LOS PAÍSES DEL ISTMO CENTROAMERICANO

AGENCIA CANADIENSE PARA EL DESARROLLO INTERNACIONAL

PROYECTO REGIONAL DE ENERGÍA ELÉCTRICA

ISTMO CENTROAMERICANO

HONDURAS

CAPACITACIÓN
MANTENIMIENTO DE SISTEMAS DE PROTECCIÓN
CURSO AVANZADO - MATERIAL DE REFERENCIA

Proyecto ACDI 910/18255

Archivo No. 012685/3514/47RT/002/00

febrero 2004
PREFACIO

La Agencia Canadiense para el Desarrollo Internacional (ACDI), está financiando el Proyecto

Regional de Energía Eléctrica para el Istmo Centroamericano (PREEICA), cuyo objetivo general
es brindar la asistencia técnica necesaria para reformar y mejorar el suministro de electricidad en
Centroamérica (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua y Panamá).

PREEICA adelanta, para la Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica (ENEE), un programa de

capacitación para mejorar la eficiencia de las operaciones de la División de Transmisión. Este
programa está divido en las siguientes cinco actividades:

3511 Seguridad industrial

3512 Mantenimiento de líneas
3513 Mantenimiento de subestaciones
3514 Sistemas de protección
8432 Sistemas de capacitación

Este informe cubre el material de referencia y presentaciones presentado por Manitoba Hydro,
para un curso de capacitación para ingenieros sobre el mantenimiento de sistemas de protección,
a ser realizado en febrero de 2004.

Material adicional presentado en marzo de 2003 para personal técnico de ENEE se encuentra en
el informe previo 012685/3514/47RT/001/00 con fecha de agosto de 2003

La misma información se encuentra en forme electrónico – en CD.

 CAPACITACIÓN EN MANTENIMIENTO DE SISTEMAS DE
PROTECCIÓN - MATERIAL DE REFERENCIA

ÍNDICE

PART A - POWER SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

1. Introduction
2. Per unit system
3. Symmetrical components
3.1 Fortescue’s Theorem
3.2 Symmetrical components relations

4. Fault calculations
4.1 Symmetrical faults
4.2 Unsymmetrical Faults
4.2.1 Single-line to ground fault
4.2.2 Line-to-line fault

5. Transmission lines and loading

5.1 Transmission lines and loading
5.2 System swings on the R-X Diagram

6. Power system stability

6.1 Introduction to transient stability
6.2 Simplified models
6.3 Predicting stability by the Equal Area Method

References

3
PART B - POWER SYSTEMS RELAYING

1. Introduction
1.1 The use of symmetrical components to explain ground distance relays
1.2 Effect of a parallel line

2. Protection philosophy
2.1 Comparison of various protection methods
2.2 Staged fault tests
2.3 Fault recorders

3. Distance relay building blocks

3.1 Distance relay characteristics
3.2 Plain impedance relay
3.3 Reactance relay
3.4 Off-set impedance or off-set Mho characteristic
3.5 Ohm characteristic
3.6 Directional characteristics
3.7 Directional impedance or Mho characteristic
3.8 Limitations of simple directional relays
3.9 Phase comparison comparators
3.10 General phase comparison relay
3.11 Polarized directional relays
3.12 Polarized Mho relay
3.13 Comparator classification
3.14 Square law comparators
3.15 Induction cup relay
3.16 Linear comparators
3.17 Static (non-linear) relays
3.18 Static transistor relays
3.19 Amplitude Vs phase comparison
3.20 Pulse phase comparators
3.21 Block instantaneous comparators
3.22 Block average comparator
3.23 Presentation of distance relay
3.24 Impedances seen by relays during power swings
3.25 Impedances seen by sound phase relays
3.26 Multi-input comparators

4. Unit distance protection

4.1(a) Power line conductors as a medium
4.1(b) Radio links

4.2 Classification of carrier protection systems

Case (i) -Tone-on

4
 Case (ii) -Tone-off
Case (iii) – Frequency shift

4.3. Typical arrangements

4.3.1 Stage shift with high speed autoreclosing
4.3.2 Transfer tripping scheme with zone switching during high speed
autoreclosing
4.3.3 Carrier accelerated distance protection
4.3.4 Distance protection with transfer tripping
4.3.5 Blocking schemes of carrier protection
4.3.6 Transfer blocking schemes combined with high speed
autoreclosing
4.4 Protection of feeder circuits with Tee-offs
4.5 Transformer feeders

5. Microprocessor based relays

5.1 How microprocessor based relays detect faults
5.1.1 The overcurrent level detection element
5.1.2 The Mho distance element

5.2 The hardware technology of modern numerical transmission

line protection

References

5
PART C - POWER SYSTEM MEASUREMENTS

1. Introduction

2. Current transformers
2.1 Transient effects
2.1.1 DC current offset
2.1.2 Residual flux
2.1.3 Measuring error
2.1.4 Current transformer output
2.1.5 Metering or instruments
2.1.6 Protection and disturbance recording

3. Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVT’s)

3.1 Subsidence transient
3.2 Ferroresonance

4. Electromagnetic voltage transformers

5. Optical CT’s and VT’s

References

6
PART A - POWER SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

1. Introduction
Our basic picture of the power system is the single line diagram (SLD). It communicates
the essential interconnection information with maximum simplicity. The per phase
equivalent circuit takes advantage of the symmetry inherent in balanced three phase
circuits; the per unit system simplifies numerical analysis and eliminates the partitioning
effect of transformers. All these representations are very useful in displaying and
formulating power systems problems and understanding them is necessary for the
engineer to effectively analyze the power system.

When working balanced 3-phase circuit problems, one realizes that it is only necessary to
compute results in one phase and subsequently predict results in the other two phases by
exploiting 3-phase symmetry. In many engineering situations, it is useful to scale, or
normalize, dimensioned quantities. This is commonly done in power system analysis and
the standard method used is known as the “per unit system”.

2. Per Unit System

Historically this was done to simplify numerical calculations that were done by hand.
Although this advantage was eliminated by the use of the computer, other advantages
remain, including:

Device parameters tend to fall in a relatively narrow range, making erroneous

values conspicuous.
The method is defined so as to eliminate ideal transformers as circuit components.
Since the typical power system contains hundreds, if not thousands, of
transformers this is not a trivial savings.
Related to the advantage just mentioned, the voltage throughout the power system
is normally close to unity.
The per unit system is not without its drawbacks, which include:

The system modifies component equivalent circuits, making them somewhat more
abstract. Sometimes phase shifts that are clearly present in the unscaled circuit
vanish in the per unit circuit.
Some equations that hold in the unscaled case are modified when scaled into per
unit. Factors such as square √3 and 3 are removed or added by the method.

It is necessary for power system engineers to become familiar with and facile in the use
of the system because of its wide industrial acceptance and use, and also to take
advantage of its analytical simplifications.

7
The basic per unit scaling equation is [1]:

Per unit value = Actual value (2.1)

Base value
The base value always has the same units as the actual value, forcing the per unit value to
be dimensionless. Also, the base value is always a real number, whereas the actual value
may be complex. Thinking of a complex value in polar form, the angle of the per unit
value is the same as the actual value.
Consider complex power:
S = VI* (2.2)
Or
Sπχ = Vπα πI-β (2.3)
Suppose we arbitrarily pick a value Sbase, a real number, with the units of voltamperes.
Dividing through by Sbase:
Sπχ = Vπα πI-β (2.4)
Sbase Sbase
We further define
Vbase Ibase = Sbase (2.5)

Either Vbase or Ibase may be selected arbitrarily, but not both. Substituting (2.5) into
(2.4) we get:
Sπχ = VπαπI-β (2.4a)
Sbase Vbase Ibase

Spuπχ = Vπα Iπ -β (2.4b)

Bbase Ibase
Spu = Vpuπα Ipuπ -β (2.4c)

= Vpu Ipu* (2.4d)

The ‘pu’ subscript implies per unit values. Note that the form of equation (2.4d) is
identical to (2.1). This was not inevitable but resulted from our decision to relate
Vbase Ibase and Sbase through (2.5). If we select Zbase by
Zbase = Vbase (2.6)
Ibase

2
= Vbase (2.7)
Sbase

We convert Ohm’s law

Z = V/I (2.8)

Into per unit by dividing by Zbase.

Z = V/I (2.9)

8
Zbase Zbase

Zpu = V/Vbase (2.10)

I/Ibase

= Vpu (2.11)
Ipu

An example will be helpful.

A 2400 volt 3Φ source supplies two parallel loads:
Load #1: 300 kVA pf = 0.8 lagging
Load #2: 240 kVA pf = 0.6 leading
The phase sequence is abc. If Van = 2400 π0°
√3
a) Calculate the pu values
b) Calculate the currents in both pu and A.
Solution
a) We understand that
Sbase = 300 kVA
Vbase = 2400 V
Then, the source voltage = 1.0 pu
S1 = 1π+36.9°
S2 = 0.8π -53,1°
And
I1pu = 1π+36.9°
I2pu = 0.8π-53.1°
Z1pu = 1π+36.9° = 0.8 + j 0.6
Z2pu = 0.8π-53.1° = 0.75 – j1.0

Figure 2.1 The circuit in per unit

b) Ipu = I1pu + I2pu

= 1π+36.9° + 0.8π-53.1°
= 0.8 + j0.6 + 0.48 -j0.64
= 1.28 - j0.04 = 1.28 π-1.8°

Ilbase = 300
2.4√3
= 72.2 A

9
Then
IL = (1.28)(72.2)
= 92.4 A

3. Symmetrical Components

It is generally conceded that about 90% of transmission line faults are single-phase-to-
ground. Of the other 10%, many are "bolted" three phase faults caused by maintenance
grounding switches left closed when the line is re-energized. This latter case is easily
analyzed on a single-phase basis since the situation is symmetrical and it is not necessary
to “symmetricize” the calculations using the symmetrical component transformation.

For the former case, i.e. one-line-to-ground faults, the symmetrical component method is
useful and is very briefly reviewed here [2], [3].

3.1 Fortescue’s Theorem

Three unbalanced phasors of a 3-phase system can be resolved into three balanced
systems of phasors .

The balanced sets of components are:

Positive-sequence components:

Three balanced phasors

- equal in magnitude
- displaced from each other by 120°
- same phase sequence as the original phasors (for example a-b-c)

Negative-sequence components:

Three balanced phasors

- equal in magnitude
- displaced from each other by 120°
- opposite phase sequence to the original phasors (for example a-c-b)

Zero-sequence components:

Three equal phasors

- equal in magnitude
- zero phase displacement from each other

10
Original voltages:
Va Vb Vc

Positive-sequence components:
Va1 Vb1 Vc1
or
Va+ Vb+ Vc+

Negative-sequence components:
Va2 Vb2 Vc2
or
Va-Vb- Vc-

Zero-sequence components:
Va0 Vb0 Vc0

ORIGINAL PHASORS ARE THE SUM OF THEIR COMPONENTS:

Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Vb = Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2
Vc = Vc0 + Vc1 + Vc2

11
Example 1

Figure 3.1

12
Figure 3.2

13
Figure 3.3

14
 Operators

Lets define a phasor:

a = 1 ∠ 120° = -0.5 + j 0.8666

Figure 3.4

The following relations are true:

a2 = (1 ∠ 120°)(1 ∠ 120°) = 1 ∠240°= 1 ∠ −120°

a3 = 1 ∠360°= 1 ∠0°

1 + a + a2 = 0

Figure 3.5

15
 Figure 3.6

The positive-sequence components can be written as:

Vb1 = (1 ∠ −120°) Va1 = a2 Va1

Vc1 = (1 ∠ 120°) Va1 = a Va1

For the negative-sequence, we have:

Vb2 = (1 ∠ 120°) Va2 = Va2

Vc2 = (1 ∠ −120°) Va2 = Va2

And for the zero-sequence:

Va0 = Vb0 = Vc0

The totals are:

Va= Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Vb=Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2 = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Vc=Vc0 + Vc1 + Vc2 = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

3.2 Symmetrical Components Relations

If the line currents at a point in a system are Ia, Ib, and Ic then the symmetrical component
currents are I1, I2 and I0 where, in matrix form:

16
 I a  1 1 1 Iao 
 I  = 1 α 2 α   I  (3-1)
 b   a 1 
 I c  1 α α  I 2 
2 
 a 

This defines the transformation matrix:

(3-2)

Its inverse is:

(3-3)
Therefore:

Iao  1 1 1 Ia 
  
 I a 1  = 1 / 31 α
2
α   I b  (3-4)
I 2 1 α α 2   I c 
 a 

For the voltages: (3-5)

17
and (3-6)

or:

Ia = 10 ∠ 0° A., Ib = 10 ∠ 180° A., Ic = 0 A.

18
 Unloaded Generator

Generator is grounded through a grounding reactor jXn

Internal voltages are balanced.

Find the symmetrical components for the internal voltages.

19
Only positive-sequence voltage exists!!!

Generator Equivalent

Positive Sequence Negative Sequence

The current in the neutral of the generator is:

In = Ia + Ib + Ic = ( Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1) + (Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 ) + Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0

The positive and negative sequence components add to zero:

Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 = 0

Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 = 0
This means that the neutral does not carry positive or negative sequence components.
However, the zero-sequence components are in phase, and their sum is:
In = Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0 = 3 Ia0

Therefore the zero sequence equivalent has a grounding impedance of value: Zg = 3 j Xn

20
4. Fault Calculations

We will study first the case of symmetrical faults, followed by cases of unsymmetrical
faults.

4.1 Symmetrical Faults.

The power system shown operates under steady-state conditions with Eg1=1 ∠0° p.u.
and Eg2=0.9 ∠30° p.u. when a solid three-phase fault occurs at node 2.

Obtain the transient short-circuit currents in lines, generators and transformers.

Evaluate the transient node voltages V1f, V2f and V3f during the fault (transient period).

All quantities will be calculated in per unit, and the results will be for phase “a”

Figure 4.1

21
Step1. Pre-Fault Solution

Figure 4.2 Impedance diagram (all values in p.u.)

Figure 4.3 Admittance diagram (all values in p.u.)

To solve it, we use nodal analysis.

22
Pre-Fault Line Currents:

Line 1-2
I12=Y12 (V1-V2)
I12 =(0.187-j2.486)(0.929∠ 7.1°- 0.916∠ 10.2°)
I12 = 0.129∠ −151.9° p.u.

Line 1-3
I13=Y13 (V1-V3)
I13 =(0.198-j1.980)(0.929∠ 7.1°- 0.920∠ 7.2°)
I13 = 0.019∠ −87.4° p.u.

Line 2-3
I23=Y23 (V2-V3)
I23 =(0.198-j1.980)(0.916∠ 10.2°- 0.920∠ 7.2°)
I23 = 0.096∠ −18.9° p.u.

Pre-Fault Generator Currents:

Generator 1
IG1= I12 + I13 = 0.129∠ −151.9° + 0.019∠ −87.4°
IG1= 0.138 ∠ −144.6°
Generator 2
IG2= -I12 + I23 = -0.129∠ −151.9° + 0.096∠ −18.9°
IG2= 0.224 ∠ −24.2°

Pre-Fault Power Balance

To verify the solution, a real Power Balance is now calculated (as an exercise):

Generated Power

Generator 1 + Transformer 1:
SG1=V1 IG1*= (0.929∠ 7.1° )(0.138 ∠ 144.6° )
SG1= -0.113 + j 0.061
PG1= - 0.113 (where the minus sign means this generator absorbs P=0.113 p.u. and
therefore is acting as a motor)
QG1=0.061

Generator 2 + Transformer 2:
SG2=V2 IG2*= (0.916∠ 10.2°)(0.224 ∠ 24.2° )
SG2=0.1986 - 0.0495i

23
PG2= 0.1986
QG2= - 0.0495 (this generator absorbs Q = 0.0495 p.u. and still generates
P = 0.1987 p.u., therefore this machine acts as a generator)

Absorbed Power
Load:
PLoad = (V3)2/Rload=(0.920) 2*0.1=0.0846 p.u.

Real Power dissipated in lines:

line 1-2: P = I122 * Rline12=(0.129) 2(0.03)=0.0005

line 1-3: P = I13

2 * Rline13 = (0.019) 2(0.05)=0.00002

line 2-3: P = I23

2 * Rline23 = (0.096) 2(0.05)=0.00046

The power balance is: Pgenerated = Pabsorbed

PG2 = PLoad+Pline12+Pline13+Pline23+Pabsorbed-G1

0.1986 = 0.0846+0.0005+0.00002+0.0004+0.113=0.1986

Note: Nodal analysis has been used to find the operating conditions of the system before
the fault. In practice, a Load-flow solution would have been used instead.

Step 2. Fault at Bus 2 (Thévenin Contribution)

To simulate a Fault at Bus 2, we will add the pre-fault response to the Thévenin
Contribution.

We use a source equal to the pre-fault voltage at point 2 and set all the original sources to
zero.

To solve this network for the transient period, we require the use of transient values for
the machines impedances.

The machine impedances for the transient period are:

zg1’=0.01 + j 0.25, zg2’=0.03 + j0.4

Including transformers:

24
zgt1’=(0.01+0.01)+j(0.25+0.15)=0.02 + j 0.40
zgt2’=(0.02+0.01)+j(0.40+0.20)=0.03 + j 0.60

The matrix [YBUS] and its inverse [ZBUS] become:

Fault current and changes in voltages are now obtained in in the following way:

from where:

* Note that only elements from column ' P' are needed.

25
From the second equation:

where Z22 = ZThev is the Thevenin impedance for a fault at node 2.

Fault current and changes in voltages are now calculated.
The Thévenin Impedance for a fault at bus 2 is:

Z22 = ZThev = 0.024 + j0.319

Using the pre - fault voltage at node 2:

Vf = V2 = 0.916 ∠ °10.2

we find the fault current:

The voltage changes at the other nodes are found from:

26
Step 3: Fault Conditions

Adding results from steps 1 and 2, we obtain the faulted voltages at each node:

The current contributions from the lines during the fault are:

The generator contribution is found by Kirchhoff Currents Law

at the faulted node:

27
4.2 Unsymmetrical Faults

4.2.1 Single-line to ground fault

Unloaded generator (with balanced internal voltages)

Ia = If Va = 0
Ib = 0 Vb=?
Ic = 0 Vc=?

We have Ia1=Ia2=Ia0 and Va=0.

28
This situation can be represented in the following way:

From the circuit:

↓with this term we include the
Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ea1 /[jX1 + jX2 + jX0 + j3Xn] value of the grounding
reactor
Va1 = Ea1 - (jX1)(Ia1)

Va2 = 0 - (jX2)(Ia2)

Va0 = 0 - j(X0 + 3Xn)(Ia0)

Example: Line-to-ground fault in an unloaded generator

Assume:
X1 = X2 = 0.12 pu , X0 = 0.06 pu , Xn = 0, Ea1 = 1 pu

29
Ia = If = 3Ia1 = -j10 pu

Ib = 0

Ic = 0

Va0 = -jX0(Ia0) = -j0.06(-j3.33) = -0.2

Va1 = Ea1 - jX1(Ia1) = 1 - j0.12(-j3.33) = 1 - j0.4 = 0.6

Va2 = -jX2(Ia2) = -j0.12(-j3.33) = -0.4

Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = -0.2 + 0.6 - 0.4 = 0

Vb Va0 + Va1 + Va2

4.2.2 Line-to-line fault

Unloaded Generator

30
We have Ia1= -Ia2 and Ia0=0.

This situation can be represented in the following way:

31
From the circuit:

Va1 = Ea1 - (jX1)(Ia1)

Va2 = Va1

Va0 = 0

A s s ume :
X1 = X2 = 0 . 1 2 p u , X0 = 0 . 0 6 p u , X n = 0, Ea1 = 1 p u

Ia0=0

32
Phase currents during the fault are:

Ia = 0

I b = I f = -j I a 1 = - 7 . 2 2 pu

Ic = - I f = 7 . 2 2 pu

V a0 = -jX 0 ( I a 0 ) = 0

V a1 = Ea1 - j X 1 ( I a 1 ) = 1 - j 0 . 1 2 ( - j 4 .1 7 ) = 1 - 0 . 5 = 0 . 5

V a2 = -jX 2 ( I a 2 ) = -j0 . 1 2 ( j 4 .1 7 ) = 0 . 5

Phase voltages during the fault are:

V a = V a0 + V a1 + V a2

V a = 0 + 0 . 5 + 0 . 5 = 1 . 0 p u, Did not change ! ! !

Vb = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Vb = - 0.5 pu

Vc = - 0.5 pu

33
5. Transmission Lines and Loading

5.1 Transmission Loading

It is instructive at this stage to consider the steady-state line angle δ at which a

transmission line can be safely operated when loaded. Line angle is the angle between the
sending-end voltage Es and the receiving-end voltage ER. See Fig. 5.1(a).

If we assume negligible shunt capacitive current for the moment, it can be seen that the
relationship of Fig. 5.1(b) applies. ZR is not physical impedance but simply defined as

ZR = ER/I (5.1)

We shall expand on this basic diagram, a so-called R-X diagram, because is important
with impedance-sensitive relays.

The next step is to relate some phasor voltages and currents to the R-X diagram.

If this entire impedance diagram, Fig. 5.1(c), is multiplied by the current I, assumed to be
at zero degrees as the reference phasor, then the phasor diagram of Fig. 5.1(d) results.

34
 Figure 5.1 Transmission Line and loading

On this diagram it becomes apparent that the line angle δ between ES and ER also appears
on the previous impedance diagram as simply the angle between ZS and ZR. Note too that

35
the ratio |ES/ER| is also recognizable in
Figure 5.1(c), as equivalent to the ratio |ZR/ZR|. In conclusion, some phasor information is
available on the R-X diagram.

Another form of information of interest is power (P) and reactive power (Q). The
relationship between P + jQ and R + jX through which it flows is given by:
| E |2 R | E |2 P
P= 2 (5.2) R = (5.4)
R +X2 P2 + Q2
| E |2 X | E |2 Q
Q= (5.3) X = (5.5)
R2 + X 2 P2 + Q2

where E is the voltage across R + jX. Through these equations, load information can also
be shown on the R-X diagram. See Fig. 5.2 for an example, with
|ER| = 1.0 p.u. volts
ZL = 0.1 + j0.2 p.u. ohms
PR + jQR = 3 – j1 p.u. watts
Thus: RR = 0.3 p.u. ohms
XR = -0.1 p.u. ohms
By measurement on the diagram we can find
|ES/ER| = 1.32
and the line angle = δ = 33o

36
 Figure 5-2 R-X DIAGRAM

5.2 System Swings on the R-X Diagram

There is a simple way to see why a system swing can look like a fault:
Figure 5-3 (a) shows a system consisting of a single line and two ideal sources. The fault is
at the center of the line. It is apparent that to a relay at A

Zseen = Z′/2.

In Figure 5-3 (b), the generator at B has swung until it is completely out of phase with the
generator at A. It is apparent that the relay at A sees

Zseen = Z′/2.

37
PART B - POWER SYSTEMS RELAYING

1. Introduction
As with other engineering designs, power system protection design depends on the
validity of the circuit model chosen for analysis. For example: Can transmission line
capacitance-to-ground be ignored? Is a single-phase equivalent circuit adequate? Are
high or low frequency transients important?

Certainly when a protective relay is called upon to operate, something violent has
happened to the system, and transient effects must be occurring. An overall way of
classifying such transients is on a frequency spectrum line as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Referring to Fig. 1.1: the analysis of basic relay, operation is of course mainly based on
phasor analysis, which strictly speaking is only valid at 60-Hz on the spectrum line.
When a system swing occurs, the resulting modulated voltages and currents are changing
slowly enough (typically 1Hz) that phasor analysis is still a valid approach.

On the other hand, a fault-generated low or high frequency component has an effect that
must be analyzed in the time domain rather than in the phasor domain.

The effect of a low frequency or DC component, can be minimized by use of the "replica
impedance" idea, which will be mentioned again later [1].

High-frequency components are mostly due to reflections between the fault point and the
ends of the line. In this context "ends" means abrupt changes in surge impedance, such as
at transformer locations. Since the propagation rate on overhead lines is close to 5µs per
mile, a fault 100 miles from a line end will generate 1 kHz noise. On a 500 mile line, one
could expect noise at least as low as 200 Hz and it becomes important that input filters or
inherent relay characteristics have suitable cut-off frequencies: they must see 60 Hz of
course, but should not mis-operate (i.e. they must be secure) on the 200 Hz noise.

Lightning surges, provided that they do not initiate a fault, are much too fast to affect
relay operation, partly because CT's, PT's or CPD's would not pass such high frequency
signals.

38
 Figure 1.1

1.1 The Use of Symmetrical Components to Explain Ground Distance Relays

Consider the simple single-phase situation of Fig. 1.2. An impedance relay is

being used to determine whether a fault (at F) is within the reach (at G) of the relay. The
far end of the line being protected is at H. ZG is about 15% less than ZL for security
reasons.

Figure 1.2

39
 Incidentally, this figure illustrates the need to keep clear in one’s mind which
particular along-the-line impedance is being referred to, in any analysis or discussion: ZG
and ZL are known quantities whereas Z is unknown and variable from zero to infinity.

The principle used by the relay is that it senses VR and IR, “calculates” Z,
compares it with ZG, and delivers a positive logic trip signal if Z< ZG.

There is another way of looking at this, which may be useful later: The relay
senses VR and the voltage drop across a replica impedance ZG (identical to ZG along the
line except for CT and PT ratios) through which IR flows. That is, it senses VR and IRZG,
and it delivers a positive logic trip signal if V < IRZG.

The extension of this idea to phase-to-phase faults is straightforward: IR simply

becomes the current difference between two phases and VR the voltage difference.

Consider, however, the situation of Fig. 1.3, namely a phase-to-phase ground fault
on a three-phase system.

Figure 1.3

The ground return resistances R and RG represent paths both through the earth and
overhead ground wires. Also, from symmetrical component theory, the zero sequence
impedance of this system around the fault loop is
Zo = Z + 3R,
And in the “reach loop” is
ZGO = ZG + 3RG.
The zero sequence current is apparently
(Io = IR/3)
but there is a catch here in that depending on grounding locations in the system
IR may not be equal to 3IO. Thus we must retain IO in our development and assume it is
measurable.

Now, returning to the comparison principle mentioned earlier: the relay must compare Z
to ZG to make a decision. No longer is Z = VR/IR.

40
Instead,
Z = VR' /I R .
Substituting prior relationships:
V − 3I o R
Z= R
IR

Zo
V R − 3I o ( −Z )
= 3 3
IR
If one also assumes that
Z o Z GO
= =K
Z ZG
the algebraic manipulation yields
VR
Z= .
I R + I o ( K − 1)

The variables VR, IR and IO can be measured and K made a relay adjustable parameter.
Zero sequence current is easily measured: it is simply one-third of the return path, or
residual current of star-connect CT’s. Judgment of K is where the difficulty lies.
English Electric’s “Protective Relays Application Guide” quotes two typical K values
with ground wire):
33 kv line K=4
132 kv line K = 2.5.

As an example, assuming that K has been calculated as 2.5 and is +20% in error, and that
IR is roughly three times IO, the relay would under-reach by 11% below the intended
setting.

Fig. 1.4 from the above-mentioned source shows typical variation of zero-
sequence impedance with ground resistivity, for a 132 kv line.

41
Figure 1.4

42
1.2 Effect of a Parallel Line

Ground fault distance protection relies on correct measurement of IO and this is

the current, which is significantly affected by a line parallel to the protected line. The
relay will tend to under-reach if the parallel line is carrying current in the same direction.

Refer back to Figure 1.3. Recall that the relay could not sense V R' in order to
“calculate” Z and hence a component proportional to IO was necessary. IO was necessary.
IO was sensed on the assumption that it was 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic). However, the parallel line
will cause fault-induced zero sequence currents which flow through the parallel line CT’s
only, i.e. they affect ground current voltage drop, but the amount of this effect cannot be
sensed from the protected line CT’s or PT’s.

Referring again to Fig. 1.3, the parallel line causes a larger 3Io than expected,
hence a smaller V R' . In other words, the relay will see a larger value than it should (since
it “thinks” V R' is higher) and will therefore under-reach.

The amount of under-reach depends on the time of day, i.e. system loading
condition, and for the example given varies from a reach of about 67% to 95% under
opposite extreme conditions whereas the nominal reach is 80%. Thus the 80% setting
seems to be satisfactory.

2. Protection Philosophy
2.1 Comparison of Various Line Protection Methods
The object of choosing a system of transmission lines protection is, in the most
economical way, to provide for the following:

1. To open the minimum number of circuit breakers (usually two) in order to isolate
a fault in the minimum possible time.
2. Not to open circuit breakers which are not connected to faulty plant.
3. To provide back-up protection.

The art of protective gear relaying is to present to the relay a set of quantities in which
abnormal and normal situations are clearly separable. In this context it should be borne
in mind that a situation that is normal to one relay may be a fault to another. For example
a system with two feeders in series, those relays straddling the fault should trip while
those on the adjacent feeder should stabilize, despite the fact that the system is faulty.

An example of the art of protection is in the protection of a transformer in the event of an

interturn fault. In this case, by transformer action the primary and secondary winding
fault currents are much smaller than load current. However irreparable damage will be
done if the transformer is not removed from service. The parameter that is used in this
case to identify the fault is turbulence in the insulating oil caused by the heat in the fault
turn. The need for lateral thinking is clear.

43
The following is a brief review of methods used for protecting feeders together with a
statement as to their salient advantages and disadvantages.

Figure 2-1
Referring to the simplified diagram of a three section interconnected system, Figure 2-1,
the following circuit breakers should trip.
Faulty Section Circuit Breakers Tripped
AB 1, 2
BC 3, 4
CD 5, 6

Before a firm protection philosophy may be evolved, the following facts need to be
noted:
1. The fault current at a relaying point is some inverse function of the distance
from source to the fault. However the magnitude of current for a particular
fault location is very variable, because of variations in source impedance with
the amount of generating capacity connected to the system. Day/night
variations of 5:1 are quite common.
2. The fault voltage at the relaying point. This increases the further the relaying
point is from the fault. Again it is subject to great fluctuations with the
magnitude of source impedance.
3.
It may be seen immediately that over-current relays alone or under-voltage relays will not
provide discrimination because at the very least, two adjacent circuit breakers will
operate (e.g. 2 and 3) because the currents and voltages are sensibly identical and at least
one healthy feeder will be tripped.

There are two classes of protective gear systems that will provide discrimination.
a. Those in which information is processed independently at each relaying point.
b. Those in which an information link is available from one end of a feeder to
the other.
c.
In all systems in class (a), discrimination is obtained by using the relay operating time as
an additional parameter.

The simplest of these schemes of protection makes use of directional overcurrent relays.
At each relaying point a three-phase relay is oriented so that it operates only for faults in
the direction of the associated feeder and beyond. When a fault occurs all directional
relays pointing in the direction of the fault and all overcurrent relays begin to operate.
The latter are time graded however, so that the relay closest to the fault operates fastest
and so on.

44
This scheme provides discrimination and back-up protection, except for the relay closest
to the source. It is also the most economical scheme. On the other hand, it suffers from
the drawback that the relays closest to the source have the longest operating times. This
may be alleviated to some extent by using inverse time elements with an instantaneous
high set element. However, if there are three or more feeder sections the time delays in
transmission systems are unacceptable.

A second system, which is in this class, makes use of directional undervoltage relays.
This system is usually applied when line impedances are small compared with source
impedances, so that fault currents are relatively independent of fault position and where
better discrimination is obtained using voltage.

A third system in this class makes use of directional impedance relays of ohm, mho or
impedance type. The time of operation is a function of the distance between relaying
point and fault. In the earliest schemes, the time of operation was approximately
proportional to fault distance relays. Referring to Figure 2-1, directional impedance
relays looking right would be arranged to trip circuit breakers 1, 3 and 5 located at A, B
and C. Similar relays looking left would trip circuit breakers 2, 4 and 6 at B, C and D.
At each location there would be three impedance elements with typical settings of:
(1) 80% of protected feeder length
(2) 50% of second feeder length
(3) 50% of third feeder length

(1) would be instantaneous and would protect most of faults within the protected
feeder. (2) would have a time delay greater than the trip time of the circuit breaker in the
next section, plus, time for an arcing fault to de-ionize, typically 0.2 to 0.5 seconds. This
relay serves a dual purpose, namely to provide delayed clearance of faults in the
protected feeder and partial back-up protection for faults in the adjacent feeder. (3) is a
back-up protection relay and covers the first, second and part of the third feeder.

The timing diagram of such a system is shown in Figure 2-2 and relates to the system of
Fig. 2-1. These systems have been very widely applied in practice and there are many
variations in different countries. Often the third stage relay is non-directional. The third
stage relay may be used to change the setting of the stage 1, to its stage 2 value after the
appropriate time delay. In certain instances the stage 1 relay may be progressively twice
stepped.

Figure 2-2
All the schemes described thus far have had some measure of time delay in clearing
faults. This may be unacceptable for one of two reasons:

45
 (a) There may be a stability problem necessitating rapid clearance for all in-zone
faults.
(b) There may be a fault level problem in which unacceptable damage to plant
might occur in the event of delayed fault clearance.
In this event, schemes in class (b) might be used by providing an information link
between the two ends of a protected feeder.

These systems may be further subdivided into two categories:

(b) 1 - In which analogue quantities are transmitted for processing at both ends of the
system.
(b) 2 - In which information is processed locally at the two ends in relays and the
state of the relay contacts is transmitted over the information link.

There are two widely used systems in class (b1), namely pilot wire protection and phase-
comparison carrier protection. Both systems are based on current comparison.

Figure 2-3
The opposed voltage pilot wire scheme is shown schematically in Fig.2-3. The current
transformers are connected in such a way to the pilot cable that for a through fault the
secondary currents oppose each other, high voltages appear on the transformer
secondaries and no current (theoretically) flows in the pilot cable and the two trip relays
don’t operate. To cater for pilot cable and line capacitance, transducer errors and
saturation, the relays are biased by the individual currents at each end. For internal faults,
the phase of the current at end B is reversed relative to that at end A, a circulating flow
that overcomes the bias and both relays trip.

Figure 2-4

Circulating current pilot wire protection is shown schematically in Fig. 2-4. In this case,
for a through fault, the secondary currents circulate around the pilot cable loop and the
relays don’t operate. For internal faults, the secondary currents flow in their respective
tripping relays. Not shown are balancing networks and biasing circuits.

46
Pilot wire protection is normally only applied to short feeders because:
(1) The cost is proportional to length and soon becomes prohibitive.
(2) Pilot cable capacitance and resistance are proportional to length and make the
circuit design increasingly difficult.
(3)
A second system in class 2(b) is phase comparison carrier protection. This makes use of
the fact that for through faults, the currents at the two ends of the system are in phase
opposition while for internal faults, they are approximately in phase. At each end of the
system high frequency carrier signals are generated for the positive duration of the fault
current. These signals are transmitted to the remote end, either on the power line
conductors or over radio links. The local and remote signals are combined so that for an
external fault carrier is continuous while for an internal fault, carrier turns on and off at
half-cycle intervals. The duration of carrier interruption is measured at each end and is
used to actuate the circuit breaker trip coil.

The limitations of phase comparison carrier protection are:

(1) For through faults there is a phase shift proportional to system length. This is
accompanied by converse phase shifts for internal faults, thus setting a limit
on the line length over which such systems may be applied.
(2) Usually only one communication channel is available. The three phase
currents have to be vectorically combined in a mixing transformer or sequence
network. This may have a null output for certain types of fault and not operate
correctly.
(3) The signal blocks are subject to a propagation delay, proportional to line
length and inversely to the bandwidth of the system. The delay – bandwidth
product is constant and in order to minimize the delay, fairly wide bandwidths
are required. (Usually 4 to 8 KHz). Since bandwidth is at a premium,
particularly in power line carrier systems, its use is very often precluded for
this reason alone.
(4)
The final class of system is that described in 2(b). Distance relays independently
measure system conditions at the two feeder ends and only the state of the relay contacts
is transmitted to the remote end, via pilot cable, power line carrier or radio link channels.
They are subdivided into two groups:
(1) Those in which the stage 1 relays are set to less than feeder length. A signal
indicating that a stage 1 relay has operated at one end, trips the circuit breaker at
the other, thus eliminating delayed stage 2 tripping for faults beyond 80% of
feeder reach.
(2) Those in which stage 2 relays are set to greater than feeder length. Tripping takes
place when both the local stage 1 relay operates and an indication is received that
the remote stage 1 has also operated.

47
Carrier distance relaying of the form described above has found wider application than
any other system for the protection of main transmission systems. The advantages are:
(1) Flexibility,
(2) Ability to cope with very long lines,
(3) Ability to function without the carrier link, either with no changes in operating
criterion or at most with only small changes.
Specific distance protection schemes will be described in more detail elsewhere in the
course.

2.2 Staged Fault Tests

Protective gear systems spend most of the time in a quiescent state and yet must be
capable of operating correctly on those very rare occasions when trouble does develop.
In a typical year a feeder protection system will be faced with less than 10 seconds of
action.

Both manufacturers and users are presented with the problem of evaluating the
performance of the system. Ask any user whether his distance relays are correctly set and
if he says yes, ask him how he knows! The setting may well have been correct when
tested in the laboratory or on a field test set, but anything may have happened in the
interim. The situation is regarded as so serious that one Australian operating authority
sets distance relays by isolating the protected feeder, bolting a three-phase fault at 90% of
feeder length and energizing the line from a single generator to about five times rated
current and then adjusting the relays for marginal operation. Although an extreme
procedure, it is nevertheless very reassuring.

Because of the seriousness of the problem, it has become practice in many countries to
have programs of field tests that are almost continuous. These are invariably done with
the cooperation of manufacturers, consultants and researchers. The tests take a variety of
forms. There are steady state tests, switching tests and system stability tests. They are
done in order to evaluate the performance of protective gear systems under a range of
input conditions.

Faults may be applied in two ways. Solid faults are made by closing one or more poles
of a shunt circuit breaker. Arcing faults are made by shooting fuse wire through one or
more conductors of the line. In Britain, the generating authority has developed a
crossbow, by means of which a range of phase-ground, phase-phase and phase-phase-
ground faults may be applied.

Usually these tests are very carefully controlled from a mobile station. This is extremely
important if valuable and costly records are not to be irretrievably lost.

Stability tests may be made by disturbing a part of a system where there is a weak
intertie, either by applying short duration faults or by tripping a key feeder for various
times.

48
The ingenuity of the test engineers very much determines the success of the test program.
The success or failure of fault tests is totally dependent on the instrumentation, control
and advance preparation of the test program and procedures.

2.3 Fault Recorders

It is very important to record the sequence of events leading up to and after clearing a
fault. In the event of a mal operation, the cause can be diagnosed. The orientation is
such that it provides a permanent recording of all events which took place one half a
second before until three seconds after actuation. This permits complete postmortem of a
fault situation to be done.

These recordings are not only useful for trouble in the event of a relay or plant
malfunction, but also to gather system statistics. For example frequency and percentage
of different types of fault, fault clearing times and so on. Consequently, in some
countries, every feeder end is equipped with one.

Finally, it is worth noting that in certain instances, postmortems, even with information
available from both ends, can be extremely difficult. The sequence of breaker operations
in an auto-reclose cycle is a case in point and is complicated by the fault current feed
from both feeder ends.

3. Distance Relay Building Blocks

In previous sections it has been shown that the impedance defied by the ratio of a vector
derived from the voltage output to a vector derived from the current output gives a good
measure of discrimination between normal and abnormal conditions. At times, added
factors have to be taken into account. For example, in the event of a power swing, the
defined impedance may be indistinguishable from a fault. On the other hand, it may be
undesirable to trip at that particular location. The added parameter, which would be
taken into account in this case, is time. In the case of a fault, the impedance changes
instantaneously whereas in a power swing the impedance changes slowly and smoothly.

3.1 Distance Relay Characteristics

There are a number of different distance relay characteristics, which may be
realized using a basic comparator and all of these are used in practice [1], [2].

On the assumption that the basic element is an amplitude comparator, these

characteristics will now be derived. (The corresponding derivation for a phase
comparator will be given later).

A comparator has two inputs and is usually, but not necessarily symmetrical.
Operation will occur when:
| SO | > | SR |, where SO is the operating input and SR is the restraining input.

49
 Operation is indeterminate when | SO | = | SR | and this condition defines the relay
operating boundary. Regrettably, a great deal of emphasis in the literature has been
placed on the boundary condition and little has been said of the relay response inside and
outside of the boundary. This is unfortunate, because it is the excess of | SO | over | SR |
which determines the relay operating speed as well as the reset time. Relays that have
identical characteristics on the boundary, can have quite different operating behaviour
within and outside this boundary.

| SO | and | SR | may be either voltages or currents. It will be assumed, without

any loss of generality, that they are voltages, for purposes of deriving various
characteristics.

Also for purposes of the section, a simplified single-phase model of the system
will be used as shown in Fig.3-1. The relaying quantities available to the designer are:

(n2/n1) V and (1/n3) I,

where V and I are the voltage and current at the relaying point, and n1, n2, n3 are numbers
of turns on instrument transformers. Not immediately obvious, but of extreme
importance, is the fact that indirectly the source voltage E is also available.

Figure 3-1
3.2 Plain Impedance Relay
This is the natural characteristic or amplitude characteristic. The current
transformer is terminated by an impedance Zn and the two inputs to the relay become:
S0 = (1/n3) IZn
SR = (n2/n1) V

Zn is known variously as the “replica” or “mimic” impedance.

Operation occurs when:
| (1/n3) IZn | > | (n2/n1) V |

The inequality is not disturbed if both sides are multiplies or divided by the same quantity
within the modulus limits. Multiplying both sides by (n1/n2) / I,
| (n1/n2n3) Zn | > | V/I | ,

50
but V/I = ZF the impedance seen by the relay.
Thus operation occurs when Z n' > Z F ,
where Z n = (n1 / n 2 n3 )Z n .
'

In the first inequality, Z n' is a fixed vector while ZF is a variable that depends on
the distance to the fault and the fault arc resistance. Clearly the relay will operate inside a
circle in which the impedance to the fault is less in modulus than the modulus of Z n' .

The characteristic is shown in Fig. 3-2. The features of the impedance characteristic are:
(1) Non-directional
(2) Setting is not constant – as the fault arc resistance increases, the reach is reduced.
(3)
The angle of Z n' , plays no part on the relay-operating boundary. However, it does
have a manifest effect on the dynamic performance and this factor will be taken into
account later.

Figure 3-2

51
3.3 Reactance Relay
The plain impedance relay has a drawback, which becomes serious in short lines,
namely the fact that the reach reduces with fault arc resistance. It has become
commonplace in these situations to use a reactance characteristic, namely one in which
operation takes place below a line parallel to the real axis as shown in Fig. 3-3.

Figure 3-3
In this case:
SO = IXn – V
SR = V
Here Xn is a pure reactance and (without loss of generality) contains the terms n1, n2 and
n3. In this case the operating inequality becomes:
Xn – ZF > ZF

From the vector diagram of Fig. 3-3 it may be seen that on a line Xn/2 units above
the real axis, the vectors Xn – ZF is greater than ZF and operation occurs.

The characteristic has the advantage that the reach is determined only by the
reactive component of the impedance presented to the relay. A note of caution needs to
be made however. The current in the fault arc is the vector sum of the currents from the
two ends of the system. If there is a significant phase difference between these two
currents, the arc resistance will appear to have a reactive component. This may cause
either under-reach or over-reach according to the direction of pre-fault power flow.

3.4 Off-set Impedance or Offset Mho Characteristic

It is frequently necessary to derive a relay characteristic in which the reach for

forward and reverse faults is different. This is either because of back-up protection
requirements or for discrimination purposes.
The two inputs in this case become:
S O = IZ n1
S R = V − IZ n2

52
The operating inequality becomes:

Zn1 > X F − Zn 2

From the vector diagram, Fig. 3-4, it may be seen that the effect of injecting the
component - IZ n2 into SR is to modify the characteristic from plain impedance with
radius Zn to offset impedance with radius Z n 1 in which the center of the circle is Z n2 .

Figure 3-4
3.5 Ohm Characteristic

The ohm characteristic is a generalized reactance characteristic in which the line

is inclined at an arbitrary angle. The inputs are:
SO = IZn – V
SR = V
And operation occurs when:
| Zn – ZF | > | ZF |
The characteristic is shown in Fig. 3-5, and is the perpendicular bisector of Zn.

Figure 3-5

53
3.6 Directional Characteristics

In order to obtain discrimination between forward and reverse faults, it is

invariably necessary to control impedance or reactance relays by means of a directional
element. The inputs for a pure directional relay are:

SO = IZn + V
SR = IZn – V

with an operating inequality:

| Zn + ZF | > | Zn – ZF |

The characteristic is a straight line through the origin perpendicular to Zn as

shown in Fig. 3-6.

Figure 3-6
3.7 Directional Impedance or Mho Characteristic

It is possible to combine the features of directional control and impedance

measurement in one element. This is done by choosing an offset mho characteristic in
which the displacement of the center of the circle is equal to the radius.
The inputs are:
SO = IZn
SR = IZn – V
The characteristic is as in Fig. 3-4, except that the characteristic passes through
the origin and the forward reach is 2 Zn.

54
3.8 Limitations of Simple Directional Relays

The directional and mho relays were descried in the preceding sections. They are
never used in that form because the origin is a point of uncertainty. At the origin V = 0
and in both cases

So = SR = IZn

Depending on the relay design the relay might fail to operate for forward faults
near the relay or incorrectly operate for reverse faults near the relay. In any event,
because the relay is nearly balanced, operation will be uncertain and slow. For this
reason this class of relay is normally polarized to make operation positive for terminal
faults.

Before describing polarized directional relays however, the equivalence of

amplitude and phase comparison comparators will be described. This is important for
two reasons: Firstly most electronic relays are based on the phase comparison principle;
secondly, the understanding of polarized relays is more readily seen from the viewpoint
of phase comparison.

3.9 Phase Comparison Comparators

The previous sections were devoted to showing he derivation of a range of relay

characteristics, using an amplitude comparator. These were all circles or straight lines.

There is a range of comparators in which operation depends on the phase

difference between two input signals without any dependence on amplitude. Usually, but
not necessarily operation takes place over 180°, and restraint over the remaining 180°.

Most common are the cosine comparator in which the boundary is defined by:

-90° < θ < 90° (cos θ >0)

and the sine comparator in which the boundary is defined by:

0 < θ < 180° (sin θ >0)

where θ is the phase difference between the two input signals S1 and S2. The relationship
between S1 and S2 in a phase comparator and SO and SR in an amplitude comparator for
identical characteristics is simple.

55
 Figure 3-7
Referring to Fig. 3-7, the operating input of an amplitude comparator, SO, is chosen as
reference input while SR is the variable. The operating characteristic is clearly a circle
with radius So. Also from the figure it is clear that the two vectors SO + SR and SO – SR
differ in phase by 90° on the operating boundary. Thus, a cosine comparator could be
used to produce an identical boundary characteristic by making the two inputs:

S1 = SO + SR
S2 = SO - SR

The transformation is reversible so that if a phase comparison characteristic were

known, the corresponding inputs for an amplitude comparator would be:

SO = (S1 + S2) /2
SR = (S1 – S2) /2

Thus, for example, if a plain impedance characteristic were required using a phase
comparator, the input signals would be:

S1 = IZn + V
S2 = IZn – V
The relative phase difference between two inputs is not disturbed if both inputs
are divided by the same vector, that is the phasor current I:
S1' = S1 / I = Z n + Z F
S 2' = S 2 / I = Z n − Z F
Fig. 3-8 shows the construction of the characteristic and it may be seen that a
plain impedance characteristic results if the criterion for operation is
-90° < θ < 90

56
 Figure 3-8
3.10 General Phase Comparison Relay Characteristic
The most general input arrangement for a phase comparison comparator is:
S1 = IZ N1 + K1V
S2 = IZ N 2 + K2V
where Z N1 , Z N 2 , K1, K2 may take any value and may be complex.
The relative phase difference between signals does not change by dividing both
signals by K1I.
S1' = Z n' 1 / K 1 + Z F
S 2' = Z n2 / K 1 + (K 2 / K 1 )Z F
This may be simplified to:
S1' = Z n' 1 + Z F , where Z n' 1 = Z n1 / K 1
S 2' = Z n' 2 + KZ F , and Z n' 2 = Z n2 / K 1
K= K2/K1
To simplify the geometrical construction, let
S 2" = Z n' 2 / K + Z F
= Z n"2 + Z F , where Z n"2 = Z n' 2 / K = Z n2 / K 2
If one compares S1' and S 2" in phase, then the operating criterion changes because
S 2" lags S 2' by an angle δ , where δ is the angle of the complex vector K. Comparing
these two signals, the criterion for operation becomes:
-(90 + δ) < θ < 90 – δ, where θ is the angle between S1' and S 2"

57
 Figure 3-9
It is evident from the phasor diagram of Fig. 3-9 above, that the characteristic is a
circle with the vector Z n' 1 − Z n"2 as a chord subtending an angle 90 – δ above the chord
and 90 + δ below the chord. For this chosen example, operation takes place outside the
circle. However, a polarity reversal of either S1' or S 2" also reverses the criterion.

Two important points simplify the derivation of this general characteristic:

(1) Two points on the circle, Fig. 3-10, are defined by making firstly
S1 = 0 and then S2 = 0.
S1 = IZ n1 + K 1V = 0 ,
or Z F = V / I = − Z n1 / K 1 = − Z n' 1
S 2 = IZ n2 + K 2V = 0
or Z F = V / I = − Z n2 / K 2 = − Z n"2
in accordance with Fig. 3-10.

58
 Figure 3-10
(2) If K2 / K1 is real, δ = 0 and the vector Z n' 1 − Z n"2 becomes the diameter of the
characteristic. This is frequently the case in practice.

3.11 Polarized Directional Relays

It has already been pointed out that a simple directional relay has a point of
uncertainty at the origin. In the case of an amplitude comparator, the two input signals
are equal, at that point. In the case of a phase comparator, the input signals for a
directional relay are:
S1 = IZn
S2 = V, or
S’1 = Zn
S’2 = ZF
The characteristic is as in Fig. 3-11 below, for a cosine comparator.

59
 Figure 3-11
At the origin, V and ZF are zero and operation is indeterminate because IZn has no
vector for comparison.

The problem may be solved in one of two ways. Referring to Fig. 3-1, if one
could access E, the source voltage, this could be used in place of V, as a polarizing
voltage. This can be done in one of two ways:

(1) By deriving the polarizing voltage from one or more of the unfaulted phases
with an appropriate network to bring it more or less in phase with E. This is
known as healthy phase or cross-polarization.
(2) By deriving the polarizing voltage via a tuned circuit with an appropriate time
constant. Thus, the circuit “remembers” the phase of the pre-fault voltage for
one or two cycles and is known as “memory” action. Memory relays will
operate correctly for three phase terminal faults while cross-polarized relays
will not. They will not, however operate for line closure onto a three-phase
terminal fault. This occurs when maintenance grounds are not removed prior
to re-energization. Since these are virtually the only three-phase faults that
occur on high voltage systems, many power authorities use cross-polarized
relays and take care of the maintenance ground problem by means of over-
current relays. This avoids the problem of maloperation when the system
frequency and the tuned circuit frequency are different.
(3)
It is outside the scope of this work to exhaustively treat all forms of cross-polarisation.
One case only will be examined. A detailed treatment is given in the following paper:
Wedepohl, L.M., “Polarised Mho Distance relay – new approach to the analysis of
practical characteristics”. Proc. I.E.E., 111, 12, December, 1964.

60
Assume, either by memory action or by cross-polarisation, that the input signals are:
S1 = IZn
S2 = E = (ZS + ZF) I (from Fig. 1)
S1' = Z n
S 2' = Z S + Z F

Figure 3-12
It is evident from the vector diagram of Fig. 3-12, that, at the boundary of
operation when S1' and S 2' are at right angles, the characteristic must be a straight line
perpendicular to Zn and displaced from the origin by vector ZS.

This is a profound result, which until quite recently was either not understood at
all or at least misinterpreted. A first reaction on being presented with the result is to
assume that the relay is not directional because the origin is enclosed in the characteristic.
This assumption is false and has come about because it has in the past been tradition to
equate reverse power with negative impedance. This may be done for non-polarised
relays but should not be done for polarised relays.

In order to define the relay inputs for reverse faults, all relay input currents must
have their signs reversed. In this case,
S1' = − Z n
S 2' = Z S + Z F
This leads to an identical characteristic but with operation on the opposite side of
the line. Consequently the origin is well inside the restraint zone of the relay.

61
 This result clearly justifies the use of polarisation. In the unpolarised case, the
origin is on the relay characteristic with consequential uncertain operation. Polarisation
makes the origin a very positive point of operation for forward faults and a very positive
point of restraint for reverse faults.

It is often convenient to represent a reverse fault as negative impedance. The

procedure in this case is to reverse the entire vector diagram as shown in Fig. 3-13.

Figure 3-13
The result has been missed in virtually all documentation, even in such an august
text as Warrington. In the case of the polarised-mho relay the consequences are even
more dramatic and the lack of understanding has led to completely false statements as to
its applicability.

Before concluding this section, it is worth noting that a memory relay

“remembers” Zs. As the voltage decays from E to V, it is equivalent to ZS decaying to
zero. If the time constant is too long and there is also a frequency error, ZS and ZF in Fig.
12 will have a locus, which is an exponential spiral. The dangers are self-evident and the
need for a short time constant is apparent.

3.12 Polarised-Mho Relay

The polarised-mho relay has over the years become the mainstay of feeder
protection in high voltage systems. It has the great virtue that it contains the properties of
direction and impedance measurement in one element. The behaviour has not been
properly understood and the comments made about directional relays are also valid in this
case. The reason for this lack of understanding almost surely stems from the fact that
reverse power and negative impedance were confused. The second error in reasoning
was in assuming that the polarizing voltage and the fault voltage were at all times in
phase. The consequence of these two assumptions was that the polarised-mho

62
characteristic and the ordinary mho characteristic were assumed to be identical. The test
method used to measure the polar characteristic was such that the results conformed with
the assumptions; thus, even measurements concealed the true nature of the characteristic.
The contradiction becomes very obvious if it is remembered that the relay boundary is a
zone of uncertainty and therefore it is undesirable to have the definitive point, namely the
origin, on this boundary. Polarisation is adopted in order to cause positive operation at
this point for forward faults and positive restraint for reverse faults. In this event, it is
absurd to show the origin on the relay boundary.

Returning to the input signals for the ordinary mho relay using a phase
comparator:
S1 = IZn – V
S2 = V

Since there is no phase shift between the two voltages, the points S1 = 0 and
S2 = 0 define the diameter of the characteristic circle, i.e. ZF = Zn and ZF = 0.

Polarisation is introduced to provide a reference vector for IZn, when V = 0 and so

the inputs for the polarised mho relay become:

S1 = IZn – V
S2 = V + VP

As in the case of the directional relay, the polarizing voltage, VP may be derived
from the healthy phases or by memory action. Again, it is outside the scope of this work
to consider all cases and only one case will be considered in which VP = KE, where K
may be complex. This is in fact completely general for healthy-phase polarizing, it
merely being a matter of evaluating K for the particular method under consideration.
Normally, K will have only a small angle and the error in assuming K real will not be
serious. The inputs now become:
S1 = IZn – V = I(Zn – ZF)
S2 = V + KE = I(ZF + KZS + KZF)
S1' = ZN - ZF
S 2' = KZS + (1 + K) ZF
Assuming (1 + K) real, the characteristic becomes a circle with the diameter
defined by points ZF = ZN and ZF = - (K / (1+K))ZS.

For reverse faults, S1 becomes –IZn – V and the circle has a diameter defined by
the points, ZF = -Zn and ZF = - ( K / ( 1 + K )) ZS.

Again, if it is convenient to use the concept of negative impedance with reverse

faults, the signs of both vectors must be reversed.

Referring to Fig. 3-14, an interconnected system is shown with left source impedance
ZS1, line impedance ZL and right source impedance ZS2. The system impedance diagram
is also shown. For the relaying point, the source impedance for forward faults is ZS1 and

63
for reverse faults ZS2. The system impedance diagram is also shown. For the relaying
point, the source impedance for forward faults is ZS1 and for reverse faults ZS2 + ZL.
Also shown are the characteristics for forward and reverse faults. In the latter case, the
vectors have been reversed in order to preserve the orientation of the system vector
diagram. K / ( 1 + K) in this case is approximately 0.5.

The action becomes very clear. For forward faults, the origin is well inside the
characteristic while it is positively excluded for reverse faults.

Not only does this satisfactorily explain operation of the polarised-mho relay, but
it adds a new dimension to the characteristic that relates to its ability to cope with arcing
faults. These are particularly troublesome on very short lines in which the source
impedance ZS is frequently larger than the line impedance ZL.

64
Figure 3-14

65
 Figure 3-15

Figure 3-15 shows a typical situation in which, firstly, the characteristic is

incorrectly shown in the classical position and, secondly, shown correctly. The enhanced
arc resistance coverage is self-evident. In particular, the true arc resistance reach OB is
considerable greater than the apparent reach OA for terminal faults at the relaying point.

The offset, (K / (1 + K)) ZS, has an important self-adaptive feature. As ZS

increases, the fault current falls and the arc resistance increases. At the same time
however, the arc resistance coverage increases because of the increased ZS. Furthermore,
for balanced three phase loads, the characteristic becomes the classical unpolarised mho
and reduces the likelihood of load encroachment causing incorrect operation.

It is possible that, had the operation been correctly understood, polarised mho
relays might have been applied in cases where reactance relays are presently used.

3.13 Comparator Classification

In previous sections, the derivation of practical relaying characteristics was
discussed, without any reference to the dynamic response of the comparator. The
behaviour of the relay is extremely important within its operating zone and it is the
purpose of this section to consider various classes of comparator within their zone of
operation.

Before this is done, it is as well to review the cornerstone of good relay design.
These are, in order of importance:
(1) Surge and overload immunity.
(2) The relay should be as slow as the system conditions permit.
(3) The relay should be as insensitive as system conditions permit.

66
 The graveyard of protection design is littered with devices in which these ground
rules were disregarded!

Point (1) is obvious. Typically short duration surges of 5 KV appear on the

transducer cables and these must neither damage the relay nor impair its performance.

Point (2) may at first sight appear surprising. However, a distance relay is an
information-processing device and there is consequently a reciprocal relationship
between the minimum time to reach a decision to trip and the bandwidth over which
system conditions need to be evaluated in order to assess the stability. Thus, it would, for
example, be necessary to analyze all system transients up to about 100Hz for a relay with
a minimum operating time of 20ms, while for a relay with a minimum time of 1ms all
system conditions up to 2 kHz would have to be evaluated. It is feasible to design an
electronic distance relay with a minimum operating time of 1µs. However, it would
respond to all system transients up to 2MHz and it is unlikely that any reputable designer
would be willing to pin his reputation on its stability.

Point (3) is also not immediately evident. With modern electronics, it is possible to
design an almost infinitely sensitive relay. As a consequence of excessive sensitivity,
electronic relay maloperations have been recorded which have never occurred with
electromechanical relays simply because they were too insensitive to respond.

In conclusion, the ideal distance relay is a device that is surge and overload proof,
with a specified sensitivity and minimum operating time. The latter should ideally be
constant over the entire operating range of the relay. As in all engineering design,
compromise is necessary.

3.14 Square Law Comparators

Historically, the earliest practical comparators were electromechanical. Of these,

the two that found widest application were the balanced beam relay (an amplitude
comparator) and the induction cup (a sine-law phase comparator).

Figure 3-16(a)
The beam relay is shown schematically in Fig. 3-16(a). The beam is restrained by
a spring with a restraint force Fo. The restraint coil aids the spring force and the operate
coil opposes it. The two coils are magnetically independent.

67
 The force on the beam in the operate direction is:
( )
F = K iO2 − i R2 − FO
The criterion for operation is
iO2 − i R2 > FO / K
Let io = Io cos (ωt)
iR = IR cos (ωt + ф )

The inequality constraint becomes:

( iO2 / 2 ) ( 1 + cos ( 2ωt )) – (( i R2 / 2 )( 1 + cos2 (ωt + ф)) > Fo / K

The inertia of the beam is such that the parasitic forces of twice system frequency
are inconsequential and the force law becomes:
iO2 − i R2 > 2Fo / K

The design is such that the right hand term is small for normal faults and
consequently the device behaves as a very good first approximation of an amplitude
comparator.

Although widely applied, this type of comparator has a number of drawbacks:

(1) Parasitic forces are troublesome at high fault levels.
(2) Sensitivity is poor.
(3) The speed of operation is very variable because of the square law force
relationship.
(4) The reset ratio is poor because of the magnetic field configuration change as the
beam moves.

3.15 Induction Cup Relay

This type of relay, shown in Fig. 16(b), is based on the Ferraris principle and takes
this name in Europe.

68
 Figure 3-16(b)
In this system a metal cup rotates under the influence of a pair of quadrature
magnetic fields. It is under spring restraint as the balanced beam is.

The torque on the cup is defined by the following relationship:

T = K (i1 di2 / dt – i2 di1 / dt) - To

Where T0 is the restraint torque.

Let i1 = I1 sin ωt
i2 = I2 sin ( ωt + θ )
T = ω K I1 I2 sinθ - To

and the operating criterion is

ω K I1 I2 sinθ > To

For normal operating conditions To is small and operation occurs for:

0 < θ < 180°

The advantage of this movement is that normal parasitic torques of twice system
frequency are cancelled (although they do occur at heavy fault levels due to unbalances).
This means that the response time can exceed that of the beam relay. Also, the reset ratio
is excellent because the magnetic configuration does not change with the position of the
cup.
The principal drawback of the device is:
(1) Limited sensitivity.
(2) Sensitivity is proportional to frequency that may be troublesome when
high frequency transients enter the relay.

69
 (3) Speed of operation dependent on input level because of the square law
characteristic.
(4)
3.16 Linear Comparators
The maximum input signals to a comparator are limited by the thermal rating of
the device and the maximum permissible force on its parts. Because of the square law
force relationship, this means that at low input levels the accelerating force becomes very
small and the speed of operation is very variable. There is a limit to the sensitivity and
the contact clearances because of the dangers of maloperation due to mechanical
vibration and shock.

The limitations of square law comparators led to efforts in the 40’s and 50’s to
find alternative devices. Of these, a particularly successful comparator was one that
made use of a linear polarized moving coil relay with two (or more) actuating coils. The
two input signals So and SR were full-wave rectified and the output of the rectifier fed the
respective coils; one in such a sense as to aid the restraining spring and the other in the
opposite sense to overcome the restraint force and hence cause contact closure. The
arrangement is shown schematically in Fig. 16 (c), in which the moving coil element is a
similar form to a moving coil loudspeaker movement.

Figure 16(c)
The Fourier series for a full-wave rectified sine wave | I sin (ωt ) | is:
| I sin (ωt ) | = (2I / π ) (1 – (1/3) cos (ωt ) – (1/3 – 1/5) cos (4 ωt ) ----)

The design of the moving coil relay is such that inertia and eddy current damping
in the metal coil former make the device insensitive to the parasitic forces and
consequently the relay only responds to the d.c. component. The operating force is
therefore:
F = (2/ π) (IO – IR) – FO,
and the operating inequality is:
IO – IR > πFO/2

70
 As in the square law comparators, FO is small at normal input levels, and the
system behaves as an amplitude comparator.

The principal advantage of this system over the square law comparators is that the
speed variability is somewhat reduced. However, as before, the coil ratings and
mechanical forces set an upper bound to the sensitivity.

It is possible to realize a phase-comparator in this class of device. These have

been developed, experimentally but it is not know whether they have been applied in
practice.

Figure 16(d)
Fig. 16 (d) shows a possible arrangement, based on the bridge ring modulator. The
nature of the device is such that the instantaneously larger current controls the polarity
(direction of current flow) into the relay coil, while the magnitude is equal to that of the
smaller current.

The force law is rather complex. To a good first approximation it is:

F = KI cosф - FO
where I is the smaller of the two currents.
The linear relays of Figs. 16(c) and 16 (d) are equivalent under the
transformation.
S1 = SO + SR
S2 = SO + SR
And their force laws are identical.

Linear relays can be made somewhat more sensitive than square law relays, but
they are still limited by thermal and mechanical stress.

3.17 Static (Non-Linear) Relays

Almost from the outset, attempts were made to improve the sensitivity and speed
of distance relay comparators. In the early 30’s Wideroe described a range of thyratron
comparators, in the 40’s Warrington described a tube distance relay, Hamilton and

71
Edgeley described a range of transducer relays, followed by Loving who described a tube
relay in the 50’s. None of these proved commercially viable however.

The first radical departure from conventional relay comparators came with the
introduction of the rectifier bridge comparator. This was adopted almost exclusively in
Britain and Germany, and was widely used in many other countries. This was displaced
by the solid-state relays.

It is shown schematically in Fig. 16(e).

Figure 3-16(e)
At first sight, it appears to be identical to the two-coil linear moving coil relay,
and indeed at very low signal inputs the two have identical force laws and performance.
There is a very rapid transition from the linear region however, and this takes place in the
following way:

The direct current characteristic may be derived as follows:

Assume IR = 0 and io increases. (The relay is current operated). Initially, all the
current flows in the moving coil relay producing a voltage across the bridge. At a certain
voltage, typically 1 volt, the restraint bridge starts to conduct and very little voltage
increase is possible. The excess current is diverted into the bridge. The relay setting is
typically about 0.1 volt. Now with the restraint bridge heavily saturated, the current IR is
increased with IO constant. Initially IR flows into the saturated bridge, which acts as a
short circuit. However, as IR approaches IO in magnitude, the bridge comes out of

72
saturation, the relay voltage starts to decrease and when IO = IR current circulates around
the bridge and the relay current is zero. A further increase in IR reverses the relay voltage
and the negative voltage increases until the operate bridge saturates. The characteristic is
as shown I Fig. 16(e) and it may be seen that it has a trigger characteristic if correctly
designed.

The action under alternating current input is complex. However the waveforms
for IO = IR are shown, and it may be seen that the relay is subject to a square wave of
twice system frequency, with a mean value of zero. Increasing IO increases the positive
duration while reducing IO increases the negative duration. The alternating current
characteristic is therefore similar to the instantaneous characteristic. However, the slope
is dependent on the phase difference between the input signals and is identical to the
instantaneous characteristic when they are in phase and somewhat more gradual when
they are 90° displaced.

It is not possible to exhaustively analyze this simple and yet remarkable

comparator. It has many desirable properties, which will simply be stated:

(1) Thermal and mechanical stress is avoided because the excess current is
diverted into the saturated rectifier bridge.
(2) The sensitivity can be made very high because at high signal levels, the
bulk of the current bypasses the relay coil.
(3) The speed of operation is much more constant than in other relays
because of the comparatively constant relay input due to the non-linear
characteristic.
(4)
In practice such relays will work within specified accuracy down to 2% of rated
voltage and in special designs down to 1% minimum. Operating times as low as ¾ of a
cycle were attainable without second harmonic chatter. (As in the linear moving coil
relay, a combination of inertia and eddy current damping in a metal form, give the
designer the freedom to optimize the design for best speed of response.)

3.18 Static Transistor Relays

Since the advent of the junction transistor development in electronic relay systems
has been intense in many countries. Commercial designs went into service in the early
60’s with the availability of reliable silicon transistors and relays using integrated circuits
have been in service for several years.

The designer has almost infinite freedom at his disposal and problems of
sensitivity and response time, ant first sight at least, no longer appear to be serious.
Because of this, many novel relays have been described in the literature and yet very few
have been commercially successful. It is as well therefore to consider the various
elements in a relay in order to lay down the ground rules for sound relay design.

73
 The elements in a distance relay are the following:
(1) Insulation to protect the relay against disturbances (usually intense but of short
duration.)
(2) Vector (phasor) mixing unit for input signals.
(3) Comparator (Amplitude or Phase).
(4) Filter (usually mechanical inertia, but other methods available, e.g., eddy current
damping.)
(5) Level or threshold detector (usually spring restraint).
(6) Power amplifier (usually the trip contact on the relay).

The need for most of these elements is self-evident. However, (4) and (5) require
careful consideration. In the early euphoric days of research into the application of
transistors to distance relays, the main obsession was to design extremely fast, sensitive
relays. It was somehow overlooked, at least for a while, that very fast electromechanical
relays were available which could have been used equally well, for example the rectifier
bridge comparator. Referring to the waveforms of Fig. 16(e), it is evident that there must
be a lower bound to the operating time because otherwise the relay will respond to
second harmonics in the relay voltage. This applies to nearly all the comparators
previously considered. Only the induction cup relay appears to be immune, but even in
this case, there is a problem with parasitic forces, and the increasing force with frequency
has to be taken into account. The problems with very fast relaying are therefore not
entirely due to the relay, but arise from the very nature of the power system itself. The
relay is presented with a very complex piece of information when a fault occurs.
Superimposed on the power system waveform are exponential offsets, high and low
frequency transients from transducers, and switching transients and surges from the
system. The design of a distance relay thus involves the probability of mal operation due
to these extraneous signals, the probability increasing as the minimum time to trip is
reduced. With all the theoretical work done over the past four decades backed by
laboratory and field tests, the following statements may be made with considerable
confidence:
(1) If the minimum tripping time is greater than one cycle, it is very
improbable that a mal operation will occur using capacitor voltage
transformers.
(2) If the minimum tripping time is greater than half a cycle, it is
unlikely that mal operation will occur if wound voltage
transformers are used.
(3) If the minimum tripping time is less than half a cycle it is probable
that mal operation will occur frequently.

It is fair to point out that these are highly contentious statements. In particular (3)
is open to question – there are many research groups in many countries attempting to
design distance relays which will operate reliably in one or two milliseconds. Thus far no
commercially successful systems have been described. It also becomes questionable if
the power system itself is not badly organized if a saving of some 5 to 10 milliseconds is
necessary in order for the performance, security and stability to be maintained.

74
 The need for a threshold detector has been the subject of much debate. With
electronic relays sensitivity is not a problem. In principle, one could design a relay that
could measure down to a microvolt, which is 1 part in 108 of the nominal rating of about
100 volts. However, the relay would than respond to a bewildered number of system
conditions such as noise, low level transients and the like. It is questionable whether
relays should be any more sensitive than required by the system.

3.19 Amplitude versus Phase Comparison

There is in principle no difficulty in designing electronic amplitude or phase
comparators. Since they are equivalent under the transformation:
S1 = SO + SR
S2 = SO - SR
there is a temptation to assume that either will do. There are two very important
reasons why phase comparison is preferred.
(1) In phase comparison, one is generally concerned with the position of
zero crossings of the two input signals. This is not required. This makes
the design of the input circuit very simple and surge protection is no
problem. In amplitude comparison, linearity must be maintained over
the entire cycle of the two inputs and places a great stain on the input
circuit and makes surge proofing very difficult.
(2) For a phase-comparator the design of directional impedance elements,
current and voltage appear separately in the two inputs. The inputs for a
directional relay are:
S1 = IZn
S2 = V
If either of the two inputs fall to zero, the relay can be designed either to stabilize
(the usual criterion) or, in special cases, to trip. The behaviour of the relay is completely
predictable because of the independence of the two input circuits.
In the case of an amplitude comparator connected as a directional relay the inputs
are:
SO = IZN + V
SR = IZn – V

If one of the two inputs, say V, falls to zero, the two inputs are identical and
theoretically, the relay should be stable. However, there may be small errors in the input
circuits and since the polarity of the error is arbitrary, the relay might restrain or trip. For
example, in a beam relay, if the beam is not completely central, or there is a slight
difference in the magnetic field configuration, this difficulty may result.

These two considerations make the design of phase-comparison relays so much

simpler than that of amplitude comparators that invariably the former principle is used.

75
3.20 Pulse Phase Comparators
The pulse phase comparator makes use of the fact that current zero with positive
slope of one signal occurs when a second signal is positive if 0 < θ < 180° and when the
second signal is negative if 180° < θ < 360° where θ is the phase difference between the
two signals. The waveforms and block diagram are shown in Fig. 3-17.

Figure 3-17
The signal S2 is applied to a pulse generating circuit that is essentially a squaring
and differentiating circuit. Signal S1 and the pulse are applied to a coincidence or “AND”
circuit. This is a circuit that produces an output when both inputs are of the same polarity
(in this case positive). Consequently there is an output pulse if 0 < θ < 180° and no
output if 180° < θ < 360°. The pulse is converted to a steady tripping signal in a bi-
stable trigger circuit. The trigger circuit is reset by the circuit breaker.

This type of relay has a number of advantages and drawbacks. It is very simple
to design. It is reasonable fast, having an operating time of zero to one cycle. By having
a pair of complementary “AND” gates, the maximum time can be reduced to half a cycle.
On the other hand, the relay has a very large bandwidth. This may be reduced, by using
filters or pulse stretching. It is very sensitive to offset d.c. components and is
consequently prone to overreach errors.

3.21 Block Instantaneous Comparators

Pulse sampling comparators have not been widely applied in practice because of
their wide bandwidth. A slight modification is to make use of the so-called “block
instantaneous” principle.

76
 Figure 3-18
Referring to Fig. 3-18, the two input signals are applied to a coincidence circuit. This
produces a positive output for a duration (180 – θ) (T/360), where T is the system period.
(16-2/3 ms for 60 hertz) The threshold angle is set by a timing circuit, in conjunction
with a level detector. For a 90° comparator, the threshold is set to a quarter of a system
cycle. For a monopolar gate the time to operate varies from a quarter to one and a quarter
cycles. The maximum time can be reduced to three quarters of a cycle by using a bipolar
gate. As in the case of the pulse relay, this comparator is very sensitive to offset
transients and usually some filtering is needed to keep the errors within acceptable
bounds.

3.22 Block Average Comparator

The block instantaneous comparator has an undesirable limitation in that the
operating time and the threshold-setting angle are interdependent. It evolved out of the
block instantaneous relay, in order to make use of the fact that, in the presence of offset
transients, coincidence block elongation takes place on one half cycle while block
contraction takes place on the other. A schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 3-19 below.

Figure 3-19
The difference here is that the timing circuit is replaced by a linear integrator,
which starts from a reference level and increases its output linearly during coincidence
and decreases it at the same rate when coincidence ceases. It is clear from the waveforms
in Fig. 19 that there is no net gain in output until the threshold angle of 90° is reached.

77
As the phase difference is further reduced the speed increases, because the trip level is
reached more quickly.

The important advantage of this comparator is that the minimum operating time
and the threshold angle are independent. This means that in the event that the relay is
presented with hostile transient components, the integrator time constant may be
increased in order to cope.

It is instructive to note that the block average comparator is electronically

equivalent to the bridge ring modulator relay. The integrator is equivalent to the inertia
and eddy current damping of the coil and its former. Spring tension is equivalent to the
level detector setting.

Without going into great detail, it is important to note that the speed of operation
of the block average comparator is a function of the phase difference between the input
signals. As the threshold angle is approached, it must count an increasing number of
coincidence blocks before a decision to trip is made. Thus, in addition to the threshold
characteristic, a series of circular arcs on the R-X diagram showing constant phase
difference between the input signals may be shown. For example, the input signals for a
polarized-mho relay are:
S1 = IZn – V
S2 = V +KE
S1' = Zn - ZF
S 2' = (1 + K)ZF + KZS

The major diameter has endpoints ZF = ZN and ZF = -( K / ( 1 + K )) ZS. The

major diameter is a line on which S1 and S2 are in phase. It is also a chord of a series of
constant phase difference arcs, and these are constant operating time contours. The circle
on this diameter is for θ = 90° and hence infinite operating time. The major diameter is a
line of optimum dynamic response and it is therefore important for it to be located along
the fault zone. This is normally the case.

78
 The characteristics are shown in Fig. 20 below.

Figure 3-20
3.23 Presentation of Distance Relay Performance
It is extremely important for manufacturers, users, and consulting engineers to be
in a position to compare the performance of different types of relays.

Tests are in two different categories.

(1) Ratings – steady state and transient. Surge tests have become
particularly important with the widespread use of electronic relays.
(2) Performance – The threshold characteristic and the dynamic and static
performance with the characteristics have to be measured. It is usual
to measure the threshold characteristic statically for a range of
currents, because there is a tendency for it to become deformed at low
input currents.
(3)
The most important tests are those relating to the dynamic performance. There is a need
to measure the stability of the setting and the speed of operation under fault conditions.

Ideally these tests should be done on a power system in which both source and line
impedance can be varied; in which the source and line angles and hence time constants
are representative of those in practice; and finally in which the instant of fault occurrence
can be controlled in order to examine the effect of varying the degree of transient offset.

Two very widely used methods of presenting these results are:

(1) Plot the operating time as a function of the per unit distance to the fault,
x=ZF/Zn, with voltage as a parameter.
(2) Same as for (1) with operating current as a parameter.

79
 In each case two sets of results are needed, one for minimum and one for
maximum transient offset.

Neither of these methods is representative of a practical system situation. In (1) the

implication of constant relay voltage implies a large increase in current as the distance to
the fault decreases. This can only be the case for 100% voltage and zero source
impedance. Conversely (2) implies a system dominated by the source impedance in
which fault currents are small.

A logical method of presentation is to measure the speed of operation as a function of

distance to fault, for a range of source impedances. A very useful presentation is to plot a
range of curves with the normalized distance to fault x = ZF/Zn plotted as a function of
the normalized source impedance y = Zs/Zn with the time of operation as a parameter.
This has the following advantages;

(1) The pattern of the curves readily identifies “good” and “bad” relays.
(2) The curves are not altered, if settings are changed by altering current
transformer ratios.
(3) There is a fairly simple change to the y-axis, if settings are altered by voltage
transformer settings.
(4) In general, only two sets of curves are necessary to define the dynamic
performance of a relay – one for maximum and one for minimum transient
offset.
This method of presenting the dynamic performance characteristics is adopted as
standard in the U.K. and a number of other countries.

Figure 3-21
Fig. 3-21 shows a typical set of curves for a modern electronic relay. From this it may be
seen that the relay has an effective sensitivity range of about 80, that is it will operate
correctly at approximately 1.25% volts. Also it is fast, since most faults, even at very low
levels will be cleared in less than 30 ms.

80
In certain instances, a series of curves will be given, each one for a different normalized
fault arc resistance factor: α F = RF Z n . This is important, because it shows the reduced
reach as the arc resistance increases.

3.24 Impedances Seen By Relays During Power Swings

The apparent impedance that would be seen by a relay under load conditions or during a
swing has been derived earlier. Appropriate relay characteristics as just described may
now be plotted on the General Impedance Chart.

Note that the nearer the protected line impedance is to the electrical center of the system,
the more likely it is to operate under swing conditions.

It is important to note that both memory – and cross-polarized mho relays degenerate to
ordinary mho relays under power swings: in the former case because the system voltage
collapses too slowly for the tuned circuit to be effective and in the latter case because all
phase voltages collapse symmetrically.

81
 Figure 3-22
This is a great advantage because the unpolarised mho relay has the smallest area in the
R – X plane and is consequently least affected by power swings.

The diagram of Fig. 3-22 is also used to synthesize impedance relay characteristics for
out of step tripping and blocking. Normally there are preferred locations for tripping, and
out of step blocking relays are installed elsewhere. These relays use time as a parameter
to distinguish between faults and swings.

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3.25 Impedances Seen By Sound Phase Relays

In a full distance relay scheme, 6 relays per zone are needed to correctly measure all fault
conditions. Single phase to ground faults are covered by three relays; isolated phase-to-
phase faults are evaluated by the associated phase-phase relay and the two ground relays.
Three phase faults are correctly evaluated by all six relays.

Relays partially associated with faults are presented with impedances that may sometimes
cause operation. This may be troublesome, where, for example, single-phase auto-
reclosing is used. It is outside the scope here to consider every possible contingency and
only one case will be considered, in which a relay connected between phase R and
ground evaluates a fault between phases, and Warrington’s assumption will be made,
namely that the characteristic is an ordinary mho, because the analysis taking into
account the effect of polarization has not yet been done.

The equivalent circuit for this relay connection and fault is shown in Fig. 3-23. The
impedance presented to the ground fault relay on phase R will be evaluated. This relay
measures the impedance:

Figure 3-23
VR
Z=
Z
I R + I O ( FO − 1)
ZF
Here IR = ( ER – EY ) / 2 ( ZS + ZF )
VR = ER - IRZS
Io = 0

E R − Z S ( E R − E Y ) / 2( Z S + Z F )
Z=
( E R − E Y ) / 2( Z S + Z F )
2( Z S + Z F ) E R − Z S ( E R − E Y )
=
( E R − EY )

83
ER = ER / 0°, EY = EY /-120°

Z S (1 + ∠ − 120° + 2Z F
Z=
3∠ + 30°
Z S ∠ − 60° + 2Z F
=
3∠ + 30°
= 0.577ZS /-90° +1.15 ZF/-30°

Figure 3-24
The effect on the relay is seen in Fig. 3-24. The true fault impedance parallelogram is
increased in modulus by 1.15 retarded by 30° and displaced by the vector
0.577ZS /-90° from the origin. It is possible that for small ZS, operation will occur.

It should be evident that many different cases have to be considered. The procedure has
been outlined and for further information Warrington’s systematic classification should
be studied.

It is also worth noting that the distortion of the fault parallelogram is a function of the
type of cross-polarization. Consequently, the choice may be more restricted than initially
appears to be the case.

3.26 Multi-Input Comparators

The comparators discussed thus far in this section are of the two input types in which the
characteristics are circles or arcs of circles in the R-X plane. There are some instances in
practice in which it is desirable to have more complex characteristics.
(a) In order to avoid load encroachment causing false operation in long,
heavily loaded feeders, it is desirable to reduce the relay reach in the
direction of the real axis without affecting the reach. Quadrilateral and
elliptical characteristics have been proposed for this purpose.

84
 (b) Special characteristics may be required for out of step blocking and
tripping applications.
(c) There are on-going attempts to devise a polyphase comparator which
will correctly evaluate all faults without switching.
It is outside the scope of this work to go into detail, but merely to mention some
solutions, which have been applied in practice.
(a) A three winding induction cup relay has been used for correct operation for all
phase faults.
(b) Three and four winding moving coil relays each energized via a full wave
bridge, have been used to derive a series of elliptical and hyperbolic
characteristics.
(c) Rectifier bridge comparator non-linear relays with three or more bridges have
been used to derive a series of characteristics defined by the intersection of
circles and straight lines.
(d) Transistor relays with three or more coincidence gates have been used to
achieve the same result as in (c).
(e)
Although the solutions (c) and (d) provide an almost endless range of characteristics there
is a major drawback. Phase shifts in the various inputs, detract from the optimum
dynamic performance. Consequently, they have not been used to any great extent in
practice.

In order to overcome this, Jackson has described a modified two input block average
comparator, in which the integrator run down rate is accelerated for part of the gap
period. This means that the circular characteristic is modified (contracted) when the
signals are not in phase, but remains unchanged when they are in phase. Consequently,
the optimum dynamic performance line is unchanged, but the area of the characteristic is
reduced. This is an elegant solution, which is finding wide application. Ontario Hydro
has used such modified ‘mho’ relay units to avoid load encroachment. A great practical
advantage of the method is that the modified characteristics are obtained by changing the
plug-in relay cards only. This avoids system disruptions due to costly and time-
consuming relay panel changes.

4 “Unit” Distance Protection

Referring to Figure 4-1, there are two primary requirements in the operation of
feeder protection in a heavily loaded system:
1. That the feeder is isolated as rapidly as possible for faults within
the feeder section; i.e. between the circuit breakers at the two ends of the
system. (Operating times of 20 to 40 milliseconds are implied.)
2. That the feeder remains in service for faults outside the zone
between the two circuit breakers.

Figure 4-1

85
Note: Special consideration is required for bus-bar faults, for example between P and A
or B and Q. This problem will be dealt with elsewhere.

It is evident from these diagrams that section AB cannot be protected by

independent relay systems at points A and B. Overcurrent relays located at A cannot
discriminate between faults in AB or beyond B. Time graded overcurrent relays will
solve the problem, but in the process will violate the requirement for high operating
speed. Distance relays are an improvement in this respect, but even in this case it is not
usually possible to specify the cut-off reach of a distance relay to better than 10%, so that
there is a zone of uncertainty over the last 10% of the feeder section being protected and
the first 10% of the next section. In order to overcome this problem it is usual for the
nominal cut-off breach of the first zone (instantaneous) to be between 80 and 90% of the
feeder length. This means that faults toward the end of the section are not cleared
instantaneously violating condition (1) above.

From the foregoing it is evident that the only way in which it is possible to
provide the instantaneous tripping of internal faults without losing discrimination for
external faults, is to provide some means of communication between the two ends of the
system. In this way it is possible to satisfy conditions (1) and (2) simultaneously.
Systems in this general classification are known as unit forms of protection and are
widely used. They are not confined to the protection of feeders, but are used for selective
protection of generators, transformers, bus-bars and so on. It is of course important that
unit systems are supplemented by non-unit systems in order to provide back-up
protection. These have a time delay feature and are consequently called upon to operate
only if the unit protection fails or a circuit breaker fails to trip. The design of back-up
systems is an important part of the complete arrangement, particularly in relation to co-
ordination of time delays. Usually the back-up system is duplicated, the main back-up
protection having a time delay of 0.2 to 0.5 seconds allowing sufficient time for the unit
protection to operate and a further auxiliary back-up protection with a delay of 2 to 5
seconds; this latter system is very rarely brought into operation and if it does is a
indication of a serious failure of the main protection.

If the distance between the two circuit breakers in a zone is small, then
communication between the two ends is readily established over low voltage pilot cables.
The design and theory of such schemes of unit protection are based on the well-known
Merz-Price principle and fall into the general category of pilot wire protection. These
systems will be considered elsewhere. They are widely used on feeders up to 20 miles in
length and in one notable case on a feeder of 90 miles.

Pilot wire schemes cannot be used in very long feeders for two reasons. Firstly,
the increasing capacitance and resistance of the cables with feeder length interferes with
the correct operation of the protection and it becomes increasingly difficult for stability
and discrimination to be maintained. Secondly, the cost of the pilot cable is proportional
to length and eventually becomes prohibitive.

86
 The above factors have led to the introduction of other methods of providing
communication between ends of a protected feeder. Having ruled out the provision of
cables specifically for the purpose one is left with two principal alternatives, viz. the
power line conductors themselves or the provision of radio links. These two media will
be considered briefly below:

4.1(a) Power line conductors as medium

A power line is not only an excellent transmission medium at very low (power)
frequencies, but has very good transmission characteristics at very high frequencies (up
to one megahertz and greater). This is evident if one considers the large diameter of the
conductors and lossless air dielectric between them [4].

The attenuation of a power line signal is very much lower than that of a radio
signal. On the other hand the standing noise level is high due to a certain amount of
corona, which has a wide-band character, so the problem of signal to noise ratio is a
major preoccupation and the transmitted power level is determined by this consideration.
Coupling of a high frequency signal on a power line is also a major problem, since the
power frequency on the line must be prevented from entering the communication system.
The particular problems of coupling an h.f. signal to a power line will be dealt with
elsewhere in the course.

4.1(b) Radio Links

The second obvious transmission method is by use of radio links. There are clear-
cut advantages and disadvantages in using these, i.e. cost, good signal to noise ratio, etc.

The actual techniques which are used to provide unit protection in conjunction
with a power line carrier link or a radio link are very nearly identical so that it is possible
to describe both under the general heading of carrier protection.

4.2 Classification of Carrier Protection Systems

There are two very broad classifications that may be used to describe carrier
protection, viz.:-
(a) Systems in which all measurement is done locally at each end of the
system and the communication link is merely used to send the state of
the equipment at the local end of the system to the remote.
(b) Systems in which the communications link is used to send instant by
instant information about the magnitude and phase of power frequency
quantities from one end of the system to the other.
In category (a) are:
(i) Carrier accelerated distance protection
(ii) Directional comparison schemes
(iii) Distance blocking scheme
(iv) Intertripping schemes

87
 In the category (b), the only practical schemes that have been devised are the so-
called phase comparison carrier system, in which the phase-angles of currents at the two
ends of the system are compared and the phase-difference is used as a tripping criterion
and pilot wire systems. Although transmission of amplitude has virtues there are
problems to do with modulation techniques and attenuation changes, when power line
carrier is used, which make practical designs prohibitive in cost. This does not however
mean that in the future such schemes may not be a practicable proposition. Phase
Comparison Carrier Protection will be dealt with separately.

There is a further basic division of carrier protection into the following categories:
(i) The normal condition is no transmitted signal, while a trip condition is
indicated by the transmission of a signal.
(ii) The converse of (i) in which transmission of carrier is used to inhibit or
block tripping (the so-called blocking schemes).
(iii) The normal condition is the transmission of a signal of frequency f1,
while the trip condition is the transmission of a second frequency f2.
(The so-called frequency shift systems).
(iv) A trip condition is indicated by the transmission of a coded pulse signal
that may be ‘tone-on’, ‘tone-off’ or ‘frequency shift’. (This is a special
case and is a system that is infrequently used.)
There are certain clear-cut considerations governing the choice of a signalling
method and some of these are summarized below.

Case (i) – ‘Tone-on’

Advantages:
(a) The equipment is normally quiescent, signals (carrier) only being
transmitted for the duration of a system fault. This is more important in
the case of power line carrier than in radio, because in the former case
there is very often a restriction often transmission of continuous signals
for telephone reasons, because of radiation from the power line and
consequent interference.
(b) No special safeguards need to be taken to prevent mal operation in the
event of carrier failure.
Disadvantages:
(a) No continuous channel supervision is available.
(b) The tripping signal has to be transmitted through an internal fault. The fault is
liable to increase the attenuation of the channel with the possibility that the
tripping signal fails to arrive at the receiver with adequate level for reliable
operation. (This drawback applies only to power line carrier.)

Case (ii) – ‘Tone-off’

Advantages:
(a) Continuous channel supervision is available.
(b) Signals are not required to be transmitted through faults.

88
Disadvantages:
(a) Special precautions have to be taken to ensure that the system is not blocked
from operating for faults fed from one end of the system only.
(b) The protection is immobilized if the carrier fails.
(c) Starting relays are required.
(d) Regulations may preclude its use.

Case (iii) – ‘Frequency Shift’

Advantages:
(a) Continuous channel supervision is available.
(b) The performance for a given signal to noise ratio is better than in the other
arrangements – less prone to interference.
(c) No special precautions need to be taken to guard against channel failure.
Disadvantages:
(a) Signal has to be transmitted through fault.
(b) Regulations may preclude its use.

4.3 Typical Arrangements

4.3.1 Stage Shift with High Speed Auto-reclosing

If high-speed auto-reclosing is available, it is sometimes possible to use an
arrangement shown in Figure 4-2, which does not need a signalling link. In this case, the
instantaneous measuring relays are set to over-reach the remote end. If a fault occurs
within their operating zone, fast tripping takes place, followed by fast auto-reclosing.
However, during the time when the circuit breakers are open, the impedance setting of
the first stage is reduced to a reach that is less than total length of the feeder, as shown.

While such a scheme saves the cost of signalling equipment and the associated
complexity, it has several disadvantages:
(1) High-speed auto-reclosing is essential.
(2) After reclosing, permanent faults near the ends of the feeder are cleared with
a time delay.
(3) Tripping (followed by auto-reclosing) occurs for external faults.
In many modern power systems where fast tripping is necessary to limit the
damage at the point of fault and maintain the synchronous stability, these disadvantages
cannot be accepted. Furthermore, it has been shown that, in some power stations, high-
speed auto-reclosing may cause synchronous instability.

89
 Figure 4-2 ZONE SHIFT BACK
4.3.2 Transfer tripping scheme with zone switching during high-speed
auto-reclosing.
Mention was made in section 4.3.1 of a scheme of distance protection combined
with auto-reclosing which is able to give fast tripping for faults at any point along the
feeder (Fig.4-2). However, it has the disadvantage that, when the fault is permanent, it
may be cleared with a time delay after reclosing. This problem can be overcome by
adding signalling equipment.

A signal is sent to the other end when tripping is initiated. The other end will
only trip if it is an internal fault. Whereas, in the scheme in Fig. 4-2, the setting is
reduced during the dead time, in this case the receipt of a signal prevents the setting being
reduced. Thus, when the circuit breaker recloses and the fault is still present, the
protection can again operate instantaneously for faults at all points.

For the external fault show in Fig. 4-2, end A will send a signal to end B.
However, the protection at B is not operated and, therefore, the sending of a signal during
external faults does not affect the performance. In this scheme, it is necessary to ensure
that the receive relay can only be operated by a signal from the other end so that the
transmit frequencies for the two ends must be different.
The advantages of this scheme are:
(1) The signalling equipment does not play any part in clearing the first
fault – it is required only if the fault is permanent.
(2) Very fast operation after the first occurrence of the fault.
(3) If the signalling equipment fails when there is a permanent fault on the
feeder, wrong tripping does not occur, but there will be a time delay for
faults near the ends of the feeder.

90
The disadvantages are:
(1) There must be an infeed of fault current at each end of the protected feeder to
ensure that instantaneous tripping will occur for permanent faults at all
positions.
(2) If power line carrier is used, the signal must be sent through the fault.
(3) If a permanent fault occurs, which is external, interference signals may cause
incorrect tripping.
(4) Not suitable for short lines.

4.3.3 Carrier Accelerated Distance Protection

A block schematic of the system is shown in Figure 4-3 below.
The basic relaying equipment at each end consists of:
(i) A directional impedance relay DZ, which is switched to reach 80% of
the protected line (DZ1), but which is switched to 120% of the
protected line by stage setting contactor SS.
(ii) A non-directional impedance relay Z3, which is used to start the back-
up timers T2 and T3.
(iii) Zone 2 back-up time relay with delay 0.2 – 0.5 secs. (T2) and zone 3
back-up time lag relay (3-5 secs, T3).
(iv) A carrier receiver relay RX.
The operation of the system is briefly described in the following:

Internal Faults – Intermediate position 10 to 90% of feeder.

At both ends of the feeder, the zone 1 DZ relays operate immediately and the feeder is
correctly isolated at both ends. Although carrier signal transmission is initiated at both
ends, it plays no part in the process.

Internal Faults – First 10% of feeder at end A (or last 10% of feeder at end B)

At end A the DZ relays operate immediately and trip the breaker at this end. A
carrier-tripping signal is also initiated at this end and after the transmission delay operates
RX at end B. RX bypasses delay relay contact T2 and operates stage setting contactor SS
which sets forward the reach of DZ at end B to 120% of the feeder length. DZ detects the
fault at B and trips the breaker at B. It is useful to draw a time-sequence diagram for this
case (Fig. 4-4) using the following typical operating times:
DZ - 30 milliseconds
SS - 10 milliseconds
RX + transmission delay - 30 milliseconds

91
Figure 4-3 CARRIER ACCELERATED DISTANCE PROTECTION

92
 External Faults
The fault is beyond the zone 1 reach of DZ in forward direction and no signal is
transmitted from DZ in the reverse direction. In this case the carrier link plays no part
and the scheme functions as a non-unit 3-stage scheme.

Failure of Carrier Link

The unit feature is lost but undesirable tripping does not occur.
The principal drawback of this arrangement is that it is slow by modern standards.
If system conditions require near simultaneous tripping of ends, then time differences of
the order of 70 milliseconds between ends are not usually acceptable.

Noise or other disturbances can cause erroneous tripping. For example, if there is
a fault within 20% of end B, then Z3 at A will have operated and if RX then operates
incorrectly for a sufficiently long time DZ at A will be set forward and cause incorrect
tripping. The probability of this happening is remote and not normally considered.

TIME

0 ms FAULT

30 ms DZA

60 ms RXB

70 ms SSB

100 ms DZB

70 ms

Figure 4-4 TIMING SEQUENCE

93
4.3.4 Distance Protection with Transfer Tripping
Referring to fig. 4-5 the arrangement in this case is almost identical to that in the
previous case, RX, in conjunction with Z3 trips the breaker direct instead of acting on SS.
It is evident that for internal intermediate faults (10-90%) of the feeder and external
faults, operation is identical to the previous case.

Figure 4-5 TRANSFER TRIPPING

For a fault within 10% of end A, operation is the following:

DZA operates and trips the local breaker, also Z3B (And Z3A) operate. DZA
initiates carrier transmission to B. RXB operates bypassing T3B and trips the breaker at B
through Z3B. In certain schemes there are separate zone 1 and 2 relays. In this case,
carrier (remote) tripping takes place through DZ2B rather than Z3B. This reduces the
zone in which wrong tripping takes place (see disadvantages).

In this case, the difference in time between ends is reduced to the transmission
delay + operating delay of RX. Reduction of this delay becomes all-important in ultra-
fast schemes and figures as low as 12ms have been achieved in practice, achieving near
simultaneous tripping of both ends irrespective of the position of an internal fault.
The timing sequence is shown in Figure 4-6 below.

94
 Figure 4-6 TIMING SEQUENCE
The main advantages of this scheme are:
(1) The scheme is relatively simple.
(2) If the signalling equipment fails at the same time that there is a fault
on the primary circuit, wrong tripping of the circuit breakers does not occur, but
there will be a time delay in tripping for faults near the ends of the feeder.
The disadvantages are:
(1) There must be an infeed of fault current at each end of the protected feeder to
ensure that instantaneous tripping will occur for faults at all positions.
(2) If power line carrier equipment is used, it is necessary to send the carrier signal
through the fault. Depending upon the position of the fault, attenuation at this
point may prevent the signal from being received at the other end of the feeder.
(3) In the event of an external fault interference produced by the fault or the opening
of a circuit breaker may cause the carrier receive relay to operate. If the fault is in
zones “M” or “N” it will cause incorrect tripping.
(4) Not suitable for short lines.

4.3.5 Blocking Schemes of Carrier Protection

The two schemes described thus far, both suffer from the drawbacks that they are
susceptible to noise copying a trip signal and that in the case of power-line carrier the
tripping signal is subject to abnormal attenuation due to signal loss in the fault
impedance. Blocking schemes have been devised to overcome these problems. In this
case signal transmission inhibits tripping, so that noise only delays tripping for a short
while and also signals are not transmitted through a fault.

The actual arrangement of a blocking scheme is rather more complex than this in
practice. The steps in developing a practical arrangement will be developed by
considering the operation of a basic directional comparison scheme, shown in Fig. 4-7.

95
 Figure 4-7 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON BLOCKING
At each end of the feeder directional relays D, operate for forward faults only.
Each relay has associated with it one normally open contact, used for local tripping and
one normally closed contact which turns carrier off when a fault occurs. (Carrier could
also be turned on but there are inherent and practical drawbacks and such schemes are
consequently not used.)

The normally closed contact RX of the carrier receiver completes the tripping
path when no carrier is received. It is readily seen that RX conveys the state of the
remote directional relay to the local end and the scheme consequently gives rise to a trip
condition only if both directional relays see a forward fault. Logically this can only be
the case if the fault is between ends A and B.

This simple scheme cannot be used in practice. Firstly, continuous carrier

transmission may not be permitted and secondly the scheme will fail to operate for the
case of a system in which the fault is energized from one direction only. The example of
a ring-main system shown in Fig. 4-8 will clarify this point.

Figure 4-8 RING MAIN FAULT

Consider a fault on feeder AB, near end A.

96
 In the equivalent circuit E is the source voltage, ZS the source impedance and Z1
and Z2 the impedances from bus bar to fault for the two directions of energisation. For
faults sufficiently close to A, the ratio of Z1 / Z2 will become so small that most of the
fault current will be fed from end A, and the directional relays at B will not operate. In
the limit, for a bus bar fault at A, Z1 = 0 and the current fed from B will be zero. The
simple scheme treats this case as for an external fault. At end A, D operates but carrier is
not interrupted from B and tripping does not occur. At B carrier is stopped and RX
operates but D does not. Consequently the scheme fails for the most onerous condition.

This problem is solved by the introduction of starting relays.

The principal drawback of the previous arrangement was in catering for the case
of an internal fault fed from one end of the system only. This may be avoided by
including starting relays that will turn on the carrier-blocking signal only if a fault on the
system is detected. In the case of a single end feed, the end remote from the source will
not detect a fault, carrier will not be turned on and tripping will take place correctly at the
source end. The fault detector must by implication be non-directional and may take a
number of forms, i.e. overcurrent, impedance, offset impedance, etc. There is a hazard in
this arrangement – in the case of an external fault, one end sees a fault and prepares its
local trip circuit. The blocking signal from the other end is subject to the usual
transmission link delay and it is essential to allow for this in the design. Many successful
designs have been achieved. An outline of a typical scheme is shown in Fig.4-9.

In this arrangement the conditions for transmission of a blocking signal are Z

operated and D not operated, i.e. a fault has been detected but is not in the unit zone.
Tripping takes place through the Z relay, which acts as a monitoring device, the D relay
and a relay contact RXF (normally closed if RXF not operated). Relay RXF is held
operated under quiescent conditions by D not operated, i.e. the directional element. In
the case of an external fault in the forward direction Z and D would operate, RXF would
start to release and in due course complete the trip path. Before this could happen
however, a blocking signal would be received actuating RX and RXF would be held
through the alternative path provided by the RX contact. The release time of RXF is
consequently critical and is always related to the transmission delay of the blocking

97
signal.

gnal.
Figure 4-9
Fig. 4-10 shows the time sequences for external and internal faults (external fault
assumed to be beyond end B).

98
 Figure 4-10 TIMING SEQUENCE
There is a further hazard in this form of protection. If the forward reach of the
directional relays in zone 2 is greater than the reverse reach of the blocking relays, wrong
tripping will occur as shown in the shaded regions M and N in figure 4-11(a). The
settings are thus not satisfactory. Quite often the blocking relays are inverted offset mho-
relays as shown in Fig. 4-11(b) because this gives maximum security against wrong
tripping for zone 2 faults.

99
 Figure 4-11(a) A BLOCKING SYSTEM HAZARD
As in the case of the transfer-tripping schemes, it is an advantage to have separate
directional distance relays for zone 1 and zone 2 measurement. The zone 1 relays would
have a setting less than the full feeder length and their operation would not be controlled
by the signalling equipment.

It is also possible to use directional earth fault relays and thereby gain the
advantage of better operation when there is resistance at the point of fault.

100
 Figure 4-11(b) BLOCKING WITH REVERSE Z3
The main advantages of this scheme are:
(1) Instantaneous tripping is not dependent upon the flow of fault current at the other
end.
(2) Carrier signal is not transmitted along a feeder that is faulty.
(3) Operation of the carrier receive relay, due to interference in the event of a fault,
does not cause wrong tripping in the case of an external fault, and merely delays
tripping in the case of an internal fault.
(4) The scheme is suitable for both long and short feeders and by fitting directional
ground fault relays can give improved performance for resistive faults.

The main disadvantage is:

(1) If the signalling equipment fails when, at the same time, there is an external fault on
the power system, wrong tripping may occur.

101
4.3.6 Transfer blocking schemes combined with high-speed auto-
reclosing.
The basis of a blocking scheme is that the distance measuring relays, which
operate instantaneously, are set to a distance greater than the length of the protected
feeder. If auto-reclosing is available, it is possible, therefore, to allow these relays to trip
as soon as the fault occurs, and switch in the blocking schemes previously described
during the dead time of the auto-reclose sequence. The scheme will then be as shown in
figure 4-12.

The advantages of this scheme are:

(1) The signalling equipment does not play any part in clearing the first fault – it is
required only if it is a permanent internal fault.
(2) Instantaneous tripping is not dependent upon the flow of fault current at the other
end.
(3) Very fast operation after the first occurrence of the fault.
(4) Carrier signal is not transmitted along a feeder that is faulty.
(5) Operation of the carrier receive relay due to interference does not cause wrong
tripping in the case of an external fault, and merely delayed tripping in the case of
an internal fault.
(6) The scheme is suitable for both long and short feeders and by fitting directional
ground fault relays will give improved performance for resistive faults.

102
 Figure 4-12 BLOCKING WITH HIGH SPEED RECLOSING
The main disadvantage is:
If the signalling equipment fails, when at the same time there is an external fault on the
power system, wrong tripping may occur.

As far as is known, this scheme has not yet been used in service. However, where
very fast operation is essential and high-speed auto-reclosing is acceptable, this is the best
scheme to use.

4.4 Protection of Feeder Circuits with Tee-offs

The protection of feeders having more than two ends is always more difficult than
feeders with only two ends. This is particularly so, if fault current can be fed from all of
the ends. Theoretically, all the basic schemes listed earlier may be used, but depending
upon
(a) the lengths of the various branches of the feeder
(b) the amount of fault current which can be fed from each end, and

103
 (c) the connections of the remainder of the system, some schemes are better than
others.

Figure 4-13 TEED FEEDER PROTECTION WITH TRANSFER TRIPPING

Fig.4-13 illustrates the problem when using the 4.3.3 and 4.3.4 schemes in which
a tripping signal is sent by the zone 1 relays. There may be areas on the feeder where a
fault is not seen by any of the zone 1 distance-relays.

Scheme 4.3.2, in which high-speed auto-reclosing is used, and switching of the

zones occurs during the dead time, may be a better arrangement than the schemes 1 and
2. However, it is again necessary to receive separate signals from each of the feeder
ends.

Figure 4-14 TEED FEEDER PROTECTION WITH DZ2 BLOCKING

104
 The main advantage of the blocking schemes, i.e. schemes 4.3.5 and 4.3.6, is
illustrated in Fig. 4-14. If there is a short external connection between the ends A and C,
blocking may be signaled for an internal fault. This problem can be overcome by
providing separate zone 1 distance-relays at each end. In the case shown, the zone 1
distance relay at A would see the fault and cause tripping at end A. End C would then no
longer see an external fault and the blocking signal is cancelled. The other ends are now
free to trip. However, because the blocking signal is maintained until end A has tripped,
tripping at the other ends is delayed by a time equal to the operating time of the circuit
breaker.

Thus, it can be concluded that for a difficult application of protection of feeder

circuits with tee-offs, the blocking system offers the best compromise.

4.5 Transformer Feeders

The protection of transformer feeders presents particular difficulties not
encountered in simple feeders. Consider the provision of unit protection between
breakers A and B, in figure 4-15.

Figure 4-15 TRANSFORMER FEEDER PROTECTION

In the case of an interturn fault in the transformer considerable energy is released
and vigorous gassing takes place which actuates the Buchholz relay which in turn trips
the local LV circuit breaker. There is no simple means of detecting this fault electrically,
because by transformer action the fault current which flows is very small, probably well
below normal load current. Nevertheless, the transformer must be disconnected from the
H.V. system before irreparable damage occurs.

In practice a straightforward method of protection in this case is deliberately to

apply an H.V. single-phase ground fault through a fault-making switch, which can then
be detected in the usual way.

An alternative solution is to arrange for the Buchholz relay to send a carrier Inter-
tripping signal to end B of the system. This arrangement results in very special problems
however, because no monitoring of the carrier signal at B is available for the simple
reason that the system appears normal from this end. This means that the carrier receiver

105
relay acts directly on the trip coil and the system is prone to mal operation if there is
abnormal carrier noise. It is well known that the worst noise is generated by the
operation of disconnect switches and isolators and theses occur many times more
frequently than faults. Typical precautions taken to ensure immunity against this high
intensity noise are to choose elaborate digital codes for the signal, to use frequency shift
modulation and to arrange for the tripping signal to become effective only after a
specified time duration, very often 100 ms or more. This final point is based on the fact
that the probability of noise intensity exceeding a given level is inversely proportional to
time. Successful schemes have been devised and are in fairly general use, but their
development was preceded by a very poor record of performance before the appropriate
design procedure had been established.

5. MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS

5.1 How Microprocessor Based Relays Detect Faults

Microprocessor based relays (numerical relays [3]) detect power system faults by
monitoring line end current and potential quantities to determine if the line is faulted
according to the rules of its protection algorithms and the user applied settings. The
numerical relay’s hardware provides the means with which to process the incoming
current and potential signals and provide the required input/output (I/O) capability. The
hardware of numerical relays is discussed in the following section. The software coding
or firmware applied to the numerical relay provides the signal processing methods and
protection algorithms required to process the incoming current and potential signals and
decide whether or not the relay should trip the circuit breaker.

A typical firmware block diagram is illustrated in Figure 5.1. The discrete line current
i[n] and potential v[n] signals are obtained form the relay hardware’s analogue to digital
(A/D) converter [4]. These discrete signals are processed numerically to filter out
undesirable signal components and extract signal quantities such as fundamental
frequency phasors, root-mean-square (RMS) magnitudes, and symmetrical component
phasors. Fundamental frequency phasors are the most common quantity of interest and
can be extracted using techniques such as the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) or
Walsh Functions [5]. Both RMS and symmetrical components are easily extracted using
well established procedures [6]. These various processed signal quantities are fed to the
protection algorithms to determine if the line is faulted.

106
 Firmware
Filtering &
Signal
Extraction
Protection Algorithm

i[n]
Digital
Protection
Signal Protection Logic
Elements
Processing Outputs
v[n]

User Applied User Applied

Settings Settings

Figure 5.1: A typical numerical relay firmware functional block diagram.

The relay’s protection algorithm can be subdivided into two distinct components which
include (1) the protection elements, and (2) the protection logic. The first component, the
protection elements, are functions which use the signal quantities discussed above to
determine if a specific threshold has been exceeded. The threshold level is usually
established by a user applied setting. Protection elements are generally two state devices.
If the element’s operating threshold is not exceeded, the element is said to be in the
“reset” state. If the threshold has been exceeded than the element is said to be in the
“operated” state. It should be pointed out that the “operation” of an element does not by
itself necessarily imply the relay will “trip” and the two terms should not be used
interchangeably.

The second major component of the protection algorithm, the protection logic, uses the
state of the individual protection elements along with basic logic gates, timers, and user
applied settings to decide if the relay should indeed trip. Protection logic is also used to
implement auxiliary functions such as loss of potential (LOP) and dead line pickup.

The two most common line protection elements are (1) level detection elements which
determine if a measured signal quantity is over or under a certain level, and (2) distance
elements which test if the line end apparent impedance phasor falls within a characteristic
shape in the resistance(R)-reactance(X) plane (R-X plane) [4]. Of the level detection and
distance element types just described, two stand out as being the most commonly
available and widely used in transmission line protection. These are the overcurrent level
detection element and the mho distance element.

107
 5.1.1 The Overcurrent Level Detection Element
The overcurrent level detection element is used to determine if the magnitude of a current
signal exceeds the threshold level established by the user applied setting. Overcurrent
elements that operate without intentional delay are referred to as “instantaneous” and
enter the “operate” state as soon as the magnitude of the measured current signal exceeds
the applied setting

. Time overcurrent elements start their operation when the applied setting is exceeded
but operate with a time delay that is determined by the particular time-current
characteristic. Figure 5.2 illustrates the process. Typical numerical relay overcurrent
elements operate on fundamental RMS current magnitude, true RMS current magnitude,
or positive, negative, or zero sequence symmetrical component RMS current magnitudes.
Figure 5.2: The numerical overcurrent level detection element.

User Applied
Setting Level

Current Signal Magnitude Instantaneous

Overcurrent Operate
|I|
Element Reset
User t=0
Time
Applied
Setting
Level

Time Operate Delay

Overcurrent
t=0 Reset
Element t=0
Time Time

User Applied
Setting Level

5.1.2 The Mho Distance Element

The mho distance element determines if the measured line end apparent impedance
phasor falls within a characteristic mho circle shape as shown below in Figure 5.3. The
mho element uses the line end current and potential phasors to measure the protected
line’s impedance from the relay location. Normal loading impedances will appear large
and plot far outside the mho circle. A line fault however will typically reduce the
impedance measured by the relay to some value less than the impedance of the line itself.
The size of the mho circle is determined by a user applied “reach” setting usually based
on a multiple of the protected transmission line’s positive sequence impedance.

In Figure 5.3, the mho circle size or “reach” of the element is set at 80% of the
transmission line impedance ZT-LINE. Line faults within 80% of the line length from the
relay location should cause the mho element to operate providing the fault resistance is

108
not excessive. Figure 5.3 shows impedance phasor ZLOAD plotted for a typical normal
load impedance, and phasor ZFAULT plotted for a

The Mho Distance Element

Current
| I| Reactance ZT-LINE
Phasor

| I| I Reach
I
Operate
Operate Reset
ZFAULT Reset
Potential t=0
| V|
Phasor Time
ZLOAD
V
| V|
V
Resistance
t=0

User Applied
Settings
Figure 5.3: A numerical mho distance element
typical fault. When a fault occurs, the impedance calculated by the relay does not
instantaneously change to the faulted impedance. The dashed line indicates a possible
numerical fault impedance trajectory from the load impedance phasor to the fault
impedance phasor. Real time is required for this measurement transition to take place
and is the cause of inherent delay from the time of fault incidence until the element
operates. Operation of the mho element occurs at t=0 when the measured impedance just
enters the mho circle.

Mho elements are generally not realized through an explicit Z=V/I apparent impedance
phasor calculation. Very commonly, numerical mho distance characteristics are
implemented by comparing the phase angle between derived “operating” and
“polarizing” phasors. The phase angle comparison based distance element operates if the
phase angle difference between the two phasors is within a defined range. By adjusting
the limits of the angle range different mho shapes can be realized including the lens and
tomato shapes. This approach has been widely used and is well documented [6].

Phase mho relays and ground mho relays are used to detect phase faults and ground faults
respectively. The reach setting for both phase and ground mho distance relays is set as a
multiple of the protected transmission lines positive sequence impedance. A ground mho
relay however requires unique compensation for the line it protects to allow it to correctly
measure the positive sequence impedance during ground faults [4], [6].

109
5.2 The Hardware Technology of Modern Numerical Transmission Line Protection

Most modern numerical protection relays are based upon similar hardware platforms.
The biggest differences between, various manufacturers’ relays is the firmware applied to
the relay as discussed in Section 5.1.

A generalized functional block diagram for a modern numerical relay is illustrated in

Figure 5.4. Analogue currents i(t) and potentials v(t) from the power system CTs and
PTs enter the relay and are reduced in magnitude to levels appropriate for electronic
equipment by means of the auxiliary input CTs and PTs.

The current and potential signals are next passed through the anti-aliasing filters. The
anti-aliasing filter is a low pass filter designed to attenuate frequency components in the
input signal which exceed one-half the relay’s sampling frequency (fs). The filter ensures
accurate sampling of the input signal according to the sampling theorem, by band limiting
the incoming signals to below one-half the sampling frequency. If the filter was not
included, frequency aliasing may occur if the input signal contains frequency components
which exceed one-half the sampling frequency. Power systems often have significant
levels of harmonics which could corrupt sampled current and potential signals if left
uncorrected.

Figure 5.4: A generalized hardware block diagram for a numerical relay.

110
 Hardware Firmware

i(t) Auxiliary
CTs Anti-
A/D 1/0
Aliasing Outputs
Converter
v(t) Auxilairy Filters
PTs
Processor

1/0 Status
Inputs Communication 1011010
Port

Memory

User
Settings

Magnitude (dB)

fi fs fa fs Frequency (Hz)
2

Anti-aliasing
filter

Figure 5.5: Frequency aliasing folds back frequencies exceeding fs/2.

Aliasing is the process whereby frequencies which exceed one-half the sampling
frequency (fs/2) fold back upon frequencies less than fs/2 as shown in Figure 5.5. The
higher frequency components mimic their associated low frequency components during
the sampling process which result in measurement errors. Any signal containing

111
frequency components less than fs/2 can be sampled without error. Signals containing
frequency components exceeding fs/2 will cause sampling errors if the high frequency
aliasing component (fa=fs-fi) which folds back upon the frequency of interest (fi) being
sampled is of significant magnitude. The anti-aliasing filter therefore prevents aliasing
errors by attenuating all frequencies exceeding fs/2.

After the anti-aliasing filters, the analogue current and potential signals are sampled and
converted to discrete signals in the A/D converter. These discrete signals are now ready
to be analyzed in the relay processor.

Modern numerical relays use either microprocessors or DSPs to perform the required
signal processing and protection algorithms. The relay firmware provides the
manufacturer’s unique instruction sets used by the processor to digitally process the
current and potential signals for quantities of interest and to implement the protection
algorithms. Numerical relays also require read/write memory to support the signal
processing and protection algorithms, and recording functions.

External events can be entered into the relay’s logic by connecting external contacts to
drive “status inputs”. When the processor determines that some action such as a trip must
be initiated, it does so through outputs which generally are in the form of either a high
speed electro-mechanical relay or a solid state switching device. The most modern
numerical relay platforms also offer I/O capability through data communication ports
using various communication protocols to connect to programmable logic controllers
(PLCs) or other intelligent electronic devices (IEDs).

REFERENCES
[1] A. R. van C. Warrington, “Protective Relays, their Theory and Practice”, vol. 2,
Chapman and Hall, London.
[2] C. R. Mason, “The Art and Science of Protective Relaying”, J. Whiley and Sons,
Inc., N. Y.
[3] T. E. Buchholzer, “Development and Validation of a Detailed Software Model for a
Numerical Line protection Relay”, Master of Science Thesis, U of M, Winnipeg, MB,
Canada.
[4] L. M. Wedepohl and R.G. Wasley, “Propagation of Carrier Signals in
Homogeneous, Non-homogeneous and Mixed Multi-conductor Systems”. Proc. I.E.E.,
3433P, Jan. 1968 (115, # 1, p.179).

[5] S.H. Horowitz and A.G. Phadke, “Power System Relaying”, Research
Studies Press Ltd., 1992.

[5] A.G. Phadke and J.S. Thorpe, “Computer relaying for Power Systems”, Research
Studies Press Ltd., 1988.

[6] J.L. Blackburn and W.A. Elmore, “Protective Relaying Theory and Applications”,
Chapters 2 & 6, Marcel Dekker Inc., 1988.

112
PART C - POWER SYSTEM MEASUREMENTS

1. Introduction

Definition: A Transducer is a device which, when actuated by energy in one system,

supplies energy in the same form or in another form to a secondary system.

The actuating system is the power system itself and the secondary system is the circuit in
which a relay or a meter is connected. Thus CT’s and VT’s are transducers and are
normally called instrument transformers.

Note that a passive relay derives operation energy as well as operating information from
transducers. Active relays (i.e. electronic ones) require only information and hence
impose a much lower load (i.e. burden) on transducers. In fact most of the problems of
non-faithful reproduction by transducers stem from the fact that there is a burden on
them. It seems likely that future CT’s, VT’s, etc. will be “active”, i.e. electronic, to
avoid such problems.

The main tasks of instrument transformers are:

- To transform currents, or voltages, from a high value to a value easy to handle for
relays and instruments.
- To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage.
- To provide possibilities of standardization, concerning instruments and relays, of
rated currents and voltages.
-
Instrument transformers are special types of transformer intended for measuring of
voltages and currents.

For instrument transformers, the common laws for transformers are valid.
For a short circuited CT: I1/I2 = N2/N1, or I1*N1 = I2*N2
This is ideally a short-circuited transformer where the secondary terminal voltage is zero
and the magnetizing current is negligible.
For an open circuit VT: E1/E2 = N1/N2, or E1*N2 = E2*N1
This is ideally a transformer under no-load condition, where the load current is zero and
the voltage drop only is caused by the magnetizing current and therefore is negligible.

2. Current Transformers
Equivalent Circuit
An adequate equivalent circuit for most two-winding transformers is:

113
For a CT, it is convenient to refer all exciting current to the secondary side:

Since IP is defined by the power system (i.e. the power system is an ideal current source
as far as the CT is concerned) the primary R and L are not relevant:

Secondary leakage reactance is negligible in bushing-type CT’s (i.e. straight-through

primary, the most common type) so we end up with:

Final Equivalent Circuit

Curves relating ie to ese for typical CT’s are given in CSA Standard C13, for example:

where Ese and ie are rms quantities of the non-sinusoidal ese(t) and ie(t). Phasor diagrams
have to be used with caution when non-sinusoidal quantities are involved, and there may
be no information as to the phase angle of ie. Practical tests would indicate that an
assumption of Ie lagging IP by 45° is a reasonable assumption:

Unsaturated CT Badly Saturated CT

At this stage two considerations have been ignored: d.c. offset of the current wave, and
remanent flux in the CT core. These “transient” effects are considered next.

114
2.1 Transient effects

2.1.1 DC current offset

System fault current may be “fully offset”:

115
This affects CT operation as follows,
Assumptions:
1) RS = 0
2) Xb = 0
3) Saturation does not occur
From the foregoing figure
i p = I pk (ε − t / T − cos ωt ) A
If saturation has not occurred, we can assume Ie to be negligible.
1
Thus is = i p amps
Ns

Rb
and thus e st = Rb i s =i p volts
Ns
Also, since in general flux induces voltage through
dφ
e=n
dt

1
NS ∫
φ= e st dtφ webers

where ф is the total core flux and Ns is the number of secondary turns.

Thus φ =
1 Rb
∫
Ns Ns
(
I p ε −t / T − cos ωt dt , or )

Rb I p 
φ = 2 
( )1 
T ε −t / T − 1 − sin ωt  … webers
ω
Ns  

when the initial condition φ (o) = 0 is applied. A plot of this equation (with the sign
changed) follows:

116
Due to secondary effects, the flux wave “recovers” as shown – but the problem is that it
may hit a saturation level in the first few cycles, when a relay may need correct
information. An “application procedure” due to Connor, Wentz, and Allen [1] describes
how a specified secondary voltage of many times normal (=”transient factor”) is
necessary in cases where the system L/R ratio is high, burden power factor is high,
number of required accurate cycles is high (or a combination of these.)

2.1.2 Residual flux

This effect can shift the whole foregoing curve up by фR, the residual flux, in the worst
case:

2.1.3 Measuring Error.

The current transformer burden consists of relays, instruments and cables. The induced
emf “Ese” required to achieve the secondary current “Is”, through the total burden
“Zs+Zb”, requires an excitation current “Ie”, which is taken from the primary side
current.
Nominal ratio Kn 5Ip/Is
We will get the real current ratio “Kd”,
Real ratio Kd= (Ip-Ie)/Is
The measuring error “ε” is defined as:
ε = (Kn*Is-Ip)*100/Ip

117
The error will appear, in both amplitude and phase. The error in amplitude is called
current, or ratio error. According to the definition, the current error is positive, if the
secondary current is higher than the rated current ratio.

The error in phase angle, is called phase error or phase displacement. The phase error is
positive, if the secondary current is leading the primary.

If the excitation current “Ie” is in phase with the secondary current “Is” (the maximun
error), the error “ε” can be expressed as:

ε = (Kd-Kn)*100/Kn = ((Ip-Ie)/Is-Ip/Is)*100/Ip/Is = Ie/Ip*100

The burden is defined in IEC 60044-1 as the power in VA that can be connected to a
current transformer at secondary rated current and at a given power factor (cos ω = 0.8 ).
The secondary rated current is standardized to 1 and 5 A.

2.1.4 Current Transformer Output

The output required of a CT core is dependent of the application and the type of load
connected to it.

2.1.5 Metering or Instruments

Equipment like kw, kVAr and A instruments or kwh and kVArh meters, measures under
normal load conditions. For metering cores a high accuracy for currents up to the rated
current (5-120%) is required. Accuracy classes for metering cores are 0.1 (laboratory),
0.2, 0.5 and 1 in the IEC standard and 0.3, 0.6 and 1.2 in the ANSI and CSA standards.

2.1.6 Protection and Disturbance Recording

In protection relays and disturbance recorders, a lower accuracy is required for the cores,
but also a high capability to transform high fault currents and to allow protection relays to
measure and disconnect the fault. Each current transformer can include a number of
cores. Three to six cores are normally available; two to four for protection purposes and
one to two for measuring purposes.

IEC 60044-1 Standard Accuracy Classification [2] are 5P and 10P. Further cores for
transient performance are defined in IEC 60044-6.

CSA Standard Accuracy Classification ( CSA CAN 3- C13-M83) [3]

% Error Volts @ 100A

2.5 10,20
 L 
10  50,100
200,400,800


118
For example: a 10L400 CT will develop 400 volts at 100 amps (20 times normal current)
with 10% or less error. Similarly, a 2.5L400 CT will develop 400 volts at 100 A (20
times normal current) with 2.5% or less error.

Thus a burden , RS , as high as 400V/91A = 4.4 Ω can be handled

3. Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVT’s)

Normal metering or relaying Capacitive Voltage Transformers [4], also called Capacitive
Potential Devices (CPD’s) are less expensive than electromagnetic voltage transformers
at voltages above 145 KV.

Unfortunately, from a relaying viewpoint, complications arise.

The basic device is:

For practical values of C1, C2 and Zb (burden impedance) the ratio is not accurate enough;
in other words there is poor impedance matching between 1/ωC2 and Zb, i.e. the
impedance Zb “loads” the divider.

This is overcome with a matching transformer and adjustable series reactor:

Let us examine the equivalent circuit, assuming for simplicity that the auxiliary
transformer is ideal and has a 1:1 ratio. Also, take the Thevenin Equivalent of the
divider-plus-source:

119
It can be seen from the following phasor diagram that Ls can be adjusted to “tune” the
circuit, i.e. make E2 in phase with E 2' , a necessary condition for phase-sensitive relays:

There are two complications: “subsidence” transient and ferroresonance.

3.1 Subsidence Transient

For a sudden voltage change, from a voltage peak, the energy stored in Ls and Lb (= ½ Li 2)
causes a transient, since a voltage peak of e2' corresponds roughly to a voltage peak on
capacitor C2. It turns out that this transient is the worst of the two and looks like this[5]:

This is called a SUBSIDENCE TRANSIENT and obviously could cause relay mal
operation. As shown in the above figure, increasing C2 will decrease this effect.
It can also be shown that increasing the matching transformer ratio (high no. of turns on
primary side) has a square law effect in reducing the subsidence transient amplitude. Of
course this also reduces that 60-Hz output voltage.

3.2 Ferroresonance
The only practical way of realizing a sufficiently high LS (tens of henries), is to use an
iron-cored inductor. Whenever one has an almost-tuned iron-cored-L (including
reflected burden inductance) and C electrically close in a circuit, there is always a danger
of the system jumping into a second stable state when sufficiently shocked: this is called
Ferroresonance.

To prevent it, most manufacturers presently use a “ferroresonant suppression system”,

comprised of a tuned circuit on the secondary side of the auxiliary transformer

120
The LF – CF circuit, tuned to 60 Hz, presents a low-impedance damping path to the
harmonics present during ferroresonance. The presence of these additional L’s and C’s
naturally leads to more transient errors, not easily discussed in general terms.
In summary from an applications point of view, one must keep in mind that high burden,
and low burden power factor both tend to result in a “subsidence transient” and its effect
on relay operation may be difficult to predict.

4. Electromagnetic Voltage Transformers

Ordinary electromagnetic voltage transformers (VT’s ) [6] also known as potential

transformers (PT’s) are more accurate than CVD’s, and less prone to transient errors.
Their drawback is expense, at voltages above say 145 KV and more prone to
Ferroresonance.

As far as relaying and metering applications are concerned, their use is comparatively
straightforward.

5. Optical CT’s and VT’s

The state of the art in instrument transformers is the use of optical technology. Optical
CT’s (also known as Electronic Current Transformers [7]) and VT’s (also known as
Electronic Voltage Transformers [8]) ranging from 69 kV to 765 kV are now available.
Typically, optical CTs use the Faraday effect and optical PTs use the Pockels effect to
derive highly accurate current and voltage measurements [9].
These new devices can be applied for both, relaying and metering applications. As all
new technology the cost of these devices is still high when compared with VT’s or
CVT’s.

REFERENCES

[1] Conner, E.E. Wentz, E.C., Allen, D.W.: “Methods for Estimating Transient
Performance of Practical Current Transformers for Relaying”, Trans. IEEE, vol,
PAS-94, no.1, Jan. – Feb.1975, p.116.
[2] Instrument Transformers- Part 1: Current Transformers, IEC 60044-1
Standard.
[3] Instrument Transformers, Canadian Standard (CSA CAN 3- C13-M83).
[4] Instrument Transformers-Part 3: Combined Transformers, IEC 60044-3 Standard.
[5] Sweetana, A, “Transient Response Characteristics of Capacitive Potential
Devices”, IEEE Trans. V. PAS-90, no. 5, Sept./Oct. 1971, p. 1989.

121
[6] Instruments Transformers- Part 2: Inductive Voltage Transformers, IEC 60044-2
Standard.
[7] Instrument Transformers - Part 8 – Electronic Current Transformers, IEC 60044-8
Standard.
[8] Instrument Transformers - Part 7 – Electronic Current Transformers, IEC 60044-7
Standard.
[9] www.nxtphase.com

122