Current Psychology (2022) 41:8070–8077

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01262-6

How does social anxiety affect Mobile phone dependence

in adolescents? The mediating role of self-concept clarity
and self-esteem
Fanchang Kong 1 & Ningning Lan 1 & Haibo Zhang 1 & Xiaojun Sun 1 & Yan Zhang 2

Accepted: 3 December 2020 / Published online: 7 January 2021

# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
The present study was conducted to investigate the relationship of social anxiety, self-concept clarity, self-esteem and adoles-
cents’ mobile phone dependence, and aimed to clarify the role of self-concept clarity and self-esteem in social anxiety and
adolescents’ mobile phone dependence. It was hypothesized that social anxiety would affect the adolescents’ mobile phone
dependence through the mediating role of self-concept clarity and self-esteem. A total of 1210 adolescents, in which 567 (47.2%)
boys and 634 (52.8%) girls, completed the Self-rating Questionnaire for Adolescent Problematic Mobile Phone Use, Social
Anxiety Scale for Adolescents, Self-concept Clarity Scale, and Self-esteem Scale. Results revealed that social anxiety signifi-
cantly predicted adolescents’ mobile phone dependence not only directly, but also through the mediation of self-concept clarity,
the mediation of self-esteem, and serial mediation of self-concept clarity and self-esteem. Findings of the present study can clarify
how social anxiety affects adolescents’ mobile phone dependence and enrich theories about mobile phone dependence, which
also can help to establish the intervention or protection of adolescents’ mobile phone dependence.

Keywords Social anxiety . Mobile phone dependence . Self-concept clarity . Self-esteem . Adolescent

Introduction
According to the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU), mobile phone users accounted for 96.6% of the world
population (ITU, 2019). In China, by June 2020, 99.2% of
932 million Internet users have used mobile phones for net-
working activities (China Internet Network Information
Center, 2020). Thus, it clearly demonstrates that the link be-
tween personal life and mobile phone use is becoming increas-
ingly stronger worldwide. Meanwhile, while enjoying the
great convenience brought by mobile phones, the problems
they cause should not be overlooked. Moreover, compared
with adults, adolescents can adapt to new technology faster
* Fanchang Kong
kfcpsy@mail.ccnu.edu.cn
* Yan Zhang
Zhangyan1981@hust.edu.cn
1 mobile phone dependence is important—theoretically and
Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior
(Ministry of Education), School of Psychology, Central China
Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
2
School of Education, Huazhong University of Science and
Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
and tend to rely more on mobile phones (Vacaru, Shepherd, &
Sheridan, 2014). Mobile phone dependence, also known as
mobile phone addiction, refers to an individual’s excessive
use of mobile phones that results in physical, psychological,
and social impairments because of obsession (Yen et al.,
2009). Frequent and prolonged use of mobile phones leads
to visual impairment and vegetative neurological disorders
in adolescents, such as headaches, palpitations, tightening of
the chest, and symptoms of dyspnea (Yellowlees & Marks,
2007). Misra, Cheng, Genevie, and Yuan (2014) reported that
mobile devices can divert individuals from face-to-face ex-
changes and undermine the characteristic and depth of these
connections. The effect of the potential and the connections
will significantly affect the quality of interpersonal emotional
communication, learning, and work efficiency (Park, 2005).
Social anxiety is an important factor affecting mobile phone
dependence (Enez Darcin et al., 2016; Kim & Koh, 2018;
Kong, Qin, Huang, Zhang, & Lei, 2020). Therefore, clarifying
the internal mechanisms of social anxiety and adolescents’
practically—in the prevention and intervention of mobile
phone addiction.
Social anxiety was defined as anxiety resulting from the
prospect or presence of personal evaluation in real or
Curr Psychol (2022) 41:8070–8077
imagined social situations (Schlenker & Leary, 1982).
Socially anxious individuals will likely become addicted to
mobile phones or become mobile phone dependent (Gao
et al., 2018; Kim & Koh, 2018; Kong et al., 2020). The social
phobia model indicates that an individual’s attention resources
in the case of social phobia are allocated to the salient aspects
of self-image (features that are relevant to the situation and
potentially negative) and monitoring of potential external
threats (frowning and signs of boredom) (Rapee &
Heimberg, 1997). Anxious individuals can choose to present
a positive self-image online and avoid negative evaluation
from others. Therefore, individuals with social anxiety will
likely use mobile phones to surf the Internet. According to
the social compensation hypothesis, socially anxious individ-
uals tend to use the Internet for interpersonal communication
to compensate for their disadvantages in interpersonal com-
munication in real life and meet their emotional needs, such as
the sense of belonging and respect (Desjarlais & Willoughby,
2010). Such individuals will likely use social networks rather
than face-to-face interpersonal communication. Therefore,
this study hypothesizes that social anxiety will positively pre-
dict adolescents’ mobile phone dependence (H1).
Self-concept clarity indicates the extent to which an indi-
vidual defines one’s self-concept clearly and consistently,
which represents a clear and stable self-cognition belonging
to a kind of internal psychological structure (Campbell et al.,
1996). A significant negative correlation exists between anx-
iety and self-concept clarity (Wu, Wei, Zhang, Qiu, & Zhao,
2017). Moreover, individuals with social anxiety are biased
toward the negative information related to themselves (Wilson
& Rapee, 2006). These inaccurate perceptions lead an indi-
vidual to doubt their self-knowledge and further threaten their
self-concept clarity (Campbell & Sedikides, 1999).
Furthermore, individuals with low self-concept clarity tend
to feel inferior, be introverted, not fully understand their abil-
ities, and look for alternative satisfaction through social net-
works (Jin, Wu, Guo, & Zhang, 2015). Therefore, as a threat-
ening factor, social anxiety may reduce self-concept clarity
and subsequently trigger mobile phone dependence. This
study hypothesized that self-concept clarity will mediate the
associations between social anxiety and adolescents’ mobile
phone dependence (H2).
As an important psychological merit, self-esteem is a cen-
tral component of the self that refers to how people feel about
themselves; this feeling affects how an individual confronts
the surrounding environment (Kernis, 2003). People with high
social anxiety have lower levels of explicit self-esteem than
those with low social anxiety (Xiao & Huang, 2011). The
association between social anxiety and self-esteem was also
confirmed in patients with social anxiety disorder.
Specifically, the levels of explicit and implicit self-esteem in
social anxiety disorder groups were lower than those not in the
group (Ritter, Ertel, Beil, Steffens, & Stangier, 2013). In
8071
addition, adolescents with low self-esteem are likely to vent
their emotions and release pressure online to obtain instant
psychological satisfaction (Mei, Chai, & Guo, 2015), which
lead subsequently to frequent use of mobile phone (Hong,
Chiu, & Huang, 2012). Specifically, highly implicit self-
esteem predicted dangerous mobile phone use (Lannoy
et al., 2020). Therefore, this study hypothesizes that social
anxiety affects adolescents’ mobile phone dependence
through self-esteem (H3).
Self-concept clarity is an important predictor of self-esteem
(Błażek & Besta, 2012; Li, Zha, Liang, Yang, & Zheng, 2017).
Self-concept clarity belongs to the structural level of self-
concept that refers to the organization of self-related compo-
nents (Campbell et al., 1996), such as “I often have conflicting
views on myself,” whereas self-esteem belongs to the content
level, such as “How do I feel about myself?” (Wong, Vallacher,
& Nowak, 2016). In addition, according to group dynamics
theory (Vallacher, Van Geert, & Nowak, 2015; Wong et al.,
2016), the structure of a system will affect its content. Thus,
self-concept clarity affects self-esteem. Individuals with low
self-concept clarity often experience heightened negative emo-
tions (Campbell et al., 1996). According to Broaden-and-Build
Theory of Positive Emotions, negative emotions will reduce
the instantaneous thinking and sequential activities of an indi-
vidual and hinder the construction of individual resources
(Fredrickson, 2001), whereas self-esteem is an important psy-
chological resource of an individual. Thus, individuals with
vague self-concept experience heightened negative emotions
that increasingly affect their self-esteem level. Social anxiety
can place double pressure on the inner and outer psychological
behaviors of an individual (Liu, Pan, Li, Meng, & Zhang,
2017), and such pressure destroys self-system leading to the
reduction of self-concept clarity and self-esteem (Ritchie,
Sedikides, Wildschut, Arndt, & Gidron, 2011). Consequently,
the shortcomings in real circumstances are compensated
through the network. Therefore, this present research hypothe-
sizes that social anxiety will affect the adolescents’ mobile
phone dependence through the mediating role of self-concept
clarity and self-esteem (H4).
Ultimately, the present study constructed a serial media-
tions model to investigate how social anxiety affects adoles-
cents’ mobile phone dependence and the role of self-concept
clarity and self-esteem. Figure 1 shows the conceptual model
of the relationships between social anxiety, self-control, self-
esteem, and adolescent mobile phone dependence.
Method
Participants and Procedures
Materials and procedures used in our study were approved by
the Ethical Committee for Scientific Research at the authors’
8072
+ to 5 (very consistent). The total score indicated the level of
Self-concept clarity Self-esteem
H4
H2 _ Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .78.
_ _ _
H3
+ Mobile phone
Social anxiety
H1 dependence
Fig. 1 Conceptual model
institution. Before the survey, we emphasized that each stu-
dent had the right to withdraw from the survey at any stage.
All students and their teachers and parents provided oral in-
formed consent. We randomly recruited two classes from each
of the three grades from two middle schools in China. We
asked the teachers to distribute 1210 questionnaires in class
within one week. The participants completed the Self-rating
Questionnaire for Adolescent Problematic Mobile Phone Use,
Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents, Self-concept Clarity
Scale, and Self-esteem Scale. After eliminating the blank, in-
complete, and wrongly answered questionnaires, we finally
obtained 1201 valid questionnaires with an effective response
ratio of 99.25%. A total of 473 (39.4%) junior and 728
(60.6%) senior high school students with 567 (47.2%) boys
and 634 (52.8%) girls participated in the final sample. The
mean age was 15.42 years (SD = 1.92) with an age range of
14–17 years. The skewness index was −.19.
Measures
Self-Rating Questionnaire for Adolescent Problematic Mobile
Phone Use
The scale was developed by Tao, Fu, Wang, Hao, and Tao
(2013), which included 13 items and four dimensions regard-
ing withdrawal symptoms, physical and mental influence, and
craving symptoms. For example, “I always feel lost without
my phone.” Each item was rated by the 5-point Likert scale,
from 1 (very inconsistent) to 5 (very consistent). The total
score indicated the degree of mobile phone dependence. The
scale has good reliability and validity, the Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient was .87, and the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of
each dimension was between .58 and .83 (Tao et al., 2013). In
this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .88.
Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents
The scale was compiled by La Greca and Lopez (1998), and
its applicability in Chinese adolescents was verified by Tong,
Qiao, Lian, and Zhang (2017). It comprises five items, such as
“I feel nervous in front of specific people”, and each item was
evaluated by a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (very inconsistent)
Curr Psychol (2022) 41:8070–8077
social anxiety of adolescents. The revised scale has good reli-
ability and validity (Tong et al., 2017). In this study, the
Self-Concept Clarity Scale
The scale was developed by Campbell et al. (1996) and re-
vised by Niu et al. (2016). The scale has 12 items (such as “I
often have conflicting views on myself”), using a 7-point
scale, from 1 (very inconsistent) to 7 (very consistent). The
total score indicates the degree of self-concept clarity of ado-
lescents. It is used widely and has good reliability and validity
(Niu et al., 2016). In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coeffi-
cient was .86.
Self-Esteem Scale
The scale was established by Rosenberg (1965), which includ-
ed 10 questions (such as “I feel that I have many good qual-
ities”), using a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (very inconsistent)
to 4 (very consistent). Among them, the item “I hope I can
earn more respect for myself” was a serious social desire
among Chinese populations. Thus, some studies suggested
that deleting this item will improve the scale’s reliability and
validity (i.e., Tian, 2006). Thus, the self-esteem scale in the
current study comprises nine items. The total score of the scale
indicated the degree of self-esteem. The revised scale has ex-
cellent reliability and validity (Tian, 2006). The Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient in this study was .89.
Statistical Analyses
On the basis of prior studies (Kong et al., 2020), we included
age and gender as the control variables in the statistical anal-
ysis for more rigorous results. In this research, we first adopted
SPSS 23.0 for descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation
analyses. We then used the PROCESS macro for SPSS to test
the multiple mediating roles of self-clarify and self-esteem.
The PROCESS macro is specifically developed for path
analysis-based moderation and mediation analysis and their
combination (Hayes, 2013). The 95% bias-corrected confi-
dence intervals of the direct and indirect effects are estimated
from 5000 resamples of the data. The effects are significant
when the confidence intervals do not include zero (Erceg-
Hurn & Mirosevich, 2008).
Common Method Bias
On the basis of Zhou and Long (2004), this study used
Harman single factor method to test for common method bias.
Exploratory factor analysis showed that there exist seven fac-
tors, wherein the interpretation rate of the first factor was
Curr Psychol (2022) 41:8070–8077 8073

27.17%, which was less than 40% of the reference value. This
result indicated that no serious common method bias existed
in this study.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
The results showed that social anxiety was significantly neg-
atively correlated with self-concept clarity and self-esteem but
positively correlated with mobile phone dependence.
Meanwhile, self-concept clarity was significantly positively
correlated with self-esteem but negatively correlated with mo-
bile phone dependence and self-esteem was significantly neg-
atively correlated with mobile phone dependence (Table 1).
Testing for the Serial Mediation Model
According to the PROCESS macro compiled by Hayes
(2013), model 6 was selected for serial mediation model anal-
ysis (Table 2) and the model was shown in Fig. 2. The results
showed that after controlling gender and age, social anxiety
can significantly positively predict the adolescents’ mobile
phone dependence (β = .26, t = 8.96, p < .001), also negatively
predict self-concept clarity (β = −.45, t = −17.64, p < .001)
and self-esteem (β = −.19, t = −7.15, p < .001). At the same
time, self-concept clarity can significantly positively predict
self-esteem (β = .48, t = 18.33, p < .001), and negatively pre-
dict adolescents’ mobile phone dependence (β = −.25, t =
−7.67, p < .001). Self-esteem had a negative predictive effect
on adolescents’ mobile phone dependence (β = −.07, t =
−2.30, p < .05).
The mediating effect analysis results showed that self-
concept clarity and self-esteem played a mediating role
between social anxiety and adolescents’ mobile phone de-
pendence. The total indirect effect value was .14, account-
ing for 35.22% of the total effect of social anxiety on ad-
olescents’ mobile phone dependence (.40). The effect of
social anxiety on adolescents’ mobile phone dependence
was mainly through these three indirect (Ind) paths. For
example, Ind1: social anxiety → self-conceptual clarity
→ mobile phone dependence (.11), which explained
27.91% of the total effect. Ind2: social anxiety → self-
conceptual clarity → self-esteem → mobile phone depen-
dence (.02), which explained 3.92% of the total effect.
Ind3: social anxiety → self-esteem → mobile phone depen-
dence (.01), which explained 3.38% of the total effect. The
Bootstrap 95% confidence interval for the three paths did
not include zero, indicating that the three effects were sig-
nificant (Table 3).
Discussion
Social Anxiety Affects Adolescent Mobile Phone
Dependence
The present study showed that social anxiety positively pre-
dicted adolescents’ mobile phone dependence and supported
H1. Davis (2001) pointed out that individuals with existing
psychopathological factors, such as social anxiety, could
lead to the pathological use of the Internet. During face-to-
face communication, people with social anxiety often have
behavioral manifestations, such as tension, sweating, short-
ness of breath, and palpitation (Panzer, Viljoen, & Roos,
2007). However, social networking could transfer informa-
tion or emotions to other people through text and images,
which could protect socially anxious adolescents from
face-to-face interactions (He, Chen, He, & Zhou, 2014).
Given that online communication creates a relatively safe
environment, anxious individuals can send refined pictures
and well-written texts to other people and alleviate their anx-
iety (He et al., 2014). Our findings are also consistent with
Kong et al. (2020), which support that social anxiety is a vital
risk factor for adolescents’ mobile phone dependence. Thus,
the current study verified the effectiveness of the social pho-
bia model and social compensation hypothesis on mobile
phone use by adolescents and expanded the scope of appli-
cation of theories to Chinese adolescents.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of variables

Variables M SD Range Skewness 1 2 3 4 5

1.Gender 1.53 .50 – −.11 –

2.Age 3.01 .76 3 −.19 −.08** –
3.Social anxiety 13.85 4.42 20 .09 .09** −.01 –
4.Self-concept clarity 37.91 8.74 47 −.15 −.06* .07* −.46** –
5.Self-esteem 26.79 4.79 27 −.31 −.08** .06* −.41** .57** –
6.Mobile phone dependence 25.76 8.38 52 .52 .08** −.06* .41** −.41** −.33**
*
p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001. N = 1201, similar to the following tables
8074 Curr Psychol (2022) 41:8070–8077

Table 2 Mediation analysis

Outcome variables Independent variables β SE t p

Self-concept clarity age .08 .03 2.235 .03

Gender −.03 .05 −.56 .58
Social anxiety −.45*** .03 −17.64 < .001
Self-esteem age .03 .03 1.05 .29
Gender −.08 .05 −1.62 .10
Self-concept clarity .48*** .03 18.33 < .001
Social anxiety −.19*** .03 −7.15 < .001
Mobile phone dependence age −.04 .03 −1.25 .21
Gender .07 .05 1.39 .16
Self-concept clarity −.25*** .03 −7.67 < .001
Self-esteem −.07* .03 −2.30 .02
Social anxiety .26*** .03 8.96 < .001

Role of Self-Concept Clarity and Self-Esteem in Social
Anxiety and Mobile Phone Dependence in
Adolescents
Social anxiety positively predicted the mobile phone depen-
dence among Chinese adolescents in three specific paths.
First, social anxiety significantly predicted adolescents’ mo-
bile phone dependence through the mediating effect of self-
concept clarity, which supported H2. This finding indicated
that social anxiety could possibly reduce adolescents’ levels of
self-concept clarity, eliciting their excessive dependence on
mobile phones. Socially anxious individuals tend to have am-
biguous self-concepts (Van Dijk et al., 2013), and vague self-
concept is a risk factor that influences adolescents to become
Internet addicts (Jin et al., 2015). Moreover, when individuals
entered adolescence from childhood, it is an important mile-
stone to cultivate a clear self-concept (Steinberg, 2005). The
development of self-conceptions was influenced by three fac-
tors, namely, their past experiences, other people’s evalua-
tions, and society’s evaluation. However, socially anxious ad-
olescents often avoid interpersonal communication to protect
themselves from the evaluation of others and society (He
et al., 2014), which would not be conducive in forming clear
self-concept. In addition, the richness and diversity of infor-
mation existing in the mobile social networking offers
.48***
Self-concept clarity Self-esteem
−.45*** −.19*** −.25***
.26*** Mobile phone
Social anxiety
dependence
Fig. 2 Multiple mediation model
increased automatic selectivity and satisfied experiences for
adolescents (Vacaru et al., 2014). Thus, social anxiety
weakens adolescents’ self-conception clarify during face-to-
face communication, and they turn to online communication
on the basis of mobile phones to compensate the deprivation
of self-related feedback, finally leading to excessive mobile
phone use.
Second, social anxiety significantly predicted adolescents’
mobile phone dependence through the mediating role of self-
esteem, which suggested that social anxiety could reduce the
self-esteem of adolescents and further lead to mobile phone
dependence. This finding, which supported H3, was also con-
sistent with those of previous studies wherein patients with
social anxiety had significantly lower explicit self-esteem rel-
ative to healthy controls (Ritter et al., 2013). Another study
also showed adolescents with low levels of self-esteem could
gain additional social capital from social networking sites,
such as Facebook (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007).
Socially anxious individuals are passive and negative in their
interpersonal communications and the accumulation of nega-
tive experiences in self-worth subsequently weakens their
self-esteem. Accordingly, the online social environment could
meet the emotional needs of adolescents with low levels of
self-esteem and increase the risk of mobile phone dependence.
Therefore, improving one’s self-esteem could be a useful
method to prevent mobile phone dependence among adoles-
cents with social anxiety.
Finally, social anxiety significantly predicted adolescents’
mobile phone dependence through the serial mediation of self-
concept clarity and self-esteem, which supported H4. The
−.07* present study indicated that adolescents with social anxiety
possibly had low levels of self-concept clarity, which subse-
quently decreased their levels of self-esteem and finally in-
creased their mobile phone usage. Błażek and Besta (2012)
stated that people with high levels of self-concept clarity had
high levels of self-esteem. Our findings indicated that self-
Curr Psychol (2022) 41:8070–8077
Table 3 Analysis of the
mediating effects of self-concept Effect
clarity and self-esteem
Direct effect .26
Total indirect effect .14
Indirect effect 1 .11
Indirect effect 2 .02
Indirect effect 3 .01
Bootstrap sample size = 5000. LL = low limit. CI = confidence interval. UL = upper limit
concept clarity and self-esteem are preventive factors for mo-
bile phone dependence among Chinese adolescents. Hence,
this study also extended group dynamics theory (Vallacher
et al., 2015; Wong et al., 2016) into the context of mobile
phone dependence.
The present study constructed a serial mediation model to
explain the relationship between social anxiety and mobile
phone dependence among Chinese adolescents, which clar-
ifies how social anxiety affects adolescents’ mobile phone
dependence and enrich theories about mobile phone depen-
dence. In practice, our findings indicated that the intervention
or protection of mobile phone dependence can be established
through four different aspects: First, to reduce the risk of mo-
bile phone dependence, releasing adolescents’ social anxiety
through relaxation training is important (Aritzeta et al., 2017).
Second, evaluating the level of self-esteem can significantly
decrease mobile phone dependence among adolescents.
Third, promoting the level of self-conception clarity can also
be an effective way to reduce mobile phone dependence. For
example, individuals with low self-concept clarity tend to feel
inferior, be introverted, not fully understand their abilities, and
look for alternative satisfaction through social networks (Jin
et al., 2015). Maxwell (1989) showed that mediation training
can provide practice in communication and problem-solving
skills that are applicable to many other areas of their lives.
Finally, improving adolescents’ self-esteem and self-
conception clarify together is ideal to help adolescents with
social anxiety complete self-identity and develop healthy be-
haviors on mobile phone. For example, initiating positive self-
image can improve the self-esteem of individuals with social
anxiety (Hulme, Hirsch, & Stopa, 2012).
Limitations
The present study has several limitations. First, our study used
two middle schools as the sample to investigate the relationship
between social anxiety and mobile phone dependence among
Chinese adolescents. It should draw our attention when apply-
ing the findings into other populations. Future studies should
increase sample size and scope to test the effects of social
anxiety on adolescents’ mobile phone dependence. Second,
our study examined the effects of social anxiety on mobile
8075
Boot SE BootLLCI BootULCI Relative mediating effect
.03 .20 .31 64.80%
.02 .11 .18 35.22%
.02 .08 .15 27.91%
.01 .001 .03 3.92%
.01 .001 .03 3.38%
phone dependence from the perspective of individual factors.
However, mobile phone dependence is often affected by the
interaction between individuals and the environment, such as
parenting style and peer relationships. Thus, future studies
should include major environmental factors to investigate these
factors that affect adolescents’ mobile phone dependence sys-
tematically. Third, in addition to the dual mediating model,
social anxiety might have other complex effects on adoles-
cents’ mobile phone dependence, such as moderated or multi-
ple mediation models. Future studies can further test these
models on the basis of different theories.
Authors’ Contributions KF conceptualized and executed the study, ana-
lyzed the data, and led the writing of the manuscript. LN and ZH analyzed
the data and wrote the paper. SX and ZY reviewed the manuscript con-
tent. All authors contributed to the development of this manuscript,
reviewed drafts, and approved the final version.
Funding This work was supported by The Ministry of Education of
Humanities and Social Science project (17YJC190008), the Research
Program Funds of the Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment
toward Basic Education Quality at Beijing Normal University
(KJ02252018–0104), fund for building world-class universities
(disciplines) of Renmin University of China (RUCPSY0001) and
Fundamental Research Funds of Central China Normal University
(CCNU19QN042). The funders had no role in study design, data collec-
tion and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Data Availability The datasets used or analyzed during the current study
are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Ethical Approval The procedures for human participants involved in
this study are consistent with the ethical standards of the authors’
institution.
Consent to Participants Informed consent was obtained from all partic-
ipants included in the study.
Consent for Publication All authors agreed to public this manuscript.
Code Availability The code used for analyzing data are available from
the corresponding author on reasonable request.
8076
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