3 El Tensor de Deformación

CONTINUUM
MECHANICS
FOR ENGINEERS
14/02/2021 Dr. Luis Mosquera L. 1

Strain Tensors
The deformation gradient tensor
In deformation analysis we confine our attention to two stationary configurations and
disregard any consideration for the particular sequence by which the final deformed
configuration is reached from the initial undeformed configuration.

Accordingly, the mapping function is not dependent upon time as a variable, so that
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑋𝑖 (𝑋)
Consider 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑑𝑋𝐴 𝐼𝐴
2
𝑑𝑋 = 𝑑𝑋. 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑑𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐴
Under the displacement field, the particles originally at P and Q move to the
positions p and q, respectively, in the deformed configuration. Now
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝑒𝑖
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑥𝑖

We assume the mapping function Xi is continuous so that
𝜕𝑋𝑖
𝑑𝑥𝑖 = 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖,𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐴
𝜕𝑋𝐴 𝐴
where
𝑥𝑖,𝐴 ≡ 𝐹𝑖𝐴
Is called the deformation gradient tensor. If F depend od X the deformation is

termed inhomogeneous, otherwise, if F is independent of X, the deformation is
called homogeneous.
In symbolic notation
𝑑𝑥
𝐹=
𝑑𝑋

F is invertible so that the inverse F-1 exist such that
𝑑𝑋 = 𝐹 −1 𝑑𝑥
Let us consider
2 2
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑥𝑖 − 𝑑𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐴
Which and the substitution property of the Kronecker delta,
2 2
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖,𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐴 𝑥𝑖,𝐵 𝑑𝑋𝐵 − 𝛿𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐵
= 𝑥𝑖,𝐴 𝑥𝑖,𝐵 − 𝛿𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐵
= 𝐶𝐴𝐵 − 𝛿𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐵

Where the symmetric tensor
𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥𝑖,𝐴 𝑥𝑖,𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
Is called the Green’s deformation tensor. From this define the Lagrangian finite
strain tensor EAB as
2𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐴𝐵 − 𝛿𝐴𝐵 𝑜𝑟 2𝐸 = 𝐶 − 𝐼
2𝐸 = 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 − 𝐼
Finally we can write,
2 2
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 = 2𝐸𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐵 = 𝑑𝑋. 2𝐸. 𝑑𝑋

In a similar way, in terms of the spatial variables
2 2
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑥𝑗 − 𝑋𝐴,𝑖 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝑋𝐴,𝑗 𝑑𝑥𝑗
= 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑋𝐴,𝑖 𝑋𝐴,𝑗 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑥𝑗
= 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑥𝑗
Where the symmetric tensor
𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝑋𝐴,𝑖 𝑋𝐴,𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = (𝐹 −1 )𝑇 . 𝐹 −1
Is called the Cauchy deformation tensor
Also is defined the Eulerian finite strain tensor e as
2𝑒𝑖𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖𝑗 𝑜𝑟 2𝑒 = (𝐼 − 𝑐)
2𝑒 = 𝐼 − 𝐹 −1 𝑇 𝐹 −1
2 2
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 = 2𝑒𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑥𝑗 = 𝑑𝑥. 2𝑒. 𝑑𝑥

For any two arbitrary differential vectors dX(1) and dX(2) which deform into dx(1) and
dx(2), respectively, we have
𝑑𝑥 (1) . 𝑑𝑥 (2) = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋 (1) . 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋 (2)

= 𝑑𝑋 (1) . 𝐹 𝑇 . 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋 (2)
= 𝑑𝑋 1 . 𝐼 + 2𝐸 . 𝑑𝑋 (2)
If E is identically zero, the lengths of all line elements are unchanged so that (dx)2 = (dX)2
and in view of the definition dx(1) . dx(2) = dx(1) dx(2) cosθ, the angle between any two
elements will also be unchanged. Thus in the absence of strain, only a rigid body
displacement can occur.

The Lagrangian and Eulerian finite strain tensors may also be developed in terms of
displacement gradients.
The material description:
𝑑𝑢
𝐽=
𝑑𝑋
𝑢𝑖 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑋𝐴 − 𝑋𝑖
2𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢𝐴,𝐵 + 𝑢𝐵,𝐴 + 𝑢𝑖,𝐴 𝑢𝑖,𝐵
2𝐸 = 𝐽 + 𝐽𝑇 + 𝐽𝑇 𝐽
And the spatial description is
𝑢𝐴 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑋𝐴 (𝑥𝑖 )
2𝑒𝑖𝑗 = 𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑗 ,𝑖 − 𝑢𝐴,𝑖 𝑢𝐴,𝑗
2𝑒 = 𝑗 + 𝑗 𝑇 − 𝑗 𝑇 𝑗

Example: Let the simple shear deformation
𝑥1 = 𝑋1 ; 𝑥2 = 𝑋2 + 𝑘𝑋3 ; 𝑥3 = 𝑋3 + 𝑘𝑋2
Where k is a constant, be applied to the small cube of edge dimensions dL. Draw the
deformed shape of face ABGH of the cube and determine the difference (dx)2 – (dX)2
for the diagonals AG,BH and OG of the cube.

Solution
From the mapping equations directly, the origin O is seen to remain in place, and
the particles originally at points A,B,G and H are displaced to the points a(dL,O,O),
b(dL,dL,kdL), g(dL, (1+k)dL,(1+k)dL) and h(dL,kdL,dL), respectively, and the square
face ABGH becomes the diamond shaped parallelogram abgh.

1 0 0
𝑥𝑖,𝐴 ≡ 𝐹𝑖𝐴 𝐹𝑖𝐴 = 0 1 𝑘
0 𝑘 1
1 0 0
𝑇
𝐶=𝐹 𝐹 𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 0 1 + 𝑘2 2𝑘
0 2𝑘 1 + 𝑘2
0 0 0
2𝐸 = 𝐶 − 𝐼 2𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 0 𝑘2 2𝑘
0 2𝑘 𝑘2

2 2
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑑𝑋. 2𝐸. 𝑑𝑋 so that for diagonal AG,
0 0 0 0
𝑑𝑥 2 − 𝑑𝑋 2 = 0 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿 0 𝑘 2 2𝑘 𝑑𝐿
0 2𝑘 𝑘 2 𝑑𝐿
2 2
= 2(2𝑘 + 𝑘 )(𝑑𝐿)
for diagonal BH,

0 0 0 0
2 2
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 = 0 −𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿 0 𝑘 2 2𝑘 −𝑑𝐿
0 2𝑘 𝑘2 𝑑𝐿
2 2
= 2(−2𝑘 + 𝑘 )(𝑑𝐿)
and for diagonal OG,

0 0 0 𝑑𝐿
2 2
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿 0 𝑘 2 2𝑘 𝑑𝐿
0 2𝑘 𝑘 2 𝑑𝐿
= 2(2𝑘 + 𝑘 2 )(𝑑𝐿)2

Infinitesimal deformation theory
If the numerical values of all the components of the displacement and the displacement
gradient tensors are very small we may neglect the squares and products of these
quantities in comparison to the gradients themselves so that
2𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢𝐴,𝐵 + 𝑢𝐵,𝐴

and
2𝑒𝑖𝑗 = 𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑗 ,𝑖
Furthermore, to the same order of approximation,
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑘 𝜕𝑢𝑖

= = + 𝛿𝑘𝐴 ≈ 𝛿𝑘𝐴
𝜕𝑋𝐴 𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑋𝐴 𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑋𝐴 𝜕𝑥𝑘
Therefore, to the first order of approximation for the case of small displacement
gradients, it is unimportant whether we differentiate the displacement
components with respect to the material or spatial coordinates.
Similarly, it can be shown that in the linear theory uA,B and uA,j are equivalent
𝐸𝐴𝐵 ≈ 𝑒𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝐴 𝛿𝑗𝐵
And it is customary to define a single infinitesimal strain tensor εij as
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗

2𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝛿 + 𝛿 = + = 𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑗 ,𝑖
𝜕𝑋𝐴 𝐴𝑗 𝜕𝑋𝐵 𝐵𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
The matrix, relative to principal axes, for εij is
𝜀1 0 0 𝜀𝐼 0 0
𝜀𝑖𝑗∗ = 0 𝜀2 0 = 0 𝜀𝐼𝐼 0
0 0 𝜀3 0 0 𝜀𝐼𝐼𝐼

Together with the strain invariants
𝐼𝜀 = 𝜀𝑖𝑖 = 𝑡𝑟 𝜀 = 𝜀𝐼 + 𝜀𝐼𝐼 +𝜀𝐼𝐼𝐼

1
𝐼𝐼𝜀 = 𝜀𝑖𝑖 𝜀𝑗𝑗 − 𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝐼 𝜀𝐼𝐼 + 𝜀𝐼𝐼 𝜀𝐼𝐼𝐼 + 𝜀𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝜀𝐼
2
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝜀 = 𝜖𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜀1𝑖 𝜀2𝑗 𝜀3𝑘 = 𝜀𝐼 𝜀𝐼𝐼 𝜀𝐼𝐼𝐼

The components of ε, physical interpretations
Within the context of small deformation,
2 2
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 = 2𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝑋𝑖 𝑑𝑋𝑗 = 𝑑𝑋. 2𝜀. 𝑑𝑋
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑋𝑖 𝑑𝑋𝑗
. = 2𝜀𝑖𝑗
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑋
But 𝑑𝑋𝑖 a unit vector in the direction of dX, so that

= 𝑁𝑖
𝑑𝑋
𝑑𝑥
Stretching 𝜆=
𝑑𝑋
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑋
= 𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝑁𝑖 𝑁𝑗 = 𝑁. 𝜀. 𝑁
𝑑𝑋
Longitudinal strain 𝑒𝑁 =
𝑑𝑋

If N is taken in the X1 direction so that 𝑁 = 𝐼 1 , then
𝑒 𝐼1 = 𝐼1 . 𝜀. 𝐼1 = 𝜀11
Diagonal elements of the infinitesimal strain tensor represent normal strains in the
coordinate directions.
If consider the differential vectors dX(1) and dX(2) at position P which are deformed
into vectors dx(1) and dx(2), may be written,
𝑑𝑥 (1) . 𝑑𝑥 (2) = 𝑑𝑋 (1) . 𝑑𝑋 (2) + 𝑑𝑋 1

. 2𝜀. 𝑑𝑋 (2)
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑑𝑋 1 . 2𝜀 + 𝐼 . 𝑑𝑋 2
𝑁1 . 2𝜀 + 𝐼 . 𝑁2 𝑁1 . 2𝜀 + 𝐼 . 𝑁2
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
𝜆1 𝜆2 1 + 2𝑁1 . 𝜀. 𝑁1 1 + 2𝑁2 . 𝜀. 𝑁2
Where θ is the angle between the deformed vectors

If dX(1) and dX(2) are perpendicular to
one another,
𝑑𝑥 (1) . 𝑑𝑥 (2) = 𝑑𝑥 (1) 𝑑𝑥 (2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑑𝑋 1

. 2𝜀. 𝑑𝑋 (2)
𝜋
If: 𝜃 = −𝛾
2 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝛾 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 ≈ 𝛾
2
Since ϒ is very small for infinitesimal deformations. Therefore,

Here, if we take 𝑁(1) = 𝐼 1 and 𝑁 (2)= 𝐼 2 and designate the angle ϒ as ϒ12, we obtain
𝜀11 𝜀12 𝜀13 0

𝛾12 = 2 1 0 0 𝜀21 𝜀22 𝜀23 1 = 2𝜀12
𝜀31 𝜀32 𝜀33 0
So that 𝛾𝑖𝑗 = 2𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝑖≠𝑗
The engineering shear strain components ϒij represent the changes in the original right
angles between the coordinate axes in the undeformed configuration.

In engineering texts, the infinitesimal strain tensor is frequently written in matrix
form as
1 1
𝜀11 𝛾 𝛾
2 12 2 13
1 1
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝛾 𝜀22 𝜀 𝛾23
2 12 2
1 1
𝛾 𝛾 𝜀33
2 13 2 23
If 𝑁(1) and 𝑁 (2) are chosen in principal strain directions, then
𝛾 = 𝑁1 . 2𝜀 ∗ . 𝑁2 = 0
From which we may generalize to conclude that principal strain directions

remain orthogonal under infinitesimal deformation.

A small rectangular parallelpied of undeformed edge dimensions dX(1) , dX(2) and
dX(3) taken in the principal strain directions will be deformed into another
rectangular parallelpiped having edge lengths
𝑑𝑥 (𝑖) = (1 + 𝜀 𝑖 )𝑑𝑋 (𝑖)
Where ε(i) are the normal strains in principal directions.

The change in volume per unit original volume of the parallelpiped is
∆𝑉 1 + 𝜀(1) 𝑑𝑋 (1) 1 + 𝜀(2) 𝑑𝑋 (2) 1 + 𝜀(3) 𝑑𝑋 (3) − 𝑑𝑋 (1) 𝑑𝑋 (2) 𝑑𝑋 (3)

=
𝑉 𝑑𝑋 (1) 𝑑𝑋 (2) 𝑑𝑋 (3)
≈ 𝜀(1) + 𝜀(2) + 𝜀(3)
The ratio ΔV/V being the first invariant of ε, is called the cubical dilation
Likewise,
𝑑𝑉0 = 𝑑𝑋1 × 𝑑𝑋2 . 𝑑𝑋3
𝑑𝑉𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥1 × 𝑑𝑥2 . 𝑑𝑥3
from where, 𝑑𝑉𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑉0

Area variation
𝑑𝑉𝑜 = 𝑑𝐴. 𝑑𝑋3

𝑑𝑉𝑡 = 𝑑𝑎. 𝑑𝑥3 = 𝑑𝑎. 𝐹𝑑𝑋3
𝑑𝑉𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑑𝐴. 𝑑𝑋3 = 𝑑𝑎. 𝐹𝑑𝑋3
𝐹 𝑑𝐴𝐹 −1 = 𝑑𝑎 𝐹𝐹 −1
𝑑𝑎 = 𝐹 𝑑𝐴𝐹 −1

Example
A delta rosette has the shape of an equilateral triangle, and records longitudinal
strains in the directions x1, x´1 and x´´1 shown in the sketch. If the measured strains
in these directions are ε11 = -3x10-4, ε´11 = 4x10-4 and ε´´11 = 2x10-4 , determine ε22 ,
ϒ12 and ε´22 . Show that ε11 + ε22 = ε´11 + ε´22 as the first strain invariant requires.

Solution
𝜀11 𝜀12 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠60°
′
𝜀11 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠60° 𝑠𝑒𝑛60° 0 𝜀21 𝜀22 0 𝑠𝑒𝑛60°
0 0 0 0
4 × 10−4 = −3 × 10−4 𝑐𝑜𝑠60° 2 + 𝜀12 𝑠𝑒𝑛120° + 𝜀22 𝑠𝑒𝑛60° 2
𝜀11 𝜀12 0 −𝑠𝑒𝑛30°

′′
𝜀11 = −𝑠𝑒𝑛30° 𝑐𝑜𝑠30° 0 𝜀21 𝜀22 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
0 0 0 0
2 × 10−4 = −3 × 10−4 𝑠𝑒𝑛30° 2 − 𝜀12 𝑠𝑒𝑛60° + 𝜀22 𝑐𝑜𝑠30° 2
⇒ 𝜀22 = 5 × 10−4
2
𝜀12 = × 10−4
3

𝜀11 𝜀12 0 −𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
′
𝜀22 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠30° 𝑠𝑒𝑛30° 0 𝜀21 𝜀22 0 𝑠𝑒𝑛30°
0 0 0 0
′
2
𝜀22 = −3 × 10−4 𝑐𝑜𝑠30° 2 − × 10−4 𝑠𝑒𝑛60° + 5 × 10−4 𝑠𝑒𝑛30° 2
3
′
𝜀22 = −2 × 10−4
′ ′
⇒ 𝜀11 + 𝜀22 = 𝜀11 + 𝜀22 = 2 × 10−4

P15.- The motion of a continuous medium is specified by the component equations
1 1
𝑡
𝑥1 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 𝑒 + 𝑋1 − 𝑋2 𝑒 −𝑡
2 2
1 1
𝑡
𝑥2 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 𝑒 − 𝑋1 − 𝑋2 𝑒 −𝑡
2 2
𝑥3 = 𝑋3
a) Show that the Jacobian determinant J does not vanish, and solve for the inverse
equations X=X(x,t).
b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration components in terms of the material
coordinates.
c) Using the inverse equations developed in part (a), express the velocity and
acceleration components in terms of spatial coordinates.

P16.- A velocity field is given in Lagrangian form by
𝑣1 = 2𝑡 + 𝑋1
𝑣2 = 𝑋2 𝑒 𝑡
𝑣3 = 𝑋3 − 𝑡
Integrate these equations to obtain x = x(X,t) with x = X at t = 0, and using that result
compute the velocity and acceleration components in the Eulerian (spatial) form.

P17.- For the deformation field given by
𝑥1 = 𝑋1 + 𝛼𝑋2
𝑥2 = 𝑋1 − 𝛼𝑋2
𝑥3 = 𝑋3
Where α is a constant, determine the matrix form of the tensors E and e, and show
that the circle of particles 𝑋12 + 𝑋22 = 1 deforms into the circle 𝑥12 + 𝑥22 = 1 + 𝛼 2
Sol
𝜕𝑥𝑖 1 𝛼 0 1/2 1/2 0

𝐹𝑖𝑗 = → 𝐹= 1 −𝛼 0 𝐹 −1 = 1/2𝛼 −1/2𝛼 0
𝑋𝑗
0 0 1 0 0 1

1 𝑇 1 1 2
0 0
𝐸 = 𝐹 𝐹−𝐼 = 0 2𝛼 − 1 0
2 2
0 0 0
3 1
− 1/4𝛼 2 − + 1/4𝛼 2 0
1 1 4 4
𝑒 = 𝐼 − 𝐹 −1 𝑇
𝐹 −1 = 1 3
2 2 − + 1/4𝛼 2 − 1/4𝛼 2 0
4 4
0 0 0

Stretch Ratios
Define the ratio of dx and dX to be the stretch ratio, Λ. For the differential element in the
direction of the unit vector N at P, we write
𝑑𝑥
𝛬 𝑁 =
𝑑𝑋
2
Thus, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋. 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑑𝑋. 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋
𝑑𝑿 𝑇 𝑑𝑿
𝛬2𝑁 = . 𝐹 𝐹. = 𝑁. 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹. 𝑁
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑋
In an analogous way
1 𝑑𝑋
=
𝜆𝑛 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝒙 −1 𝑇 −1 𝑑𝒙 𝑇
= .𝐹 𝐹 . = 𝑛. 𝐹 −1 𝐹 −1 . 𝑛
𝜆2𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

For 𝑁 = 𝐼1
𝛬2𝐼1 = 1 + 2𝐸11
And for 𝑛 = 𝑒1
1
= 1 − 2𝑒11
𝜆2𝑒1
The unit extension in any direction N at P. This may be expressed as
𝑒 𝑁 = =𝛬 𝑁 −1= 𝑁. 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹. 𝑁 − 1
𝑑𝑋

If
𝑁 = 𝐼1
𝑒 𝐼1 = 𝐼1 . 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹. 𝐼1 − 1 = 1 + 2𝐸11 − 1
For small deformation,

𝐸11 → 𝜀11 = 𝑒 𝐼1
The change in angle between two line elements is given as
𝑁1 . 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹. 𝑁2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝛬 𝑁1 𝛬 𝑁2

In a similar fashion,
𝑇
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛩 = 𝜆 𝑛1 𝜆 𝑛2 𝑛1 . 𝐹 −1 𝐹 −1 . 𝑛2
Example: A homogeneous deformation is given by the mapping equations,
𝑥1 = 𝑋1 − 𝑋2 + 𝑋3
𝑥2 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 − 𝑋3
𝑥3 = 𝑋3 − 𝑋1 + 𝑋2
Determine
a) The stretch ratio in the direction of 𝑁1 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 / 2
b) The angle θ12 in the deformed configuration between elements that were
originally in the directions of N1 and N2 = I2

Solution
1 −1 1
a) 𝐹 = 1 1 −1
−1 1 1
1
1 1 3 −1 −1 2
𝛬2𝑁1 = 0 −1 3 −1 1 =2
2 2 −1 −1 3 2
0
b) 𝛬2𝑁2 = 3
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 / 2. 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹. 𝐼2 2/ 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃12 = =
2 3 6
And θ12 = 54.7° . Thus, the original 45° angle is enlarged by 9.7°

The ratio of the deformed volume to the original becomes,
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3
= =Λ 𝑁1 Λ 𝑁2 Λ 𝑁3
𝑑𝑉 0 𝑑𝑋 1 𝑑𝑋 2 𝑑𝑋 3
For the deformation of the example,
𝑁1 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 / 3 𝛬 𝑁1 = 1
𝑁2 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 / 2 𝛬 𝑁2 = 2
𝑁3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2𝐼3 / 6 𝛬 𝑁3 = 2
Using these results, 𝑑𝑉

0
=4
𝑑𝑉

Consider once more two particles P and Q in the undeformed configuration, and
are now at positions p and q, in the deformed configuration. In general, an
arbitrary displacement will include both deformation (strain) and rigid boy
displacements. To separate these we consider the vector du,
𝜕𝑢𝑖
𝑑𝑢𝑖 = 𝑑𝑋𝑗
𝜕𝑋𝑗
𝑃
𝑑𝑢𝑖 𝑑𝑢𝑖 𝑑𝑋𝑗 𝑑𝑢𝑖

= = 𝑁
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑋𝑗 𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑋𝑗 𝑗
Where Nj is the unit vector in the direction from P toward Q. By decomposing the
displacement gradient into its symmetric and skew-symmetric parts,
1 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗 1 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗

𝑑𝑢𝑖 = + + − 𝑑𝑋𝑗
2 𝜕𝑋𝑗 𝜕𝑋𝑖 2 𝜕𝑋𝑗 𝜕𝑋𝑖
= 𝜀𝑖𝑗 + 𝑤𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝑋𝑗

If εij happens to be identically zero, there is no strain, and the displacement is a
rigid body displacement. For this case is define the rotation vector
1
𝑤𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑤𝑘𝑗
2
𝑤𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝑘𝑗𝑖 𝑤𝑘
Therefore, with εij = 0
𝑑𝑢𝑖 = 𝜀𝑘𝑗𝑙 𝑤𝑘 𝑑𝑋𝑗 = 𝜀𝑖𝑘𝑗 𝑤𝑘 𝑑𝑋𝑗
or
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑤 × 𝑑𝑋
So that the relative differential displacement is seen to be the result of a rigid

body rotation about the axis of the rotation vector w. On the other hand, si wij =0,
the relative displacement will be the result of pure strain.

Fundamental Laws and Equations
Compatibility Equations
If we consider the six independent strain-displacement relations,
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗
+ = 2𝜀𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
for determining the ui, then the system is over-determined, and we cannot in general
find three single-valued functions ui = ui (xj) satisfying the six partial differential
equations. Therefore, some restrictive conditions must be imposed upon the strain
components if the equations above are to be satisfied by a single-valued displacement
field.
The strain compatibility equations
𝜀𝑖𝑗 ,𝑘𝑚 + 𝜀𝑘𝑚 ,𝑖𝑗 − 𝜀𝑖𝑘,𝑗𝑚 − 𝜀𝑗𝑚 ,𝑖𝑘 = 0

There are 81 equations in all but only six of these are distinct
𝜀11,23 + 𝜀23,11 − 𝜀12,13 − 𝜀13,12 = 0

𝜀22,31 + 𝜀31,22 − 𝜀23,21 − 𝜀21,23 = 0
𝜀33,12 + 𝜀12,33 − 𝜀31,32 − 𝜀32,31 = 0
2𝜀12,12 − 𝜀11,22 − 𝜀22,11 = 0
2𝜀23,23 − 𝜀22,33 − 𝜀33,22 = 0
2𝜀31,31 − 𝜀33,11 − 𝜀11,33 = 0

For plane strain in the x1-x2 plane, the six equations reduce to a single equation,
𝜀11,22 + 𝜀22,11 = 2𝜀12,12
For demonstrated the necessity and sufficiency of the compatibility equations,

given the strain εij with continuously differentiable displacements
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝜀 = 0
By the definition of linear strain and the continuity of the displacements, we see
𝜖𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜖𝑙𝑚𝑛 𝜀𝑗𝑚 ,𝑘𝑛 = 𝜖𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜖𝑙𝑚𝑛 𝑢𝑗 ,𝑚𝑘𝑛 + 𝑢𝑚 ,𝑗𝑘𝑛 = 0
Where the first displacement term, symmetric in mn, cancel with skew-simmetric
ϵlmn, and the second displacement term, simmetric in jk, cancels with skew-term ϵijk

To demonstrate sufficiency it must be shown that starting from curl curl ε = 0 that
the linear strain eij can be constructed.
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝜀
Compatibility gives
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴 = 0
Since ε is symmetric, 𝑡𝑟 𝐴 = 0
Also, there exists a skew-symmetric tensor w such that 𝐴 = −𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑤
Therefore, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝜀 + 𝑤 = 0

From which 𝜀 + 𝑤 = ∇𝑢
Taken the symmetric part of this equation gives us the strain
1
𝜀 = (∇𝑢 + ∇𝑢𝑇 )
2
1
or 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = (𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑗 ,𝑖 )
2

Velocity Gradient, Rate of Deformation, Vorticity
Let the velocity field of a continuum given by vi =vi (x,t). The spatial velocity gradient is
defined by
𝜕𝑣𝑖
𝐿𝑖𝑗 =
𝜕𝑥𝑗
𝐿𝑖𝑗 = 𝑑𝑖𝑗 + 𝑤𝑖𝑗
1 𝜕𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑣𝑗
𝑑𝑖𝑗 = +
2 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
Where, d is the rate of deformation tensor

and 1 𝜕𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑣𝑗
𝑤𝑖𝑗 = −
2 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
Is the vorticity, or spin tensor

Consider two neighboring points p and q. The particle at q has a velocity relative to
the particle at p of
𝜕𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑣𝑖 = 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑗
𝑑𝑣 = 𝐿. 𝑑𝑥
Note that
𝜕𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑋𝐴 𝑑 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑋𝐴
= =
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑋𝐴 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑋𝐴 𝜕𝑥𝑗
In symbolic notation
𝐿 = 𝐹 . 𝐹 −1
𝐹 = 𝐿. 𝐹

Consider next the stretch ratio 𝑑𝑥
𝛬=
𝑑𝑋
𝑛𝛬 = 𝐹. 𝑁
If we take the material derivative of this equation,
𝑛𝛬 + 𝑛𝛬 = 𝐹 . 𝑁 = 𝐿. 𝐹. 𝑁 = 𝐿. 𝑛𝛬
𝑛. 𝑛 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑛. 𝑛 = 0
𝑛. 𝑤. 𝑛 = 0
resulting in 𝛬
= 𝑛. 𝐿. 𝑛 = 𝑑𝑖𝑗 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑗
𝛬
Which represents the rate of stretching per unit stretch of the element that originated
in the direction of N, and is in the direction of n of the current configuration.

Recall that 2𝐸 = 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 − 𝐼
Therefore,
2𝐸 = 𝐹 𝑇 . 𝐿𝑇 + 𝐿 . 𝐹 = 𝐹 𝑇 . 2𝐷. 𝐹
(𝑝)
since 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖𝑗 𝑛𝑗 and because a unit vector can change only in direction, then
wij gives the rate of change in direction of the principal axes
of D. Hence the names, vorticity or spin given to W.
1
Additionally, 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣 , is called vorticity vector
2

Material Derivative of Line Elements, Areas, Volumes
𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋
𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑋 = 𝐿. 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋 = 𝐿. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖,𝑗 𝑑𝑥𝑗
𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥. 2𝐿. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥. 2𝐷. 𝑑𝑥

Consider the plane area defined in the reference configuration by the differential
line elements
(1) (2)
𝑑𝑋𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑋𝐴
The parallelogram area dS° may be represented by
(1) (2)
𝑑𝑆𝐴0 = ϵ𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑑𝑋𝐵 𝑑𝑋𝐶
As a result of the motion, this area is carried into the current area dSi
(1) (2)
𝑑𝑆𝑖 = ϵ𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑗 𝑑𝑥𝑘
𝑑𝑆𝑞 = 𝑋𝐴,𝑞 𝐹 𝑑𝑆𝐴0
𝑑𝑆. 𝐹 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑆 0
Also,
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑉 0

P18.- Let a displacement field be given by
1
𝑢1 = 𝑋3 − 𝑋2
4
1
𝑢2 = 𝑋1 − 𝑋3
4
1
𝑢3 = 𝑋2 − 𝑋1
4
Determine the volume ratio dV/dV°

P19.- Given the deformation expressed by
𝑥1 = 𝑋1 + 𝐴𝑋22
𝑥2 = 𝑋2
𝑥3 = 𝑋3 − 𝐴𝑋22
Where A is a constant (not necessarily small), determine the finite strain tensors E
and ε, and show that if the displacements are small so that x ≈ X, and if squares
of A may be neglected, both tensors reduce to the infinitesimal strain tensor.

P20.- Let the deformation
𝑥1 = 𝑎1 (𝑋1 + 2𝑋2 )
𝑥2 = 𝑎2 𝑋2
𝑥3 = 𝑎3 𝑋3
Where a1, a2 and a3 are constants be applied to the unit cube of material shown in
the sketch. Determine,
a) The deformed length l of diagonal OC
b) The angle between edges OA and OG after deformation,
c) The conditions which the constants must satisfy for the deformation to be
possible if
i) The material is incompressible,
ii) The angle between elements OC and OB is to remain unchanged

0 −1/2
F= 𝑅 =
2 0

3 El Tensor de Deformación

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CONTINUUM

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Is called the deformation gradient tensor. If F depend od X the deformation is

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Which and the substitution property of the Kronecker delta,

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𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥𝑖,𝐴 𝑥𝑖,𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹

2𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐴𝐵 − 𝛿𝐴𝐵 𝑜𝑟 2𝐸 = 𝐶 − 𝐼

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2𝑒𝑖𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖𝑗 𝑜𝑟 2𝑒 = (𝐼 − 𝑐)

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𝑑𝑥 (1) . 𝑑𝑥 (2) = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋 (1) . 𝐹. 𝑑𝑋 (2)

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2𝑒𝑖𝑗 = 𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑗 ,𝑖 − 𝑢𝐴,𝑖 𝑢𝐴,𝑗

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for diagonal BH,

and for diagonal OG,

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2𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢𝐴,𝐵 + 𝑢𝐵,𝐴

Furthermore, to the same order of approximation,

𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑘 𝜕𝑢𝑖

𝐸𝐴𝐵 ≈ 𝑒𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝐴 𝛿𝑗𝐵

And it is customary to define a single infinitesimal strain tensor εij as

𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗

The matrix, relative to principal axes, for εij is

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𝐼𝜀 = 𝜀𝑖𝑖 = 𝑡𝑟 𝜀 = 𝜀𝐼 + 𝜀𝐼𝐼 +𝜀𝐼𝐼𝐼

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But 𝑑𝑋𝑖 a unit vector in the direction of dX, so that

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𝑑𝑥 (1) . 𝑑𝑥 (2) = 𝑑𝑋 (1) . 𝑑𝑋 (2) + 𝑑𝑋 1

Where θ is the angle between the deformed vectors

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𝑑𝑥 (1) . 𝑑𝑥 (2) = 𝑑𝑥 (1) 𝑑𝑥 (2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑑𝑋 1

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𝜀11 𝜀12 𝜀13 0

So that 𝛾𝑖𝑗 = 2𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝑖≠𝑗

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If 𝑁(1) and 𝑁 (2) are chosen in principal strain directions, then

From which we may generalize to conclude that principal strain directions

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𝑑𝑥 (𝑖) = (1 + 𝜀 𝑖 )𝑑𝑋 (𝑖)

Where ε(i) are the normal strains in principal directions.

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∆𝑉 1 + 𝜀(1) 𝑑𝑋 (1) 1 + 𝜀(2) 𝑑𝑋 (2) 1 + 𝜀(3) 𝑑𝑋 (3) − 𝑑𝑋 (1) 𝑑𝑋 (2) 𝑑𝑋 (3)

𝑑𝑉𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥1 × 𝑑𝑥2 . 𝑑𝑥3

from where, 𝑑𝑉𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑉0

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𝑑𝑉𝑜 = 𝑑𝐴. 𝑑𝑋3

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4 × 10−4 = −3 × 10−4 𝑐𝑜𝑠60° 2 + 𝜀12 𝑠𝑒𝑛120° + 𝜀22 𝑠𝑒𝑛60° 2

𝜀11 𝜀12 0 −𝑠𝑒𝑛30°

2 × 10−4 = −3 × 10−4 𝑠𝑒𝑛30° 2 − 𝜀12 𝑠𝑒𝑛60° + 𝜀22 𝑐𝑜𝑠30° 2

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