LECTURE NOTE

ON

INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL
GEOGRAPHY

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 CONCEPT OF LOCATION DEFINITION:
The term location and place in geography are used to identify a point or an area on the
Earth's surface or elsewhere. The term location generally implies a higher degree of certainty
than place, which often indicates an entity with an ambiguous boundary, relying more on human
or social attributes of place identity and sense of place than on geometry.
Types of location and place
There are three major types of location. These are locality, relative location and absolute location
Locality: A locality, settlement, or populated place is likely to have a well-defined name but a
boundary which is not well defined in varies by context. Ado-Ekiti for instance, has a legal
boundary, but this is unlikely to completely match with general usage. An area within a town,
such as Asin in Ikole, also almost has some ambiguity as to its extent.
Relative location: A relative location is the position of a place as compared to another landmark.
For example, you may look at the position of one city relative to other or position of university
campus relative to the centre of the town Similarly, when you say you live 4 kilometre away
from Ikole campus gate of Fuoye.
Absolute location: An absolute location describes the position of a place in a way that never
changes, no matter your location. The location is identified by specific coordinates. The most
common coordinate system is longitude and latitude on Earth surface. Wherever you may be in
Nigeria, the longitude and latitude of Abuja will always be the same
Longitude is the position of a place on the Earth east to west, measured in degrees. You can
measure in degree. You can measure location on the Earth in degrees because the Earth is
roughly spherical. Longitude is measured from a vertical line that goes through Greenwich, in
the United Kingdom. West of that line is is measured in degree west. The opposite side of the
world is 180° east of that line is measured in degree east, while Greenwich itself is 0°.
Latitude is the position of a place on the Earth north to south, measured in degrees. The equator
is 0°, and the South pole is 90° south. Together, a latitude and longitude can describe any
position on the Earth surface.

MAP SCALE
Definition: The scale of a map is the ratio between distances on the map and corresponding
distances in the real world. In other words, map scale tells the relationship between a distance
measured between two points on the map and the actual distance between them on the ground.
The scale of a map shows how much the given area has been reduced to paper size, and hence
how much you would have to enlarge your map to get the actual size of the piece of land shown
on the map. For instance, if a map has a scale of 1:50,000, then 1 cm on the map equals 50,000
cm or 0.5 km on the Earth's surface. The Map Scale tells the user how the map relates to the real

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world features it represents. To show a portion of the Earth's surface on a map, the scale must be
sufficiently adjusted to cover the objective. The extent of reduction is expressed as a ratio. The
unit on the left indicates distance on the map and the number on the right indicates distance on
the ground. Maps are made at different scales for different purposes. The scale controls not only
how features are shown, but what features are shown on a map. Therefore, the higher the scale of
the map, the smaller the image representation on the map, likewise, the smaller the scale, the
bigger the map. For instance, a 1:2,500 map will show individual houses and lamp posts while a
1:100,000, which is a much smaller scale will not show such features. Map scale can usually be
found on the outer edge of a map, usually near the map’s key.
TYPES OF MAP SCALE
A map scale can be expressed in three different ways. It could be (a) representative
fraction (RF), (b) statement, and (c) linear or graphical scale.
Representative Scale: Representative fraction (RF) also known as ratio scale shows how many
units on the earth's surface are equal to one unit on the map. It can be expressed as 1/100,000 or
1:100,000. In this example, one centimeter on the map equals 100,000 centimeters (1 kilometer)
on the earth. It also means that one inch on the map is equal to 100,000 inches on the land. Other
common RFs include 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) and 1:1,000,000 (1 cm to 10 km). The
numerator of a Representative Fraction is always 1. More so, it should be noted that in RF the
number on the left hand side (i.e., 1) is the distance or length on map while the figure on the right
hand (e.g. 50,000, which is also the denominator) is the corresponding or equivalent length or
distance on ground. Therefore, the RF 1:10,000 means 1 centimeter on the map represents
10,000 centimeters on the ground (or 1 inch on the map represents 10,000 inches on the ground).
Statement Scale: A word statement gives a written description of scale, such as "One centimeter
equals one kilometer" or "One centimeter equals ten kilometers." Here, the first map would show
much more detail than the second because one centimeter on the first map covers a much smaller
area than on the second map. It should be noted that the two methods mentioned above for
indicating scale would be ineffective if the map is reproduced by a method such as photocopying
and the size of the map is modified. If this occurs, and one attempts to measure one centimeter
on the modified map, it will not be the same as one centimeter on the original map. This can,
however, be taken care of by using a linear or graphic scale.
(iii) Linear/Graphical scale (also known as graphic scale or bar scale) is simply a line marked
with distance on the ground which the map user can use along with a ruler to determine scale on
the map. As long as the size of the graphic scale is changed along with the map, it will be
accurate. As shown in Figure above, a linear scale is often made up of two component parts
namely the primary subdivisions and the secondary subdivisions. The ‘primaries’ are on the
right-hand side of the zero while the ‘secondaries’ are on the left hand side. While the primaries
are subdivided into kilometers (or miles), the secondaries are subdivided into smaller units such
as metres.

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Examples of map scale and their interpretation
S/N Map scale Interpretation
1 1:100000 1 cm on the map represents 1 km on the ground
2 1: 50000 2 cm on the map represents 1 km on the ground
3 1: 25000 4 cm on the map represents 1 km on the ground
4 1: 10000 10 cm on the map represents 1 km on the ground

Units of scale and conversion factors

10mm = 1cm
10cm = 1dm
10dm = 1km
100m = 1km
Conversion of yard to metre
1 yard = 0.9144m
12 inches = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
1760 yards = 1 mile
1 km = 0.6214 mile
1 mile = 1.62km

CHARACTERISTICS OF A MAP
A typical map has the following characteristics:
i. It is represented to scale. Every map is a reduced version of some aspect(s) of reality (i.e.
things that actually exist on Earth). Hence, every good map must have a scale which shows by
how much reality has been reduced. 5
ii. It is symbolised. Graphic symbols are used to draw a map; each symbol represents a
particular category of geographical feature.
iii. It is projected. Map projection is the mathematical transformation of the spherical Earth unto
a flat medium. Every map is, therefore, based on one form of projection or the other.
iv. It is a two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional features.

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v. It is a model of reality. A map is a replica or representation of certain things that exist in real
life.
vi. It is a selective representation. No map can show everything that exists in the area shown on
the map. Hence, only things relevant to the purpose of a map are selected and represented on the
map.
vii. It is a generalized representation. It is not practically possible to show every bit of detail
about any feature represented on a map. Hence only those details about each feature which are
considered to be important are given on the map. Moreover, one symbol is normally used to
generally represent all features which are considered to be in the same class or group,
irrespective of the individual differences that may exist among the features grouped together.
viii. It is a communication system. The map is used to graphically store, display and disseminate
information.
ix. It shows only a static situation - one slice in time. A map only gives us information about the
situation of things as at the time it was produced. In a sense, therefore, it could be said that map
is usually out of date.
COMPONENTS OF MAPS
Maps may contain a variety of elements or components. However, all maps have some common
components, which are explained below.
Title - A map must have a title. The title of a map should tell the reader “what,” “where,” and
possibly “when” about the map. What is the map all about? Where on Earth does the map relate
to? What time period does the map cover?—e.g. 2006 population of Nigeria.
Orientation - By convention, cartographers (map makers) place North at the top of maps. If
there is a deviation from that practice, the map should have a compass rose or some other symbol
to help orient the user.
Scale - The map scale should be shown so that the reader can make judgments about distances.
Graphic scales are an absolute must when dealing with maps as computer images or printing
images from digital.
Legend - There must be a legend or key that explains the symbols used by the cartographer. The
map legend shows the symbols on a map and gives their meaning. To visualise reality the map
reader needs to be able to convert various shapes, colors, and textures into the phenomena they
represent.
Grid - The map needs to have a coordinate system, in the form of parallels of latitude and
meridians of longitude, so that the area can be placed in its proper geographical location on the
globe.
6 Author/Publisher - The author/publisher of a map should be indicated. Knowing who created
the map may offer hints as to the map’s bias or biases. Does this person or organisation have a

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vested interest in how the map is perceived by the map reader? For example, “town plats,” maps
created by western promoters, were aimed at attracting prospective settlers. Often they were
purely propaganda.
Place of Publication - The country or city where the map was published should be indicated.
Date - The date when the map was produced/published should be indicated. Knowing when the
map was constructed helps to place the map in its chronological context. Does the map reflect
true facts? For instance, post-1990 maps of Europe should show one Germany, not two.
Source - Indicate the source of the map.
Compass rose - A compass rose tells the directions (which way) on a map using the cardinal
points of North, South, East, West, and so on. * North is at the top of a map. * South is at the
bottom of a map. * West is on the left side of a map. * East is on the right side of a map.
SIZES OF SCALE
There are three broad categories into which map scales can be grouped. These are small
scale, medium scale, and large scale. As a general rule, the higher the denominator the smaller
the scale and vice versa.
(a) Small-Scale maps have scales of about 1:1,000,000 and smaller such as 1:2,000,000;
1:6,000,000; 1:30,000,000 and are used for maps of wide areas. Such maps are used when much
detail is not required.
(b) Medium-Scale maps have scales of 1:50,000; 1: 75,000; 1:100,000 to 1: 1,000,000
and are used for maps of medium sized areas
(c) Large-Scale maps have scales larger than 1:50,000 e.g. 1:1000; 1:2,500; 1:5000;
1:10,000 and are used when we want to represent higher levels of detail. It should be noted that a
large-scale map shows small features and great detail. On the other hand, a small-scale map
shows only large features. Simply put, a ‘large-scale’ map gives a larger and more detailed
representation of a feature than does a ‘small-scale’ map. In other words, the smaller the scale
the greater is the area which can be shown on a map of given size, but on the other hand we are
able to show less and less details. A large-scale map covers a small area but shows more details
while a small-scale map covers a large geographical area but gives less detail.
CONVERSION FROM ONE SCALE TYPE TO ANOTHER
In map reading, one can convert from one scale type to another. For instance, we can
convert from statement scale to Representative Fraction (R.F.) and vice versa or from linear scale
to statement or RF, and so on.
Examples:
(i) Conversion from R.F. to statement scale
Examples: Convert the following R.F. scales to statement scale:

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(a) 1:1000; (b) 1:20,000; (c) 1:150,000 Solutions:
NB: 100cm =1m; 100,000cm = 1km
(a) 1:1000
The R.F. means 1cm represents 1000cm.
1000cm is equal to 10 metres, that is 1000 or 0.01km that is 1000 100 100000
Therefore, the statement scale is 1cm represents 10 metres or 0.01km.
(b) 1:20,000
The R.F. means 1cm represents 20,000cm.
20,000cm = 1/5 or 0.2km, that is 20,000
100,000
Therefore, the statement scale is 1cm represents 0.2km or 5cm represent 1km.
(c) 1:150,000
The R.F. means 1cm represents 150,000cm.
150,000 = 1.5km, that is 150,000
100,000
Therefore, the statement scale is 1cm represents 1.5km or 2cm represents 3km.
ii) Conversion from statement scale to R.F.
Examples:
Convert the following statement scales to Representative Fraction:
(a) 1cm to ½ km (b) 4cm to 1km
Solutions:
(a) 1cm to ½ km
The statement scale means 1cm represents ½ or 0.5km.
Convert to the same unit of measurement.
1km = 100,000cm
½km = 100,000 = 50,000cm
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Therefore, the R.F. is 1 or 1:50,000

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50,000
(b) 4cm to 1km
Convert to the same unit of measurement.
1km = 100,000cm
The statement scale means 4cm represent 100,000cm
If 4cm represent 100,000cm,
1cm will represent 100,000 = 25,000cm
Therefore the R.F. is 1 or 1:25,000
25000
(iii) Conversion from Linear scale to statement scale
NOTE: Linear units:
1 kilometer (km) = 1 000 meters
1 meter (m) = 1 000 millimeters
1 millimeter (mm) = 1 000 micrometers
1 micrometer (um) = 1 000 millimicrometers
1 millimicrometer (mu) = 1000 million micrometers
1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters
1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters
1 centimeter (cm) = 1 0 millimeters
COLOURS IN TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS REPRESENTATION
- Blue lines/shapes - represent water features, such as streams and lakes.
- Brown – contour lines  Black – Roads, buildings, railroads, other man-made objects. 
Green – Woodland areas
- Red - Highways

MAP ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION

The following steps should be followed in reducing map to a given size:
 Measure the length and width of the map.

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 Divide the length and width by 2 or 4 if you are asked to reduce the map to half or a fourth
of its original size. For example, if the length and width of a map are 24cm and 20cm
respectively, such a map should measure 12cm by 10cm if reduced to half its size and 6cm
by 5cm if reduced to a fourth of its size and so on.
 Having reduced the original map, it is obvious that the scale would equally change.
Therefore, if a map has a scale of 1:50,000, the scale of the map changes to 1:100,000 if the
size has been reduced to half, and 1:200,000 if the size of the map has been reduced to a
fourth of its original size.

 The features to be shown on the reduced map should also be proportional to the required
size of the map.

 When you have finished drawing the reduced map, remember to write its title and the new
horizontal scale.

IN ENLARGING ANY MAP THE FOLLOWING STEPS SHOULD BE TAKEN

 Measure the length and width of the original map.

 Multiply the length and width by 2 or 4 respectively if you intend to enlarge the map to
twice or thrice its original size. For example, if the length and width of a map are 5cm and
3cm respectively, such a map would measure 10cm by 6cm if enlarged to twice its size and
20cm by 12cm if enlarged four times its size and so on.

 Having enlarged the original map, it is equally obvious that the scale would change.
Therefore, if a map has a scale of 1:60,000, the scale of the map changes to 1:30,000 if the
size has been enlarged twice and 1:15,000 if the size of the map has been enlarged to four
times its original size.

 The features to be shown on the enlarged map should also be proportional to the required
size of the map.

 When you have finished drawing the enlarged map, write its title and the new horizontal
scale. Before one can know whether to reduce or enlarge a map, it may be necessary to
divide the initial scale (scale of the original map) by the scale of the new map to be drawn.
For example, if the scale of a map is 1:50,000 and is to be reproduced to a scale of 1:200,000,
divide the former scale with the latter as follows: 50000/200000=1/4. Therefore, the new
map should be 1/4 times the size of the original map.

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 RELIEF REPRESENTATION
Relief is the difference in elevation between the high and low points of a land surface,
usually measured as relative relief. The relief features of a land surface are shown on a map
by means of various techniques such as contour lines, hachure, hill shading, spot heights,
bench marks and trigonometric stations. Contours in particular show the shape of the earth’s
surface in a particular region. Contours also give the elevation of places above a datum level,
at regular height intervals. Different relief or topographical features shown a map using
contour lines include lowlands, valleys, highlands, slopes, aspect, watershed, floodplain, and
so on. The earth’s surface is not uniform and it varies from mountains to hills to plateaus and
plains. The elevation and depressions of the earth’s surface are known as physical features or
relief features of the earth. The map showing these features is called a relief map. A number
of methods have been used to show the relief features of the Earth’s surface on maps, over
the years. These methods include hachure, hill shading, layer tints, benchmarks and spot
heights and contours. However, contours and spot heights are predominantly used to depict
the relief of an area on all topographical maps.
CONTOURS
Contours are imaginary lines joining places having the same elevation above mean sea level.
A map showing the landform of an area by contours is called a contour map. The method of
showing relief features through contour is very useful and versatile. The contour lines on a
map provide a useful insight into the topography of an area. Earlier, ground surveys and
levelling methods were used to draw contours on topographical maps. However, the
invention of photography and subsequent use of aerial photography have replaced the
conventional methods of surveying, levelling and mapping. Henceforth, these photographs
are used in topographical mapping.
Contours are drawn at different vertical intervals (VI), like 20, 50, 100 metres above the
mean sea level. It is known as contour interval. It is usually constant on a given map. It is
generally expressed in metres.
While the vertical interval between the two successive contour lines remains constant, the
horizontal distance varies from place to place depending upon the nature of slope. The
horizontal distance, also known as the horizontal equivalent (HE), is large when the slope is
gentler and decreases with increasing slope gradient.
Some basic features of contour lines are:
i. A contour line is drawn to show places of equal heights.
ii. Contour lines and their shapes represent the height and slope or gradient of the landform.
iii. Closely spaced contours represent steep slopes while widely spaced contours represent
gentle slope.
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iv. When two or more contour lines merge with each other, they represent features of vertical
slopes such as cliffs or waterfalls.
v. Two contours of different elevation usually do not cross each other.

Drawing of Contours and Their Cross Sections

We know that all the topographical features show varying degrees of slopes. For example, a
flat plain exhibits gentler slopes and the cliffs and gorges are associated with the steep slopes.
Similarly, valleys and mountain ranges are also characterised by the varying degree of
slopes, i.e. steep to gentle. Hence, the spacing of contours is significant since it indicates the
slope.
Types of slope
The slopes can broadly be classified into gentle, steep, concave, convex and irregular or
undulating. The contours of different types of slopes show a distinct spacing pattern.
Gentle Slope
When the degree or angle of slope of a feature is very low, the slope will be gentle. The
contours representing this type of slope are far apart.
Figure: Uniform Gentle slope

Steep Slope
When the degree or angle of slope of a feature is high and the contours are closely spaced,
they indicate steep slope.
Figure : Uniform steep slope

Concave Slope A slope with a gentle gradient in the lower parts of a relief feature and steep
in its upper parts is called the concave slope. Contours in this type of slope are widely spaced
in the lower parts and are closely spaced in the upper parts.

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Figure: Concave slope

Convex Slope
Unlike concave slope, the convex slope is fairly gentle in the upper part and steep in the
lower part. As a result, the contours are widely spaced in the upper parts and are closely
spaced in the lower parts
Figure: Convex slope
TYPES OF LANDFORM
Conical Hill: It rises almost uniformly from the surrounding land. A conical hill with
uniform slope and narrow top is represented by concentric contours spaced almost at regular
intervals.
Figure: A hill

Plateau: A widely stretched flat–topped high land, with relatively steeper slopes, rising
above the adjoining plain or sea is called a plateau. The contour lines representing a plateau
are normally close spaced at the margins with the innermost contour showing wide gap
between its two sides
Valley: A geomorphic feature lying between two hills or ridges and formed as a result of the
lateral erosion by a river or a glacier is called a valley. The two major types of valley are ‘V’-
shape valley and ‘U’- shape valley
‘V’-shaped Valley: It resembles the letter V. A V-shaped valley occurs in mountainous areas.
The lowermost part of the V–shaped valley is shown by the innermost contour line with very
small gap between its two sides and the lowest value of the contour is assigned to it. The
contour value increases with uniform intervals for all other contour lines outward.

‘U’ – shaped Valley: A U–shaped valley is formed by strong lateral erosion of glaciers at
high altitudes. The flat wide bottom and steep sides makes it resemble the letter ‘U’. The
lowermost part of the U–shaped valley is shown by the innermost contour line with a wide

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gap between its two sides. The contour value increases with uniform intervals for all other
contour lines outward.
Gorge: In high altitudes, gorges form in the areas where the vertical erosion by river is more
prominent than the lateral erosion. They are deep and narrow river valleys with very steep
sides. A gorge is represented by very closely-spaced contour lines on a map with the
innermost contour showing small gap between its two sides.
Spur: A tongue of land, projecting from higher ground into the lower is called a spur. It is
also represented by ‘V’-shaped contours but in the reverse manner. The arms of the V point
to the higher ground and the apex of ‘V’ to the lower ones.
Figure: Ridge and spur
Cliff: It is a very steep or almost perpendicular face of landform. On a map, a cliff may be
identified by the way the contours run very close to one another, ultimately merging into one.
Waterfall and Rapids: A sudden and more or less perpendicular descent of water from a
considerable height in the bed of a river is called a waterfall. Sometimes, a waterfall succeeds
or precedes with a cascading stream forming rapids upstream or downstream of a waterfall.
The contours representing a waterfall merge into one another while crossing a river stream
and the rapids are shown by relatively distant contour lines on a map.

STEPS FOR DRAWING A CROSS-SECTION

The following steps may be followed to draw cross-sections of various relief features from
their contours :
1. Draw a straight line cutting across the contours on the map and mark it as AB.
2. Take a strip of white paper or graph and place its edge along the AB line.
3. Mark the position and value of every contour that cuts the line AB.
4. Choose a suitable vertical scale, eg ½ cm =100 metres, to draw horizontal lines parallel to
each other and equal to the length of AB. The number of such lines should be equal or more
than the total contour lines.
5. Mark the appropriate values corresponding to the contour values along the vertical of the
cross-section. The numbering may be started with the lowest value represented by the
contours.
6. Now place the edge of the marked paper along the horizontal line at the bottom line of the
cross-section in such a way that AB of the paper corresponds to the AB of the map and mark
the contour points.
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7. Draw perpendiculars from AB line, intersecting contour lines, to the corresponding line at
the cross-section base.
8. Smoothly join all the points marked on different lines at the cross-section base.
HACHURING
Hachures are short lines drawn to show the shape of the land. The lines are usually drawn
following the direction of the slope or gradient.

CONTOUR LAYERING AND COLOURING

This method of relief representation involves dividing an area into height zones with each
zone representing a range of heights. For example, if the height of an area ranges from 0 to
500m, the land can be divided into any convenient height zones such as 0 – 100m, 100 –
200m, 200 – 300m, 300 – 400m, 400 – 500m. Then different shades of colour are used to
represent each height zone or contour layer. Conventionally, blue is used to represent water
bodies, green for lowlands, yellow for middle grounds, brown for highlands and white for
snow capped hill or mountain tops.
SPOT HEIGHTS A spot height is a point whose height above mean sea level has been
accurately determined through land surveying techniques. On a map a spot height is indicated
with a dot and the actual height value written beside the dot. Example of such points are
trigonometrical stations and bench marks.
TRIGONOMETRICAL STATIONS: It is a fixed surveying station, used for land surveying
projects in its vicinity. These are points on the ground indicating where the angles of
triangulation have been measured when mapping an area using land survey methods. On the
map the location of a trigonometrical station is shown by an equilateral triangle with a dot
inside it and the height of that location written beside the triangle e.g. 1125.
BENCH MARKS : A Bench Mark (BM) is a permanent land survey mark inscribed on an
object such as wall, building, roadside, or bridge to indicate the exact height above sea level
of that spot. On a map they are shown by the symbol (or ). The height is usually written
beside it.

LANDFORMS ON CONTOUR MAPS

There are different types of landforms. One of the tasks of relief analysis is to identify the
various relief features on a map. The commonest means of representing landforms or relief

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features on maps is by the use of contour lines. Some of the common landforms that can be
represented on a contour map are shown below.
HILL OR MOUNTAIN
This is a piece of land which rises above the surrounding environment
ESCARPMENT
This is a long stretch of highland or ridge with a very steep (scarp) slope on one side and a
very gentle (dip) slope on the other side
RIDGE
A ridge is a narrow long chain or range of highlands. The highlands are usually separated
from one another by openings known as col (saddle) or pass (gap).
COL OR SADDLE
A col or saddle is a low land separating two highlands. The major difference between a col
and a saddle is that a saddle is usually wider than a col.
PASS OR GAP
Like a col, a pass or gap is also lowland that separates two highlands. it is a way through a
mountain range. However, whereas a col appears at a high altitude, a pass occurs at lower
altitudes. Consequently, a pass is usually deeper with the land on both sides being very much
higher than what obtains in the case of a col or saddle. 21
PLATEAU
A plateau is large area of highland with an almost flat or table top.

IDENTIFICATION OF CULTURAL FEATURES FROM

TOPOGRAPHICAL SHEETS
Settlements, buildings, roads and railways are important cultural features shown on
topographical sheets through conventional signs, symbols and colours. The location and
pattern of distribution of different features help in understanding the area shown on the map.
Distribution Of Settlements
It can be seen in the map through its site, location pattern, alignment and density. The nature
and causes of various settlement patterns may be clearly understood by comparing the
settlement map with the contour map.
Four types of rural settlements may be identified on the map. This includes:
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(a) Compact
(b) Scattered
(c) Linear
(d) Circular
Similarly, urban centres may also be distinguished as
(a) Cross-Road Town
(b) Nodal point
(c) Market centre
(d) Hill station
(e) Coastal resort centre
(f) Port
(g) Manufacturing centre with suburban villages or satellite towns
(h) Capital town
(i) Religious centre

Various factors determine the site of settlements like

(a) Source of water
(b) Provision of food
(c) Nature of relief
(d) Nature and character of occupation
(e) Defence
Site of settlements should be closely examined with reference to the contour and drainage
map. Density of settlement is directly related to food supply. Sometimes, village settlements
form alignments, i.e. they are spread along a river valley, road, embankment, coastline –
these are called linear settlements.
In the case of an urban settlement, a cross-Road town assumes a fan-shaped pattern, the
houses being arranged along the roadside and the crossing being at the heart of the town and
the main market place. In a nodal town, the roads radiate in all directions.

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 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION PATTERN
Relief, population, size and resource development pattern of an area directly influence the
means of transport and communication and their density. These are depicted through
conventional signs and symbols. Means of transport and communication provide useful
information about the area shown on the map.

INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS

Knowledge of map language and sense of direction are essential in reading and interpreting
topo-sheets .You must first look for the northline and the scale of the map and orient yourself
accordingly. You must have a thorough knowledge of the legends / key given in the map
depicting various features.
All topo-sheets contain a table showing conventional signs and symbols used in the map
Conventional signs and symbols are internationally accepted; so, anyone can read any map
anywhere in the world without knowing the language of that particular country.
A topographic sheet is usually interpreted under the following heads:
(a) Marginal Information
(b) Relief and Drainage
(c) Land Use
(d) Means of Transport and Communication
(e) Human Settlement
Marginal Information: It includes the topographical sheet number, its location, grid
references, its extent in degrees and minutes, scale, the districts covered, etc.
Relief of the Area: The general topography of the area is studied to identify the plains,
plateaus, hills or mountains along with peaks, ridges, spur and the general direction of the
slope. These features are studied under the following heads: Hill: With concave, convex,
steep or gentle slope and shape. Plateau: Whether it is broad, narrow, flat, undulating or
dissected. Plain: Its types, i.e. alluvial, glacial, karst, coastal, marshy, etc. Mountain: General
elevation, peak, passes, etc.
Drainage of the Area: The important rivers and their tributaries and the type and extent of
valleys formed by them, the types of drainage pattern, i.e. dendritic, radial, ring, trellis,
internal, etc.
Land Use: It includes the use of land under different categories like:

17
 - Natural vegetation and forest (which part of the area is forested, whether it is dense
forest or thin, and the categories of forest found there like Reserved, Protected, Classified/
Unclassified).
- Agricultural, orchard, wasteland, industrial, etc.
- Facilities and Services such as schools, colleges, hospitals, parks, airports, electric
substations, etc.
Transport and Communication: The means of transportation include national or state
highways, district roads, cart tracks, camel tracks, footpaths, railways, waterways, major
communication lines, post offices, etc.
Settlement: Settlements are studied under the following heads: - Rural Settlements: The
types and patterns of rural settlements, i.e. compact, semicompact, dispersed, linear, etc. -
Urban Settlements: Type of urban settlements and their functions, i.e. capital cities,
administrative towns, religious towns, port towns, hill stations, etc.
Occupation: The general occupation of the people of the area may be identified with the help
of land use and the type of settlement. For example, in rural areas the main occupation of
majority of the people is agriculture; in tribal regions, lumbering and primitive agriculture
dominates and in coastal areas, fishing is practised. Similarly, in cities and towns, services
and business appear to be the major occupations of the people.

MAP INTERPRETATION PROCEDURE

Map interpretation involves the study of factors that explain the causal relationship among
several features shown on the map. For example, the distribution of natural vegetation and
cultivated land can be better understood against the background of landform and drainage.
Likewise, the distribution of settlements can be examined in association with the levels of
transport network system and the nature of topography.
The following steps will help in map interpretation:
i. Find out from the index number of the topographical sheet, the location of the area in India.
This would give an idea of the general characteristics of the major and minor physiographic
divisions of the area. Note the scale of the map and the contour interval, which will give the
extent and general landform of the area.
ii. Trace out the following features on tracing sheets. (a) Major landforms – as shown by
contours and other graphical features. (b) Drainage and water features – the main river and its
important tributaries. (c) Land use – i.e. forest, agricultural land, wastes, sanctuary, park,
school, etc. (d) Settlement and Transport pattern.

18
iii. Describe the distributional pattern of each of the features separately drawing attention to
the most important aspect.
iv. Superimpose pairs of these maps and note down the relationship, if any, between the two
patterns. For example, if a contour map is superimposed over a land use map, it provides the
relationship between the degree of slope and the type of the land used. Aerial photographs
and satellite imageries of the same area and of the same scale can also be compared with the
topographical map to update the information.

SPATIAL ANALYSIS
Map analysis involves the reading and interpretation of the content of a map. This entails
decoding the map symbols to derive their meanings and also understand the message or
information those symbols convey. It is the process of extracting or creating new information
about a set of geographic features and examining the relationships between them. It is the
process by which we turn raw data into useful information.
To the map user, as stated by Ajayi (2003), map reading is “the ability to recognise the
conventional signs and symbols as used on maps and their descriptions in words of the area
mapped with the aid of signs and symbol”. In addition, map analysis is whereby a study is
made regarding map types i.e. political maps, military maps, contour lines etc., and the
unique physical qualities or elements of a map i.e. scale, title, legend, etc. In map analysis we
can use the information displayed on the map to make some logical inferences or conclusions
about some other facts not expressly shown on the map. In this sense, therefore, we can infer
that map analysis ranges from an understanding of the fundamental nature of mapped data
through a series of procedures used in deriving, analysing and applying spatial information.
True, a map is an image of a place at a particular point in time, but that place has been
intentionally reduced in size, and its contents have been selectively distilled to focus on one
or two particular items. The results of this reduction and distillation are then encoded into a
symbolic representation of the place. Finally, this encoded, symbolic image of a place has to
be decoded and understood by a map reader who may live in a different time period and
culture. When we are embarking on map analysis we are simply trying to reverse what the
map maker did. In making a map we work or transfer information from reality (ground or
Earth’s surface) to paper. However, in map analysis we do the opposite, which is working
from paper back to reality (ground).

Map Analysis Tasks

Usually, map analysis is accomplished by executing a number of tasks. Basically, there are
four (4) broad tasks involved in map analysis. They are:
19
i. Classification
ii. Delineation
iii.Enumeration, and
iv. Measurement.
Usually, the first two tasks mentioned above (i.e. classification and delineation) are first
carried out in that logical order before any of the remaining last two (i.e. enumeration and
measurement). Each of the tasks is discussed below.
Classification
This involves assigning objects, features, or areas to classes based on certain criterion. There
are about three levels of confidence or precision that can be achieved in classification. These
are:
(i) Detection, which is the determination of the presence or absence of a feature on a map.
(ii) Recognition, which involves assigning a feature to a general class. For instance, we can
generally classify a feature as a road.
(iii) Identification, which means we have enough details about the identity of an object or
feature that we are confident enough to place it in a very specific class. For instance, based
on available details we can confidently say a particular road is a secondary (Trunk B) road
instead of just classifying it generally as a road. High level or more precise classification of
features enables us to do more accurate and precise map analysis. In other words, the higher
the level of classification, the more detailed and more accurate will be the level of map
analysis we can do.
Delineation This refers to outlining or placing boundaries round regions or areal units
observed on the map. A typical example is the delineation of separate classes of land use or
vegetation.
Enumeration This refers to listing or counting of discrete items visible on a map. For
example, on a large-scale map showing a portion of a city we can count or take a census of
the number of individual houses, boreholes, bus stops, or petrol stations in the area.
Measurement This refers to the physical quantitative measurement of certain variables such
as length (distance), height, volume, perimeter and area. For instance, on a topographic map,
we can measure and calculate the distance between two places, the height of the peak of a hill
or mountain, or the area of a lake.

20
Basic concepts and elements of map analysis
Basically, map analysis involves a critical examination of the data/information presented on a
map. The map data represent geographical features. Hence, it is important that the map
analyst understands the concept of geographical features and geographical data. Also
important is knowledge of the possible sources of data for map making. In this Unit,
therefore, we will look at map or geographical features/data as well as the sources of such
data.
Types of Geographical Features/Data
Maps are produced using geographical or spatial data. The data give us locational and other
useful information about the geographical features represented on the map. With respect to
their geometric dimensions, geographical features are generally categorised as point, line, or
area (polygon). Similarly, geographical data could be point, line or polygon. These geometric
descriptions are the basic data elements of a map. Each of the geographical feature/data type
is discussed below.
Points
They are represented as a single ‘dot’ on the map.
- Points are used to indicate discrete locations.
- They have no length or area at the given scale.
- They usually have a single X, Y coordinate.
- Used to represent a feature that is too small to be displayed as a line or area.
Arcs/Lines
Arcs are ordered sets of points that have the look of a straight line or a curved arc depending
upon the feature it describes.
- They are considered to have a length but no width. - They are accompanied by a set of
coordinates.
- They are used to represent a geographical feature that is too narrow to have area, such as a
stream or a road.
Polygons/Areas
They are closed features whose boundary encloses a homogenous area. - They have an area
that is given by the arcs/lines that make the boundary. - They are used to represent features
that have area (e.g. lakes, large cities and islands)

21
Sources of Data for Map Making
There are various sources of data for map making. The sources, however could be grouped
into two broad categories namely primary sources (hence primary data), and secondary
sources (hence secondary data). Primary data are original data collected and used for the first
time by the person using the data. On the other hand, secondary data is already existing data
which was collected and used previously The major primary and secondary sources of data
for map making include:
i. Traveller’s Note (e.g. data collected during a field trip or excursion).
ii. Existing maps
iii. Aerial photographs (these are photographs of portions of the Earth’s surface taken from
aeroplanes)
iv. Satellite images (these are images of portions of the Earth’s surface obtained using
remote sensing satellites that are orbiting the earth in space)
v. Land survey (this is the method of physical measurement of distance, direction or height
on the Earth’s surface).
vi. Questionnaire survey
vii. Official Statistical records
viii. Field observation (this involves personal physical observation and recording of
information about a phenomenon being studied)
ix. Global Positioning System (GPS) (this is an electronic or digital device used to record
information on the latitude and longitude of any location on the surface of the Earth).
x. Digital environmental information files (these are digital information about different
aspects of man’s physical environment; such information is usually compiled by various
agencies).

THE CONCEPT OF MAP SYMBOLS

Maps are usually drawn using graphic or visual symbols. In other words, when we draw a
map we are simply symbolising the various geographical phenomena shown on the map.
When we engage in map reading and analysis we are only trying to decode the symbols in
order to understand their meanings and, hence, the information they bear and convey. There
are different kinds of map symbols. It is important that we know the symbols and how they
are used on maps. Understanding map symbols and their meanings helps us to properly
interpret maps and derive the information being communicated through the maps.

22
What is Map Symbol?
Every map is drawn using a set of symbols. A map symbol is any graphic or visual sign or
mark used on a map to represent and communicate information about a geographical feature.
The symbols are used to code or set data and present it in form of a diagram or illustration.
Symbols are part of the sign language of the map. The symbols used on a map are usually
defined in the map’s legend or key.
Types of Map Symbol
There are different types of symbols that can be used to produce a map. However, using
dimension as a parameter we can conveniently group the different symbols into three broad
categories namely point symbols, line symbols and area symbols. Notice that this grouping is
also in line with our grouping of geographical features into point features, line features and
area features in Unit 1 above. Nonetheless, we also have conventional symbols, pictorial
symbols, and literal or textual symbols.
i Point Symbols
Point symbols are used to map point or zero-dimensional features. On the map point
symbols are shown as individual discrete dots existing at single spots or locations. The dots,
however, are not always circular. In other words, point symbols could be of various shapes
and sizes too a point symbol can be used to represent a qualitative value or a quantitative
value. When used as a qualitative symbol, a point symbol simply shows us where individual
features are located. For example, a symbol showing a building, settlement, petrol station,
trigonometric station, spot height or benchmark. On the other hand, if used as a quantitative
symbol it indicates the quantity or amount of the feature it represents. For instance, one dot
can be used to represent 5000 people in a dot map showing the distribution of human
population in a region(s).
ii. Line Symbols
Line symbols are used to represent one-dimensional or linear features such as roads, rivers,
railways, pipelines, and power or telecommunication cables. Like point symbols, some line
symbols (e.g. ones showing rivers or roads) are used to show qualitative values Line symbols
(e.g. flow maps) can also be used to show the movement or flow of people, goods, energy,
animals etc. from one location to another. Line symbols that show movement can indicate
both the direction of the movement and the quantity involved in the movement. There are
different patterns of line symbols.
iii. Area Symbols
Area (or areal) symbols are used to map two-dimensional or polygonal features; that is,
features that significantly cover a wide area of land. Examples of areal features include lakes,
lagoons, farmlands, school compounds, state, country, and so on. There are qualitative area
symbols as well as quantitative area symbols. Figure 2.2(a) shows different land use types in
a place; the area symbols used here are qualitative. On the other hand, Figure 2.2(b) is
23
composed of quantitative area symbols showing the distribution of population density. The
area symbol can also be in form of a colour or pattern.
iv. Conventional Symbols
These are commonly recognised and used map symbols. Literal or Textual Symbols These
are symbols that are derived from the abbreviation of some words; hence they are in form of
texts or letters. They are used to indicate the locations of the features they represent as seen
below. Some examples are
Sch = School
Mkt = Market
Ch = Church RH =
Rest House
PO = Post Office
Hosp = Hospital
MAP SYMBOLS

v. Pictorial Symbols
These are symbols that look very similar to what they represent; they are like a picture or
diagrammatic illustration of the feature they stand for. Such symbols are very easy to 30
understand even without the aid of a legend or key. Hence, pictorial symbols are mostly used
in producing maps for children and non-literate adults.

MAP ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Human Settlements
Human settlements are common features of topographical and some other basic maps. They
are usually of different origin, shapes, sizes and functions. Settlement studies are important
for planning, development and management purposes.
Types of Settlement
Settlements could be broadly classified as rural or urban.
Rural Settlements: Rural settlements are usually smaller in size than urban settlements. More
so, rural settlements are inhabited by relatively few people who are socially, culturally and
linguistically homogenous. Such settlements could be dispersed, nucleated or linear in

24
arrangement. Homesteads, hamlets and villages are examples of rural settlement types. Rural
settlements are hardly planned; people build their houses wherever they pleased.
Urban Settlements: Urban settlements are usually larger than rural settlements. They are
known to be densely populated and are inhabited by people from different social, cultural and
linguistic backgrounds. Most urban centres are the product of conscious planning; hence the
roads, buildings and other infrastructure are often well laid out. The settlement pattern of
urban centres is commonly nucleated or linear. Examples of urban settlements are towns,
cities, conurbations, metropolis, megalopolis, and megacities.
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
Settlements could be of various patterns or shapes. Settlement pattern refers to the
arrangement or layout of buildings in a settlement. There are four major settlement patterns
namely dispersed, nucleated, linear, and homestead (or isolated).
Dispersed settlement pattern: The main characteristic of this settlement pattern is that the
buildings are scattered and could be far from one another
Nucleated settlement pattern: This is more or less the opposite of dispersed settlement. In a
nucleated settlement the buildings are clustered; hence they are very close to one another
Linear Settlement Pattern: In a linear settlement layout the buildings are located along
transportation or communication routes such as roads, railways, and rivers.
Homestead: A homestead is an isolated one family residence. Each building is usually far
from others. It could be a farmstead, mining camp, fishing hut, or lumbering camp

ANALYSIS OF POINT FEATURES

So many features appear on maps as dots. In this unit, we will focus attention on both
qualitative and quantitative analyses of point features.
Enumeration
Enumeration involves nominal counting of the number of individual or discrete point features
on a map. Such discrete point features could be settlements, boreholes, wells, buildings,
trees, animals in a wildlife park, and so on.
Calculating the Density of a Point Feature Distribution
Density is a measure of the level of compactness of a particular point feature distributed over
a geographical space. In other words, density is a measure of the number or population of a
feature per square kilometre. Therefore, density (D) is measured by the formula:
D = P/A
25
Where:
D = Density
P = Population
A = Area To measure the density of a point feature distributed over a given geographical
space shown on a map, the steps to follow are:
1. Enumerate or count the number of the feature to obtain the population (P).
2. Using the scale of the map, calculate the area of the geographical space or region under
consideration (Note: the answer should be in square kilometre (km2)).
3. Apply the formula above to determine the density of the distribution.
SAMPLE EXAMPLE:
The distribution of churches in a locality. We can calculate the density of the churches by
relating the number or population of the churches to the area or land mass of the locality.
Assuming we have twenty-seven (27) churches in the locality in the area of occupied by the
locality is determined to be 3.68km2; we can calculate the density of the churches thus:
D = 27/3.6 = 7.34
The density (D) is 7.34. What this means is that there are 7.34 churches within every one
square kilometre in the locality.

MEASUREMENT OF DEGREE OF CLUSTERING

The degree or level of clustering (or dispersion) of a point feature distribution can be
determined. This can be achieved using either the Quadrat Analysis technique or the Nearest
Neighbour Analysis technique. The nature of a point distribution can be described as
aggregated, random or uniform. We will briefly consider the Nearest Neighbour Technique
here.
Consider the distribution of Senior Secondary schools in a locality . We can measure the
degree of clustering of the schools using the Nearest Neighbour technique. The following
steps are used:
1. On a straight line, measure the distance between a point (a school in this our example) and
its nearest neighbour on the map. For instance, in Fig. 31 the nearest neighbour to point A is
point E. (Note that in some cases two points within an area are located closer to one another
than they are to any other point, in which case the same distance is measured twice. For

26
instance in Figure 2.2, points E and F are closer to each other than they are to any other point.
Hence we will measure the distance EF and also the distance FE).
2. The distance measurements on map are usually in centimetres; they need to be converted
to kilometres (or metres) using the map scale, to find the ground equivalent of each
measurement. For instance, the distance from point A to its nearest neighbour E is 2cm.
Given the map scale of 1:50,000, the distance in kilometres between A and E will be (2 x
50,000)/100000, which gives us 1km.
3. Find the area of the place within which the points are located. Again you have to measure
the dimensions of the place on map and convert to square kilometers using the map scale. If
the place is rectangular in shape (as in the present example), the formula for finding the area
of a rectangle is used. On the other hand, if the place has an irregular shape, then any of the
33 methods for calculating the area of an irregular shape can be used. (Please see Unit 4
below for a discussion on each of the methods for calculating the area of an irregular areal
shape).
4. Having measured the distances between the points and also the area of the place, proceed
to calculate the Nearest Neighbour index by using the following formula:
R = rA/rE
Where
R = Near neighbour index (NB: this index ranges in value from 0 (aggregation) through 1
(random) to 2.15 (uniform)).
rA = observed mean distance.
rE = expected mean distance in a random distribution. rE = ½(p(-½)),
where
p = the observed density of points in the place under consideration (i.e. density is number of
points divided by area)

ANALYSIS OF LINEAR FEATURES

Characteristically, line (or linear) features are generally considered to one-dimensional in
nature; they are said to have length and no width or height (or depth). Line features have
many properties that can be analysed with aid of a map.
Measuring the length or distance of a linear feature As shown in Figure below, the shape of
a linear feature could be regular or irregular. The shape of the features determines how it is
measured.

27
 It is easier to measure a regular shape than an irregular shape. If a linear feature has a regular
shape, that is it is a straight line, a ruler can be used to directly measure its length on the map.
On the other hand, if a linear feature has an irregular shape, that is, it is curvy or zigzag in
nature, either the edge of a piece of paper or a white thread (the type used by tailors), is used
to measure the length of the feature, carefully following the curves. Mark the beginning and
the end of the feature on the material you are using to do the measurement. After tracing or
measuring the length of the feature on the map using the thread or paper, stretch out the
material used over a ruler and read off and record the total length (usually in centimetres, or
inches, as the case may be). Next, use the scale of the map to calculate the equivalent
distance on ground.
Thus, the logical steps involved in calculating the length or distance of a linear feature are: (i)
Measure the length of the feature on paper (map). This can be achieved in a couple of ways.
If the line is a straight line (as the crow flies) you can use a ruler to measure it, or
alternatively you can use a string to measure it and stretch the string on a ruler to read off the
length in centimetres. On the other hand, if the line is winding, bend the string to follow the
exact shape until you reach the second or end point. Then place the string against a ruler or
the scale bar on the map to measure the distance on your string. (ii) Now that you have a
distance in centimeters, using the map scale, calculate the ground equivalent of the distance
on paper using the following formula:
Lg = MD x MS
________
100,000

Where: Lg = Length of a linear feature on ground. (This is usually in kilometres, or miles).

MD = Map distance (length of the feature as measured on the map. This distance is usually
measured in centimetres, or inches)
MS = Map Scale (the denominator of the map scale) 100,000 = a constant used to convert
from centimetres to kilometres (NB: 100,000 cm is equal to 1km).
Example:
Problem: If a portion of a road measures 6.3cm on a map at a scale of 1:50000, what is the
length of the road portion on ground?
Solution:
MD = 6.3cm

28
MS = 50000
Therefore,
Lg = MD x MS
100, 000
= 6.3 x 50000
100000
= 3.15km (NB: Always indicate the correct unit of measurement of your answer).

Analysing road network connectivity

Roads connect different settlements in any given geographical area. For planning and
development purposes, it is possible and often necessary to determine the level of
connectivity in an area. The level connectivity in a place also indicates the degree of
accessibility or ease of movement from one location to another in that place. Poor road
connectivity in, say a city, means people will find it difficult moving around in that city. The
desirable ideal situation, therefore, is to have full or one hundred percent connectivity.
However, in reality full connectivity is hardly attained. By calculating the present level of
road connectivity, planners and decision makers are able to know the number of additional
road networks that might be needed to achieve full connectivity or at least significantly
improve on the situation on ground. A typical road network is made up of two important
elements namely nodes and links (Figure 3.1). Nodes represent settlements while links (also
known as arcs) represent road segments connecting the settlements.
To calculate the percentage connectivity of road network in a city such as the one shown in
Figure 3.1, the following steps are taken:
1. On a map showing the road network, count the number of nodes.
2. Count the number of links.
3. Apply the formula given below to determine the percentage connectivity.
4. If what you have is not full connectivity, then determine the number of additional links
(roads) that would be needed to achieve full connectivity in the area.

Drainage analysis
Drainage here refers to streams and rivers. The drainage resources existing in a place are
usually shown on topographic, physical geography, or hydrological maps. Drainage analysis
29
is important for a number of purposes including water resources management, irrigation and
other agricultural activities, hydropower supply, and so on. We normally deal with two kinds
of drainage analysis namely qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis. Qualitative
analysis basically has to do with description of the physical distribution and patterns of
streams/rivers in a given place. On the other hand, quantitative drainage analysis is
concerned with issues such as number of streams, bifurcation ration, length of stream, area of
stream (or river) basin, stream density, stream frequency, and stream intensity.
Types of drainage pattern
There are different types of drainage pattern which can be shown on a map. Some of the
major drainage patterns are identified and illustrated below. (a) Trellis drainage pattern: In a
trellis pattern (Figure 3.2) the distributaries of a stream run almost parallel to each other;
hence they join the main stream at almost right angle.
Dendritic drainage pattern: This drainage pattern is similar to the branches of trees; it is
characterised by irregular branching of the tributaries of a stream in different directions.
Centripetal drainage pattern: This pattern is characterized by many streams or rivers
converging or flowing into a lake from different directions
Radial drainage pattern: In a radial drainage pattern several streams or rivers flow from a
central highland (hill or mountain) to different directions away from each other.

STREAM ORDERING Having identified and delineated a particular drainage system for
analysis, the first thing to do is to carry out a systematic ordering or ranking of the various
stream segments making up that drainage system. There are several methods of ranking
stream segments. However, for the purpose of this course we will adopt a modified version
of the method devised by Strahler. In this method stream segments are ranked as 1st order,
2nd order, 3rd order, and so on. As shown in Figure 3.6, a first order stream is any stream
segment that does not have any other stream flowing into it. When two first order streams
meet they form a 2nd order stream. Similarly, when two 2nd order streams meet they form a
3rd order stream, and so on. It should also be noted that as indicated in Figure 3.6, when a
lower order stream joins a higher order stream the resulting stream segment will still be that
higher order stream. For instance, if a 1st order stream flows into a 2nd order stream, the
stream segment produced will still be ranked 2nd order. In the same vein, if a 2nd order
stream joins a 3rd order to produce a new stream segment, this new segment will be ranked
3rd order. It is only when two (or more) stream segments of the same order meet at a
common confluence to form another segment that a higher order stream is produced. Stream
ordering helps us to identify and know the number of segments in each order or category, and
hence, the total number of segments in the drainage system under consideration. It is,
therefore, customary to create a stream order table after ordering the streams in a drainage
30
basin. Table 2 has been generated based on the stream ordering in Figure 3.6; the Table
shows the number of segments in each stream order.
Stream Orders Number of
Stream Order segments
n => 1st order 10
n+1 => 2nd order 6
n+2 => 3rd order 3
Total 19
Bifurcation Ratio
Bifurcation ratio (Br) is used to compare the relationship between a stream order and the next
higher stream order. In other words, it is used to determine the proportion of a stream order
say the nth order (i.e. 1st order) in relation to the (n+1)th order (i.e. 2nd order). The formula
for calculating the Bifurcation ratio is
Br =Sn =
S(n+1)
= Number of stream segments in the nth order
Number of stream segments in the (n+1)th order

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Besides the tabular form, the data may also be presented in some graphic or diagrammatic
form. “The transformation of data through visual methods like graphs, diagrams, maps and
charts is called representation of data.”
The need of representing data graphically:
Graphics, such as maps, graphs and diagrams, are used to represent large volume of data.
They are necessary:
- If the information is presented in tabular form or in a descriptive record, it becomes
difficult to draw results.
- Graphical form makes it possible to easily draw visual impressions of data.
- The graphic method of the representation of data enhances our understanding. - It makes
the comparisons easy.
- Besides, such methods create an imprint on mind for a longer time.
31
 - It is a time consuming task to draw inferences about whatever is being presented in non–
graphical form.
- It presents characteristics in a simplified way.
- These makes it easy to understand the patterns of population growth, distribution and the
density, sex ratio, age–sex composition, occupational structure, etc.
General Rules for Drawing Graphs, Diagrams and Maps
1. Selection of a Suitable Graphical Method Each characteristic of the data can only be
suitably represented by an appropriate graphical method. For example,
To show the data related to the temperature or growth of population between different
periods in time line graph are used.
· Similarly, bar diagrams are used for showing rainfall or the production of commodities.
· The population distribution, both human and livestock, or the distribution of the crop
producing areas are shown by dot maps.
· The population density can be shown by choropleth maps.
Thus, it is necessary and important to select suitable graphical method to represent data.
2. Selection of Suitable Scale Each diagram or map is drawn to a scale which is used to
measure the data. The scale must cover the entire data that is to be represented. The scale
should neither be too large nor too small.
3. Design
The diagram or map should have following design: · Title: The title of the diagram/map must
be clear and include –
- The name of the area,
- Reference year of the data used and
- The caption of the diagram. These are written with different font sizes and thickness. The
title, subtitle and the corresponding year is shown in the centre at the top of the map/diagram.
· Legend or Index: The index must clearly explain the colours, shades, symbols and signs
used in the map and diagram. A legend is shown either at the lower left or lower right side of
the map sheet.
· Direction: The maps should show the direction North and properly placed on the top.
Types of Diagrams

32
The diagrams and the maps are of following types:
(i) One-dimensional diagrams such as line graph, poly graph, bar diagram, histogram, age,
sex, pyramid, etc.;
(ii) Two-dimensional diagram such as pie diagram and rectangular diagram;
(iii) Three-dimensional diagrams such as cube and spherical diagrams.
The most commonly drawn diagrams and maps are:
• Line graphs
• Bar diagrams
• Pie diagram
• Wind rose and star diagram
• Flow Charts
1. Line Graph The line graphs are usually drawn to represent the time series data related to
the temperature, rainfall, population growth, birth rates and the death rates.
Construction of a Line Graph
1st step: Round the data to be shown upto the 1 digit of even numbers.
2nd step: Draw X and Y-axis. Mark the time series variables (years/months) on the X axis
and the data quantity/value to be plotted on Y axis.
3rd step: Choose an appropriate scale to show data and label it on Y-axis. If the data involves
a negative figure then the selected scale should also show it.
4th step: Plot the data to depict year/month-wise values according to the selected scale on
Yaxis, mark the location of the plotted values by a dot and join these dots by a free hand
drawn line.
Example 1: Construct a line graph to represent the data
2. Polygraph
Polygraph is a line graph in which two or more than two variables are shown on a same
diagram by different lines. It helps in comparing the data. Examples which can be shown as
polygraph are:
- The growth rate of different crops like rice, wheat, pulses in one diagram. –
The birth rates, death rates and life expectancy in one diagram.

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- Sex ratio in different states or countries in one diagram.
Construction of a Polygraph All steps of construction of polygraph are similar to that of line
graph. But different lines are drawn to indicate different variables. Example 2: Construct a
polygraph to compare the variables.
3. Bar Graph
It is also called a columnar diagram. The bar diagrams are drawn through columns of equal
width. Following rules were observed while constructing a bar diagram:
(a) The width of all the bars or columns is similar.
(b) All the bars should are placed on equal intervals/distance.
(c) Bars are shaded with colours or patterns to make them distinct and attractive.
Three types of bar diagrams are used to represent different data sets:
· The simple bar graph
· Compound bar graph
· Polybar graph.
Simple Bar Graph
A simple bar graph is constructed for an immediate comparison. It is advisable to arrange the
given data set in an ascending or descending order and plot the data variables accordingly.
However, time series data are represented according to the sequencing of the time period.
Construction Steps:
Draw X and Y-axes on a graph paper. Take an interval and mark it on Y-axis to plot data.
Divide X-axis into equal parts to draw bars. The actual values will be plotted according to the
selected scale.
4. Line and Bar Graph
The line and bar graphs as drawn separately may also be combined to depict the data related
to some of the closely associated characteristics such as the climatic data of mean monthly
temperatures and rainfall.
Example 4: Construct a Line and bar Graph.
Construction:
(a) Draw X and Y-axes of a suitable length and divide X-axis into parts to show months in a
year.

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(b) Select a suitable scale with equal intervals on the Y-axis and label it at its right side.
(c) Similarly, select a suitable scale with equal intervals on the Y-axis and label at its left
side. (d) Plot data using line graph and columnar diagram.
5. Multiple Bar Diagram
Multiple bar diagrams are constructed to represent two or more than two variables for the
purpose of comparison. For example, a multiple bar diagram may be constructed to show
proportion of males and females in the total, rural and urban population or the share of canal,
tube well and well irrigation in the total irrigated area in different states.
Construction
(a) Mark time series data on X-axis and variable data on Y-axis as per the selected scale.
(b) Plot the data in closed columns.
Example 5: Construct a Multiple bar Diagram.
6. Compound Bar Diagram When different components are grouped in one set of variable or
different variables of one component are put together, their representation is made by a
compound bar diagram. In this method, different variables are shown in a single bar with
different rectangles.
Construction
(a) Arrange the data in ascending or descending order. (b) A single bar will depict the set of
variables by dividing the total length of the bar as per percentage.
Example 6: Construct a Compound Bar Diagram.
7. Pie Graph
Pie Graph is another graphical method of the representation of data. It is drawn to depict the
total value of the given attribute using a circle. Dividing the circle into corresponding degrees
of angle then represent the sub– sets of the data. Hence, it is also called as Divided Circle
Diagram. The angle of each variable is calculated using the following formulae.
Value of given state/ region X 360
Total value of all states/regions

If data is given in percentage form, the angles are calculated using the given formulae.
Percentage of x X 360
100
Calculation of Angles

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(a) Arrange the data on percentages in an ascending order.
(b) Calculate the degrees of angles for showing the given values
(b) It could be done by multiplying percentage with a constant of 3.6 as derived by dividing
the total number of degrees in a circle by 100, i. e. 360/100.
(c) Plot the data by dividing the circle into the required number of divisions to show the
share different regions/countries
Construction
(a) Select a suitable radius for the circle to be drawn. A radius of 3, 4 or 5 cm may be chosen
for the given data set.
(b) Draw a line from the centre of the circle to the arc as a radius.
(c) Measure the angles from the arc of the circle for each category of vehicles in an
ascending order clock-wise, starting with smaller angle.
(d) Complete the diagram by adding the title, sub – title, and the legend. The legend mark be
chosen for each variable/category and highlighted by distinct shades/colours.
Precautions
(a) The circle should neither be too big to fit in the space nor too small to be illegible.
(b) Starting with bigger angle will lead to accumulation of error leading to the plot of the
smaller angle difficult.
8. Flow Maps/Chart
Flow-line maps are used to depict the quantity of goods or services moving between centres.
They are ideal for representing such flows as the volume of vehicle traffic between centres,
the volume of airline traffic between cities, the amount of trade between commercial centres,
or the number of telephone calls between particular locations. The links in question are
depicted by quantitative linear symbols, lines with the width scaled to the volume carried.
Flow chart is a combination of graph and map. It is drawn to show the flow of commodities
or people between the places of origin and destination. It is also called as Dynamic Map.
Transport map, which shows number of passengers, vehicles, etc., is the best example of a
flow chart. These charts are drawn using lines of proportional width. Many government
agencies prepare flow maps to show density of the means of transportation on different
routes.
Flow lines may follow actual transportation routes such as roads or railroads or they may
simply indicate the destination/origin of flows by straight or curved lines. Some may specify
the direction of floby arrow heads while in others direction of the flow is unimportant. In still
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others, flows in each direction may be shown by splitting the flow line into two sub-flow-
lines. The flow maps/ charts are generally drawn to represent two the types of data as given
below:
1. The number and frequency of the vehicles as per the direction of their movement 2. The
number of the passengers and/or the quantity of goods transported.
Requirements for the Preparation of a Flow Map:
(a) A route map depicting the desired transport routes along with the connecting stations.
(b) The data pertaining No. of trains of selected routes of to the flow of goods, Delhi and
adjoining areas services, number of vehicles, etc., along with the point of origin and
destination of the movements.
(c) The selection of a scale through which the data related to the quantity of passengers and
goods or the number of vehicles is to be represented.
A flow-line map depicting the internal cargo tonnage entering Port Kembla, Australia, 1959-
60 (from Briton, J.N.H.,1962, The transport functions of the Port of Port Kembla. Economic
Geography, 38 (4)351)
Construction
(a) Take an outline map of Delhi and adjoining areas in which railway line and the nodal
stations are depicted.
(b) Select a scale to represent the number of trains. Here, the maximum number is 50 and the
minimum is 6. If we select a scale of 1cm = 50 trains, the maximum and minimum numbers
will be represented by a strip of 10 mm and 1.2 mm thick lines respectively on the map.
(c) Plot the thickness of each strip of route between the given rail route.
(d) Draw a terraced scale as legend and choose distinct sign or symbol to show the nodal
points (stations) within the strip.
Thematic Maps
Varieties of maps are drawn to understand the patterns of the regional distributions or the
characteristics of variations over space these maps are known as the distribution maps or
thematic maps.
Requirements for Making a Thematic Map
(a) State/District level data about the selected theme.
(b) Outline map of the study area along with administrative boundaries.

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(c) Physical map of the region. For example, physiographic map for population distribution
and relief and drainage map for constructing transportation map.
Rules for Making Thematic Maps
(i) The drawing of the thematic maps must be carefully planned. The final map should
properly reflect the following components:
a. Name of the area
b. Title of the subject-matter
c. Source of the data and year
d. Indication of symbols, signs, colours, shades, etc.
e. Scale
(ii) The selection of a suitable method to be used for thematic mapping.
Classification of Thematic Maps based on Method of Construction
The thematic maps are generally, classified into quantitative and non-quantitative maps. The
quantitative maps are drawn to show the variations within the data. For example, maps
depicting areas receiving more than 200 cm, 100 to 200 cm, 50 to 100 cm and less than 50
cm of rainfall are referred as quantitative maps. These maps are also called as statistical
maps. The non-quantitative maps, on the other hand, depict the non–measurable
characteristics in the distribution of given information such as a map showing high and low
rainfall-receiving areas. These maps are also called as qualitative maps. The construction of
quantitative maps: There are three types of quantitative maps - (a) Dot maps (b) Choropleth
maps (c) Isopleth maps
9. Dot Maps
A dot distribution map (also known as dot density map) is as a map type that uses a dot
symbol to show the presence of a feature or phenomenon. Dot maps show a spatial pattern.
•One-to-one
•In a one-to-one dot map, each dot represents one single recording of a phenomenon.
Because the location of the dot corresponds to only one piece of data, care must be taken to
ensure that the dot is represented in its correct spatial location.
•One-to-many
•In a one-to-many, or dot-density map, each dot on the map represents more than one of the
phenomena being mapped. •In one-to-many dot distribution maps, the reader must be careful
not to interpret the dots as actual locations, as the dots represent aggregate data and are often

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arbitrarily placed on a map. The dot maps are drawn to show the distribution of phenomena
such as population, cattle, types of crops, etc. The dots of same size as per the chosen scale
are marked over the given administrative units to highlight the patterns of distributions as
seen in the figure below.
Using dots to locate features is the most straightforward type of quantitative point
symbolization and it gives rise to a dot-distribution map, or simply, a dot map. Dot maps can
be employed to map the locations of discrete occurrences (for example, locations of debris
flows or motor vehicle accidents or people) and the variation in the density of dots indicates
the geographic pattern of the phenomenon. It should be noted, however, that most
dotdistribution maps do not employ a one-to-one ratio for location and dot. Some
generalization is often necessary to avoid cluttering the map and therefore obscuring the
spatial distribution. Thus it is common for one dot to represent a number of occurrences in a
given area. For example, a dot-distribution map showing the population of Canada would
require over 20 000 000 dots at a one-to-one person/dot ratio! A more practical solution
might involve each dot representing 500 or 1 000 people. Such grouping of data is a common
practice necessitated by the size of the data set relative to the scale of the base map. The
appropriate degree of generalization is that which best shows the spatial pattern. Obviously,
it is not helpful to have large areas on such a map in which the dot pattern is so dense that
dot-merging and blackout occurs. It is usually helpful to test map small areas in the most and
least densely patterned areas in order to select the best dot/data ratio. Dot distribution maps
of an area, such as a country, usually are based on data from a set of smaller statistical units,
such as Provinces or counties or census tracts. Within the county boundaries, for example,
dots may be distributed uniformly or they may be distributed in such a way as to reflect other
geographic factors. Applying a uniform distribution of dots within the counties has the
advantage of simplicity but it also has the disadvantage of creating unlikely discontinuities in
dot density patterns at the common boundaries of counties with distinctly different dot
densities
Requirement
(a) An administrative map of the given area showing state/district/block boundaries.
(b) Statistical data on selected theme for the chosen administrative units, i.e., total
population, cattle etc.
(c) Selection of a scale to determine the value of a dot.
(d) Physiographic map of the region especially relief and drainage maps.
Precaution
(a) The lines demarcating the boundaries of various administrative units should not be very
thick and bold.
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(b) All dots should be of same size.
***dot maps
Advantages of dot maps
•Spatial -show density and distribution
•Accurate-can use a scale e.g. one dot represents 10 students
•Easy to plot Disadvantages of dot maps
•Clustering may make it impossible to plot and interpret e.g. in urban areas
•Need one size of dot consistently.

Construction
(a) Select the size and value of a dot.
(b) Determine the number of dots in each state using the given scale. For example, number of
dots in Maharashtra will be 9,67,52,247/100,000 = 967.52. It may be rounded to 968, as the
fraction is more than 0.5.
(c) Place the dots in each state as per the determined number in all states.
(d) Consult the physiographic/relief map of India to identify mountainous, desert, and/or
snow covered areas and mark lesser number of dots in such areas.
10. Choropleth Map
Maps in which areas are shaded or patterned in proportion to the measurement of the variable
being displayed on the map, such as population density or per-capita income. Choropleth
maps provide an easy way to visualize how a measurement varies across a geographic area or
it shows the level of variability within a region.
The choropleth maps are also drawn to depict the data characteristics as they are related to
the administrative units. These maps are used to represent the density of population,
literacy/growth rates, sex-ratio, etc.
Requirement for drawing Choropleth Map
(a) A map of the area depicting different administrative units.
(b) Appropriate statistical data according to administrative units.

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***A Choropleth map showing % of Muslims in UK areas
Steps to be followed
(a) Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.
(b) Group the data into 5 categories to represent very high, high, medium, low and very low
concentrations.
(c) The interval between the categories may be identified on the following formulae i.e.
Range/5 and Range = maximum value – minimum value.
(d) Patterns, shades or colour to be used to depict the chosen categories should be marked in
an increasing or decreasing order.
Construction
(a) Arrange the data in ascending order as shown above.
(b) Identify the range within the data. In the present case, the states recording the lowest and
highest literacy rates are Bihar (47%) and the Kerala (90.9%) respectively. Hence, the range
would be 91.0 – 47.0 = 44.0
(c) Divide the range by 5 to get categories from very low to very high. (44.0/ 5 = 8.80). We
can convert this value to a round number 9.0.
(d) Determine the number of the categories along with range of each category. Add 9.0 to
the lowest value of 47.0 as so on. We will finally get following categories:
47 – 56 Very low (Bihar, Jharkhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir) 56 – 65 Low
(Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, Orissa, Assam, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh)
65 – 74 Medium (Nagaland, Karnataka, Haryana, West Bengal, Sikkim, Gujarat, Punjab,
Manipur, Uttaranchal, Tripura, Tamil Nadu) 74 – 83 High (Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Delhi, Goa) 83 – 92 Very High (Mizoram, Kerala)
(e) Assign shades/pattern to each category ranging from lower to higher hues.
(f) Prepare the map as shown in Fig.
(g) Complete the map with respect to the attributes of map design.
Advantages of Choropleth maps
- Easy to construct
- Visually effective you can see clear visual patterns.

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 Disadvantages
Abrupt Changes -Sharp delineations between zones within a choropleth map can lead to the
mistaken impression that the measured variable changes abruptly at the zone line.
Hidden Anomalies -Zones within a choroplethmap can hide anomalous data. Inexact Figures
-Pure choroplethmaps show a representation of data, but cannot show the data itself. The
portions of the map in a given colour represent a range, not a number.
11. Isopleth Map
Variations in the degrees of slope, temperature, occurrence of rainfall, may be represented by
drawing the lines of equal values on a map. All such maps are termed as Isopleth Map. The
word Isopleth is derived from Iso meaning equal and pleth means lines. Thus, an imaginary
line, which joins the places of equal values, is referred as Isopleth. The more frequently
drawn isopleths include Isotherm (equal temperature), Isobar (equal pressure), Isohyets
(equal rainfall), Isonephs (equal cloudiness), Isohels (equal sunshine), contours (equal
heights), Isobaths (equal depths), Isohaline (equal salinity), etc.
Requirement
(a) Base line map depicting point location of different places.
(b) Appropriate data of temperature, pressure, rainfall, etc. over a definite period of time.
(c) Drawing instrument specially French Curve, etc. Rules to be observed (a) An equal
interval of values be selected. (b) Interval of 5, 10, or 20 is supposed to be ideal. (c) The
value of Isopleth should be written along the line on either side or in the middle by breaking
the line.
Interpolation
Interpolation is used to find the intermediate values between the observed values of at two
stations/locations. Generally, drawing of isopleths joining the places of same value is also termed
as interpolation.
Method of Interpolation: For interpolation, follow the following steps:
(a) Firstly, determine the minimum and maximum values given on the map.
(b) Calculate the range of value i.e. Range = maximum value – minimum value.
(c) Based on range, determine the interval in a whole number like 5, 10, 15, etc.
The exact point of drawing an Isopleth is determined by using the following formulae.
Point of Isopleth = Distance between two points in cm
Difference between the two values of corresponding point

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Interval
The interval is the difference between the actual value on the map and interpolated value. For
example, in an Isotherm map of two places show 28º C and 33º C and you want to draw 30º C
isotherm, measure the distance between the two points. Suppose the distance is 1cm or 10 mm
and the difference between 28 and 33 is 5, thus, exact point of 30 will be plotted 4mm away from
28ºC or 6mm ahead of 33ºC.
Example 11: Construct an Isopleth Map

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