issue for educators throughout the education system.
Ignoring the increase in diversity is not a helpful response. Instead, educators are embracing diversity and
fostering culturally inclusive classrooms designed to help every student succeed.
What kinds of cultural diversity are common in classrooms? No two students are the same, even if they
share a lot in common. To foster cultural awareness, you need to consider all the different aspects of
culture that can influence your students’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. Common cultural
differences include:
• Race: it is important to recognize the impact skin colour has had on the broader world culture and
how it can affect students’ perceptions of each other and themselves.
• Ethnicity: while ethnicity is sometimes used as a synonym for race, it is more accurately defined as
the culture we derive from our nationality. Ethnic differences appear in all immigrant groups and
can persist for generations. Understanding these differences can help you be attuned to your
students’ interests and outlooks.
• Religion: while you know that not everyone worships in the same way—and that some do not
worship at all—it is good to familiarize yourself with the ways religious traditions and requirements
can impact your students’ behaviors and free time.
• Language: language barriers should not be educational barriers. While you can’t be expected to
speak every language, you can be expected to make accommodations for those who speak ESL.
• Economic: the economic situation of a student’s family can greatly impact his or her learning. You
should be aware of how economic pressures can lead to classroom stress as well as to issues with
finding time and a place to study.
• LGBTQ: a student’s sexual orientation and/or gender identity can become a point of conflict in
their lives. It shouldn’t also be a point of conflict in the classroom.
[Source: Walden University – Education for Good (2021): https://bit.ly/2DCkUAp / Note: adapted from the original.]
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Due to the content of this course, we focus on linguistically diverse students, who are defined as
individuals who come from a home environment where a language other than English ―or any other
dominant (native) language in the country― is spoken and whose cultural values and background may
differ from the mainstream culture. Today, students may also be referred to and labelled by different
terms, such as Limited English proficient (LEP), Language Minority Student (LMS), or English-Language
Learner (ELL).
As a case in point, he U.S.A. population has been becoming increasingly more diverse over the past two
decades. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2007), in 1980, 23.1 million people spoke a language other
than English at home, compared to 55.4 million people in 2007 (a 140 percent increase, during which the
U.S. population grew 34 percent). Today, nearly one-fifth of Americans live in a household in which a
language other than English is spoken. (García, 2002: 8)
[Source: Language Education Blog (2021) - https://bit.ly/3e7OtOT / Note: adapted from the original.]
Relevance to the education systems and pre-service teachers

Globalization, according to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), “is the
widening, deepening and speeding up of connections across national borders” (OECD, 2013 p. 10). For
many the concept of globalization mainly concerns economics and trade, and this has certainly been a
focus of discussions about the matter since the 1980s, but inevitably globalization also involves migration
and population movement. Migration often brings with it greater cultural and linguistic diversity for
communities and education systems. Recent statistics show that along with traditional migration
destinations like Australia and Canada, the numbers of people migrating from low-income to high-income
countries has increased (OECD, 2013). To address the growing diversity (cultural, linguistic and economic)
brought by transnational learners to school classrooms, there is a pressing need to equip beginning
teachers with an expanded set of skills and attitudes to engage culturally and linguistically diverse
students, to support effective learning.
[Source: R. Moloney & D. Saltmarsh (2016), Knowing your students in the culturally and linguistically diverse
classroom, Australian Journal of Teacher Education 41(4), p. 79. Full text here / Note: adapted from the original.]
What does a culturally and linguistically diverse student "look like" in the classroom?
Culturally and linguistically diverse students can be found in any type of classroom. They come from a
variety of socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds and may speak a variety of languages. In Florida, for
instance, the five most common languages spoken are Spanish/Castilian, Haitian Creole, Portuguese,
Vietnamese, and French. Educators should become familiar with the languages and cultures of the
students they teach. Although a student may appear uninterested or antisocial it may be because they
have come from a different background and what is acceptable in our culture may be quite different in
theirs. With this understanding, we will be better able to help our students adapt into the classroom
environment and our cultural norms.
Culture is a complex concept. It shapes how we see ourselves, the world, and other people. Culture has
been often compared to an iceberg. An iceberg has a small section visible above the waterline with a
larger section visible below the waterline. Similar to the iceberg, culture has some aspects that are
observable, such as general behaviors and practices, and others that are simply suspected or learned as
the understanding one has of a culture grows.
Why do teachers need to know about culturally and linguistically diverse students?
As schools become more diverse, it is important that teachers, administrators, and other professionals
are aware and trained to teach and meet the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students. They
must be flexible and persistent in their efforts to help others overcome language and cultural barriers to
learning, and help both their mainstream native as well as diverse students appreciate the opportunity to
learn from each other. The goal should be to help culturally and linguistically diverse students become
bilingual so they can have access to two languages and cultures. At the same time, it is very important for
culturally and linguistically diverse students to keep their home language, culture or traditions, which is
part of who they are. Creating an open environment and integrating the student’s culture into lessons or
classroom activities can help the student maintain their culture, as well as raise cultural awareness for the
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U3_LDS
whole class. If culturally and linguistically diverse students feel their language and culture is accepted by
their peers, they may feel more comfortable embracing it and not jump only into the mainstream culture
of the country they are living in.
Educators should learn as much as possible about their students’ language, educational and cultural
background. By learning about cultural and linguistic differences, teachers will be able to be more
responsive to the child’s emotional and instructional needs. Teachers need to think differently about the
students in today’s classrooms, which are very different from the students in the classrooms of the
past. “In order to educate them, we must first educate ourselves about who they are and what they need
to succeed. Thinking differently involves viewing these students in new ways that may contradict
conventional notions.” (García, 2002: 285)
Teachers should also try to reach out to parents of culturally and linguistically diverse students to promote
parental involvement. By understanding the life experiences and cultural values of culturally and
linguistically diverse families, teachers may be able to address with ease topics such as homework,
participation in school-wide meetings, parent-teacher conferences, and parental involvement in school
activities.
[Source: Language Education Blog (2021) - https://bit.ly/3e7OtOT / Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
each column that help understand what is explained above. Use your own words as much as
possible.
What is 'cultural diversity'? What is 'linguistic diversity'?
• ... • ...
• ... • ...
Main features of LDS Role of teacher regarding LDS
• ... • ...
• ... • ...
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U3_LDS
b) Answer these questions using your own words. (10-15 words/each minimum)
1. What is the connection between migration and global diversity (in cultural terms)?
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
2. Why is bilingualism considered one of the principal goals in these types of classes?
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3.1.2. VOCABULARY
a) Using your own words, define the concepts underlined in the text. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 culturally inclusive classrooms: ____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 language barriers: _______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
3 instructional needs: _____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 parental involvement: ___________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
b) Now choose three noun phrases from a) and write sentences in which the meaning is clear in
context. (8-10 words/each minimum).
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3.1.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: COLLOCATIONS (I)
What is a collocation?
A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just sound "right"
to native English speakers, who use them all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may
be unnatural and just sound "wrong". Look at these examples:
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Why learn collocations?

• Your language will be more natural and more easily understood.
• You will have alternative and richer ways of expressing yourself.
• It is easier for our brains to remember and use language in chunks or blocks rather than
as single words.
[Source: English Club Group (2022). Full text explanation and more examples here]
[Source: English with Cambridge Channel at YouTube. Full video here as well.]
a) Find four collocations in the text. Do not repeat the same type. Write a sentence in which you
use each of them properly and meaningfully. (8-10 words/each minimum)
Type Collocation Sentence
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3.2. EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION OF LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE GROUPS

Introduction
It is very important to be aware of the diversity, background and individual learning style of each student
and create a supportive environment where all students feel comfortable to speak, use the language, and
ask questions. A classroom filled with fun, creative, and meaningful lessons may be most successful by
keeping students engaged and motivated. Children often learn more when they are challenged by
teachers who have high expectations for them. When teachers show they have high expectations, they
are showing their students that they can succeed.
Good teaching practice principles

Cultural diversity in the student population is now the norm rather than the exception. The term culture
is a very broad concept that also encompasses the lifestyle, traditions, knowledge, skills, beliefs, norms
and values shared by a group of people. Meaning is continuously constructed through human interaction
and communication within and across cultural groups. Therefore, it is a dynamic, developmental and
ongoing process for students and teachers.
International and domestic students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds will:
a) bring a range of learning behaviours and styles into the classroom
b) perceive themselves in many ways as learners
c) have different expectations of their teachers
Therefore, to support ELLs from culturally and linguistic diverse backgrounds, Leask and Carroll (2013)
propose the following list of good practice principles that is intended for Australian teaching staff but can
be used in several other educational contexts:
PRINCIPLES CHALLENGES HOW TO HELP

1. Focus on students • All students, not just some • Making expectations transparent
as learners students, are learners in a new (e. g. talking about objectives,
environment. goals or outcomes at the end of
• Transition to the new school the lesson).
can be difficult and may take • Introducing learning material and
some students longer than content by stages.
others.
2. Respect and • Cultures share certain patterns • Adjusting teaching strategies to

adjust for diversity of behaviours, interactions, and the needs of students.
affective understandings. • Implementing inclusive teaching
• Within different cultural strategies; this means that all
groups, individuals are unique. students bring valuable knowledge
and experience to the classroom.
3. Provide context- • The demands on learners vary • Scaffolding the development of

specific information in different contexts and across competencies, skills and
and support courses. knowledge in courses.
• Students must learn new
knowledge, new ways of
learning and new ways to
demonstrate what they have
learned.
4. Good teaching • Diversity has an impact on the • Creating environments that

across cultures will dynamics of groups, and it promote communication and
enable meaningful influences the communication interaction.
between students and between • Bringing dialogue and collaborative
intercultural
the teacher and the students. work into the classroom and
dialogue and
• The quality of learning and valuing the knowledge and
engagement success of students are experience of diverse students.
enhanced when they feel
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U3_LDS
valued and part of the learning

process.
5. Be adaptable, • Teachers should seek responses • Being flexible when planning the
flexible and from all students and analyse lesson and delivering information.
responsive to feedback provided by students.
• It may be necessary to ask for
evidence
advice from others on how best
to respond or on how to modify
teaching approaches.
6. Prepare students • Globalisation provides many • Teaching practices that help
for life in a opportunities and challenges. challenge stereotypes, contribute
globalised world • Students need to be aware of to greater equality, enhance
the increasing connections understanding and appreciation of
between peoples of the world. other cultures, or prepare students
for the international, intercultural
and global context of their future
lives.
[Source: B. Leask & J. Carrol (2013), Good Practice Principles in Practice: Teaching across cultures -
https://www.ieaa.org.au/documents/item/132 / Note: adapted from the original.]
Strategies to promote communication and participation

When teaching culturally and linguistically diverse learners, teachers need to be able to adapt the lessons
as needed and should present the information clearly. Activities that promote cultural awareness for all
students should be included whenever possible. To meet the needs of all students it is important that a
variety of instructional strategies are used. Strategies best used when teaching culturally and linguistically
diverse students include modeling, scaffolding techniques, the use of visuals, hands-on learning
experiences, peer tutoring, and cooperative learning activities, among others.
What is culturally and linguistically responsive teaching? It involves leveraging students’ cultural and
linguistic experiences, utilizing their background knowledge, and providing multiple ways for students to
learn and demonstrate new learning. When we use culturally and linguistically responsive practices, we
employ interactive and collaborative learning activities that draw from students’ references and previous
experiences to help them make connections to new learning.
a) Acquire cultural knowledge

A cornerstone of culturally and linguistically responsive teaching is having cultural knowledge of the
students in your classroom. It is the understanding that culture impacts how we process and learn
information. One way is starting the process of getting to know students with a questionnaire that
called “Getting to Know You.” In this questionnaire, students are asked what name they would like
me to use, their interests, any activities they enjoyed, and what they would like to learn in this class.
Before and during lessons, students discuss their own experiences and try to make connections to
the topic we studied. This not only helps make the learning relevant for the students but gives insight
regarding how to conduct a lesson.
b) Use language acquisition principles

A culturally and linguistically responsive environment also involves providing language supports for
our ELLs. Researcher Stephen Krashen has noted language acquisition principles that help teachers
create a supportive, nurturing place where language is learned through meaningful tasks and
authentic interactions. Krashen reminds us that comprehension of language typically develops before
the production of language and that conversational, or everyday, language develops more quickly
than academic, or more formal, language.
These are some relevant practices to support students’ language growth, while still being able to
share their knowledge and new learning:
• Connect content to real life by inviting community members to the classroom to talk about their
experiences, relate content to students’ lives, or provide students with real problems to solve.
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• Nonverbal methods such as drawing or pointing to a picture/answer can be used by ELLs to

demonstrate comprehension, even when they do not yet have the production language to verbally
answer.
• Provide opportunities for ELLs to work with a partner or in small groups. This will support their
use and input of language.
• Allow ELLs to use their first language when learning new concepts. This allows them to
understand the concept, then learn the concept language, rather than learning both at the same
time.
c) Employ instructional scaffolds

Instructional scaffolds are used as you are learning a new skill but are intended to be temporary until
a skill is mastered. Instructional scaffolding involves understanding the specific, temporary
instructional supports that a student needs and providing these supports. Once the student has
mastered the skill or task, the scaffolding is gradually removed. The following scaffolds may be used
to help support student learning:
• Various levels of questions to build students’ thinking, from the recall of information to answers
that required synthesis or evaluation of ideas/information
• Incorporating visual tools such as pictures and illustrations for science and social studies lessons
and graphic organizers for reading to help students connect language to content
• Supplementing texts with study guides, definitions of key vocabulary, and an outline of key events
• Reading instruction that uses language modified texts and focuses on an interactive reading skills
approach
d) Provide effective feedback

Instruction isn’t complete without effective feedback, because it provides students with information
to improve upon a task, and why. If students are involved in the process of assessing their work with
rubrics, for example, the teacher may provide specific actions focused on working toward on the
learning target at hand and future assignments.
How can we ensure that our feedback will help our students grow? The following practices help
provide feedback:
• Provide feedback in written and verbal form to ensure that the student understands what needs
improvement and why. This can be done by annotating an assignment or meeting with students
one-on-one to review a task with a rubric.
• Give students specific information about their performance on a particular task. This can be done
with the use of a rubric, which breaks down a learning task into individual elements.
• Give feedback almost immediately after a student has demonstrated new learning. This will help
the student make connections between the feedback and the task.
[Source: K. Blaha (2022), Foundations of culturally and linguistically responsive teaching; in: Edutopia – George
Lucas Educational Foundation - https://www.edutopia.org/article/foundations-culturally-and-linguistically-
responsive-teaching / Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
a) Explain the meaning of the fragments extracted from the text using your own words. (20-25
words/each)
1. “A classroom filled with fun, creative, and meaningful lessons may be most successful by keeping
students engaged and motivated.”
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________.
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2. “Diversity has an impact on the dynamics of groups, and it influences the communication between
students and between the teacher and the students.”
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________.
3. “Nonverbal methods such as drawing or pointing to a picture/answer can be used by ELLs to

demonstrate comprehension, even when they do not yet have the production language to verbally
answer.”
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________.
3.2.2. VOCABULARY
a) Find in the text ten adjectives that convey a positive meaning or connotation for EFL students
(in general and in the case of LSD).
1) … 6) …
2) … 7) …
3) … 8) …
4) … 9) …
5) … 10) …
b) Choose six from the list above and write sentences that include the words or expressions given.
The meaning must be clear in context. Use the modal verbs studied in section 2, either in the
affirmative, negative or question form. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 lifestyle: _____________________________________________________________________ .
2 ongoing process: _______________________________________________________________.
3 background knowledge: _________________________________________________________.
4 task: _________________________________________________________________________.
5 feedback: _____________________________________________________________________.
6 ensure: _______________________________________________________________________.
3.2.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: COLLOCATIONS (II)

a) Find four collocations in the text. Do not repeat the same type. Write a sentence in which you
use each of them properly and meaningfully. (8-10 words/each minimum)
Type Collocation Sentence
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 Listening
4.1. ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS: CULTURE, EQUITY AND LANGUAGE
[Source: Nea Priority Schools Channel at YouTube. Full video here as well]
1. “The educators are reaching out for specific professional strategies to assist them.”
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
2. “Students coming to school are not empty vessels.”
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3. “They have a lot to contribute if you allow them to bring out the best in themselves.”
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
4.1.2. VOCABULARY
a) Identify ten different adjectives mentioned in the video that are used to define the knowledge,
emotions or feelings ELL can have in new educational environments.
Adjectives (positive) Adjectives (negative)
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b) Choose any five adjectives from your list and write sentences in which the meaning is clear in
1 __________________________________________________________________________.
2 __________________________________________________________________________.
3 __________________________________________________________________________.
4 __________________________________________________________________________.
5 __________________________________________________________________________.
 Writing
5.1. SUMMARIZING INFORMATION (II)
• Briefly summarize the different (or similar) experiences of the four teachers in the video above
in relation to their first contact with the language when they were child students at U.S.A.
schools (80-100 words).
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________ .
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References
I. Sources
OUP.
Language Learning.
GRAMMAR
• Collins Grammar – What is the difference between can, could and be able to?
• E-Grammar.org – Can, could, be able to (theory + exercises)
• EnglishClub – Can, could, be able to
• Perfect English Grammar: Modals of Ability
• Test-English.com – Can, could, be able to (ability and possibility)
• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] Oxford Online English – How to use can, could, be able to – English modal
verbs for ability
• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] Oxford English Now – Can, could, be able to
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Answer key
GRAMMAR / 2.2.
a) 1. can / 2. been able to / 3. couldn’t / 4. can (also: is able to) / 5. be able to, can’t / 6. could / 7. can
(also: are able to) / 8. could / 9. be able to / 10. be able to
c) 1. not be able to see / 2. can’t step / 3. can’t touch / 4. couldn’t sleep / 5. can’t work / 6. can teach
e) 1. will not be able to come / 2. could climb / 3. can’t stay / 4. couldn’t hear / 5. couldn’t sleep / 6. Not
able to believe
COLLOCATIONS (I) / 3.1.3.

a) Ex.: 1. adverb + adjective = linguistically diverse / 2. adjective + noun = open environment / 3. verb +
expression with preposition = be attuned to your students’ interests and outlooks / 4. verb + adverb =
engage culturally
VOCABULARY / 3.2.2.
a) Ex.: 1. comfortable / 2. engaged / 3. motivated / 4. valued / 5. meaningful / 6. relevant / 7. flexible / 8.
effective / 9. dynamic / 10. transparent
COLLOCATIONS (II) / 3.2.3.

a) Ex.: 1. adjective + noun = supportive environment / 2. noun + noun = student’s language growth / 3.
verb + noun = challenge stereotypes / 3. verb + expression with preposition = constructed through human
interaction and communication
VOCABULARY / 4.1.2.
a) Ex.: (positive) 1. supportive, 2. successful, 3. rich, 4. plenty, 5. welcome / (negative) 6. hard, 7. unfair,
8. strange, 9. difficult, 10. limited
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
Versión julio/2022
Unit 4. Teaching materials in ELT (I): Short stories
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 Introduction
1.1. CONTENTS
En esta cuarta unidad de aprendizaje se define el concepto de ‘literatura infantil’ en lengua

inglesa, haciendo mención de los distintos géneros y sus características principales, se aborda el
uso de historias cortas en el entorno educativo y cómo seleccionarlas según los criterios más
recomendados por diversos autores, así como la relevancia de las obras historiadas (storybooks)
que permiten la puesta en práctica de la narración oral (storytelling) en el aula de Educación
Primaria y desarrollar las competencias del siglo XXI.
la competencia lingüística necesarias para que sea efectivo, se continua con los verbos modales
y las colocaciones idiomáticas para seguir avanzando en el nivel B1/+ (umbral, usuario
independiente).

• Reviewing and consolidating grammar content: modal verbs (must/have to, may/might,
should/ought to).
1.3. OUTLINE

1.3. Outline
2. Grammar 2.1. Modal verbs (II): must/have to, may/might, should/ought to

2.2. Exercises
3. Reading 3.1. Children’s literature

3.1.2. Vocabulary
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3.1.3. Language focus: Collocations (III)

3.2. Short stories: selection criteria and use
3.2.2. Vocabulary
3.2.3. Language focus: Collocations (IV)
3.3. Storybooks and storytelling
3.3.2. Vocabulary
3.3.3. Language focus: Collocations (V)
4. Listening 4.1. Storytelling tips

5. Writing 5.1. Opinion essay (II): Agree or disagree?

5.2. Topics
References
Answer key
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 Grammar
2.1. MODAL VERBS (II): MUST/HAVE TO, MAY/MIGHT, SHOULD/OUGHT TO
[Source: Woodward English > Modal verbs (2022) - https://www.grammar.cl/english/can-could.htm]
DIFFERENCE IN MEANING
• ‘Must’ or ‘have to’?
Generally speaking, in the present affirmative form you can use either must or have to. However,
there is a slight difference when we speak in the first person. When you want to describe an internal
obligation (an order you give yourself), it’s better to use must. For example:
These pants don’t fit me anymore. I must lose weight.
On the contrary, when you describe an external obligation (an order someone gives you) we use ‘have
to’. For example:
My doctor told me I’m overweight and I have to go on a diet.
Instead, when orders are general and official, for example on notices and documents, we usually use
must. For example:
Passengers must keep their bags with them at all times.
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In negative sentences you need to remember that if you want to describe an obligation to not do
something, you need to use mustn’t. While if you want to say that there is no obligation, use don’t
have to. For example:
You mustn’t do that! (Don’t do it because it is not permitted.)
You don’t have to do that. (You have no obligation to do it, but you can if you want to.)
[Source: Wall Street English (2022) - https://www.wallstreetenglish.com/exercises/the-difference-between-
must-have-to-shall-need-and-may /Note: adapted from the original.]
• ‘May’ or ‘might’?
May and might are used mainly to talk about possibility. They can also be used to make a request,
to ask permission, or to make a suggestion. When they are used with the same meaning, may is
more formal than might.
In conversation, the negative form mightn’t is often used instead of might not. The form mayn’t
is much less common. People usually use the full form may not.
It may not be as hard as you think.
He mightn't have time to see you.
[Source: Collins English Dictionary (2022) - https://grammar.collinsdictionary.com/es/uso-del-

ingl%C3%A9s/what-is-the-difference-between-might-and-may / Note: adapted from the original.]
DEDUCTIONS ABOUT THE PAST

We can use modal verbs for deduction – guessing if something is true using the available information.
The modal verb we choose shows how certain we are about the possibility. This page focuses on
making deductions about the past.
• must have
We use must have + past participle when we feel sure about what happened.
1. Who told the newspapers about the prime minister's plans? It must have been someone
close to him.
2. The thief must have had a key. The door was locked and nothing was broken.
3. Oh, good! We've got milk. Mo must have bought some yesterday.
• might have / may have
We can use might have or may have + past participle when we think it's possible that something
happened.
1. I think I might have left the air conditioning on. Please can you check?
2. Police think the suspect may have left the country using a fake passport.
May have is more formal than might have. Could have is also possible in this context, but less
common.
• can't have / couldn't have
We use can't have and couldn't have + past participle when we think it's not possible that
something happened.
1. She can't have driven there. Her car keys are still here.
2. I thought I saw Adnan this morning, but it couldn't have been him – he's in Greece this
week.
[Source: British Council Learn English (2022) - https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar/b1-b2-
grammar/modals-deductions-about-the-past / Note: adapted from the original.]
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2.2. EXERCISES
a) Fill in the gaps with must, have to, may, might, should, ought to (in affirmative or negative
form).
1 That restaurant __________ be very good. It’s always full.

2 Who’s that man with Ann? I’m not sure. It __________ be her brother.
3 We believe the government __________ do more to help the homeless.
4 Whatever you do, you __________ touch that switch.
5 I’ve lost one of my gloves. It __________ have dropped somewhere.
6 Sue phoned to tell that she __________ be able to join us this evening.
7 What sort of house do you want to buy? Well, it __________ be big, but it __________ have a
nice garden – that’s essential!
8 I think Liz needs a change. She __________ go away for a few days.
9 The doctor recommended I __________ see a specialist.
10 Paul doesn’t like his new job. Sometimes he __________ work at weekends.
b) Choose the correct form of the modal: simple or perfect?
1 The film was very successful. It must make / must have made lots of money last year.
2 Where are the keys? I can’t find / couldn’t have found them around.
3 I can’t see Dave anywhere. He might stay / might have stayed at home.
4 That’s a terrible book. I shouldn’t buy / shouldn’t have bought it.
5 I’m sorry. I must tell / must have told you before, but I didn’t want to annoy.
6 We’re having a surprise party for Helen. She mustn’t find out / mustn’t have found out about it.
7 She shouldn’t take / shouldn’t have taken Rosa to the café yesterday.
8 My uncle was late for the family meeting. He might have got lost / must have got lost in the
outskirts.
c) Choose the correct answer.
1 The film has started. You can / should / may stop talking by now.
2 This is really painful. I must / have to / ought to find an aspirin.
3 Excuse me, please. May / Could / Should you tell me how to get to the Town Hall?
4 She isn’t running now. I guess she is exhausted or may / ought to / could be injured.
5 They will arrive late. They have to / ought to / are able to finish their homework before midday.
6 Some people can / may / have to teach themselves to swim.
7 It can / may / should rain tomorrow, of course.
8 To succeed, Peter might / can / must concentrate very hard.
9 Linda has passed her driving test. She must / could / might be very happy.
10 You mustn’t / don’t have to / shouldn’t turn off the lights. I’m afraid of darkness.
11 They are having an important meeting. You shouldn’t / couldn’t / didn’t have to disturb them.
12 If Sally doesn’t want to burn herself, she has to / must / can cover with suncream.
d) Rewrite the sentences using the words in brackets either in the affirmative or negative, simple
or perfect form of the modals. Do not change the original meaning.
1 I’m sure I forgot to lock the door when I left home (must) ________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 It was wrong of you to insult him in front of everyone (should) ____________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________.
3 You made a mistake when you didn’t take my advice! (ought to) __________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 It is possible that I have seen that man before in the library (may) __________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
5 I’m sure that Tom didn’t recognise you (could) ________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
e) Complete the following text, either in affirmative or negative form. Choose the most suitable
verb in each case from the options below.
be represent change identify

do believe be improve
TELLING THE TRUTH?

Whenever we look at a photography or watch a film, we (1) ________________ [should] everything we
see. Although we (2) ________________ [can] the person, the photograph (3) _________________
[might] totally accurate. Someone (4) ________________ [might] some details before it is printed or
posted online. Thanks to modern technology, technicians (5) ________________ [be able to] the ‘look’ of
a person. In the film Troy, Brad Pitt’s legs were replaced with those of another actor because they didn’t
look masculine enough. It (6) _______________ [must] a complicated process, but the film maker
obviously though it was very important. A photographer once made Kate Winslet look slimmer in one of
his photographs. She said that (7) _______________ [should] it because she didn’t like that, and didn’t
want to, either. So, in the future, remember that when you see a photograph of a famous person, it (8)
_______________ [may] a true image.
 Reading
3.1. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE

Definition
Children’s literature consists of the body of written works and accompanying illustrations produced in
order to entertain or instruct young people. The genre encompasses a wide range of works, including
acknowledged classics of world literature, picture books and easy-to-read stories written exclusively for
children, and fairy tales, lullabies, fables, folk songs, and other primarily orally transmitted materials.
Children’s literature first clearly emerged as a distinct and independent form of literature in the second
half of the 18th century, before which it had been at best only in an embryonic stage. During the 20th
century, however, its growth has been so luxuriant as to make defensible its claim to be regarded with
the respect—though perhaps not the solemnity—that is due in any other recognized branch of literature .
[Source: Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2022) > Children’s literature: https://www.britannica.com/art/childrens-

literature / Note: adapted from the original.]
Genres
Please understand that categorizing books is not a science. There are many gray areas, and some genres
have a lot of subtypes. Use standard textbook reading lists and get recommendations to develop your
appreciation for each genre.
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Why categorize books? Children’s books are categorized into genres for various reasons:
• Each type of book has its own history and criteria for evaluation.
• Children may request books in the specific genres they enjoy, and you will be in a position to
recommend books you think they might like.
• By reading many books in a genre, students of children’s literature may compare them and begin
to understand and appreciate the elements of each type.
Here are a few very basic definitions, adapted from several sources, to help you understand the essentials
of each genre.
• Contemporary realistic fiction includes stories that could happen to people or animals. The
characters are made up, but their actions and feelings are similar to those of people we could know.
These stories often take place in the present time and portray attitudes and problems of
contemporary people. Realistic fiction includes family stories; realistic animal stories; sports stories;
adventures; and mysteries.
• Historical fiction is set in an historical period which blends authentic historical settings and facts with
imaginary characters and plot. It may include real historical figures as secondary characters. It is
generally considered to be a story written about a time in which the author has not lived or set in a
time no later than one generation before the composition.
• Non-fiction or information books emphasize documented facts. They inform and entertain young
readers by the excellence of presentation, illustration, and research. They can be written about any
aspect of the physical, biological, or social world.
• Biography tells the story of an actual person’s life or a portion of his or her life. Often the person’s life
is notable for his or her accomplishments or a significant triumph. An autobiography is simply a
biography written by a person about him- or herself.
• Traditional literature, the ancient stories or poems of many cultures, originate in the oral, or
storytelling, tradition. These books are often attributed to different groups and cultures, but have no
known original authors. Traditional literature has been used as a way of passing down traditional
wisdom and knowledge necessary for the survival of the group as well as a way of explaining myths,
epics, legends, tall tales, fables, and religious stories.
• Poetry is the artistic expression of ideas and feelings though a rhythmical composition of imaginative
and beautiful words carefully selected to achieve the desired effect in the listener or reader. Types of
poetry include Mother Goose and nursery rhyme books; anthologies of many kinds of poetry in one
volume; poetry books in which all the poems are on one theme or topic; and single, illustrated poems.
• Modern fantasy refers to works of literature in which the events, settings, or the characters are
outside the realm of possibility. The author must convince the reader to suspend disbelief by creating
an internally logical and consistent world. There are many types of modern fantasy, including the
modern fairytale (by a known author); animal fantasy, personified toys and objects; quest stories and
high fantasy; time travel; and stories about miniature worlds and people.
• Science fiction is a type of imaginative literature in which the author convinces us that something
unusual could happen because the story is grounded in scientific principles or technical possibility. It
is sometimes called futuristic fiction.
• Picture books (which are a format, not a genre) are profusely illustrated books in which the pictures
are essential to complete understanding and enjoyment of the story. The illustrations may provide
clues to setting, plot, characterization and mood. Types of picture books include baby and toddler
books; alphabet, counting and other concept books; wordless books; picture storybooks; pattern
books; and beginning readers.
[Source: Appalachian State University > Instructional Materials Center (2022); Genres – Definitions for children’s literature:
https://imc.library.appstate.edu/book-lists/genres-definitions-children%E2%80%99s-literature]
Children’s literature in the EFL class

In the nineteenth century, the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) predominated ESL/EFL teaching.
During the era, translating literary texts from the second/foreign language to the students’ native
language was one of the main learning activities. Therefore, literary works were a notable source of
material in ESL/EFL teaching (Prodromou, 2000). But when GTM was replaced by the Structuralism
Approach in 1960s to the end of 1970s, literature was no longer used. Structuralism was concerned with
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correctness of grammatical form and not with content or interpretation of the written word or style. In
other words, teaching a foreign language was regarded as a matter of linguistics.
Then, when the Direct Method, the Audiolingualism, Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia, the
Silent Way, Total Physical Response, and the Natural Approach successively dominated ESL/EFL teaching,
literature was not utilized. Later on, and with the appearance of the Communicative Approach in the late
70’s and very early 80’s, literature was also ignored. The tendency in the EFL classrooms was to teach
“usable, practical” contents. Thus, literary works had no place in the curriculum. During this period most
EFL courses were mainly aimed to enable the students to communicate orally. Consequently, dialogues
dominated the curriculum.
However, since the 1980s the situation changed quite radically when literature has found its way back
into the teaching of EFL. But, different from the way it was used with the GTM, the current use of literary
works in ESL/EFL classes is to improve communicative competence and providing “a springboard for the
development of critical thinking and aesthetic appreciation” (Bretz, 1990: 335-338) and create students’
awareness on the culture and society of the relevant country. Since then, literature is undergoing an
extensive reconsideration within the language teaching profession. Literary works use in ESL/EFL classes
has attracted more interest among teachers, and more and more studies on how to use literature in
EFL/ESL classes are conducted. The results of some studies, like those of Lazar (1993), Cook (1994), and
Shanahan (1997), for instance, strongly recommend the integration of literary texts into the SL/FL
curriculum.
Many writings on this subject advocate a content-focused curriculum that includes literature (Kramsch,
1993; Liddicoat & Crozet 2000). Theoretically, using of literature in language teaching is very
advantageous for it offers four benefits: authentic material, cultural enrichment, language advancement,
and personal growth (Collie & Slater, 1991). This is in line with Erkaya (2005) who notes four benefits of
using of short stories to teach ESL/EFL, i. e. motivational, literary, cultural and higher-order thinking
benefits.
1. First of all, literary texts can be more beneficial than informational materials in stimulating the
acquisition process as they provide authentic contexts for processing new language. Literary texts
expose learners to fresh themes and unexpected language. In this sense, ‘a literary text is authentic
text, real language in context, to which we can respond directly” (Brumfit and Carter, 1986, p. 15).
This quality appears to make literature suitable and valuable to language teaching in many contexts
and cultures. In addition, since literary texts contain language intended for native speakers, literature
stands as a model for language learners to become familiar with different forms and conventions
(Collie and Slater, 1991, p. 4; Ur, 1996, p. 201).
2. Second, containing real examples of grammatical structures and vocabulary items, the literary texts
raise learners' awareness of the range of the target language and advance their competence in all
language skills (Povey, 1967). Literary texts are not written for the specific purpose of teaching.
Instead, they deal with “things which mattered to the author when he wrote them” (Maley, 1989, p.
12). So, compared to the language samples in the textbooks, the language is far richer and more
varied. Many genuine features of the written language such as “the formation and function of
sentences, the variety of possible structures, and the different ways of connecting ideas” are
presented at many levels of difficulty (Collie and Slater, 1994, p. 5).
3. Third, using literature in language teaching has the advantage of providing cultural information about
the target language. Literary texts increase foreign language learners’ insight into the country and the
people whose language is being learnt (Collie and Slater, 1991), which fosters learners' ability to
interpret discourse in different social and cultural target language contexts (Savvidou, 2004). By
reading literary works, learners learn to see a world through another’s eyes, observing human values
and a different kind of living, and discovering that others living in very different societies. They will
understand and become broadly aware of the social, political, historical, cultural events happening in
a certain society.
4. Finally, since literature enables students to understand and appreciate other cultures, societies and
ideologies different from their own, it encourages personal growth and intellectual development
(Carter and Long, 1991, pp. 2-4).
[Source: P. Pardede (2011), “Using short stories to teach language skills”, Journal of English Teaching 1 (1), pp. 15-
17 / Note: adapted from the original.]
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a) Complete the table below taking into account what is explained about ‘Genres’ in children’s
literature.
Genre / format Central topic Type of books or stories

Contemporary realistic
fiction
Historical fiction
Non-fiction or information
books
Biography
Traditional literature
Poetry
Modern fantasy
Science fiction
Picture books
b) Look for two books or short stories published that exemplify the categories and genres in
children’s literature. Consider the information given in 3.1. and in the table below for reference.
Consult the university library or any other reliable source online.
[Source: Trinity College Dublin > Marino Institute of Education Library (2022):
https://mie-ie.libguides.com/ChildrensLiterature/genre]
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Types Titles
Picture books 1)
2)
Folklore & fairy 1)
tales
2)
Fantasy 1)
2)
Science fiction 1)
2)
Realistic fiction 1)
2)
Historical fiction 1)
2)
Biography 1)
2)
Non-fiction 1)
2)
3.1.2. VOCABULARY
a) Fill in the gaps using these adjectives appearing in the text. Note that there are more words
than needed.
distinct cultural specific historical authentic

imaginary illustrated realistic valuable intellectual
1 Using ______________ materials can make language learning a more enriching experience.
2 The reader is plunged into an ______________ world designed to evoke strong emotions.
3 I have found an extensive selection of beautifully _______________ old children’s books.
4 The museum currently exhibits a ______________ collection of native art.
5 Offering a good variety of reading choices is important for a child’s ______________ growth.
6 The learners in this group have certain ______________ literary tastes.
7 We would like to learn more about the ________________ events and their implications for the
community.
8 ______________ fiction consists of stories that could have actually occurred to people or animals
in a believable context.
b) Define the following elements that are essential part of children’s literature. Use your own
1 theme: _______________________________________________________________________.
2 story: ________________________________________________________________________.
3 setting: _______________________________________________________________________.
4 plot: _________________________________________________________________________.
5 character: _____________________________________________________________________.
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3.1.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: COLLOCATIONS (III) - NOUNS + PREPOSITIONS
Certain prepositions can be used in conjunction with nouns to connect, emphasize, or provide
clarification for ideas expressed in sentences. In this combination, the preposition always comes
directly after the noun. Here are some of the most common prepositions used with nouns: about,
at, between, for, from, in, of, on, to, with.
There is no clear-cut rule that determines which prepositions connect to which nouns; however,
we can look at how synonymous nouns and associated verbs pair with prepositions to observe
patterns or make an educated guess.
1. Synonymous nouns typically employ identical prepositions. For example, when the noun
respect is replaced with its synonym (such as admiration or esteem), the preposition for
remains the same:
I could never lose respect for you. (original)
I could never lose admiration for you.
I could never lose esteem for you.
This is not always the case, however, so do not take this as a concrete rule. The examples
below demonstrate cases in which the preposition changes with synonyms of the original
noun:
My addiction to coffee is unhealthy. (original)
My obsession with coffee is unhealthy.
My dependence on coffee is unhealthy.
2. Verbs with prepositions. For many words, the prepositions used with nouns are the same
prepositions used with those nouns’ associated verb forms. For instance:
He discussed his reaction to the results. (noun)
He discussed how he reacted to the results. (verb)
[Source: The Free Dictionary by Farlex (2022): https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Prepositions-with-

Nouns.htm / Note: adapted from the original.]
a) Find six noun+preposition collocations in the text. Write a sentence in which you use each of
them properly and meaningfully. (8-10 words/each minimum)
Collocation Sentence
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3.2. SHORT STORIES: SELECTION CRITERIA AND USE IN ELT

Introduction
Despite its benefits for students, some objections are always raised against the use of children’s literature
in public schools due to overcrowded classes, overloaded syllabus and limited time—some problems
commonly met in elementary to high public schools in almost all developing countries. First, the deviated
and figurative language of poetry necessitates very long time to grasp. Second, the length of novel will
make it difficult for such classes to finish. Finally, drama can be used in classes, but it will be difficult to
act out a play in crowded classes within limited course hours.
Why short stories?
Considering these objections, it is obvious that among literary forms, the short story, which is defined by
Poe (as cited in Abrams, 1970, p. 158) “as a narrative that can be read at one sitting of from one-half hour
to two hours, and that is limited to ‘a certain unique or single effect,’ to which every detail is subordinate”,
seems to be the most suitable one to use in public schools. Since it is short, and aims at giving a ‘single
effect’, there is usually one plot, a few characters; there is no detailed description of setting. So, it is easy
for the students to follow the story line of the work.
The idea that short stories are the most suitable literary genre to use in English teaching due to its
shortness is in line with Collie and Slater (1991, p. 196) when they list four advantages of using short
stories for language teachers:
1. Practicality, as their length is long enough to cover entirely in one or two class sessions.
2. Simplicity, that is, not complicated for students to work with on their own.
3. Variety of choice for different interests and tastes.
4. Utility in all levels (beginner to advance), all ages (young learners to adults) and all classes
(morning, afternoon, or evening classes).
The idea that short stories are very suitable to use in ELT is supported by Pardede’s (2010) research
findings on the interest, perceptions, and the perceived needs of the students of the English teachers
training of Christian University of Indonesia towards the incorporation of short story in language skills
classes. The research revealed that a majority of the respondents basically found short stories interesting
to use both as materials for self-enjoyment and of as components language skill classes. Most of them
also agreed or strongly agreed that the incorporation of short stories in language skills classes will help
learners achieve better mastery of language skills. They even believed that English teacher candidates
should master the skills of employing short stories to teach language skills.
Choosing the text
The use of short stories in ELT should be aimed to encourage the students to use what they have
previously learnt. By doing this, the learning process will be student-centered. However, the teacher plays
a great role. S/he must choose a suitable text to use in class and should help her/his students understand
the story with various activities.
In using short stories to teach English, story selection is indeed one of the most important roles of the
teacher. Since the lengths of short stories quite vary, choose a story short enough to handle within course
hours. The shortness of the text is important for the students because they will see that they can read,
understand and finish something in English, and it will give the students a feeling of achievement and self-
confidence.
Besides the length of the text, Hill (1994, p. 15) points out three other basic criteria of choosing the text:
1) the needs and abilities of the students;
2) the linguistic and stylistic level of the text;
3) the amount of background information required for a true appreciation of the material.
The importance of considering these criteria could be perceived by realizing that the vocabulary and
sentence structure of the short story to be studied must be suitable to the level of the students. The short
stories with archaic, slang, foreign words, and allusions, having sentences imitating the speech of a
particular locality or ignorant people or foreigners should be avoided if the text is intended for students
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below intermediate level. Similarly, very long sentences are difficult for students to understand. As
students will not understand these sentences and words, they will get bored and not read the work.
Therefore, before giving the short story, the teacher should decide the readability of the text. In order to
meet that readability criterion, using graded or simplified stories is possibly the most practical way.
According to Ur (1996), “… the use of ‘authentic’ text with less proficient learners is often frustrating and
counterproductive” (p. 150). The use of simplified text with less proficient readers is highly suggested for
the sake of suiting the texts with the level of students.
In addition to the previous criteria, Spack (1985) suggests the aspect of interest to be considered.
According to him, it is important for the teacher to choose stories that would interest students that he/she
most likes to read and teach, and that have been made into film to provide visual interpretation. McKay
(2001, p. 322) and Rivers (1968, p. 230) point out that students read and enjoy a text if the subject-matter
of the text is relevant to their life experience and interests.
Short stories and language skills development

Short stories allow teachers to teach the four skills to all levels of language proficiency. According to
Murdoch (2002), short stories could be very beneficial materials in ELT reinforcement by using them in
learning activities such as, discussion, writing and acting out dialogues. A student-centered approach
allows more exploration of the short story, offers them more opportunities to formulate their own ideas
or feelings about the issue(s) as well as to improve their basic skills in the language learning process. To
cater various learning styles, it is necessary to devise various kinds of tasks and activities.
A. Reading. Short stories are very useful to improve students’ vocabulary and reading. The results of
Lao and Krashen’s (2000) study which compared the reading achievement between a group of
students that read literary texts and a second group that read non-literary texts at a university in
Hong Kong revealed that the group who read literary texts made better improvement in vocabulary
and reading.
B. Writing. Short stories can be a powerful and motivating source for writing in EFL/ESL, both as a
model and as subject matter. In advanced stages, short story as a model occurs when students’
writing becomes closely similar to the original work or clearly imitates its content, theme,
organization, and/or style. However, when student writing exhibits original thinking like
interpretation or analysis, or when it emerges from, or is creatively stimulated by, the reading,
literature serves as subject matter. In accordance with this, Oster (1989, p. 85) affirms that
literature helps students to write more creatively.
C. Speaking and Listening. Short stories can also be a powerful and motivating source for teaching
both speaking and listening. Oral reading, dramatization, improvisation, roleplaying, re-enactment,
and discussion are some effective learning activities which center on a short story EFL classes and
can be used for enhancing these two skills. Asking students to read story aloud can develop their
speaking as well as listening skills. Moreover, it also leads to improving pronunciation.
[Source: P. Pardede (2011), “Using short stories to teach language skills”, Journal of English Teaching 1 (1), pp. 15-
17 / Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
a) Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? In case they are FALSE, explain why and extract
information from the text to support your answer. Use your own words as much as possible. (10-
15 words/each minimum)
1. The use of poetry in class is time consuming because it requires spending days to understand it.
TRUE  / FALSE  (If so, why?):
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
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2. Most teachers believe that short stories are useful for a better mastery of language skills.
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3. According to Murdoch (2002), short stories are helpful materials to reinforce English language
learning communicative tasks.
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
4. If the teacher adopts a student-centered approach, there is need for more guidance and less time
to express their opinions.
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
5. Oral reading is one technique to promote speaking and listening skills.

______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
b) Find the six selection criteria mentioned in the text and fill in the chart below accordingly. In
answering the question, use your own words as much as possible.
Criterion Why is it important?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.2.2. VOCABULARY
a) Using your own words, define the concepts underlined in the text.
• overcrowded classes: _____________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________.
• graded or simplified stories: ________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________.
• visual interpretation: _____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
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• reading achievement: ____________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________.
• motivating source: _______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________.
3.2.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: COLLOCATIONS (IV) - NOUNS + PREPOSITIONS
3.3. STORYBOOKS AND STORYTELLING IN ELT
The development of storytelling
The educational value of using storybooks (also referred to as real books and picture books) and the
technique of storytelling has rarely been disputed.
Besides, recent language teaching developments have fostered its use in the Primary classroom. In fact,
Primary English language teachers are now more familiar with an acquisition-based methodology, and
recognise the true value of using storybooks and the technique of storytelling as a way to create an
acquisition-rich environment and ideal learning conditions. Consequently, many ELT coursebooks for
children now contain a strong story element. In addition, magazines and newsletters for teachers have
been devoted to storytelling and children’s literature and there are numerous websites and blogs to
consult. Primary English language teaching has witnessed an accumulating bank of attractive resources
representing a wealth of experience, expertise, teacher support and growing confidence in the use of
storybooks.
On the other hand, the globalisation of English has made it one of the most widely spoken languages in
the world and classroom practices reflect a greater emphasis on ‘world Englishes’. Carefully selected
stories from the rich world of children’s literature provide a ceaseless source of material to expose
children to varieties of English as spoken around the world and to discover other cultures.
Finally, each child is a unique learner and there has been a growing awareness of the need to take into
account the variety of intelligences that manifest in different ways in each child. Consequently, the
richness of storybooks in terms of their content and illustrations allow the teacher to cater for all learner
types and to make learning experiences meaningful for each child.
Reasons for using storybooks

Children enjoy listening to stories in their mother tongue and are familiar with narrative conventions. For
example, as soon as they hear the formula ‘Once upon a time…’ they can make predictions about what to
expect next. For this reason, storybooks can provide an ideal introduction to the foreign language as they
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present language in a repetitive and memorable context. Storybooks can also provide the starting point
or act as a springboard for a wide variety of related language and learning activities.
Primary English language teachers are now more familiar with an acquisition-based methodology, and
recognise the true value of using storybooks and the technique of storytelling as a way to create an
acquisition-rich environment and ideal learning conditions. Consequently, many ELT coursebooks for
children now contain a strong story element. There have also been a number of handbooks for teachers
that deal solely with this technique – notably Wright (1995, 1997), Zaro and Salaberri (1995), Gerngross
and Puchta (1996) and Mourão (2003). In addition, magazines and newsletters for teachers have been
devoted to storytelling and children’s literature and there are numerous websites and blogs to consult.
That is, Primary English language teaching has witnessed an accumulating bank of attractive resources
representing a wealth of experience, expertise, teacher support and growing confidence in the use of
storybooks.
Here are some further reasons why teachers use storybooks:
1. Stories are motivating, challenging and enjoyable and can help develop positive attitudes towards the
foreign language, culture and language learning.
2. Stories exercise the imagination. Children can become personally involved in a story as they identify
with the characters and try to interpret the narrative and illustrations. This imaginative experience
helps develop their own creative powers.
3. Stories are a useful tool in linking fantasy and the imagination with the child’s real world. They provide
a way of enabling children to make sense of their everyday life and forge links between home and
school.
4. Listening to stories in class is a shared social experience. Storytelling provokes a shared response of
laughter, sadness, excitement, and anticipation which is not only enjoyable but can help build up the
child’s confidence and encourage social and emotional development.
5. Children enjoy listening to stories over and over again. This frequent repetition allows certain
language items to be acquired while others are being overtly reinforced. Many stories contain natural
repetition of key vocabulary and structures. This helps children to remember every detail, so they can
gradually learn to anticipate what is about to happen next in the story. Repetition also encourages
participation in the narrative, thereby providing a type of pattern practice in a meaningful context.
6. Listening to stories allows the teacher to introduce or revise new vocabulary and sentence structures
by exposing the children to language in varied, memorable and familiar contexts, which will enrich
their thinking and gradually enter their own speech.
7. Listening to stories helps children become aware of the rhythm, intonation and pronunciation of
language.
8. Storybooks cater for individual interests and diverse learning needs by allowing children to respond
at their own linguistic or cognitive level.
9. Storybooks cater for different learner types and intelligences and make learning meaningful for each
child.
10. Storybooks reflect environments and the culture of their authors and illustrators, thereby providing
ideal opportunities for presenting cultural information and encouraging intercultural understanding.
11. Storybooks develop children’s learning strategies such as listening for general meaning, predicting,
guessing meaning and hypothesising. In particular, they can develop the child’s listening skills and
concentration via:
a. visual clues (high-quality pictures and illustrations that support children’s understanding)
b. audio clues (sound effects, onomatopoeia)
c. their prior knowledge of how language works
d. their prior knowledge of the world
12. Storybooks address universal themes that go beyond the ‘utilitarian level of basic dialogues and
mundane daily activities’ (Ghosn, op cit: 175). They allow children to play with ideas and feelings and
to think about issues that are important and relevant to them.
13. Storybooks allow the teacher to use an acquisition-based methodology by providing optimal input
(Krashen 1981: 103) – language input that is slightly above the level they are expected to produce.
14. Stories provide opportunities for developing continuity in children’s learning since they can be chosen
to link English with other subject areas across the curriculum.
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15. Storybooks add variety and provide a springboard for creating complete units of work that constitute
mini syllabuses and involve pupils personally, creatively and actively in an all-round whole curriculum
approach. They thereby provide a novel alternative to the coursebook.
Storybooks and learning

Learning English through stories can lay the foundations for secondary school in terms of learning basic
language functions and structures, vocabulary and language-learning skills. There are four main ways in
which stories can add to a whole-school approach to learning and general education:
1. Cross-curricular links
Carefully selected stories can be used to develop other subjects in the curriculum:
• Maths: time, numbers (counting and quantity, addition and subtraction), measuring
• Science: the life cycle of insects, animals, skeletons
• Art and Design: making a box, making books
• Computing: using technology safely and respectfully, using technology purposefully to
create, organise, store and retrieve information
• Design and Technology: drawing, making masks, hats, cards, collages, puppets
• Geography and the Environment: using a map, using an atlas, different shopping places,
conservation
• History: prehistoric animals, understanding chronology/the passing of time
• Music and Drama: singing songs, playing instruments, role play, miming, acting out
stories and variations the children make up
• Physical Education: moving like different animals, moving to music.
2. Learning to learn
Stories are a means of developing children’s potential as autonomous learners. Learning how to
learn in the context of storytelling involves:
• developing an awareness of learning and reinforcing strategies such as planning,

hypothesising, self-assessment, reviewing
• developing specific strategies for learning English, for example, guessing the meaning of
new words, training the memory, self-testing, predicting
• developing study skills, for example, making, understanding and interpreting charts and
graphs, learning to use and making dictionaries, organising work.
3. Conceptual reinforcement
Stories can be used to reinforce conceptual development in children, for example, colour, size,
shape, time, cause and effect. For example, Princess Smartypants can be used to develop ideas
of cause and effect, problems and solutions.
4. Citizenship, diversity and multicultural education
Helping to teach the notion of citizenship and multicultural education and to raise awareness of
diversity includes developing intercultural awareness, understanding rights and responsibilities,
promoting equal opportunities and developing attitudes and values of democracy and harmony.
Carefully selected storybooks provide a very rich resource for teaching this notion. There are two
types of storybooks. The first, is where a citizenship and diversity focus is explicit through the
story content. For example, Something Else makes important points about sameness and
difference and develops tolerance, understanding and acceptance of others. Princess
Smartypants raises questions about stereotypes, sexism and the role of girls and women in
society. Stories from other cultures, such as The Kangaroo from Woolloomooloo and The Clever
Tortoise show both how cultures are different (e. g. exotic animals and musical instruments) and
have similar characteristics (e. g. stories about animal trickery).
[Source: G. Ellis & J. Brewster (2016). Tell it Again! The Storytelling Handbook for Primary English Language
Teachers. London: British Council, pp. 6-12]
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a) Briefly summarize the information included in “The development of storytelling”. Use your own
words and focus on the main points raised. (40-50 words maximum)
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________.
b) There are 15 numbered reasons to use storybooks in the Primary class. These reasons are
related to one (or more than one) of the six 21st skills below. Fill in the chart below by including
the numbers in the corresponding grid. Take also into account the information given in the text.
FIGURE 1. 21ST CENTURY SKILLS

[Source: International Girls School (2022): https://www.ecoleglobale.com/blog/21st-century-learning-skills/]
Critical thinking Creativity Collaboration Communication
3.3.2. VOCABULARY
a) In the section titled “Storybooks and learning”, find six countable and six uncountable nouns
(British Council > A1-A2 level review). All of them must be related to the process of learning and
acquiring EFL.
Countable Uncountable
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b) Choose two of each type from your list and write sentences. The meaning must be clear in
context. Use the modal verbs studied in section 2, either in the affirmative, negative or question
form. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3.3.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: COLLOCATIONS (V) - NOUNS + PREPOSITIONS

 Listening
4.1. STORYTELLING TIPS
[Source: Michigan State University > Center for Language Teaching Advancement Channel at YouTube. Full video
here as well.]
a) Considering the information that comes up in the video, identify the five tips mentioned by the
presenter (Karrie Korroch) regarding storytelling and write about its importance briefly. Use your
own words as much as possible.
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Tip #1 ...
Tip #2 ...
Tip #3 ...
Tip #4 ...
Tip #5 ...
 Writing
5.1. OPINION ESSAY (II): AGREE or DISAGREE?

An agree or disagree essay is the most common type of essay in EFL. Essentially, a debatable opinion will
be presented to you, and you have to propound a discourse either supporting or opposing it. There are
multiple ways of going about with agree or disagree essay questions. You can agree with the statements
whole-heartedly or totally disagree with the claims. Likewise, you may decide to agree or disagree to a
certain degree. All this depends on your perspective as well as the arguments you can think of during the
task.
FIGURE 2. MODEL STRUCTURE FOR AN OPINION ESSAY (AGREE VS. DISAGREE)

[Source: Cambridge English Qualifications (2017): https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/Images/581163-b2-first-for-
schools-preparing-for-exam-success-self-study-writing-activities-part-1.pdf]
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[Source: ESLBuzz (2002) > Expressing opinions in English - Agreeing and disagreeing: ]
https://www.eslbuzz.com/expressing-opinions-in-english-agreeing-and-disagreeing/]
5.2. TOPICS
[140-180 words/each]
• Children’s literature (see 3.1. above). In the text, we read that children’s literature can improve
communicative competence and provide “a springboard for the development of critical thinking
and aesthetic appreciation” (Bretz, 1990: 335-338). Do you agree with this statement? Explain why
(not) and support your ideas with examples or evidence.
• Short stories: Selection criteria and use in ELT (see 3.2. above). In the text, it is stated that “short
stories can be a powerful and motivating source for writing in EFL/ESL, both as a model and as a
subject matter.” Do you agree? Explain why (not) and support your ideas with examples or
evidence.
• Storybooks and storytelling (see 3.3. above). In the text, it is posed that “stories are a means of
developing children’s potential as autonomous learners.” Do you agree? Explain why (not) and
support your ideas with examples or evidence.
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References
[Note: written and online references already mentioned are not included in the list to avoid unnecessary
repetition.]
I. Sources
OUP.
Lawrence, J. & Williams, A. (2006). Valid Choice 2. Limassol, Cyprus: Burlington Books.
Language Learning.
GRAMMAR
• British Council > Learn English Teens > Have to, must and should for obligation and
advice
• British Council > Modal verbs
• Lingolia > Modal verbs in English
• Wall Street English > The difference between must, have to, shall, need and may
• Woodward English > Must vs. have to
• Test-English.com – Can, could, be able to (ability and possibility)
• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] Learn English with Cambridge > Modal verbs of deduction
OPINION ESSAY (II): AGREE OR DISAGREE?
• International Education Specialists > A simple formula for organizing agree/disagree

essays
• IELTS Writing task – Agree or disagree
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Answer key
GRAMMAR / 2.2.
a) 1. must / 2. may / 3. should (also: ought to) / 4. mustn’t / 5. must / 6. may not (also: might not) / 7.
should (also: ought to) … must / 8. should / 9. should (also: ought to) / 10. has to
b) 1. must have made / 2. can’t find / 3. might have stayed / 4. shouldn’t have bought / 5. must have told
/ 6. mustn’t find out / 7. shouldn’t have taken / 8. might have got lost
c) 1. should / 2. must / 3. Could / 4. may / 5. have to (also: ought to) / 6. can / 7. can (also: may) / 8.
must / 9. must / 10. mustn’t / 11. shouldn’t / 12. has to
d) Ex.: 1. I must have forgotten to lock the door when I left home / 2. You shouldn’t have insulted him in
front of everyone / 3. You should have taken my advice (to avoid that mistake) / 4. I may have seen that
man before in the library / 5. Tom couldn’t recognise you (I believe).
e) 1. shouldn’t believe / 2. can identify / 3. might not be / 4. might have changed / 5. are able to improve
/ 6. must have been / 7. shouldn’t have done / 8. may not represent
VOCABULARY / 3.1.2.
a) 1. authentic / 2. imaginary / 3. illustrated / 4. valuable / 5. intellectual / 6. distinct / 7. historical / 8.
realistic
COLLOCATIONS (III) / 3.1.3.

a) Ex. 1. books in (the specific genres) / 2. aspect of (the physical …) / 3. springboard for (the development
of critical thinking) / 4. studies on (how to use literature) / 5. purpose of (teaching) / 6. (foreign language
learners’) insight into (the country)
COLLOCATIONS (IV) / 3.2.3.

a) Ex. 1. benefits for (students) / 2. choice for (different interests) / 3. feeling of (achievement) / 4.
improvement in (vocabulary and reading) / 5. source for (teaching) / 6. feelings about (the issue)
VOCABULARY / 3.3.2.
a) Ex.: (countable) 1. plot, 2. advantages, 3. idea, 4. components, 5. model / (uncountable) 1. literature,
2. shortness, 3. importance, 4. reinforcement, 5. proficiency.
COLLOCATIONS (V) / 3.3.3.

a) Ex.: 1. coursebooks for (children) / 2. confidence in (the use of storybooks) / 3. emphasis on (‘world
Englishes’) / 4. predictions about (what to expect next) / 5. introduction to (the foreign language) / 6.
attitude towards (the foreign language, culture and language learning)
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
Versión julio/2022
Unit 5. Teaching materials in ELT (II): Songs
U5_Songs
 Introduction
1.1. CONTENTS
En esta quinta unidad de aprendizaje se explora el uso de canciones y otro material musical en
Educación Primaria, incluyendo las razones que esgrimes los estudiosos de la materia y cómo su
uso puede resultar beneficioso para el proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje (teniendo en cuenta
sus limitaciones y los inconvenientes de su puesta en práctica). Asimismo, se ofrecen pautas
para la planificación y ejecución de este recurso en el aula, como un primer acercamiento y
punto de partida para desarrollar pensamiento crítico y realizar propuestas didácticas.
la competencia lingüística necesarias para que sea efectivo, se introducen las oraciones
relativas, así como la diferencia que existe entre explicativa y especificativa, y se trabaja con los
prefijos y sufijos para seguir avanzando en el nivel B1/+ (umbral, usuario independiente).

• Being familiar with new grammar content: defining vs. non-defining relative clauses.
1.3. OUTLINE

1.3. Outline
2. Grammar 2.1. Relative clauses: defining vs. non-defining

2.2. Exercises
3. Reading 3.1. Reasons to use songs and rhymes in ELT

3.1.1. Extension
3.1.2. Language focus: Prefixes and suffixes (I)
3.2. Songs and chants in the Primary classroom
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3.2.2. Vocabulary
3.2.3. Language focus: Prefixes and suffixes (II)
3.3. Planning and steps for the use of songs
3.3.2. Vocabulary
3.3.3. Language focus: Prefixes and suffixes (III)
4. Listening 4.1. Teaching tips: Using songs in the classroom

5. Writing 5.1. Topics
References
Answer key
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 Grammar
2.1. RELATIVE CLAUSES: DEFINING VS. NON-DEFINING
[Source: Test-English.com (2022): https://test-english.com/explanation/b2/relative-clauses-defining-non-

defining/defining-vs-non-defining-relative-clauses/. Here you can also find more information and exercises that
allow you to check your answers online.]
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS
[Source: Test-English.com (2022): https://test-english.com/explanation/b1/defining-non-defining-relative-clauses/]
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2.2. EXERCISES
a) Complete the sentences. Use ‘when’, ’where’, ‘which’, ‘who’ or ‘whose’. In which sentences
can you also use ‘that’?
1 The explanations _______________ Mr Mitchell gives are really complicated.
2 Can you see the woman ________________ is talking to Jake?
3 What’s the cash prize __________ the winners will receive?
4 The Simpsons is a cartoon show which really made us laugh.
5 French is a subject ________________ most students fail.
6 Revising for exams is something ________________ we just have to do.
7 June is the time ________________ we usually take our finals.
8 He is the boy ________________ is always in trouble.
9 They lived in a quiet neighbourhood ______________ everyone knew each other.
10 My bedroom is the place ________________ I do my homework.
b) Underline the relative clauses in the sentences below. In which sentences can you omit the
relative pronoun? Why?
1 Clara, whose uncle is a doctor, wants to be a doctor too.  YES  NO
Why? ________________________________________________________________________.
2 Yesterday, I met a mysterious person who seems to have lost his memory.  YES  NO
Why? ________________________________________________________________________.
3 I don’t like anyone who is unkind to others.  YES  NO
Why? ________________________________________________________________________.
4 Can we trust in people that we don’t know in real life?  YES  NO
Why? ________________________________________________________________________.
5 The opening ceremony was an event which I will never forget.  YES  NO
Why? ________________________________________________________________________.
6 Walter started studying back in 1985, when his son asked him for help with his homework.
 YES  NO Why? _____________________________________________________________.
7 The students who always arrived on time got prizes.  YES  NO
Why? ________________________________________________________________________.
8 Email is one of the main forms of communication that help us stay in touch.  YES  NO
Why? ________________________________________________________________________.
9 Dublin is a city that I would love to visit this year.  YES  NO
Why? ________________________________________________________________________.
10 She thanked the lady who found her purse.  YES  NO
Why? ________________________________________________________________________.
c) Combine the sentences to make just one. Use a relative pronoun and add commas when
necessary.
1 My brother has a new job. He is very happy. (non-defining)

_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 That’s the dictionary. I bought it. (defining)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
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3 I perfectly remember the time. I broke my leg. (defining)

_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 The path only took me twenty minutes. It wasn’t that hard. (non-defining)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
5 She is the woman. She teaches us Chemistry. (defining)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
6 My parents are the people. Their achievements I admire the most. (defining)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
7 The new students joined our class yesterday. They are really good fun. (non-defining)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
8 Students were bullied. They didn’t wear expensive clothes. (defining)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
9 You must visit New Zealand. It is the country I was born in. (defining)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
10 Tanya wants to introduce me to someone. He is an artist. (non-defining)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
d) Correct the errors in the following sentences.
1 This is the moment where I’ll never forget her kindness.

_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 Our house, that is very small, was built over a hundred years ago.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3 Do you remember the day which we met?
_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 I’m friendly with Simon, who mother is actress.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
5 They lived in a quiet neighbourhood that everyone knew each other.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
6 That’s the man stole my bag.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
f) Write sentences using your own ideas; choose any four different relative pronouns or adverbs
from the chart above. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
5 _____________________________________________________________________________.
6 _____________________________________________________________________________.
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 Reading
3.1. SONGS, RHYMES AND CHANTS

Introduction
Songs are a useful tool in language acquisition. Language teachers can use them to open or close their
lessons, to introduce topics or themes, to add variety or change the pace, to present new vocabulary or
recycle known language structures.
Simple, repetitive songs often contain recurrent grammatical patterns which are useful to teach
(especially with younger children). More difficult songs often contain interesting vocabulary and idioms.
Also, there is often a message, a theme, or a story underlying a song which students can discuss, explain,
debate, and write about at almost any level.
What makes songs so useful in a language learning context
Songs have characteristics that help learning a second language. Some of them are as follows:
• Songs often contain common, short words.
• The language in songs is often conversational.
• The lyrics are often sung at a slower rate than spoken words and there is repetition of words and
grammar.
• Songs address the affective side in learners so they can motivate them to learn.
In addition, songs contribute to learners’ development in the following sides:

a) Socio-emotional. Singing songs in and with a class is a social act which allows learners to
participate in a group and express their feelings, no matter what their English is like.
b) Physical. Songs provide a great opportunity for young learners to move around. Clapping,
dancing and playing instruments stimulate memory, which makes it possible for learners to
hear chunks of language as they sing and use them in different situations later.
c) Cognitive. We all know the phenomenon of the song-that-is-stuck-in-my-head. With the right
kind of song, it is easy to use this phenomenon to get learners to know what to say and to
produce language rapidly without pausing.
d) Cultural. Songs used in English classes can, in that way, shed light on interesting musical
traditions in countries, but can also teach teens, young adults and adults to appreciate other
cultures. For adult learners, songs can be “a rich mine” of information about human relations,
ethics, customs, history, humor, and regional and cultural differences.
e) Language learning. Through singing authentic songs, learners would have the opportunity to
listen to pronunciation in a wide range of varieties of the language. Songs will help learners
become familiar with word stress and intonation, and the rhythm with which words are spoken
or sung. Again, this will enable learners to remember chunks of language which they can then
use in conversations or in writing. As language teachers, we can use songs to practice listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
[Source: ELT TGuide.com (2021) - https://elttguide.com/why-and-how-to-use-songs-in-english-language-classes/

General typology
There are a lot of different types of songs and rhymes with special characteristics. But not all are useful
for primary school students. The teacher has to check the suitability according to the size of the text, the
vocabulary, the structure and his didactic intention.
TYPES OF SONGS
• Finger play songs. The content of these songs can be illustrated by the children’s finger
movement. They support the acquisition of gesture meaning and the use of nonverbal
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expressions. They also develop the children’s senso-motoric abilities. Example: Hickory dickory
dock.
• Counting songs. These songs support the learning of numbers and are often connected with using
fingers. Most of them train the numbers from one to ten. Ex. Ten little Indians.
• Spelling songs. They are useful to train the sounds of the English alphabet. The separate letters
mostly sound different from their pronunciation in words. Therefore, the pupils need help for
learning the individual letter sound. Ex. Farmer Brown has got a dog
• Action songs. The biggest group of songs aims at associating words with movements of their
body. They also “internalize the sounds and rhythms of English, … develop a sense of rhythm
[and] … give the children a chance ‘to let off steam’.” (Phillips 1993: 101) Ex. If you’re happy
• Songs for special occasions. These songs are suitable for deepening the special vocabulary and
for celebrating these occasions in the school. They emphasize the cultural aspect of songs.
Ex. Black and gold (for Halloween)
• Spirituals. Spirituals are religious songs. They are connected with the Christian culture and often
very traditional. Singing simple spirituals, the children enjoy the sound and the special rhythm of
gospels. Ex. Kumbaya, my Lord
• Drop-a-word song. These songs train the children’s concentration. They are often combined with
actions instead of the dropped words. Drop-a-word songs “encourage internalisation of
language” (Murphey 1992: 130). Ex. My hat it has three corners
• Role-play songs. This type of song “contextualize vocabulary and make the transfer from singing
to meaningful referents.” (Murphey 1992: 129) They use the children’s love for stories and role
playing. Ex. There was a princess long ago
• Topic songs. Many songs support the acquisition of vocabulary according to a special topic like
“The days of the week”, “The weather” or “The family”. If they do not fit in with other categories
they are called “topic songs”. Ex. Look outside (for the topic “The weather”)
TYPES OF RHYMES
Rhymes are taught “to practise the sounds, rhythms and stress patterns of English and in some cases to
practise a structure” (Phillips 1993: 108). The didactic background of some types of rhymes is similar to
the types of songs described. Above therefore we list the types of rhymes without detailed descriptions
unless there is not a corresponding type of songs.
• Finger play rhymes. Ex. Incy Wincy Spider
• Counting rhymes. Ex. One two - I see you
• Choosing rhymes (counting-out rhymes). Sometimes a little trick is necessary to choose one from
among the children without causing a squabble. Choosing rhymes are very useful for that. They
connect random selection with rhythmic speaking and train the vocabulary. Ex. Apples, peaches
• Action rhymes. Ex. Jumping Jack
• Jump rope rhymes. The children like rope skipping. This rhythmic activity is often connected with
these simple poems. Jump rope rhymes support the acquisition of numbers or simple sentence
structures. Ex. Bread and butter
• Rhymes for special occasions. Ex. Hey-ho for Halloween
• Clapping rhymes. The reciting of these very rhythmic rhymes is supported by hand clapping. Each
clapping rhyme has its own pattern how to clap hands with a partner standing opposite. These
rhymes support the development of a feeling for rhythm for the language and, moreover, they
train the right pronunciation of vocabulary. Ex. A sailor went to sea, sea, sea
• Ball bouncing rhymes. They train the feeling for rhythm and the concentration both on reciting
and ball bouncing. Ex. Number one, touch your tongue
• Topic rhymes. Ex. Take a snowball (about the topic “Winter”)
CHANTS
“A chant is a like a song without music or a poem with a very marked rhythm.” (Phillips 1993: 100) All
types of short rhythmic texts or even word groups are suitable to transfer into a chant. The speaking can
be supported by finger snapping, feet stamping or the use of rhythmic instruments. Words or texts spoken
as chants are more memorable and motivating than normal speaking. For instance, minimal pairs can be
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spoken as chants to train the differences between the pronunciation of word pairs. Short dialogues in the
form of a chant support the memorization of common expressions and structures.
[Source: V. Geyer (2001), Songs and rhymes in teaching English at Primary Schools; in GRIN -
https://www.grin.com/document/106150 / Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
3.1.1. EXTENSION
a) Select three songs from the list of examples given in the text above. Search for the lyrics at the
university library or in any other reliable source online. Then, fill in the chart accordingly. Note
that:
• ‘Grammatical pattern’ = grammar element repeated throughout the song
• ‘Ex. activity’ = one that could be done in Primary classes using it
• ‘Language skill’: Which one(s) is practiced/improved by this particular activity? (reading, writing,
listening or speaking).
Type Title Grammatical pattern Ex. activity Language skill
b) Select three rhymes from the list of examples given in the text above. Look for the lyrics
consulting the university library or any other reliable source online. Then, fill in the chart
accordingly. Note that:
• ‘Grammatical pattern’ = grammar element repeated throughout the song
• ‘Ex. activity’ = one that could be done in Primary classes using it
• ‘Language skill’: Which one(s) is practiced/improved by this particular activity? (reading, writing,
listening or speaking).
Type Title Grammatical pattern Ex. activity Language skill
3.1.2. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES (I)
Prefixes are letters which we add to the beginning of a word to make a new word with a different
meaning. Prefixes can, for example, create a new word opposite in meaning to the word the prefix
is attached to. They can also make a word negative or express relations of time, place or manner.
For some examples and more details, click here.
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However, a suffix is a letter or group of letters added at the end of a word which makes a new
word which, most often, belongs to a different word class from the original word and causes a
change of spelling. For some examples and more details, click here.
[Source: Cambridge Dictionary of English > English Grammar Today (2022):

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/ Note: adapted from the original.]
[Source: Cambridge English Qualifications Channel at YouTube. Full video here as well.]
a) Find six words in the text that contain a prefix, a suffix or both. Write a sentence in which you
can use them properly in context. Use the tenses and modal verbs seen in Units 1-to-4 as much
as possible; they can be either affirmative, negative or interrogative.
Word Prefix / Suffix Sentence
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3.2. USING SONGS AND CHANTS IN THE PRIMARY CLASSROOM
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[Source: Cambridge University Press > World of Fun (2020):

https://worldoffun.cambridge.org/storage/app/media/Using%20songs%20and%20chants%20in%20the%20Primary
%20classroom.pdf]
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Stages of a listening activity

In general, listening activities (based solely on audio or on audiovisual material) should consist of some
well-structured pre-, while-, and post-listening stages.
• Pre-Listening. In the pre-listening stage, you are preparing the students to listen. Ideally, you
should already be familiar with the listening task. Before class, take a listen to the material and
ponder these questions.
What is the situation? How many people are participating? What different accents do you
hear? What is the topic? Do you notice any language that students might find challenging
(slang, colloquialisms, advanced level vocabulary)?
Also, before the class begins, make sure the equipment is working properly. Test the material
and the volume.
When you are in class, there are several things you need to do before you press play.
a. Set up the listening activity. Give students a simple preview of the listening text or song.
You want to give them a little information, but not too much. You should get your students
thinking about what they hear. Give them just a tiny bit of information, such as the title, the
topic, or a short sentence, and allow them to predict what they’re going to hear.
b. Ask them to preview the coursebook page or worksheet. If there is a worksheet or
coursebook page that accompanies the listening track, give students time to look at the
pictures, the tasks, the instructions, the questions. All this provides valuable information for
the student. Remember: the students have (probably) not heard the listening track before,
and they’re listening in a second language.
Brown (2006) recommends that you “always set a pre-listening task”. He mentions two types of
pre-listening tasks:
➔ Bottom-up listening refers to focusing on grammar and vocabulary in order to
understand the listening track or video, so a bottom-up pre-listening activity would be
pre-teaching some vocabulary or grammar that is central to the listening text.
➔ Top-down listening refers to using background knowledge (of the world or of text
structure) to understand a listening text, so a top-down pre-listening activity would
involve asking students to recall what they know about the topic of the listening track.
For example, if your listening track takes place in a coffee shop, you can ask students
what people say and do in a coffee shop or what things you usually see in a coffee shop.
You can also ask students what they know about the type of listening text they’re about
to listen to.
However, it’s important to keep the pre-listening stage fairly brief. McCaughey (2015) has noted
that some teachers spend ten to fifteen minutes on a pre-listening task that is followed by a one-
minute listening text. Choose one short task, and don’t let it drag on too long.
Finally, you should set up a while-listening task right before they listen. Explain the task briefly in
English, and write it on the board, if necessary. Take a quick look around and make sure everyone
is on the right page or the right side of the worksheet.
• While-Listening. The while-listening stage is where students listen and do a task. Many
coursebooks feature tasks, such as listening for gist, listening for main ideas, making
inferences, and summarizing. Assigning a task can help students focus and develop important
strategies for language learning. Here’s a little more information about some common listening
tasks:
a. Listening for gist: to get the main idea, so students should be trying to get the topic or theme
of the listening track.
b. Listening for detail: to get specific information, such as: ‘How much was the meal?’ or
‘Where was the bus going?’
c. Making inferences: to get information not explicitly stated on the track. Some examples:
‘How do the two people feel about each other?’ or ‘Where do you think the man will go
next?’
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Ideally, you should play the listening track 2 or 3 times, setting a different task each time. Many
experts suggest grading the tasks, going from easier to more difficult, such as starting with one
gist question, proceeding with 3 to 5 detail questions, then following up with an inference
question.
You should also give yourself a task: monitor the class. ‘Are they paying attention?’ ‘Does anyone
look frustrated?’ ‘What is the general vibe in the room?’
• Post-Listening. The post-listening task is the stage where you take them beyond the listening
text, and use it as a springboard for further language practice.
a. Mine the transcript. At this point, you can ask students to look over the transcript and see
what they might have had trouble understanding. Some ELT experts protest against ever
showing students the transcript, but I think it’s an excellent way for students to get another
look at the language contained in the listening track or video. In addition, it can help students
understand words and phrases that they didn’t understand when they were listening. Also,
it can help students notice some of the differences between spoken language and written
language.
b. Set a speaking task. Assign students to do a related speaking activity. For example, if
students heard a conversation between two people at a party, ask them to reproduce the
conversation in a different setting.
c. Detect problems. Get students to discuss what problems came up during the listening.
‘Which sections were the most difficult?’ ‘What caused them confusion or
misunderstanding?’
d. Personalize the listening text. Find ways that students can relate to the text. For instance, if
the listening is a monologue of a person expressing their opinion, you can ask students to
tell you if they agree or disagree and give reasons for their position.
Overall, these three stages are a reliable format for doing a listening activity in class. However, sometimes
there are good reasons to break from this format. Students could read the transcript before the listening
to pick up the context of the listening. Or the activity could begin with a short excerpt from the middle of
listening text (no pre-listening task), to simulate the kind of listening we do in real life (turning on a TV
show in the middle of a program, or walking into a room where a conversation has already started).
[Source: H. Houston (2016), The Three Stages of a Listening Activity; in EFL Magazine -
https://eflmagazine.com/the-three-stages-of-a-listening-activity/ Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
a) Outline the benefits of using songs and chants in the EFL class by language skills and particular
aspects of the linguistic competence. Complete the graphic including two reasons in each case.
Language skills
Reading Writing Listening Speaking
1. 1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2. 2.
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1.
Pronunciation
2.
Linguistic competence
1.
Grammar
2.
1.
Vocabulary
2.
3.2.2. VOCABULARY
a) Find ten verbs that indicate students’ actions regarding pre-, while- or post-listening tasks. It
refers to tasks or activities they should do during any of these three stages (e. g. listen).
1) … 6) …
2) … 7) …
3) … 8) …
4) … 9) …
5) … 10) …
b) Choose five from the list above and write sentences that include the words or expressions
given. The meaning must be clear in context. Use relative clauses in all cases, either defining or
non-defining. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 coursebook: __________________________________________________________________ .
2 worksheet: ___________________________________________________________________ .
3 transcript: ____________________________________________________________________.
4 excerpt: ______________________________________________________________________ .
5 gist question: __________________________________________________________________.
3.2.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES (II)

a) Find six words in the text that contain a prefix, a suffix or both. Write sentences in which you
can use them properly in context. Use the tenses and modal verbs seen in Units 1-to-4 as much
as possible; they can be either affirmative, negative or interrogative.
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3.3. PLANNING & STEPS
Introduction
One of the big problems we all face, whether teaching English to children or adults, is maintaining learners’
interest throughout our lessons. Consequently, we often have to be very creative in the techniques we
use. What makes music such a great teaching tool is its universal appeal, connecting all cultures and
languages. This makes it one of the best and most motivating resources in the classroom, regardless of
the age or background of the learner.
Planning for the use of songs in class

The process of selecting a song is one of the most difficult aspects of using music in a lesson. Here are
some things you probably need to think about to ensure you get the right song.
• Carefully examine what it is you want your class to learn in the lesson
Is this going to be a lesson focusing on vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, or a particular topic?
I once used ‘You’re so vain’ by Carly Simon to introduce a text that looked at vain people. In another
lesson, I used ‘In the air tonight’ as it uses the present perfect continuous tense. Whatever your
focus, remember that this doesn’t necessarily place a limit on what you can do with the song. For
instance, you might wish to use the song in question to exemplify a particular verb tense, and
structure your lesson accordingly, but you might at the same time wish to take the opportunity to
look at those interesting idioms in the lyrics!
• Think about the language level of your class
The language level of your class will determine not only which songs you can use, but also what
other activities – such as games or written exercises – you will use to develop the lesson. Lower
levels will become extremely frustrated with fast-delivered lyrics, for instance, while simple
repetitive lyrics might not be interesting for more advanced-level learners.
• How old are your learners?
If you’re a teacher of young learners, you will probably want to use songs that are repetitive and
very easy to understand. For teenagers, however, use contemporary or fairly recent pop and rock
songs. My advice: it’s often best to ask them ‘what’s cool’. Alternatively, for adult learners, who
will probably have a more open approach to classes, use songs that are interesting to their age
group.
• Are there any specific cultural issues regarding the make-up of your class?
What kinds of things are generally unacceptable in the culture in which you teach? Whatever you
do, don’t use music solely based on your own cultural norms. Consider the audience and their
sensibilities; even better, let them choose the songs that you use.
• What kind of access do you have to the song?
Let’s face it, this is the age of YouTube and you can find practically any song on this website.
Nevertheless, an mp3, which doesn’t require a connection, or even a good old-fashioned CD, can
often be a useful backup.
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Six steps for making a song the focus of your class

My intention here is to provide a basic outline you can use with any song. Remember, these are just
suggestions so make sure to keep the profile of your learners in mind.
1. Listen to the song
That’s it – start things off by just listening. It’s important to remember that this is supposed to be
a fun activity; don’t make it too serious or boring.
As an alternative, you can show a video clip if you have one – in fact, I strongly recommend it, as
it will cater to more learners’ learning preferences.
Ask learners if they’ve heard it before, and don’t overload them with tasks at this point; simply let
them enjoy the music.
2. Ask some questions about the title
Here are a couple of examples of the types of questions you can ask:
For John Lennon’s wonderful ‘Jealous Guy’:
‘What is a ‘jealous guy’?’
‘What are three things a jealous guy might do?’
‘What kinds of jealousy are there?’
For Queen’s classic ‘We are the champions’:
‘What is a champion?’
‘What kinds of champions are there in the world?’
‘What activities have champions?’
Such questions tend to work really well as conversation starters, so group three or four learners
together and then get feedback from each group on their thoughts. If you think it would help, make
this your first step, i. e., before the initial listening.
Alternatively, prior to having listened to the song you can teach a couple of words and give a simple
task for the first listening. My favourite strategy is to give three or four words from the song and
ask to them to listen out for the words that rhyme with them. You could also brainstorm possible
rhymes before listening.
3. Listen to the song again, this time with lyrics
This time, you should give learners the chance to read the lyrics to the song. At this point you might
do one or more of the following activities:
• Learners can just read the lyrics while they listen. They can possibly highlight unknown
words for later discussion.
• You can make a lyric worksheet as a gap fill; learners fill in the gaps as they listen.
• You can make cut-out strips of selected missing words and again make a lyric worksheet
as a gap fill; this time learners match the word strips to the gaps as they listen.
4. Focus on a particular verb tense or aspect of grammar
Virtually every song centres on a particular verb tense. This is too good an opportunity to pass up
in terms of uncovering the grammar. My suggestion is to start with questions such as these:
• How many examples can you find of the past simple in the lyrics?
• Why did the writer of this song choose this verb tense?
This acts as a springboard for discussing the function of a specific tense, as well as examining its
form. Furthermore, it often tends to raise awareness of grammatical flexibility and ‘poetic licence’
in the construction of song lyrics. Students often expect songs to obey the grammatical rules that
have been drummed into them. In a surprisingly large number of cases, this can lead to the
enlightening discovery that rules can be broken!
5. Focus on vocabulary, idioms and expressions

We’ve noted that many songs bend the rules of grammar. It’s also useful to focus on the creative
and artistic use of vocabulary we encounter in lyrics. Start with questions like these (again, for
Queen’s classic song ‘We are the champions’):
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• What does ‘I’ve paid my dues’ mean?

• What does ‘my share of’ mean?
• What does ‘I’ve taken my bows’ mean?
Go through the meanings, illustrating with other examples if necessary. Songs often serve as really
good contexts for phrases and idioms, but it’s good to make sure that the meaning is clear. As with
grammar, years of misunderstanding can come to light in this way!
6. Round things off with some creativity
Creativity is an important part of maintaining motivation, but it shouldn’t be limited to the teaching
approach. Depending on the factors highlighted in the first part of this post (age, language level,
cultural specifics, etc.), you might want to try finishing things off with an activity that stimulates
creative thought. Here are a few examples of things you can do to get the creative juices flowing:
• Write another verse of lyrics, maintaining the same mood and style as the original. This
can be done individually or in groups. These new lyrics can be presented to the rest of
the class. Perhaps several groups can work on this to come up with a completely new
set of lyrics for the whole song.
• A song tends to give you the perspective of the singer. Write a response (this can be a
paragraph, i. e., not necessarily in lyric form) from the point of view of the person the
song is being sung about, or any other protagonist.
• Have the learners plan a music video for the song. In groups they decide the location,
the characters, and what happens. Then each group explains their idea to the rest of the
class and the learners vote on the best one. The results can be surprising, as they
frequently come up with an interpretation that hadn’t even occurred to you!
• Write a diary entry for a character in the song. Get learners to examine the thoughts
and feelings that inspired the story being played out in the lyrics.
[Source: A. J. Simpson (2015), How to use songs in the language classroom; in: Voices Magazine -
https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/how-use-songs-english-language-classroom / Note: adapted from
the original.]
An example of songs as language learning tasks

Cameron (2001, p. 31). defines an activity for young learners as “any kind of event that children participate
in” (2001, p. 31), but adds, not all classroom activities can be classified as tasks. For an activity to be
considered a task, it must have more carefully planned and structured events with learner participation
as the fulcrum (Cameron, 1997, p. 346). Cameron provides “a list of defining features of task for use in
teaching foreign languages to children”:
These defining features benefit the teacher because they provide a reference point when planning a
lesson or analyzing a lesson plan; for researchers, it “provides a unit around which to develop an
understanding of language learning and teaching processes” (Cameron, 1997, p. 346). In addition to these
five features, Cameron (2001) reports that tasks for young learners should have three stages: preparation,
core activity and follow up.
DEVELOPING A SONG INTO A TASK
The Wheels on the Bus, a popular children’s song often sung by children in the U.K., U.S., and Canada, is
used here to illustrate how a song could be developed into a language learning task.
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There are several reasons why this particular song might be suitable for language learning purposes. The
lyrics of the song are made up of 11 monosyllabic words, many of which are repeated several times. The
phrases are short with relatively long pauses between each one and are comprised of simple vocabulary.
The song also has a repetitive rhythm with a recurring beat that is similar to the stress patterns of spoken
English.
THE THREE STAGES OF A SONG AS A TASK

Cameron (1997, p. 347) states that classroom tasks for young learners have three stages that “once
identified, can be analyzed, adapted, and expanded” and notes that “it has been common practice for
many years to plan reading activities in three stages: pre-reading, reading and post-reading” (2001, p. 32).
Cameron adds that this has been adapted for mainstream task-based learning by Skehan (1996, cited in
Cameron, 2001) and adopts it herself with the following labels (Cameron, 2001):
Cameron argues that the core activity is central to the language learning task and without the core, the
task would collapse. The preparation activities should help to prepare the students to complete the core
activity successfully. This might include pre-teaching of language items or activating topic vocabulary. The
follow-up stage then should build on the completion of the core activity (2001, p. 32).
• Preparation. Given the goal of the task is singing the song in the core activity stage, it is useful to
activate the vocabulary and to form basic sentence structures in the preparation stage. This could
be done using a number of methods, depending on the resources available to the teacher or the
size of class. One way of activating vocabulary might be to use a picture of a bus to elicit
vocabulary and form basic sentence patterns. For example, the teacher pointing to the bus driver
could ask, “Who is he?” Students reply, “A bus driver.” The teacher then asks, “What does the
bus driver do?” Students reply, “The bus driver drives the bus.” The teacher might then point to
the wheels and ask, “What are they?” Students reply, “They are wheels.” The teacher then could
ask, “What do the wheels do?” The students are encouraged to reply, “The wheels go round.”
Of course, this is only one option; the teacher may not have access to images to match the song
and might want to ask the students to draw a picture. The pictures could be used to elicit
vocabulary and practice the sentence structures used in the song. Regardless of how the teacher
chooses to activate vocabulary and form sentence structures, the aim is that, at the end of the
preparation stage, the students are ready to sing the song in the core stage.
• Core. To involve the students and maximize interest, it would be advantageous to sing the song
several times in the core, each time varying the pace or volume and having the students perform
actions and sing along chorally. For example, the teacher could begin by asking the students to
sing the word wheels at first, and have the students make a circle shape with their hands. Then
the teacher could have the students turn around 360 degrees when singing round and round.
• Follow-up. The follow-up stage should attempt to build on the successful completion of the core
stage. In other words, the students have sung the song and now should be encouraged to use
the vocabulary or sentence structures from the song. Again, this depends on the circumstances
of the teacher. The follow-up stage could be used to develop written production, either through
writing sentences or gap-fill activities, or oral production where the vocabulary learned is used
in a situational role-play.
[Source: N. T. Millington (2001), Using songs effectively to teach English to young learners, Language Education in
Asia 2 (1), pp. 136-138. / Note: adapted from the original.]
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a) Complete the table taking into account what is explained in ‘Planning for the use of songs’
effectively.
PLANNING Why should teachers consider it? Why is it important for ELLs?
Content to be learned
Language level
Age of ELLs
Specific cultural issues
Access to the song
b) Read again the ‘Three stages of a song as a task’ and complete the graphic below accordingly.
• Objective:
Preparation
• Ex. of exercise:
• Objective:
Core
• Objective:
Follow-up
3.3.2. VOCABULARY
a) Fill in the gaps using these noun phrases (they are underlined in the text to see them in
context). Note that there are more options than needed.
universal appeal interesting fast-paced cultural norms useful backup

idioms lyrics
learning missing words enlightening creative diary entry
preferences discovery thought
1 Havin the opportunity to share their ______________ processes make students feel learning is
significant.
2 They may ask the other team for some clues if they still have ______________ to complete the
message.
3 The _______________ and styles of teachers may vary greatly from one course to the other.
4 Experts affirm that differing ______________ influence the effectiveness of teaching
approaches.
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5 Authentic material usually offers ______________ for children and thus they can acquire a more
natural language.
b) Write sentences with the five noun phrases you have discarded in the previous exercise.
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
4 _____________________________________________________________________________.
5 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3.3.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES (III)

can use each of them properly in context. Use the tenses and modal verbs seen in Units 1-to-4 as
much as possible; they can be either affirmative, negative or interrogative.
 Listening
4.1. TEACHING TIPS: USING SONGS IN THE CLASSROOM
[Source: British Council Teaching English Channel at YouTube. Full video here as well]
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1. Using songs as gap-fillers or warmers could be “an absolute waste” in the EFL class. Explain why.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
2. What happens with motivation whenever songs are introduced in the classroom? Why?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3. Briefly explain how language structures, vocabulary and physical movement are connected by
means of songs.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
4. Why does the teacher avoid translation into the mother tongue (Chinese) in the lessons?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
5. How is the karaoke technique exploited in the EFL lessons?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
 Writing
5.1. TOPICS
• Opinion essay - Stating your ideas

 Re-read sections 3.1 and 3.2. in which you can find the benefits of using songs, rhymes
and chants in the EFL Primary classroom.
However, what are the difficulties & challenges of using songs in the Primary EFL class?
• Opinion essay - Agree or disagree?

 Re-read section 3.3., particularly the ‘Six steps for making a song the focus of your class’
part. The author offers a basic outline you can use with any song.
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Do you agree with his proposal? Can it be improved by adding some more elements? Explain why
(not) and support your ideas with examples or evidence.
• Summary
Summarize the three stages of listening activities (in general) including information about when, why
and how you can implement each of them. Use your own words and provide a text of 80-100 words
approx.
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References
repetition.]
I. Sources
OUP.
Language Learning.
GRAMMAR
• British Council – Learn English > Relative clauses

• English-Hilfen.de – Relative pronouns: who, which, whose
• English Practice – B1 relative pronouns
• Test-English.com – Defining relative clauses: Who, which, that, where
• Time to Learn ESL – Grammar sheet: Defining vs. non-defining relative clauses
• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] Oxford English Now – Grammar Lesson: Defining and Non-Defining Relative
Clauses
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Answer key
GRAMMAR / 2.2.
a) 1. that / 2. who / 3. that (also: which) / 4. which / 5. that / 6. that / 7. when / 8. who / 9. where / 10.
where
b) 1. whose uncle is a doctor (no) / 2. who seems to have lost his memory (no) / 3. who is unkind to others
(no) / 4. that we don’t know in real life (no) / 5. which I will never forget (no) / 6. when his son asked him
for help with his homework (yes) / 7. who always arrived on time (no) / 8. that help us to stay in touch
(yes) / 9. that I would love to visit this year (no) / 10. who found her purse (no).
c) 1. My brother, who is very happy, has a new job / 2. That is the dictionary that I bought / 3. I perfectly
remember the time when I broke my leg / 4. The path, which wasn’t that hard, only took me twenty
minutes. / 5. She is the woman who teacher us Chemistry / 6. My parents are the people whose
achievements I admire the most / 7. The new students, who are really good fun, joined our class yesterday.
/ 8. Students who didn’t wear expensive clothes were bullied / 9. You must visit New Zealand where I was
born in (also: that is the country where I was born in) / 10. Tanya wants to introduce me to someone, who
is an artist.
d) 1. This is the moment in which (also: when) … / 2. Our house, which is … / 3. … the day in which (also:
when) / 4. … whose mother is … / 5. … in which (also: where) / 6. … man who stole …
PREFIXES & SUFFIXES (I) / 3.1.2.

a) Ex. 1. grammat-ic-al / 2. use-ful / 3. feel-ing-s / 4. differ-ence / 5. connect-ed / 6. suit-able
VOCABULARY / 3.2.2.
a) Ex. 1. understand / 2. think / 3. hear / 4. listen / 5. participate / 6. preview / 7. reproduce / 8. preview
/ 9. notice / 10. try(ing)
PREFIXES & SUFFIXES (II) / 3.2.3.

a) Ex. 1. idea-l-ly / 2. famili-ar / 3. equip-ment / 4. valu-able / 5. pre-listen-ing / 6. easi-er
VOCABULARY / 3.3.2.
a) 1. creative thought / 2. missing words / 3. learning preferences / 4. cultural norms / 5. interesting idioms
PREFIXES & SUFFIXES (III) / 3.3.3.

a) Ex. 1. alternat-ive / 2. seri-ous / 3. un-known / 4. aware-ness / 5. start-er-s / 6. over-load
Page 24 of 24
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Versión julio/2022
Unit 6. Teaching materials in ELT (III): Games
U6_Games
 Introduction
1.1. CONTENTS
En la sexta unidad de aprendizaje se expone la función educativa del uso del juego, en general y
de carácter lingüístico, en el aula de Educación Primaria. Se describen conceptos clave y sus
beneficios, así como el método denominado “aprendizaje basado en el juego” (GBL por su
acrónimo en inglés) y su diferencia con la gamificación. Por último, se muestran varios ejemplos
reales y se ofrecen pautas para evaluar el desempeño del alumnado de manera efectiva y
conforme a los logros obtenidos.
la competencia lingüística necesarias para que sea efectivo, se introduce la construcción
gramatical denominada reported speech y se continua con los prefijos y sufijos para seguir
avanzando en el nivel B1/+ (umbral, usuario independiente).

• Being familiar with new grammar content: defining vs. non-defining relative clauses.
1.3. OUTLINE

1.3. Outline
2. Grammar 2.1. Reported speech

2.2. Exercises
3. Reading 3.1. Language games and ELT: Key concepts

3.1.2. Extension
3.1.3. Vocabulary
3.1.4. Language focus: Prefixes and suffixes (IV)
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3.2. What is game-based learning?

3.2.2. Extension
3.2.3. Language focus: Prefixes and suffixes (V)
3.3. Using games for assessment: Some real experiences
3.3.1. Extension
3.3.2. Language focus: Prefixes and suffixes (VI)
4. Writing 4.1. Instructions
5. Listening 5.1. Five-minute games for English class

References
Answer key
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 Grammar
2.1. REPORTED SPEECH
 Defining the concept

Reported speech is how we represent the speech of other people or what we ourselves say. There are
two main types of reported speech: direct speech and indirect speech.
• Direct speech repeats the exact words the person used, or how we remember their words:
Barbara said, “I didn’t realise it was midnight.”
• In indirect speech, the original speaker’s words are changed.

Barbara said she hadn’t realised it was midnight.
In this example, I becomes she and the verb tense reflects the fact that time has passed since the
words were spoken: didn’t realise becomes hadn’t realised.
Indirect speech focuses more on the content of what someone said rather than their exact words:
“I’m sorry,” said Mark. (direct)
Mark apologised. (indirect: report of a speech act)
In a similar way, we can report what people wrote or thought:

‘I will love you forever,’ he wrote, and then posted the note through Alice’s door. (direct
report of what someone wrote)
He wrote that he would love her forever, and then posted the note through Alice’s
door. (indirect report of what someone wrote)
I need a new direction in life, she thought. (direct report of someone’s thoughts)
She thought that she needed a new direction in life. (indirect report of someone’s thoughts)
[Source: Cambridge Dictionary Online > English Grammar Today > Reported speech (2022):
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/reported-speech_2. Note: adapted from the
original.]
 Reporting vs. reported clauses

Speech reports consist of two parts: the reporting clause and the reported clause. The reporting clause
includes a verb such as say, tell, ask, reply, shout, usually in the past simple, and the reported clause
includes what the original speaker said.
[Source: R. Murphy (2019), English Grammar in Use, with Answers. A Self-Study Reference and Practice
Book for Intermediate Students. Cambridge: CUP, p. 94]
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 Use of present vs. past tense
 Changes in verb tenses: summary
[Source: Collins English Grammar (2022):

https://grammar.collinsdictionary.com/es/gramatica-de-aprendizaje/how-does-the-verb-tense-change-
when-you-change-direct-speech-to-reported-speech-in-english]
 Reporting verbs: ‘Say’ vs. ‘tell’
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 Other reporting verbs and structural patterns
[Source: Test-English.com (2022): https://test-english.com/explanation/b1-2/reporting-verbs/]
2.2. EXERCISES
a) Choose the correct answer.
1 “I received too much homework” = Amelia complained that she ________ too much work.
a. has received b. had received
2 “I promise that I will drive carefully” = David promised that he ________ carefully.
a. would drive b. will drive
3 “When are you going to the film?” = He asked when ________ to the film.
a. we were going b. were we going
4 “Don’t use your mobile phone here” = The librarian told me ________ my mobile phone here.
a. to not use b. not to use
5 “I can’t find my sunglasses” = My mother told me that she ________ her sunglasses.
a. couldn’t find b. can’t find
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6 “I didn’t go to Meg’s birthday party” = He said that he ________ to Meg’s birthday party.
a. hadn’t gone b. didn’t go
7 “My flatmate is travelling around India” = Sandra mentioned that her flatmate ________ around
India.
a. was travelling b. had travelled
8 “Let’s buy tickets for the concert immediately!” = My friend suggested that we ________ tickets
for the concert immediately.
a. bought b. buy
9 “I didn’t steal the painting” = The man insisted that he ________ the painting.
a. didn’t steal b. hadn’t stolen
10 “The group is expert on field data collection” = The captain said that the group ________ expert
on field data collection.
a. was b. is
b) Complete the sentences using reported speech.

1 “We enjoyed the boat ride on the river Thames yesterday”, Robert said.
Robert said ___________________________________________________________________.
2 “The new art exhibition is very thoughtful”, Donna believes.
Donna believes ________________________________________________________________.
3 “I won’t be late”, Bill promised.
Bill promised __________________________________________________________________.
4 “Can you stay for dinner?”, Anna asked.
Anna asked us if _______________________________________________________________.
5 “I’m going to a computer programming class in the spring”, Mona said.
Mona said ____________________________________________________________________.
6 “You should see a doctor about your sore throat”, Mike suggested.
Mike suggested ________________________________________________________________.
c) Write the following sentences in reported speech. Use the words in brackets.
1 “We can see the stage very well from here” (pointed out)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 “Where did you go on holiday last summer?” (wondered)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3 “I have been studying Maths since this morning” (told)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 “I didn’t realise that it was so late for us” (explained)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
5 “You should wear the blue dress to Nora’s wedding”, my friend said. (advised)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
6 “What are you doing at the weekend?” (asked)
_____________________________________________________________________________.
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d) Correct the errors in the following sentences.
1 The police officer warned us not to make a sound.

_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 My friend suggested to going to a fashion show.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3 Dan promised that he will come over the next day.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 They wanted to know where we would meet.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
5 The guide ordered the visitors in the museum to not touch anything in the museum.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
6 They told us that the plane would arrive late.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
7 The reporter asked the politician how she will improve the health system.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
8 My sister suggested that I trying her yoga class.

_____________________________________________________________________________.
e) Complete the following sentences to make them true for you. Use reported speech in all cases.
(8-10 words/each minimum)
1 My hairdresser suggested that ____________________________________________________.
2 My boss asked me ______________________________________________________________.
3 Our teacher announced that ______________________________________________________.
4 My favourite writer recently said that _______________________________________________.
5 Yesterday, my parents told me that _________________________________________________.
6 My neighbour recommended me that ______________________________________________.
 Reading
3.1. LANGUAGE GAMES AND ELT: KEY CONCEPTS

Why use games in the primary EFL classroom?
Games are fun and children like to play them. That is, in itself, a strong argument for incorporating them
in the EFL classroom. Playing games is a vital and natural part of growing up and learning. Through games
children experiment, discover, and interact with their environment. Not to include games in the classroom
would be to withhold from the children an essential tool for understanding their world; a world which the
language teacher seeks to enlarge through the experience of a foreign language.
Games add variation to a lesson and increase motivation by providing a plausible incentive to use the
target language. Remember that for many children between four and twelve years, especially the
youngest, language learning will not be the key motivational factor. Games can provide this stimulus. The
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game context makes the foreign language immediately useful to the children. lt brings the target language
to life. The game makes the reasons for speaking plausible even to reluctant children.
What is a language game?

What distinguishes a language game from other communicative activities in the primary EFL classroom?
Certainly, language games are fun. But all activities in a primary classroom should be. Games are also task
based: English is a tool for the children to reach a goal which is not directly language related. Craft
activities in the target language are also an example of this, as are songs. But that doesn't make them
games. A stricter definition is necessary for the purpose of a language games book.
What differentiates language games from other activities in the EFL classroom is the presence of a visible
set of rules which guide the children’s actions, and an element of strategy: children must successfully
apply their language (and other) skills. Games can be competitive, but this is not a precondition. Children
can also employ their language skills strategically in co-operative games, where a group works together
to achieve certain goals.
Language games are a healthy challenge to a child's analytical thought. The rules of the game set clear
limits within which the children’s natural decision-making processes must function. With beginners, some
games can resemble fun drills, with the decision making reduced to substitution of a single word in a
phrase. However, even in such cases, children are required to make individual choices based on specific
language criteria which form part of the rules of the game. The key to a successful language game is that
these rules are clear, and the goal is well defined. Of course, the game must be fun, whether played in
English or the children’s mother tongue.
Integrating games into the syllabus

Although it would be conceivable to teach an English course solely based on games, most teachers have
an accompanying textbook which they are required to work through over the course of the year. Games
can either supplement the core material or (depending on the flexibility of the programme) replace
activities which you dislike or feel uncomfortable with.
It is important for you to read your coursebooks or syllabus closely. Are there certain areas which appear
weak? Perhaps there are aspects of the language (often functions) which are not covered in the core
curriculum. A game can fill the gap. If your syllabus is based on language structures, the topic-based games
in this book can make it more interesting for children.
But, most important, games can make your lesson planning easier. Once you have played the games a few
times and feel comfortable with them, you will be able to insert them into your programme with very
little preparation, especially if you have made materials which can be used more than once. Games can
serve as a valuable backup if you go through your material too quickly or if something unexpected
happens, for example, your colleague is ill and you need to cover her class as well as yours. They can help
you control the rhythm of your lesson and get a group of unmotivated children up and moving around,
participating in your class, and being more receptive to the rest of the lesson.
You can use language games to introduce new material, to practise recently learnt language items, to
introduce or practise certain themes, or to relax or energize a class. Some can be used for all of these. Be
very clear about what you expect of the children. The language focus alone is not enough to decide on a
game. Consider the children’s active and passive language knowledge in relation to what the game
requires. Are full sentences or one-word answers sufficient? How strict are the contexts? Is there a large
amount of choice for the children or are the responses closely defined? Do the games require active
language production or simply passive understanding?
How you use a language game will ultimately depend on the ‘personality’ of the group of children. Do the
children have a long attention span? Are they very active? What is the boy/girl ratio? Also consider
external factors such as the time of day the English lesson is held, and what happens before and after it.
Is your lesson a part of the regular school day, or is it held in the late afternoon after a long day of school,
homework, and other activities? Remember, too, to distinguish between ‘rousing’ and ‘settling’ games.
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• ‘Rousers’ wake a class up. They get the adrenalin going. Typical ‘rousers’ are movement games and
games where there is an element of competition. Guessing games also tend to get children excited,
as do games which require the children to speak. Bear in mind that an active game may get excess
energy out of one group and actually settle them. However, it could backfire and excite another
group so much that they go wild and lose all control.
• ‘Settlers’, on the other hand, calm a class down. Typical ‘settlers’ are craft activities and games
which focus on listening. Writing games also tend to settle a class, unless, of course, they are
combined with other stirring elements, for example, running to the blackboard. Board games can
settle a group as well.
The difference between ‘rousers’ and ‘settlers’ is not always clear. It depends on how you decide to play
the game. Splitting a large group into pairs can make a ‘rouser’ into a ‘settler’, and can prevent children
who are waiting for their turn from getting bored.
Before choosing a game, you should also consider safety. Is the space big enough for a lively movement
game? Can the children fall and injure themselves? Is the floor dirty and not fit for sitting on?
Safety is also a matter of control. The children must know their boundaries and respect your authority. If
a class is particularly unruly you should consider leaving out activities which could lead to pushing or
throwing objects. These are really questions of common sense.
Here are some other basic points you may want to consider.
 A game must be more than just fun
Of course, all language games should be fun, but always keep the language component at the
forefront of your planning. This may seem obvious, but it is easy for lessons to become a string
of 'highlights' which lack coherence and fail to take the children further. Try and keep the focus
on some clearly recognizable objectives rather than jumping from theme to theme in order to
introduce popular games.
 Play different games from lesson to lesson
Vary your repertoire. Children will always ask for their old favourites, but don't give in. The
children call for games they know because they are familiar. However, one can have too much
even of a good thing. Therefore, don't overdo a game, especially since many of the games in this
collection can be adapted for use with various themes and differing levels of ability. If a game is
over-used on one level, it will be difficult to motivate the children to try it another way.
 Vary the order in which you play games
While a certain amount of routine in a lesson is useful, since children like to know what's going
on, too much predictability will stifle a class as much as playing the same game over and over
again. Avoid the repetitive trap of song-drill-game-craft, song-drill-game-craft. Mix things up a
bit. Surprise the children from time to time. Sketching out lessons as mind maps (see example)
instead of linear progressions can help you move away from static lesson plans while keeping the
focus of the lesson clearly in sight. In this way, you can insert the game when energy and
understanding are at their best.
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 Always end an activity when the fun is still at its peak
lt is very important not to play a game for too long. Children will begin to lose interest and wander
off. Chaos may ensue. Finding the right moment to switch activities is not easy. Each child has a
different attention span. Therefore, it is essential that you have extra material for children who
finish an activity quickly or who don't seem interested in continuing to play. Give them a job to
do, like shuffling the cards or doing the calling for 'Bingo'. If a child still wants out, let him or her
go. If a child is very unruly and disturbs the rest of the group you may also want to consider
introducing a time-out chair, off to the side, where the child can go to calm down without losing
touch with the group activity. Be careful when excluding a child in this way. The time-out chair
can sometimes cause a child to play up to get attention, disturbing your game even more. So,
decide for each individual class and child.
Think ahead
The best-designed game will backfire if you are not fully sure about all aspects of the activity. Children are
relentlessly honest critics who expect you, the teacher, to know everything. If you mix up the rules or get
flustered, the children will rebel. The class can collapse in mayhem. With younger children you have no
time to pause, rethink and reorganize as you might with classes of teenagers or young adults. To avoid
such problems, test-play games yourself or with friends before introducing them into your English lesson.
Double check that you have everything you need. If you have asked the children to bring materials, be
sure to have a lot of extras yourself. Children will forget. Try and get into your classroom before the
children arrive.
Choose a table to one side and lay out everything you need before you start. Fishing for things in bags is
a distraction which can lead to a loss of discipline; your eyes and attention are away from the children.
Finally, does the classroom space fit the requirements of the game you have chosen? Is the classroom full
of chairs and tables? If so, can they be moved around? Is the space large enough to put objects around
the room or for two teams to run in? If you have the opportunity to arrange the room in your own way,
dividing it into a sitting area and an empty space, perhaps with a carpet to sit on, is a good idea. This way,
you can move between activities without having to interrupt the flow of the lesson.
Making games into part of the syllabus

One of the best ways to get children interested in a game is to have them participate actively in its
creation. Producing a game gives the children a sense of achievement while integrating the game into
other areas of the language class and the children's general education. Game creation involves many skills
as well as active decision making on the part of the children. It is a rich field in which to practise some
basic English. For instance, in deciding rules for games, you could integrate phrases such as How many ...
(players, cards, turns) What happens when ... (you land on a red space, roll a six, have no more cards) Can
you ... (roll twice with doubles, jump over another player). Depending on the children's language level,
you can require full sentences in a loosely controlled context, or focus on passive understanding and
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answers with yes/no or single- word utterances. On the non-linguistic level, the rules can be as simple or
hard as the children's general development and imagination allow.
Creating games is also an excellent craft activity and can involve a lot of language use. The children can
make their own dice, create cards (you can make this into a listening task by telling the children what to
draw), and, of course, design a game board based on rules they have already agreed upon. The game
creation project can (should) stretch over a couple of lessons, but not too many, perhaps as a closing
activity when concentration is low. Game making almost always excites the children. The project
culminates on a special day when the game is played.
Language level
Determining a learner's language level is at best an inexact science, especially if the learner is a young
child. Traditional terms such as beginner, intermediate, and advanced suggest a linear progression which
is really not applicable to the 4-12 age group, as it is difficult to filter out the language component from
children's general development. Children at pre-school and early primary level are meeting English for the
first time. Most will probably not learn intensively. Some will start in kindergarten while others may only
begin when they are ten years old. If traditional terminology is to fit at all, we would need to list 'pre-
school beginners, early primary beginners, primary intermediate', etc., which would only make things
more complex for a teacher looking for a suitable game.
Language level does not reflect the real challenge of the games, which you will find in the nature of the
activity itself rather than in the language component. In addition, since most games have numerous
variations with different language input aimed at varying age groups, giving a language level could lead
readers to overlook activities which might be just what they need.
[Source: G. Lewis & G. Bedson (1999), Games for children. Oxford: OUP, pp. 5-12. Note: adapted from the original.]
…………………………
a) Considering the information in the text above, complete the chart with the main idea required
in each section. Use your own words as much as possible and keep it short (30-35 words/each
grid maximum).
Topic Question
Games in the Primary classroom Reason to use it

Language games Brief definition of the concept


Integration of games in the Reason and manner (how?)

syllabus 
Thinking ahead Aspects to be considered


Making games (active) part of Tips

the syllabus 
Language level Considerations


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3.1.2. EXTENSION
a) Read again the section explaining the difference between ‘rouser’ and ‘settler’ games. Then,
go through British Council > Learn English Kids and select three games from the list that could be
used as rousers in a Primary classrooms and other three useful as settlers. Think critically and
give your reasons briefly in all cases.
ROUSERS Title #1: Why?
Title #2: Why?
Title #3 Why?
SETTLERS Title #1: Why?
Title #2: Why?
Title #3: Why?
b) Read again the section titled “What is a language game” above. Then, read “What are
educational games?” and figure out what they have in common and in what aspects they differ.
Write down your ideas. (40-50 words maximum)
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
3.1.3. VOCABULARY
a) Using your own words, define the concepts underlined in the text. (8-10 words/each minimum)
1 plausible incentive: ______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
2 decision-making processes: _______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
3 core material: __________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
4 passive understanding: ___________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
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5 recognizable objectives: __________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.
b) Now choose three noun phrases from a) and write sentences in which the meaning is clear in
1 _____________________________________________________________________________.
2 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3 _____________________________________________________________________________.
3.1.4. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES (IV)
can use them properly in context. Use the tenses and modal verbs seen in Units 1-to-4 as well as
reported speech as much as possible; they can be either affirmative, negative or interrogative.
3.2. WHAT IS GAME-BASED LEARNING?
New ideas and concepts
We are living in an endless debate about the needs of a new generation and the methods and instruments
that schools should provide in order to satisfy those needs. Every year, teachers must face new terms,
ideas, and concepts that pop up as if they were the only definitive solution to all the problems in
education. The truth is education is not a problem to solve, and there is not anyone or a unique solution
that will improve the teaching-learning process entirely. The key is to diversify, to try out different
solutions, and to analyze the results.
Incorporate games in education
One method that can be easily used in the classroom is Game-Based Learning (GBL). The results of using
this teaching strategy have proven that incorporating games is highly effective because they can facilitate
and encourage student motivation (obviously, and without a doubt, keeping students motivated is one of
the main problems that teachers must confront in the classroom).
But what is GBL? According to EdTechReview, “Game-Based Learning is designed to balance subject
matter with gameplay and the ability of the player to retain and apply said subject matter to the real
world.” Acer for Education, an education-oriented software company, is currently working hard to
develop and combine innovative methods with technology in education. They claim that GBL
is: “an effective method for making students work toward a goal, allowing them to learn through
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experimentation, practicing behaviors and thought processes that can be easily transferred from a
simulated environment to real life.” It could be said that GBL is basically a game and games are one of the
earliest ways people engage in learning; babies and kids play games to discover the world and to learn.
So why, when we reach a certain age, do we stop playing? Why do we find so few examples of games in
secondary school and higher education? And, why do most of us stop playing games when we grow up
and find a job in a company? If you think about yourself or other adults, you probably know that people
enjoy playing games of any sort. Basically, GBL is a strategy that uses the idea of a playing game to reach
specific learning objectives, whether they belong to knowledge, skills, or attitudes. In a history class, for
example, students can recreate a medieval environment, write a dialog between characters, and act out
some scenes according to medieval behaviors following the rules of a game.
GBL vs Gamification
GBL is often confused with gamification, a term that is often heard in school
environments. EdTechReview defines gamification as “the application of game elements and digital game
design techniques to non-game problems, such as business (growing in education technology) and social
impact challenges.” So-called “game elements” can be points, achievements, badges, and leaderboards.
Basically, they are used as extrinsic motivational tools in traditional classroom activities.
The line between GBL and gamification is sometimes very thin; the elements of gamification are normally
present in a GBL activity, not vice versa. GBL usually includes a game-like environment and practice of the
learning content through activities like theatre and role play. In GBL, the learning process comes as a result
of playing the game. Gamification, instead, is about inserting some elements of a game into traditional
activities. Although Quizzes can be considered an example of gamification, tools like web apps for creating
quizzes, such as Kahoot or Quizizz, are not considered GBL. They are just quizzes, a stack of questions, a
story, or an environment without characters or rules.
Different types of GBL
In order to understand GBL better, its different types can be examined along with taking the following
into consideration: the place where the game happens, and the environment in which the students
play. The three types of GBL are:
01 – Board games
Monopoly can be considered an educational game. It has all the necessary elements: a story, characters,
points, competition, and many other aspects. There are many examples of Monopoly-like games for
schools with modified rules for different subjects, like History Monopoly or Math Monopoly.
02 – Real life games
The environment here is the real world. This is probably the most motivating, but also the most stressful
type of game. In this kind, students must move, act, use their body and their minds in order to play. This
is the most immersive type and it provokes students in almost every aspect of their learning. Since there
is the possibility to move into a certain space, the real-life game is often connected to the theatre. It’s
easy to find role play activities, as well as simulations or drama in this type of game learning. Students act
“as if they were” a character of the game, make decisions according to their goals, the environment, and
the rules.
03 – Digital games
The environment here is online. Digital games can be compared to board games. In fact, a lot of digital
programs for GBL use online boards that a teacher can edit or add educational content according to the
topic that will be played. Also, in this type of game, students can be involved in the construction of the
game, especially if the teacher is not able to manage online tools without their help. Students have a
character (but not necessarily an account) that moves through the game where they face challenges that
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are placed along the games’ path. A digital game does not involve skills that are connected to the use of
the body and the real space, but it can train students to collaborate in a different and virtual way.
What are the benefits?
01 – Motivation
We could say that if students were always motivated, teachers’ problems would disappear. Motivation is
the key to good teaching and learning flow in the classroom. For this reason, GBL is very effective, as
games are naturally motivating and engaging. Moreover, games provide something that can be described
as “far from a traditional lesson” and they are often include competition among students; which can raise
the level of motivation in a classroom. Teachers can decide on the type of competition and create
supportive teams to lower the level of stress among students. It is important to also create and
incorporate games according to the students ages, for example, teenagers can tend to lose their
motivation if a game seems too childish. In order to avoid this, the teacher must prepare games according
to their audience with content that matters to their students. Teachers should never be afraid of using
games for learning and keep in mind that nobody is ever too old to play a game.
02 – Inclusion
Playing can challenge students and force them to step out of their comfort zone. For this reason,
sometimes it can happen that some students don’t want to play certain roles. If this is the case, the
teacher should not force those who do not want to play them. Fortunately, a GBL activity, whether it is
complex or not, is made of different parts and different characters; there is no limit to the creation of the
type of players and the kind of participation that is required. Students can be assigned the role of a
supervisor who checks that everybody respects the rules of the game, a recorder who makes a video of
the in-class activity, a reporter who collects results and/or describes how the game evolves, or a
constructor who builds the game, etc. The point is roles and tasks can be differentiated to include all
students.
03 – Student centered
Games are naturally student-centered and students should be involved in the preparation of the game. If
they are engaged and interested, they will accomplish tasks more willingly than with traditional activities.
Usually, when teachers set up the goals and the rules, most students will work without any further
explanation and teachers can monitor and assist their students.
04 – Critical thinking and decision taking
These are two skills that can be practiced and learned especially when engaging in role play. When
students are assigned to play specific characters in certain environments, they have to decide, on the
spot, what to do in order to reach the goal.
05 – Group work
It is not difficult to understand why a game is highly suitable for team and group work. Unity is strength
and everyone loses or wins when they play a game together.
06 – Creativity
GBL and games are effective tools for fostering creativity, especially if students are involved in the
construction of the game. Imagination has no limits. Teachers can leave opportunities inside of a game
where students can fill in the blanks with their own solutions and ideas.
[Source: I. Falciani (2020), What is game-based learning? - https://www.teacheracademy.eu/blog/game-

based-learning / Note: adapted from the original.]
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a) Explain the difference between Game-Based Learning (GBL) and gamification. Look for an
example of each on the Internet that could be put into practice in the EFL Primary classroom and
mention it in your text. (70-80 words maximum)
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________.
b) Outline the reasons the author gives to support the benefits of implementing GBL in the
classroom. In your answers, focus on their relevance and use your own words as much as
possible.
Motivation • Why?
Inclusion • Why?
Student-centered • Why?
Critical-thinking
and decision- • Why?
taking
Group work • Why?
Creativity • Why?
3.2.2. EXTENSION
a) Look for games that fit into the definitions of the three types mentioned in the text. Use, for
instance, the resources available online at FunEnglishGames.com – PBS Kids Games – or Cartoon
Network.
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TYPES Example #1 Example #2

Board games
Real-life games
Digital games
3.2.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES (V)

a) Find six words in the text that contain a prefix, a suffix or both. Write sentences in which you
can use them properly in context. Use the tenses and modal verbs seen in Units 1-to-4 as well as
reported speech as much as possible; they can be either affirmative, negative or interrogative.
3.3. USING GAMES FOR ASSESSMENT: SOME REAL EXPERIENCES
Introduction
Using games for assessment is about more than tracking points. The past five years have seen a lot of
growth in the digital games and assessment field, developing data collection engines that use
sophisticated tools to measure student learning and provide teachers with targeted feedback (see
GlassLab, for example).
But one of the most common misconceptions we have run across is that all good learning games must
assess learners within the game. The truth is that assessment happens around a game more often than it
happens inside the game, and teachers must still design and provide authentic, useful assessment tasks
for students.
These assessment tasks shouldn’t be seen as "extra work" for the teacher. They offer valuable ways to
unlock the instructional power of games and support a student-centered learning environment. Teachers
can create game-related performance tasks that are as interesting and engaging as the game itself.
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Figure 1. General steps in assessment

[Source: Pennsylvania Government Website > Department of Education (2020) - https://bit.ly/3RIbZBa]
Figure 2. Types & purposes of assessment of learning

[Source: Institute for Arts Integration and STEAM (2022) - https://artsintegration.com/assessment-strategies /
Assessment during gameplay
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The number one question that teachers ask us is: "How can I assess learning within my game?"
Here's an example from Eugene's ninth grade English class, where students play Storyweavers, a
collaborative storytelling game in which they produce an actual first draft of a story. Storyweavers was
created in PowerPoint and Keynote. Each slide of the game has a set of cards offering choices of Setting,
Protagonist, Antagonist, and Conflict. After spinning a wheel to pick the narrator's point of view, the first
student selects a Setting card. The choices might include Mars, a pool, or the Empire State Building. The
student selects a setting, writes a few sentences about it, and then passes the laptop to the next person,
who picks the Protagonist card. As they rotate, selecting cards and writing, students are having fun and
don't even realize that they're being assessed. Eugene is able to observe students during gameplay, ask
them questions, track their moves, and have them evaluate their choices as they play.
In another round, students can draw literary device and technique cards, such as Metaphor,
Personification, and Hyperbole, adding these into their stories. At the end of the class period, Eugene can
look at the stories and assess whether the writers understood the relationship between story elements,
and whether they used the literary techniques and devices correctly. As a follow-up, he might ask students
to revise their stories as a group or play a new round on their own.
Other examples include digital learning games with the capacity to assess students while they play, like
the tools and resources available from BrainPOP. Their SnapThought tool allows students to take and
annotate pictures while playing a game like Guts and Bolts. You can also check out GlassLab's SimCityEDU:
Pollution Challenge! This game provides formative assessment information about students' ability to
problem solve and explain the relationships in complex systems.
Whatever game you choose, and whether it's digital or analog, walking around and questioning individual
students and groups about their choices is a great way to find out what they're learning or struggling with.
Just watching and taking notes on whether you observe desired skills in action is also a simple way to
gather formative data during gameplay.
Assessment after gameplay

Trying too hard to build assessment into gameplay can often destroy the fun factor. Who wants to stop
playing a game to answer quiz questions, or read a text and craft a response? Unless the assessment is
cohesively integrated into that game's experience, as in Storyweavers, students will feel interrupted and
might disengage. If your game doesn't offer meaningful opportunities for assessment within the game,
don't worry. There are plenty of engaging assessments that you can create post-gameplay for students to
produce and show evidence of what they have learned.
1. Mod a game
In Marla's tenth grade geometry class, students play a game called Picture Talk. One student (the
describer) describes an image on a card without saying what the image is, and the rest of the class (the
copiers) must draw the image without talking. For example, a describer with a card depicting an image of
a house might instruct the copiers to draw a square with a triangle on top. After playing a few rounds this
way, Marla has them play Graph Talk, a mod of Picture Talk. In Graph Talk, the game the copiers use graph
paper. Now the describer can use language around X and Y axis for more complex images.
After playing a few more rounds, and introducing more mathematical vocabulary that deals with shapes
and graphing, Marla asks the student to create their own mod in teams. She gives them a design challenge
to incorporate some kind of constraint (such as trading, skipping, or adding) and produce a new version
of the game to playtest with each other. The modding is fun and allows students to step into designer
roles, but it also allows them to show their content area knowledge.
2. Create a strategy guide

In Dan's ninth grade biology class, students play an analog game called Fossil Flux. They collect, buy, and
trade fossils from various geologic strata in order to assemble an evolutionary tree based on observed
similarities between specimens.
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When students finish the game, Dan asks them to write a strategy guide for new students on how to play.
They review existing game strategy guides to understand format, and then work in teams to draft and
publish their own guide. This activity not only supports student writing and collaboration skills, but also
requires familiarity with the game content. Dan can then use the guides to assess their understanding of
content knowledge.
3. Game scenarios
In Jamie's seventh grade social studies class, students play a systems thinking game called In the Civil War
Loop. In this tile-laying game, players create causal maps and identify possible feedback loops using cards
that contain phrases linked to content from the time period of the Civil War, such as slavery, states' rights,
and agricultural production. Students earn points by making connections and winning arguments.
After several rounds of gameplay, Jamie hands out an exit ticket, which gives each student an incomplete
game scenario. Students are told that they have a certain set of cards in their hands and must decide
which card they would play if they were the next player to take a turn. They identify a card and write a
justification for why they would play it. This allows Jamie to quickly assess what students learned during
the game, and it allows students the opportunity to reflect on their learning. The next day, Jamie can
share some of the different answers that students came up with, and the students can engage in a
discussion around gameplay strategies before they play again.
Game-based learning is more than just picking the right game for your classroom. It's about designing a
meaningful learning experience for your students. For more about this approach, check out "Rolling Out"
a Game and Managing In-Class Gameplay.
Complementary information: Game assessment video tutorial
[Source: R. Rufo-Tepper (2015), Using games for assessment; in: Edutopia – George Lucas Educational Foundation -
https://www.edutopia.org/video/using-games-assessment / Note: adapted from the original.]
3.3.1. EXTENSION
a) Watch the video tutorial on assessment and identify the three steps in the section ‘How do
you assess student learning using a game?’ and their function in the GBL approach. Complete
the chart accordingly.
WHEN? STEPS FUNCTION IN GBL

During game play 
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After game play 
3.3.2. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES (VI)

can use each of them properly in context. Use the tenses and modal verbs seen in Units 1-to-4 as
well as reported speech as much as possible; they can be either affirmative, negative or
interrogative.
 Writing
4.1. INSTRUCTIONS
Introduction
One of the most common and important uses of technical writing is to provide instructions, those step-
by-step explanations of how to assemble, operate, repair, or do routine maintenance on something
(McMurrey 2019: source). In business writing and other forms of composition instructions are written or
spoken directions for carrying out a procedure or performing a task. It is also called instructive writing.
Step-by-step instructions typically use the second-person point of view (you, your, yours). Instructions are
usually conveyed in the active voice and the imperative mood: Address your audience directly.
Instructions are often written in the form of a numbered list so that users can clearly recognize the
sequence of the tasks. Effective instructions commonly include visual elements (such as pictures,
diagrams, and flowcharts) that illustrate and clarify the text. Instructions intended for an international
audience may rely entirely on pictures and familiar symbols. (These are called wordless instructions.)
Observations and tips

"Good instructions are unambiguous, understandable, complete, consistent, and efficient." (John M.
Penrose, et al., Business Communication for Managers: An Advanced Approach, 5th ed. Thomson, 2004)
 BASIC FEATURES
Instructions tend to follow a consistent step-by-step pattern, whether you are describing how to
make coffee or how to assemble an automobile engine. Here are the basic features of
instructions, but not all of them must appear in the same document:
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• Specific and precise title

• Introduction with background information
• List of parts, tools, and conditions required
• Sequentially ordered steps
• Graphics
• Safety information
• Conclusion that signals completion of task
 CHECKLIST FOR WRITING INSTRUCTIONS

1. Use short sentences and short paragraphs.
2. Arrange your points in logical order.
3. Make your statements specific.
4. Use the imperative mood.
5. Put the most important item in each sentence at the beginning.
6. Say one thing in each sentence.
7. Choose your words carefully, avoiding jargon and technical terms if you can.
8. Give an example or an analogy, if you think a statement may puzzle a reader.
9. Check your completed draft for logic of presentation.
10. Don't omit steps or take shortcuts.
[Source: R. Nordquist (2019), How to use English grammar for writing instructions; in Thoughts.Co -
https://www.thoughtco.com/instructions-composition-term-1691071 / Note: adapted from the
original.]
Examples
[Source: Performance Health (2022) - https://www.performancehealth.com/articles/7-fun-

parachute-games-for-all-ages-toddlers-to-seniors / Note: adapted from the original.]
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[Source: G. Lewis & G. Bedson (1999), Games for children. Oxford: OUP, pp. 27-29.]
 Listening
5.1. FIVE 5-MIN GAMES FOR ENGLISH CLASS
[Source: Lively Language! Channel at YouTube. Full video here as well]
a) Considering the information that comes up in the video, write your own instructions to play
two of these games in a Primary class (put yourself in a real setting). Do not copy literally from
what you hear but adapt the content to your own instructive style and teaching aims.
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Add any detail you may consider necessary to be direct and clear (e. g. illustrations or copy of
materials).
Game #1 - Title
Type
Aims
Age
Time
Materials
Preparation
(= instructions)
Game #2 - Title
Type
Aims
Age
Time
Materials
Preparation
(= instructions)
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References
repetition.]
I. Sources
OUP.
Language Learning.
GRAMMAR
• English Grammar Online > Reported speech exercises by level

• Perfect English Grammar > Reported speech
• Test-English.com > Indirect speech
• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] BBC English > The Grammar Gameshow > Reported speech
WRITING
• Proofed > 5 top tips for writing clear instructions

• [VIDEO TUTORIAL] Study Cambridge Checkpoint Videos > Instruction texts
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Answer key
GRAMMAR / 2.2.
a) 1a / 2a / 3a / 4b / 5a / 6a / 7a / 8b / 9b / 10b
b) 1. … that we had enjoyed / 2. … that the new art exhibition is / 3. … that he wouln’t be / 4. … we could
stay / 5. … that she is going to / 6. … that I should see
c) Ex.1. He pointed out that … / 2. Tim wondered where we had gone … / 3. My cousin told that he had
been studying … / 4. She explained that she hadn’t realised that it was so late for them / 5. My friend
advised me that I should wear (also: to wear) … / 6. My brother asked what I was doing …
d) Ex.: 1. … warned us not to make / 2. … suggested going to / 3. … he would come … / 4. … where we

could / were going to meet / 5. … not to touch … / 6. … was going to … / 7. … she would improve / had
improved … / 8. … I tried her yoga class.
PREFIXES & SUFFIXES (IV) / 3.1.4.

a) Ex. 1. quick-ly / 2. un-motivate-d / 3. accompany-ing / 4. product-ion / 5. move-ment / 6. fore-front
PREFIXES & SUFFIXES (V) / 3.2.3.

a) Ex. 1. entire-ly / 2. innovat-ive / 3. play-ing / 4. consider-ed / 5. stress-ful / 6. educa-tion-al
PREFIXES & SUFFIXES (VI) / 3.3.2.

a) Ex. 1. assess-ment / 2. use-ful / 3. interest-ing / 4. format-ive / 5. cohes-ive-ly / 6. post-gameplay
Page 26 of 26

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46411 - Comunicación oral y escrita, inglés B1, para un

Mª Victoria Domínguez Rodríguez

Unit 1. English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

1.2. LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Introduction 1.1. Content

2. Grammar 2.1. Review: Verb tenses – Present, past, future

3. Reading 3.1. English as a Foreign Language (EFL) vs. English as a Second

3.2. The importance of motivation in foreign language acquisition

4. Listening 4.1. Creating a positive learning environment

5. Writing 5.1. Review: Opinion essay (I) – Stating your ideas

2.1. REVIEW: VERB TENSES – PRESENT, PAST, FUTURE

[Source: Test-English (2022): https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b1-b2/review-verb-tenses-b1-b2/. Here you

1 Hi Katrina. Do you wait / Are you waiting for your friends?

1 They ________________ (play) football on Mondays and Fridays.

d) Choose the correct alternative: past simple or continuous?

7 He broke a leg when he climbed / was climbing the mountain.

1 When I saw Tom last week, he ________________. (He smokes again.)

What is English as a Foreign Language?

Differences between EFL and ESL

Terminology and types of EFL

United States of America

Exams for learners of EFL

Challenges of learning EFL

• Functions and auxiliaries, e.g., “do/does/did”

• Phrasal verbs, e. g., “get along with”, “drop out of”

• Second-language literacy: it refers to students who are proficient in speaking in a language

5. Social and academic language acquisition

6. Class placement and dropout rates

Benefits of learning EFL

1. Access to higher education

2. Interaction with native speakers

3. Better job propositions

4. Social and cultural benefits

Differences between EFL and

• ... • ... • ...

1. Why is it difficult to deal with individual learning needs in ESL classes?

2. In EFL classes, what is the difference between BIC and CALP?

3. What is the meaning of ‘class placement’ in this case?

Nouns Adjectives Expressions Definition/meaning

3.1.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PHRASAL VERBS (I)

Phrasal verb Synonym Sentence

3.2. THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION ON LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

Self-determined Non self-determined

1. What is the difference between the concepts of ‘learning’ and ‘acquisition’?

Nouns Adjectives Expressions Definition/meaning

3.2.4. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PHRASAL VERBS (II)

Phrasal verb Synonym Sentence

3.3. MOTIVATION STRATEGIES IN EFL CLASSES

1. Create a friendly atmosphere in the classroom

2. Encourage students to personalize the classroom environment

Their own short- Development of Connecting with

•Highlights: •Highlights: •Highlights:

Promoting friendly Personal classroom Sense of

•Highlights: •Highlights: •Highlights:

Nouns Adjectives Expressions Definition/meaning

3.3.3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: PHRASAL VERBS (III)

Phrasal verb Synonym Sentence

4.1. CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

[Source: Edutopia Channel at YouTube. Full video here as well]

1. “The environment has a large impact on student learning.”

2. “Classroom routine reduces cognitive load.”

3. “Attending to physical needs is crucial to healthy brain development.”

Adjectives Opposite (antonyms)