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Events may be related in the active or the passive voice. In the passive, the person
or thing receivingthe action becomes the grammatical subject.
(Los eventos pueden estar relacionados en la voz activa o pasiva. En el pasivo, la persona o cosa que recibe la
acción se convierte en el sujeto gramatical.)
One forms the passive by conjugating the verb "to be" before the past participle of
the principal verb. the tense of the verb "to be" will determine the tense of action.
When an agent of the action (that is, the person or entity performing the action)
must be described, one does so by using the preposition "by":
Uno forma el pasivo al conjugar el verbo "ser" antes del participio pasado del verbo principal. el tiempo del
verbo "ser" determinará el tiempo de acción. Cuando un agente de la acción (es decir, la persona o entidad
que realiza la acción) debe describirse, uno lo hace al usar la preposición "por":
English uses the passive voice frequently, although it is best to avoid it when
possible. An option is to use an impersonal subject, such as "one" or "someone
El inglés usa la voz pasiva con frecuencia, aunque es mejor evitarla cuando sea posible. Una opción es usar un
tema impersonal, como "uno" o "alguien"
Adjectives are generally invariable in English and do not agree with nouns in
number and gender; nor do they take case endings:
a blue car
the great outdoors
a group of young women
She is an American student.
They go to a Catholic school.
They enjoy Breton music.
Usage
In a noun cluster an adjective will be placed, with very few exceptions, in front
of the noun it modifies. When two adjectives precede a noun, they can be
connected by a comma (,) or by the conjunction "and." In a series of three or more
adjectives, one usually uses "and" before the last adjective in the list.
Examples:
I like short novels.
That fellow will be a competent worker.
She writes long and flowery letters.
He works long, hard hours.
She had a mean, old and overbearing step-mother.
An adjective may follow the noun when it is in a predicate (after the verb) or in a
relative clause. (In relative clauses the relative pronoun may be implicit.)
Examples:
Related topics
Possession
In English possession may be expressed in five different ways:
Possessive adjectives
I –> my
you –> your
he, her, it –> his (masculine), her (feminine), its (impersonal)
we –> our
they –> their
So,
I have lost my keys.
They are coming in their car.
I met your grandparents.
This car has lost its power.
Note: In English the possessive adjective is used to refer to parts of the body:
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns, like the adjectives, agree with the person to whom they
refer. Singular and plural share the same form:
I –> mine
your –> yours
he, she, it –> his (masculine), hers (feminine), its (impersonal)
we –> ours
they –> theirs
So,
I have my likes, and she has hers.
If you give me one of yours, I'll give you one of mine.
I like our house, but frankly, I am jealous of theirs!
That's mine!
I just read Gustave's book.
The front door's lock is broken.
Many of the world's countries are poor.
Note: Do not confuse the "s" of possession with the contraction of the verb "is":
"Whose" will be placed before the possession (the object possessed), and will refer
ownership to the preceding noun:
The man whose dog bit me said he was sorry. (The dog belongs to the man.)
Here is the woman whose daughter I intend to marry.(The woman is the mother of
the daughter.)
Demonstrative adjectives have two singular forms (this, that) and two plural forms
(these, those). These adjectives are used to designate proximity to an object, or to
distinguish between an object that is close (in time or space) and one that is more
remote. Usually "this" and "these" signal proximity, while "that" and "those"
suggest distance:
These books are too expensive.
This car is responsive.
That man irritates me!
This hotel is more expensive than that one.
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns have the same form as the demonstrative adjectives, but
are used without the nouns to which they refer. In the singular, when designating a
specific object, the pronoun "one" is often added:
Relative pronouns
General information
Relative pronouns are used to join two sentences. For example, the following two
sentences,
According to the role it plays, the pronoun will take one of the following forms:
Subjects
When the antecedent is vague or totally absent, one uses "what" or (less
commonly) "that which":
Objects
The pronoun "whom" (in spoken language one often hears "who") expresses a
grammatical object when this object is a person; "that" or "which" are used
(indifferently by most speakers) to represent objects which are things, events,
situations, etc.
Note: Use of the relative pronoun is optional (except in the case of "what" or "that
which" when referring to specific antecedents); the same sentences as above may
be written correctly without the pronoun:
The pronoun "whose" expresses possession when the subject is a person; it will
often be replaced by "of which" if it refers to an object, an event, etc.:
Prepositional objects
In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the clause.
Moreover, with the pronoun " what" this structure is required, even in written
English:
Time
The pronoun "when" is used with nouns indicating time. However, it is rarely
necessary to include this pronoun, and it is often omitted:
Space
When more specific prepositions (such as "on," "under,", etc.) are not necessary,
the general pronoun "where" will suffice:
Here's the house where my parents were born.
She doesn't know where she's going.
Personal pronouns
The following are the different forms for personal pronouns in English:
person subject object1st I me2nd you you3rd it, he, she it, him, her1st plural we us3rd plural they
them
Subject pronouns reflect the nouns they replace. Since English nouns rarely show
gender, the pronouns "he" and "she" are generally used only for people or
animals; in the case of objects or impersonal expressions, the pronoun "it" will be
used.
Examples:
She wants to eat.
You look tired.
It is hard to cook well.
Predicate pronouns will always have the same form whether they are used as
direct, indirect, or prepositional objects. The forms are: "me", "you", "it", "him",
"her", " us", "them".
Indirect objects will generally come after the proposition "to," except if the
pronoun precedes the direct object, in which case the proposition "to" disappears:
Order of pronouns
Examples:
Exception: As noted above, one may omit the preposition "to" in front of an
indirect object, in which case the indirect object pronoun precedes the direct object:
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used to show that the actions described by a verb act upon
the subject of the verb: the subject and the object are thus the same. The forms of
reflexive pronouns correspond to the forms of the subject pronouns:
I –> myself
you (singular) –> yourself
you (plural) –> yourselves
he –> himself
she –> herself
it –> itself
we –> ourselves
they –> themselves
To use a verb reflexively, the reflexive pronoun must follow the verb (and, in the
case of an intransitive verb, it will follow any preposition used with the verb). If
there are multiple verbs in the sentence, the reflexive pronoun follows the verb to
which it applies:
OBJECT PRONOUN
The following are the different forms for personal pronouns in English:
person subject object1st I me2nd you you3rd it, he, she it, him, her1st plural we us3rd plural they
them
Subject pronouns reflect the nouns they replace. Since English nouns rarely show
gender, the pronouns "he" and "she" are generally used only for people or
animals; in the case of objects or impersonal expressions, the pronoun "it" will be
used.
Examples:
She wants to eat.
You look tired.
It is hard to cook well.
Predicate pronouns will always have the same form whether they are used as
direct, indirect, or prepositional objects. The forms are: "me", "you", "it", "him",
"her", " us", "them".
Indirect objects will generally come after the proposition "to," except if the
pronoun precedes the direct object, in which case the proposition "to" disappears:
I have spoken to her.
I gave this present to them.
But: I gave them this present.
Order of pronouns
Examples:
Exception: As noted above, one may omit the preposition "to" in front of an
indirect object, in which case the indirect object pronoun precedes the direct object:
Reciprocal pronouns
To show that two people, represented by a single grammatical subject, are acting
on each other, one uses the reciprocal pronouns "one another" or "each other".
Demonstrative adjectives have two singular forms (this, that) and two plural forms
(these, those). These adjectives are used to designate proximity to an object, or to
distinguish between an object that is close (in time or space) and one that is more
remote. Usually "this" and "these" signal proximity, while "that" and "those"
suggest distance:
These books are too expensive.
This car is responsive.
That man irritates me!
This hotel is more expensive than that one.
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns have the same form as the demonstrative adjectives, but
are used without the nouns to which they refer. In the singular, when designating a
specific object, the pronoun "one" is often added:
Comparatives
General principles
superiority more+term1 than+term2inferiority less+term1 than+term2eq.
(adj/adv) as+term1 as+term2equality(nouns) as much+term1 as+term2
Note: Certain common adjectives, and adverbs that do not end in –ly, omit
“more�? and take the ending –er. Thus fast –> faster; big –> bigger, small –>
smaller, etc.
Adjectives
Adverbs
Nouns
Verbs
Related topics
Superlatives
General principles
A. While the word "more" or the ending "–er" signals the comparative, it is the
word "most" or the ending "–est" that designates the superlative. (See irregular
forms, below):
B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article:
B. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one
uses "of," followed by the context of the comparison (although this context is
sometimes implicit):
first
last
Adverbs not ending in "–ly" do not use the adverb "–most" in the formation of
superlatives of superiority, but use instead the ending "–est." However, these
same adverbs will use "less," like other adverbs, in superlatives of inferiority:
1. Most adverbs are formed from the adjective. One adds the ending "–ly" to the
adjectival form:
A. If the adjective ends with "–le," simply replace the "e" with "y":
high
low
hard
better
fast
D. In general, adverbs of time and space have no corresponding adjective; the
same can be said of adverbs of quantity:
yesterday
today
tomorrow
early
soon
late
here
there
less
more
as
very
much
a lot of
little of
Position
When an adverb modifies a verb, it generally comes at the end of the clause (but
before any prepositional phrases or subordinated clauses):
He writes poorly.
She pronounced that word well..
Joseph worked diligently.
They worked hard before coming home.
Adverbs of time and space generally come at the end of the sentence; however,
they may be placed at the beginning of the sentence if the predicate clause is long
and complicated:
I saw her yesterday.
We're going to the beach today.
She went to bed very early.
Tomorrow we will try to get up early to prepare for our trip.
The definite article "the" (invariable in form) designates a person, place, or event
which has been specified or defined by the speaker:
Here's the book I bought.
The cat is on the roof.
He said he would bring the money.
1. As a general rule, the definite article is omitted before abstract nouns or nouns
representing general categories. It is often omitted after verbs expressing opinions
or preferences:
2. Generally, the article is omitted before days of the week and dates:
3. Generally, the article is omitted before names of countries, states, cities, and
regions:
Exception: Some names actually include the definite article, such as The Hague.
The use of the definite article does not change in interrogatives and negatives.
Indefinite articles
The indefinite article has two forms: before singular nouns one uses "a" (or "an"
before most vowels); before plural nouns one uses "some":
a cat
an accident
some dogs
But: before vowels producing a "y" sound (as in "you"), "a" is used, rather than
"an":
a unit
not a one
a unicorn
As a general rule, the indefinite article signals a person, thing or event that has not
been clearly defined by the speaker. It does not indicate a specific objection (which
is the role of the definite article); rather, it indicates any one object out of many
possible ones (in the singular), or any assortment or quantity from many possible
assortments or quantities (in the plural). It is often used after verbs of possession
or consumption:
In the negative, the plural indefinite article changes: "some" is generally replaced
by "any" (this change also occurs in negative questions):
Do you have some time?
We're going to buy some milk.
I heard some bad news.
She has some money to spend.
Would you like some help ?
The word "any" is not strictly necessary in the negative, and it may often be
omitted:
Causative constructions
When one does not carry out an action oneself but rather has the action done by
someone else, this is expressed by a causative construction. In English it is the
verb "to have" that introduces the causative. The model will generally be: "to
have" (conjugated)+ direct object (noun or pronoun)+ principal verb(in its past
participle form):
We'll have a monument erected on this site.
I had my hair cut.
When one wishes to designate the agent of the action (the person who has carried
out the described action), there are two possibilities:
Note: Especially in spoken English, the verb "to get" often replaces "to have," in
which case "to" is added to the infinitive (but not before past participles). This
construction also suggests that it may be (or have been) difficult to produce a
certain reaction on the part of the agent:
That letter made her sad.
He makes me furious!
That new problem made negotiations really hard
Conditional
The conditional is formed using the modal "would" in front of an infinitive (dropping
the word "to"). The conditional is used especially in three contexts
1) Politeness
3) In hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the preterit or the
subjunctive, the conditional is expected in the second clause:
When one paraphrases the words of others, writing them so as to avoid direct
quotation, this is called "indirect discourse." Indirect discourse entails certain
changes:
D. When a quotation is put in indirect discourse, care must be taken to verify that
verb tenses reflect the change in temporal context:
Near future
Especially in spoken English one finds the near future used as a way of describing
imminent events. Strictly speaking, the near future is not a future tense, for it is
formed by combining the present tense of the verb "to go," conjugated in
the present progressive, with the infinitive of the principal verb.
One can also conjugate these forms in the past progressive in order to express a
"future within the past":
Future perfect
Relatively rare in English, the future perfect serves to express one future action
which precedes a future moment or another future action. Moreover, it asserts that
these actions will be completed before the principal action. It is formed by adding
the modal "will" al auxiliary "have," preceding the past participle:
She will have finished before eight o'clock.
Tomorrow morning they will all have left.
They will already have finished eating by the time we get there.
One can often use the simple future instead of the future perfect, but a nuance is
lost: the simple future does not emphasize the completion of the first action:
Tomorrow morning they will all leave. (The future perfect would emphasize
that they will already have departed before tomorrow morning.)
They will finish eating by the time we get there. (They may finish just as we
arrive; the future perfect would emphasize that they will have finished before we
arrive.)
What shall I do ?
Note: this usage of "shall" to indicate the future is different from the commonplace
usage of " shall" to indicate desire or wishes. See modal verbs.
Auxiliary verbs
An auxiliary verb ("helping" verb) is combined with the principal verb to form certain
tenses or moods. (See also the modal verbs, which nuance the meaning of the
verbs they accompany.) The only true auxiliary verbs in English are "to be", "to
have" and "to do".
"To be" is an auxiliary verb for the progressive tenses (See the present
progressive, the past progressive, the future progressive):
I am going home.
She was fishing with her father.
We will be calling on you later.
"To have" is an auxiliary verb for the perfect tenses, including the present
perfect, the present perfect progressive, the pluperfect, the future perfect, the past
conditional:
We have finished.
They hadn't waited for us.
Modal verbs
General principles
The auxiliary modals "would", "may", "might", "should", " must", "ought to",
"can", "could", "will", "shall" are invariable. They exist only in the present, and
unlike most verbs in the simple present, their form does not change in the third
person singular.
Modal verbs are auxiliaries, or "helping" verbs: they are used in conjunction with
another verb (in infinitive form) as a way to modify its meaning. Modals can nuance
the meaning of the principal verb in a number of ways:
– Possibility or ability, by "can" or "could"
Contractions
After a pronoun subject, "would" is often contracted into "–'d" ("I'd", " we'd",
"she'd", etc.) while "will" is contracted into "–'ll" (" I'll", "you'll", "they'll", etc.).
After all modal verbs, the word " not" of the negative can be contracted into "–n't"
("wouldn't", " shouldn't", etc.).
Exceptions: "will not" becomes "won't". "Can not" can also be written "cannot";
in its contracted form, the "n" is not doubled: "can't".
examples of contractions:
The modal verb used in the interrogative tag is generally the same as the modal
found in the main clause; the subject pronoun is also repeated.
Related topics
Conditional
The conditional is formed using the modal "would" in front of an infinitive (dropping
the word "to"). The conditional is used especially in three contexts
1) Politeness
3) In hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the preterit or the
subjunctive, the conditional is expected in the second clause:
The subjunctive
The subjunctive is used only in select phrases or situations in English. One finds
vestiges of it in certain hypothetical expressions (using "if + to be") and in certain
set phrases. (In many cases the subjunctive — considered archaic or literary — is
replaced by the modal "would," used to express the conditional.) Other meanings
often communicated by the subjunctive in other languages will be expressed
by modalverbs in English.
In constructions using "if + to be" the subjunctive will amount to using the form
"were" (instead of "was") with the first and third persons singular ("I" and "he,"
" she," or "it"). (In spoken English, and in much informal writing, "was" will still be
used.)
God help us!
Long live the king!
Would that I were free!
Questions
Simple questions
Simple questions (that is, questions to which one can respond by a simple "yes" or
"no") may be formed in three different ways:
1. "Do": one precedes an assertion with "do" or "does" (or " don't" or "doesn't" for
a negative expression, or "did", "didn't" for the past):
But: One never places "do" or "does" before the verb "to be" or before modal
verbs in questions; in this case it is preferable to invert the subject and verb:
2. Inversion: with certain verbs (especially the verbs "to be", "to do", " to have"
and modal verbs) questions are formed by inverting the subject and object. (In the
case of the verb "to have," which is usually combined with "do" in interrogatives,
inversion signals a literary style.)
Is Jack home?
Have you nothing to declare?
Would you like to go to the movies?
Will they ever come to visit?
Can the employees talk to the boss?
Won't you sit down?
In the case of a negative question, the modal phrase would be in the affirmative:
You wouldn't want to try it, would you ?
She won't be back, will she?
(See also: negations)
Interrogative adverbs
Interrogative pronouns
One chooses the pronoun based on its function, according to the following table:
What interests you?
What is good in this restaurant?
Note: In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the
sentence, in which case one uses " who" instead of "whom"
Note: In spoken English, the preposition is often put at the end of the sentence:
The adjective "which" and its pronominal forms ("which", "which one", " which
ones") ask that a person make a choice. Usually these pronouns will be placed at
the beginning of the sentence; then the order of the sentence follows the rules
indicated for inversion o para question formed with "do / does".
Negation
"Not"
The most common way to put a phrase in the negative is by using "not." Generally,
"not" must follow an auxiliary verb ("to be", "to do") or a modal ("shall", "must",
"might", "will", etc.), even if this verb adds no meaning to the sentence. When no
other modal is present or appropriate, the verb " to do" is used.
Here are some sample phrases in both affirmative and negative form:
I want to play the piano. –> I do not want to play the piano.
He will arrive on time. –> He will not arrive on time.
They should go out together. –> They should not go out together.
Questions
The same structure (placing "not" after the verb) will hold for questions:
Note: If one chooses not contract "not" to "–n't", the adverb "not" will be placed
after the subject in the question. This style is considered literary:
Is it not time to leave.
Would you not care for a drink?
Using "not" instead of the contraction can produce certain stylistic effects:
"He will not come to your house" is stronger than "He won't come to your house"
Negative constructions
Other negative constructions are possible. Because English does not allow double
or triple negatives, it is important to avoid using "not" with other negative
constructions. When "not" is included, use the affirmative forms of other adverbs:
No one called tonight.
I do n't want to see anyone tonight.
He does nothing at all.
Ca n't you do anything right?
Neither... nor...
Nouns
Gender
In English nouns rarely change form, even to indicate gender. As a general rule,
only nouns referring to people and some animals reflect gender in their form. By
the same token, unlike many other languages, the adjectives modifying nouns will
remain unchanged.
Example:
man — woman
gentleman — lady
actor — actress
uncle — aunt
father — mother
a buck, a doe
a ram, a ewe
a bull, a cow
a stallion, a mare
a female cat
a male giraffe
Note: If the gender of the person or animal is known, one will generally use the
pronoun "he" or "she" to refer to it, as appropriate. When the gender is left
unstated, the pronoun "he" is generally used when speaking of people, or "it" when
speaking of animals. Some objects are also considered to be gendered in certain
usages: some people may refer to a boat or a car as "she."
Plurals
As a general rule, the plural is formed by adding "-s" to the singular form of nouns.
Nouns ending in "s" or "s" will generally take the ending "-es" :
Words ending in "y" will generally take the ending "-ies" in place of the "y":
Words of Greek or Latin origin which have retained their original endings will
generally take the plural form associated with the language they are drawn from:
Capital letters
Certain nouns are generally capitalized, including: days of the week and months;
names of holidays, cities (or states, etc.) and religions; nouns of nationality:
Minneapolis
Jewish
Monday
April
The imperative
Imperatives are used to issue commands. They use the infinitive of verbs (dropping
the word "to"); in the first person plural ("we"), the infinitive is preceded by "let's"
(or: "let us"):
Speak!
Finish your homework!
Let's eat!
Close the door!
The negative imperative is formed by placing "don't" (or "do not") before the
imperative form; in the first person plural one uses "let's not" (or "let us not"):
The imperative has no effect on the word order of the rest of the sentence
Present participles
Formation
Use
That's an interesting book.
That tree is a weeping willow.
B. The present participle can be used as a noun denoting an activity (this form is
also called a gerund):
C. The present participle can indicate an action that is taking place, although it
cannot stand by itself as a verb. In these cases it generally modifies a noun (or
pronoun), an adverb, or a past participle:
I am eating my dinner.
He was walking across the park.
We will be calling you tomorrow.
E. The present participle may be used with "while" or "by" to express an idea of
simultaneity ("while") or causality ("by"):
F. The present participle of the auxiliary "have" may be used with the past
participle to describe a past condition resulting in another action:
The preterit
As a general rule, the preterit is formed by adding the ending "–ed" to the infinitive
(dropping any unpronounced "e" in final position, and changing any final "y" to "i"):
(For a complete list of this irregular forms, see Irregular preterits and past
participles).
Usage
The preterit expresses actions which were completed in the past. Unlike those
described by the present perfect, these actions do not continue in the present.
Unlike the past progressive, the preterit does not describe the process or duration
of actions: it states them only as completed actions:
The duration of the action is of no importance: the preterit may describe an action
lasting an instant or many years. Thus verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession,
location, etc. will often be expressed in the preterit:
Past conditional
The past conditional is expressed using the modal "would" before a past infinitive
(= "have" + past participle). This construction serves to express missed
opportunities and past hypotheses:
She told me that she would have liked to come and see us.
In your position, I would have done the same thing.
One finds it often in hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the
pluperfect, the conditional past is expected in the second clause:
Note: In certain regions (principally in the United States) one hears the conditional
past in both clauses of hypothetical expressions:
Past progressive
The past progressive is a past tense which emphasizes the ongoing nature of the
action described. It is formed by using the auxiliary "to be" with the present
participle:
I was working.
He was eating his dinner when the phone rang.
The cat was meowing last night while we tried to sleep.
Normally, if an idea could be expressed with the expression "was in the process of
doing" or with "was in the midst of doing," the past progressive will be more
appropriate than the simple past. Consequently, verbs indicating belief, emotion,
possession, etc., are rarely conjugated in the past progressive:
I thought that was right. ["I was in the process of thinking..." would be
awkward.]
Cheryl owned her own house. ["Cheryl was in the midst of owning..." would
be awkward.]
Note: Do not use the past progressive in order to describe habitual actions in the
past.
Pluperfect
The pluperfect is formed with the preterit of the auxiliary "to have," followed by
the past participle of the principle verb:
Usage
The pluperfect expresses the precedence of one action compared to another. The
earlier action will be described by the pluperfect; the later will generally be
described by the preterit. When one action precedes another, the pluperfect is not
absolutely necessary. Witness this sentence, which provides a list of actions in
chronological order (all expressed by the preterit):
It is usually only when one seeks to emphasize the precedence of one action that
the pluperfect will be used. Often one finds such adverbs as "already," which
reinforces the impression of precedence.
She learned to love the dog that had bitten her the week before.
When I got home, I had already heard the bad news.
The children ate all the cookies that their father had bought.
She had already thought of that.
With the adverb "just" the pluperfect indicates the immediate past in a past context:
Prepositions
Space
In their simplest form, prepositions are used to indicate position (in time or space)
of one thing with respect to another:
Usage of prepositions
The use of prepositions is one of the most complex aspects of English, and it is
impossible to cover all cases. Some general guidelines, however, may be helpful.
Geography
Transportation
As a general rule, the preposition "by" is used to describe how one has traveled.
The prepositions "in" and "on" describe one's presence inside a vehicle. In the
case of small vehicles (a car, a helicopter...), the preposition "in" is required:
I came by bike.
Traveling by plane is my favorite.
I was already on ( in) the train when he arrived.
She is waiting for me in the car.
Time
My birthday is in September.
We will begin work in August.
To express duration, the preposition "for" is used; "in" can be used to express the
time it will take to complete a task:
Indirect objects
Examples:
or:
This can also be seen in certain phrases in which the direct object is implicit.
I already told it to him.
But: I already told him (the news).
Examples:
to wait for
to look for
to look at
to listen to
to pay for
to ask for
to be happy with something
to be mad at (or: with) someone
to depend on
to be interested in
to thank fort
to be busy with
Sample sentences:
Prepositional Verbs
Single preposition verbs
Sentence structure
When the sentence includes a noun object, the object will follow the preposition; if
the object is replaced by a pronoun, the pronoun precedes the preposition:
Sentence structure
When the verb is followed by two prepositions, the object follows the two
prepositions, whether the object is a noun or a pronoun:
How can you put up with him?
Bill should not go out with Monica.
Present perfect
General principles
The present perfect describes an action or emotion which began in the past and
which continues in the present. It is formed by using the auxilary "to have" with
the participle:
After such expressions as "since", "for", "howlong", etc., one generally uses the
present perfect or even the present perfect progressive:
In the negative, the present perfect expresses and action which has not yet
occurred:
Recent past
In conjunction with the word "just", the present perfect or the preterit can be used
to express the recent past:
Note: do not confuse this use of "just" (which indicates the recent past) with "just
about", which indicates, to the contrary, something which will happen in the near
future:
I have just about finished. (= I have almost finished; I will finish soon.)
I work at home.
Politics are a dirty business.
Jill speaks four languages fluently.
On Sundays, we like to fish.
In the interrogative, the present is generally introduced by a form of the verb "to
do" ("do / does"):
The appropriate form of the verb "to do" will also be used for the negative:
After the conjunctions "when," "as soon as," etc., the present is used, even
though actions expressed may refer to the future:
The present is extremely regular in its conjugation. As a general rule, one uses the
base form of the infinitive (minus the preposition "to"). For the third person singular
("he," "she," "it"), an "-s" is added if the verb ends in a consonant, or "-es" if the
verb ends with a vowel:
To work
I work
you work
he / she / it works
we work
they work
To go
I go
you go
he / she / it goes
we go
they go
However: verbs ending with "consonant + y" (for example, "to try," "to cry," " to
bury," etc.) will end in "-ies" in the third person singular:
To bury
I bury
you bury
he / she buries
we bury
they bury
The only irregular verbs in the present are "to have," "to be," and the modal verbs.
To have
I have
you have
he / she has
we have
they have
To be
I am
you are
he / she is
we are
they are
Future progressive
The future progressive serves to express an action which will be in the process of
occurring. It is formed by putting the present progressive into the future: will be +
present participle.
Hint for usage: How to choose between the future progressive and the simple
future? If it is possible to use the expression "will be in the process of," it is the
future progressive that best expresses the action. The future progressive indicates
that an action will be continuing at a given moment; the simple future suggests that
the action will be complete. Thus the verb tense can nuance meaning. Consider
these sentences, both of which are grammatically correct:
Present progressive
General principles
The present progressive is a version of the present which emphasizes the fact that
an action is still unfolding (or is continuing) at the time one speaks. It is formed by
using the auxilary "to be" with the present participle:
I am working.
He is eating his dinner.
The cat is meowing.
Usually, the present progressive indicates that one is "in the process of" or "in
the midst of" doing something. If this is the idea one wishes to communicate, the
present progressive will be preferable to the simple present. If you cannot replace
the verb by a form of "to be in the process of", the present progressive should
probably not be used. Indications of emotion, belief, and possession are rarely
conjugated in the present progressive:
In certain situations the present progressive can indicate an action which will take
place in the immediate future:
I am going to the movies this evening.
They are leaving tomorrow.
Near future
To emphasize the idea of future action while using the present tense, one may use
the verb "to go"; it indicates what one is going to do. In this case the principle verb
remains in the infinitive:
Note: The near future can also be used in past constructions, in which case the
verb "to go" is conjugated in the past progressive:
The subjunctive
The subjunctive is used only in select phrases or situations in English. One finds
vestiges of it in certain hypothetical expressions (using "if + to be") and in certain
set phrases. (In many cases the subjunctive — considered archaic or literary — is
replaced by the modal "would," used to express the conditional.) Other meanings
often communicated by the subjunctive in other languages will be expressed
by modalverbs in English.
In constructions using "if + to be" the subjunctive will amount to using the form
"were" (instead of "was") with the first and third persons singular ("I" and "he,"
" she," or "it"). (In spoken English, and in much informal writing, "was" will still be
used.)
God help us!
Long live the king!
Would that I were free
Superlatives
General principles
A. While the word "more" or the ending "–er" signals the comparative, it is the
word "most" or the ending "–est" that designates the superlative. (See irregular
forms, below):
B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article:
B. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one
uses "of," followed by the context of the comparison (although this context is
sometimes implicit):
first
last
Adverbs not ending in "–ly" do not use the adverb "–most" in the formation of
superlatives of superiority, but use instead the ending "–est." However, these
same adverbs will use "less," like other adverbs, in superlatives of inferiority:
It would be impossible to list all such verbs here (but you will find them in the
dictionary itself). These examples will suffice to provide an illustration of the
principle:
Sentence structure
When the sentence includes a noun object, the object will follow the preposition; if
the object is replaced by a pronoun, the pronoun precedes the preposition:
Sentence structure
When the verb is followed by two prepositions, the object follows the two
prepositions, whether the object is a noun or a pronoun:
Verbs
Verb conjugations reflect three elements: the subject, the tense, and the mood.
The subject may be singular or plural and may be in the first person ("I" or "we"), in
the second person ("you"), or in the third person "he," she," "it," or "they"). Verb
tenses include different forms of the past, present and future. The term "mood"
refers, generally, to the attitude of the speaker toward his subject. The different
moods include the indicative, the subjunctive (rare in English), the conditional, and
the imperative.
Examples:
to wait for
to look for
to look at
to listen to
to pay for
to ask for
to be happy with something
to be mad at (or: with) someone
to depend on
to be interested in
to thank fort
to be busy with
Sample sentences: