Estudio de Las Condiciones de Sacrificio Y Obtención de Carne de Corderos de Pelo Cruzados Con Razas Criollas Colombianas

ESTUDIO DE LAS CONDICIONES DE SACRIFICIO Y OBTENCIN DE CARNE DE CORDEROS DE PELO CRUZADOS CON RAZAS CRIOLLAS COLOMBIANAS
IVN CAMILO SNCHEZ BARRERA
Universidad Nacional de Colombia Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias Medelln, Colombia 2011
STUDY OF THE SLAUGHTER CONDITIONS AND MEAT OBTAINING OF HAIR LAMBS FROM CROSSES WITH COLOMBIAN BREEDS
IVN CAMILO SNCHEZ BARRERA
ESTUDIO DE LAS CONDICIONES DE SACRIFICIO Y OBTENCIN DE CARNE DE CORDEROS DE PELO CRUZADOS CON RAZAS CRIOLLAS COLOMBIANAS
IVAN CAMILO SANCHEZ BARRERA
Tesis o trabajo de investigacin presentada(o) como requisito parcial para optar al ttulo de: Magister en Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos
Director (a): Ph.D. William Albarracn Hernndez
Lnea de Investigacin: Tecnologa de Alimentos Grupo de Investigacin: Aseguramiento de la calidad de alimentos y desarrollo de nuevos productos
Dedico este proyecto a mi pap que desde el cielo me cuid. A mi mam que con sus conocimientos y experiencias me han hecho crecer. A mi hermano por su paciencia y acompaamiento incondicional. A ngela por su compaa constante.
Agradecimientos
Especiales agradecimientos al instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos (ICTA), por facilitar las instalaciones necesarias para el desarrollo de este trabajo.
A la Direccin de Investigacin de la sede Bogot (DIB), por financiar este estudio.
Al criadero de ovinos La Primavera Enrique y Alejandro Uribe, por brindar los animales necesarios para este estudio.
A los laboratorios de fisiologa animal con direccin del Doctor Manuel Rojas Barreto; laboratorio clnico con direccin del Doctor Carlos Moreno; laboratorio de anlisis sensorial del departamento de Qumica con direccin de la profesora Patricia Restrepo; laboratorio de microbiologa de alimentos del ICTA con direccin de la profesora Martha Holgun y dems laboratorios del ICTA.
A los tcnicos, operarios, pasantes y monitores de la planta piloto de carnes por su apoyo en las diferentes actividades especialmente a Genaro Escarraga.
Al Doctor William Albarracn, por su constante apoyo, revisin y gua en el desarrollo profesional.
Resumen y Abstract
XI
Resumen
El sacrificio es la muerte profesional e indolora de un animal destinado para el consumo humano, con operaciones de descanso, aturdimiento y desangrado adecuados, donde el animal sea expuesto a un nivel bajo de estrs haciendo humanitaria su muerte. La primera fase de este trabajo consisti en variar el sistema de alimentacin (pastoreo y semipastoreo), los tiempos de ayuno (6, 12 y 18 horas) y el tipo de aturdimiento (perno cautivo penetrante y electronarcosis) en 60 corderos de 10 2 semanas de corderos de pelo cruzados con razas criollas colombianas, donde se evalu la efectividad de los mtodos de aturdimiento mediante la interpretacin y uso de electroencefalogramas, niveles de glucosa y mediciones de rendimientos de canal; encontrndose que el poder de espectro encefalogrfico de animales aturdidos con perno cautivo penetrante no presenta diferencias significativas respecto a un patrn de animal despierto, mientras que los animales aturdidos por electronarcosis presentaron una disminucin en el patrn de ondas delta indicando que solo en los animales aturdidos por electronarcosis presentaron un cambio en su actividad cerebral durante el aturdimiento; solo se presentaron diferencias significativas en los niveles de glucosa post-mortem, rendimientos de canal, vsceras y pH respecto al tiempo de ayuno. En la segunda fase, se evalu la maduracin del musculo longissimus dorsi de los animales sacrificados en la primera fase, respecto a las medidas instrumentales de textura (TPA, WB), color (L*, a*, b*) y olor (Huella aromtica) y evaluaciones sensoriales (panel entrenado) durante 0, 7 y 15 das de maduracin encontrndose instrumentalmente que partir del da 7 de
maduracin los cambios en los parmetros medidos no presentaron diferencias significativas (p>0.05). Respecto al anlisis sensorial, empleando las consideraciones del artculo de revisin, los panelistas fueron capaces de diferenciar solo una maduracin hasta el da 7 de maduracin como lo encontrado instrumentalmente.
Palabras clave: Corderos, Sacrificio, aturdimiento, maduracin, carne, anlisis sensorial, anlisis instrumental.
XII
Estudio de las condiciones de sacrificio y obtencin de carne de corderos cruzados con razas criollas colombianas
Resumen y abstract
XIII
Abstract
Slaughter is the professional and painless death of an animal destined for human consumption, with operations of rest, stunning and bleeding, where the animal is exposed to a low level of stress making humanitarian his death. The first phase of this work was vary the feeding system (grazing and semi-feedlot),fasting periods (6, 12 and 18 hours) and stunning (electrical and penetrating captive bolt) in 60 lambs of 10 2 weeks of hair lambs crosses with Colombian breeds, where was evaluated the effectiveness of stunning methods through the interpretation and use of electroencephalograms, blood glucose levels and carcass yield measurements; founding that the electroencephalogram spectrum power of animals stunned with penetrating captive bolt were not significantly differences to a pattern of an animal waking, while animals stunned by electrical shock showed a decrease in delta wave pattern indicating that only in animals stunned by electrical shock had a change in brain activity during stunning; only were significant differences in postmortem blood glucose levels, carcass yield, viscera and pH for fasting periods. In the second phase, maturation was evaluated of the longissimus dorsi muscle from animals slaughtered in the first phase, respect to instrumental measurements of texture (TPA, WB), colour (L*, a*, b*) and odour (aromatic footprint) and sensory evaluation (trained panel) for 0, 7 and 15 days of ageing, founding that instrumentally from day 7 of ageing changes in the measured parameters showed no significant differences (p> 0.05). Regarding the sensory analysis, using the considerations that the review article, the panelists were able to differentiate only aged until day 7 of ageing as found instrumentally. Keywords: Lambs, Slaughter, stunning, ageing, meat, sensory analysis,
instrumental analysis.
Contenido
XV
Contenido
Pg. Resumen .........................................................................................................................XI Abstract.........................................................................................................................XIII Lista de figuras ............................................................................................................ XIX Lista de tablas ............................................................................................................. XXI Introduccin .................................................................................................................... 1 1. Anlisis sensorial en carne ..................................................................................... 9 1.1 Introduccin ................................................................................................... 11 1.2 Pruebas afectivas y analticas........................................................................ 12 1.3 Entrenamiento y seleccin de paneles sensoriales ........................................ 15 1.4 Atributos y descriptores usados en carnes..................................................... 17 1.5 Preparacin de muestras de carne y productos crnicos para anlisis sensorial................................................................................................................... 20 1.6 Mtodos estadsticos ..................................................................................... 23 1.7 Correlaciones de anlisis sensorial ................................................................ 25 1.8 Conclusin ..................................................................................................... 28 1.9 Referencias ................................................................................................... 28 1.10 Instrucciones para los autores en la revista colombiana de ciencias pecuarias (RCCP) .................................................................................................................... 40 1.10.1 Artculo original. .................................................................................. 41 1.10.2 Revisiones de literatura y ensayos. ..................................................... 45 1.10.3 Redaccin y citacin de las referencias............................................... 45 1.11 Constancia de evaluacin y aceptacin ......................................................... 47 Electroencephalogram spectral power in sheep after stunning ......................... 49 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 50 2.2 Materials and methods................................................................................... 52 2.2.1 Animals ............................................................................................... 52 2.2.2 Stunning method ................................................................................. 52 2.2.3 Electroencephalogram EEG recording ................................................ 53 2.2.4 EEG Analysis ...................................................................................... 53 2.2.5 Statistical Analysis .............................................................................. 54 2.3 Results .......................................................................................................... 54 2.4 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 56 2.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 57 2.6 References .................................................................................................... 58
2.
XVI
2.7
Instrucciones para los autores en la revista small ruminant research .............67 2.7.1 Article structure. ...................................................................................67 2.7.2 Essential title page information ............................................................68 2.7.3 Abstract ...............................................................................................68 2.7.4 Nomenclature and units .......................................................................69 2.7.5 Math formulae ......................................................................................69 2.7.6 Footnotes.............................................................................................70 2.7.7 Artwork ................................................................................................70 Formats ...............................................................................................71 Color artwork .......................................................................................71 Figure captions ....................................................................................72 Tables ..................................................................................................72 2.7.8 References ..........................................................................................72 2.7.9 Submission checklist............................................................................73 2.8 Constancia de envo para evaluacin .............................................................75
3. Caracterizacin del sacrificio de corderos de pelo a partir de cruces con razas criollas colombianas......................................................................................................79 3.1 Introduccin....................................................................................................82 3.2 Materiales y mtodos .....................................................................................86 3.2.1 Animales de estudio ............................................................................86 3.2.2 Sacrificio ..............................................................................................86 3.2.3 pH ........................................................................................................87 3.2.4 Niveles de glucosa ...............................................................................87 3.2.5 Anlisis estadstico ..............................................................................87 3.3 Resultados .....................................................................................................88 3.4 Discusin........................................................................................................94 3.5 Conclusin .....................................................................................................98 3.6 Referencias ....................................................................................................99 3.7 Instrucciones para los autores en la revista colombiana de ciencias pecuarias (RCCP) ...................................................................................................................105 3.8 Constancia de envo para evaluacin ...........................................................105 4. Hair sheep lamb meat ageing an instrumental and sensory analysis of crosses with Colombian breeds. Part I: Texture ........................................................107 4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................108 4.2 Material and methods ...................................................................................111 4.2.1 Experimental management ................................................................111 4.2.2 Meat samples ....................................................................................111 4.2.3 pH ......................................................................................................111 4.2.4 Texture determination ........................................................................111 4.2.5 Sensory analysis ................................................................................112 4.2.6 Statistical analysis. ............................................................................112 4.3 Results and Discussion ................................................................................112 4.3.1 pH reduction ......................................................................................112 4.3.2 Warner Bratzler shear force ...............................................................113 4.3.3 Texture profile analysis (TPA) ............................................................114 4.3.4 Sensory analysis ................................................................................117 4.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................118 4.5 References ...................................................................................................119
Resumen y abstract 4.6
XVII
Instrucciones para los autores en la revista meat science ........................... 126 4.6.1 Article structure ................................................................................. 127 4.6.2 Essential title page information.......................................................... 128 4.6.3 Abstract ............................................................................................. 129 4.6.4 Keywords .......................................................................................... 129 4.6.5 Acknowledgements ........................................................................... 129 4.6.6 Units.................................................................................................. 129 4.6.7 Artwork .............................................................................................. 130 Formats ............................................................................................. 130 Color artwork ..................................................................................... 131 Figure captions.................................................................................. 131 Tables ............................................................................................... 132 4.6.8 References........................................................................................ 132 Reference style ................................................................................. 132 4.6.9 Submission checklist ......................................................................... 133 4.7 Constancia de envo para evaluacin .......................................................... 134
5. Hair sheep lamb meat ageing an instrumental and sensory analysis of hair sheep crossed with Colombian breeds. Part II: color ............................................... 135 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 136 5.2 Materials and methods................................................................................. 139 5.2.1 Experimental management................................................................ 139 5.2.2 Meat samples .................................................................................... 139 5.2.3 Colour determination ......................................................................... 139 5.2.4 Sensory analysis ............................................................................... 140 5.2.5 Statistical analysis ............................................................................. 140 5.3 Results and Discussion................................................................................ 140 5.3.1 Instrumental analysis......................................................................... 140 5.3.2 Sensory analysis ............................................................................... 144 5.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 145 5.5 References .................................................................................................. 146 5.6 Instrucciones para los autores en la revista meat science ........................... 152 5.7 Constancia de envo para evaluacin .......................................................... 153 6. Hair sheep lamb meat ageing an instrumental and sensory analysis of crosses with Colombian breeds. Part III: odour ........................................................ 155 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 156 6.2 Materials and Methods................................................................................. 159 6.2.1 Slaughter and ageing conditions ....................................................... 159 6.2.2 Sample preparation ........................................................................... 159 6.2.3 Selecting test conditions.................................................................... 159 6.2.4 Electronic nose tests ......................................................................... 160 6.2.5 Sensory analysis ............................................................................... 161 6.2.6 Statistical analysis ............................................................................. 161 6.3 Results and Discussion................................................................................ 161 6.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 165 6.5 References .................................................................................................. 165 6.6 Instrucciones para los autores en la revista meat science ........................... 170 6.7 Constancia de envo para evaluacin .......................................................... 171 7. Conclusiones y recomendaciones ...................................................................... 173
XVIII
Estudio de las condiciones de sacrificio y obtencin de carne de corderos cruzados con razas criollas colombianas Conclusiones ................................................................................................173 Recomendaciones........................................................................................176
7.1 7.2
Bibliografa ...................................................................................................................177
Contenido
XIX
Lista de figuras
Pg. Figura 1-1. Diagrama general de pruebas sensoriales. .................................................. 13 Figura 1-2. Entrenamiento de catadores (Labbe et al., 2004; McEwana et al., 2003). ... 16 Figura 2-1. Basal Spectral Encephalogram Power. ........................................................ 65 Figura 2-2. Electrical shock stunning. ............................................................................. 65 Figura 2-3. Penetrating captive bolt stunning. ................................................................ 66 Figura 2-4. Electrical shock vs. Penetrating captive bolt stunning. ................................. 66 Figura 2-5. EEG Recording............................................................................................ 67 Figura 3-1. Perdidas de peso durante el descanso y el tiempo de ayuno por el sistema de cra ................................................................................................................................. 88 Figura 3-2. Niveles de glucosa en sangre para 6, 12 y 18 horas de ayuno .................... 89 Figura 3-3. Rendimiento de canal en caliente para los sistemas de cra y los tiempos de ayuno evaluados. ........................................................................................................... 90 Figura 3-4. Perdidas de peso por almacenamiento debido al ayuno y el sistema de cra. ....................................................................................................................................... 92 Figura 3-5. Cambio de pH (pH) entre 2 y 24 horas posteriores al sacrificio, para el aturdimiento mediante electronarcosis y perno cautivo. ................................................. 93 Figura 3-6. pH ultimo de las canales, en funcin del tiempo de ayuno. .......................... 94 Figura 4-1. pH values for fasting periods and breeding system. .................................123 Figura 4-2. Warner Bratzler Shear Force for the different breeding system, fasting periods and ageing time analyzed. .............................................................................................123 Figura 4-3. Warner Bratzler shear work for the different breeding system, fasting periods and ageing time analyzed. .............................................................................................124 Figura 4-4. Hardness values for the different breeding system, fasting periods and ageing time analyzed. ...............................................................................................................124 Figura 4-5. Springiness values for the different breeding system and ageing time analyzed. .......................................................................................................................125 Figura 4-6. Cohesiveness values for the different breeding system and ageing time analyzed. .......................................................................................................................125 Figura 4-7. Chewiness values for the different breeding system, stunning method and ageing time analyzed.....................................................................................................126 Figura 5-1. Instrumental L* values Variation for the breeding system (a) , instrumental a* values for fasting time (b), instrumental b* values for the breeding system (c) and fasting time (d) during ageing....................................................................................................151
XX
Figura 5-2. Sensory L* values Variation (a), sensory a* values (b), sensory b* values (c) for the breeding systems during ageing. ....................................................................... 152 Figura 6-1.Principal component 1 and principal component 2 by the breeding system. 168 Figura 6-2. Dispersion graph of the discriminating function by breeding systems ......... 169 Figura 6-3. Discriminating functions of ageing time for grazing system (a) and semifeedlot (b) system. ........................................................................................................ 169 Figura 6-4. Sensory analysis variation of odour (a) and taste (b) fore ageing time analyzed. ...................................................................................................................... 170
Contenido
XXI
Lista de tablas
Pg. Tabla 1-1. Vocabulario especifico segn el atributo y especie ........................................ 19 Tabla 3-1. Relacin de los porcentajes de los despojos del sacrificio ............................. 91 Tabla 4-1. Texture sensory evaluation ...........................................................................117 Tabla 5-1. Comparative E values and degree of sensorial differentiation according to Vicente and Gonzales (2007) ........................................................................................143 Tabla 6-1. Airsense PEN3 sensors recognition pattern. .............................................160
Contenido
XXII
Introduccin
Cadena crnica de ovinos
Colombia es un pas por excelencia agropecuario, debido especialmente a sus caractersticas geolgicas y ambientales. Las cuales proveen de una gran variedad de climatologas, generando las condiciones para el desarrollo de una gran cantidad de actividades agrarias. Especficamente en el caso de la especie ovina, se estima que hay un grupo bsico familiar (4 personas) por cada por cada tres cabezas ovinas, lo cual representa una fuente de ingresos estas familias que mayoritariamente son de regiones marginales o de conflicto.
En la actualidad no se cuenta con un censo exacto de ganado ovino y caprino en el pas, ya que la cantidad puede variar debido a la cra en forma artesanal, lo cual adems conlleva deficientes condiciones higinicas y sanitarias para su produccin. Para el ao de 2008, Colombia contaba con una poblacin cercana a los 3.5 millones de cabezas de ovinos con un crecimiento anual del 1.5% (FAOSTAT), de acuerdo a la dinmica de crecimiento presentada por la secretaria tcnica de la cadena ovina cercana al 2.3% donde la poblacin ovina entre 2002 a 2007 en miles de cabezas era de 2.045, 2.100, 2.150, 2.180, 3.215 y 3.472 respectivamente (Agrocadenas, 2006).
Los registros del sacrificio de ganado ovino son contradictorios para la poblacin reportada por agrocadenas; para 2009 se sacrificaron y registraron 13.094 (DANE, 2009) y hasta junio de 2010, 8.595 cabezas de ovinos (DANE, 2010), indicando que en la mayora de los casos el sacrificio se realiza de una forma artesanal sin contar con las condiciones higinico sanitarias correspondientes a este tipo de actividades y sin ser registrado ante las autoridades competentes. Estas consideraciones estn en concordancia con la dinmica que viene experimentando la cadena crnica en los ltimos aos, donde este sector no ha experimentado desarrollos importantes en tecnologa y
trazabilidad para el sacrificio y proceso, adems de contar con la falta de desarrollo en el manejo post-mortem, el despiece de las canales y los sistemas de empaque y conservacin de la carne y los subproductos de la especie, para su comercializacin.
Segn el diagnostico de la cadena ovina y caprina en el 2006, Colombia aporta el 1,14% de las exportaciones totales de Sur Amrica, y participa con el 3,16% del total de la produccin Suramericana, situndose por arriba de pases como Guyanas, Ecuador, Per, Venezuela, Bolivia, Brasil y Paraguay, los cuales juntos aportan el 0,22% del total de la carne ovina exportable, resaltando que en cuanto al nmero de cabezas ovinas Ecuador, Per y Bolivia tiene una participacin del 36,34% del total de la poblacin ovina Suramericana. En cuanto a las exportaciones de carne ovina colombiana, estas se extienden a las Antillas Holandesas. Tambin a 2006 las importaciones haban crecido 13,26%, este crecimiento fue afectado negativamente por el cierre de las plantas de beneficio que no cumplen a cabalidad con el decreto 1500 de 2007 del Ministerio de Proteccin Social y por lo cual se disminuy la exportacin para el 2007 en un 42% (Agrocadenas, 2006).
La comercializacin de carne ovina se realiza de manera similar a la de bovino, por lo tanto se manejan tres canales de comercializacin, el primero es un comisionista, el cual compra los corderos en la finca, los sacrifica y distribuye su carne a famas y plazas de mercado donde se comercializa cerca del 80% de la carne al consumidor final, lo cual ocurre en pequeos establecimientos sin condiciones higinicas-sanitarias de
conservacin y expendio adecuadas. El segundo canal son los expendios especializados como almacenes de cadena, la industria de embutidos y otros derivados; y el tercero es el llamado institucional, conformado por hoteles, hospitales, clubes y fuerzas militares (FEDEGAN, 2006).
Independientemente del canal de comercializacin, el ltimo eslabn de la cadena es el consumidor, este se caracteriza por ser actor pasivo y segmentado por su capacidad adquisitiva. Mientras los sectores de altos ingresos se inclinan cada vez ms hacia productos con valor agregado y han asumido procesos de cambio de patrones de consumo, liderados por la industria y las grandes cadenas principalmente, la mayor parte del mercado an prefiere la carne fresca, sin proceso de maduracin, y no distingue
Introduccin
cortes ni diferencia calidades, no slo por razones eminentemente culturales, sino tambin por falta de capacidad para asumir el mayor costo de una calidad que no ha aprendido a percibir para exigirla, como tampoco la exigen las autoridades responsables de velar por la inocuidad de alimentos y la salud pblica (Guarin, 2008).
Sacrificio humanitario
El sacrificio de un animal es la muerte profesional e indolora de un animal destinado para el consumo humano (Lopez y Vanaclocha, 2004), con operaciones de descanso, aturdimiento y desangrado adecuados, donde el animal sea expuesto a un nivel bajo de estrs haciendo humanitaria su muerte (Ros y Acosta, 2008;Torrescano et al., 2008), similar a la definicin presentada en el decreto 1500 de 2007 donde el sacrificio se define como el procedimiento que se realiza en un animal destinado para el consumo humano con el fin de darle muerte, el cual comprende desde la insensibilizacin hasta la sangra, mediante la seccin de los grandes vasos, los cuales deben ser sacrificados por mtodos no crueles, que garanticen que stos queden sin sentido o conocimiento antes de ser sacrificados. El sacrifico debe ceirse a las tcnicas correctas de aplicacin, evitando riesgos innecesarios para el operador y sufrimiento del animal (Ministerio de la Proteccin Social, 2007).
Las instalaciones de sacrificio deben contar con procedimientos adecuados de limpieza y desinfeccin con el fin de reducir el riesgo de posible contaminacin microbiolgica tanto del ambiente como de los residuos del sacrificio (Joshi et al., 2003), debido a que la carne fresca es un medio adecuado para el crecimiento microbiano, el cual puede conducir a la descomposicin si no se mantiene correctamente almacenado y refrigerado; algunos autores recomiendan una reduccin lenta de la temperatura de la canal durante un tiempo mximo de 8 horas entre el sacrificio y la refrigeracin para obtener una mejor calidad final de la carne, sin prdidas significativas en peso de canal (Bianchi et al., 2006b) y mantener una calidad higinica y organolptica (Marques-almeida et al., 2003).
Los mtodos de insensibilizacin en animales tiene como finalidad inducir inconciencia en el animal, evitando dolor (Caraves y Gallo, 2007). Varios mtodos de aturdimiento son empleados en diferentes especies rumiantes y monograstricos tales como perno cautivo no penetrante (Lopez y Vanaclocha, 2004), perno cautivo penetrante (Gregory y Shaw,
2000), electronarcosis (Velarde et al., 2000) y exposicin a dixido de carbono (Bercerril et al., 2009), este ultimo estudiado pero no practicado en grandes rumiantes (Lopez y Vanaclocha, 2004).
De acuerdo a los parmetros del bienestar animal que involucran la exencin de hambre y sed mediante acceso fcil al agua dulce y una dieta para mantener la salud, exencin de dolor, lesin o enfermedad mediante prevencin o diagnstico rpido y tratamiento, exencin de miedo y angustia (Deiss et al., 2009), garantizando las condiciones que eviten el sufrimiento mental (Ferguson y Warner, 2008), libertad para expresar el comportamiento normal, proporcionando espacio suficiente y exencin de malestar proporcionando un ambiente apropiado (Gregory, 2008; servicio nacional de sanidad y calidad Agroalimentaria, 2010) se evalan mecanismos o respuestas fisiolgicas durante el aturdimiento consistentes en la perdida de habilidad de mantenerse de pie,
movimientos coordinados, convulsiones clnicas (Grandin, 2010) y dilatacin de pupilas (Blackmore y Newhook, 1983).
No obstante, la premisa de mtodos no crueles y sufrimiento del animal implican que el animal sienta dolor, pero, Cmo se mide la sensacin de dolor en un animal?. Aqu es vlido el significado del modelo humano como indicador del sufrimiento animal, siendo las respuestas fisiolgicas tanto del animal como del humano correlacionadas frente a un estimulo doloroso y descrito bajo el trmino dolor por un ser humano (Gregory, 2004) Entre los efectos que presentara el animal cuando entra al proceso de sacrificio se encuentra el estrs, el cual es un proceso psicolgico y fisiolgico complejo. Los ovinos son menos susceptibles al estrs que los caprinos y porcinos, aunque sufren
metabolismos similares cuando se encuentran en un estado de estrs crnico (Saudo et al., 1998); dentro del estrs sufrido pre-sacrificio ocurren alteraciones de pH, que pueden llegar a 5,4, despus de ocho horas de la muerte (Brancacci et al., 2006). Un animal estresado por un periodo prolongado o un intenso ejercicio muscular pre-sacrificio causa reduccin de los niveles de glucgeno, produciendo carnes DFD, las cuales exhiben pH alto, coloracin oscura y textura firme, secas, por ende con mayor capacidad de retencin de agua. En contraste, las carnes PSE son provenientes de animales sometidos a estrs inmediatamente previo al sacrificio, y presentan una disminucin
Introduccin
rpida de pH a la cual se le atribuye las carnes plidas, exudativas, con baja capacidad de retencin de agua (Gregory, 2008).
El tiempo de ayuno, es un factor importante dentro de los protocolos de sacrificio de cualquier especie, debido a que evita que los contenidos intestinales y del tracto digestivo en general, propicien contaminacin de las canales obtenidas, y adems la estabilizacin de las respuestas bioqumicas a las alteraciones producidas por este factor considerado estresante (Thompson et al., 1987). Maduracin de carne
La maduracin de la carne es un proceso tecnolgico que controla los cambios bioqumicos y fsicos de las enzimas endgenas que actan sobre el musculo, posterior al sacrificio del animal (Bianchi et al., 2006a). Se distinguen 2 fases principales: Rigor mortis y post rigor mortis (Garcia, 2001) este ltimo, consistente en el tiempo transcurrido posterior al desarrollo de rigor mortis en el animal hasta el consumo de la carne (Bianchi et al., 2006b). Durante el desarrollo del rigor mortis, los msculos pierden sus propiedades elsticas debido a la accin de la glucolisis en condiciones de anaerobiosis, produciendo acido lctico y por ende una disminucin del pH y reduccin en la taza de produccin de ATP (Garcia, 2001); una vez terminadas las reservas de ATP a partir del glucgeno residual, la concentracin del complejo de Actina-Miosina se hace mxima (Schmidt, 1984), obteniendo la mxima rigidez del musculo (Devine et al., 2002). En la segunda etapa se inicia la accin de enzimas endgenas que repercuten en un ligero aumento del pH y por ende, de la capacidad de retencin de agua (Bianchi et al., 2004).
Proteasas, endopeptidasas y lipasas son en su mayora las encargadas de la generacin de la resolucin del rigor mortis, ablandamiento de la carne y generacin de aromas, sabores y colores, entre otras. La principal accin proteoltica se debe a la accin del complejo de enzimas inhibidores, calpaina y calpastatina y en menor grado las catepsinas (Bianchi et al., 2004), desnaturalizando las protenas del sarcmero a partir de la Lnea Z (Chavez, 2010; Garcia, 2001). La Calpastatina es a su vez una enzima que interviene en la regulacin de la actividad de la Calpana mediante la inhibicin de su efecto (Diaz, 2001; Herrmman, 2006).
Respecto a los factores intravitales del animal, se ha generalizado que el peso, la edad y gentica se estudian simultneamente en las caractersticas finales sensoriales e instrumentales de la canal durante la maduracin. Una edad prolongada y peso elevado de los animales presentara una carne con mayor resistencia al corte, color y olor ms fuertes. Cabe destacar que el factor sexo en los animales no contribuye
significativamente en la calidad sensorial de la carne pero si en las cualidades tecnolgicas de la carne (Saudo, 2008).
Dentro de los factores acelerantes de la maduracin se encuentra la estimulacin elctrica que produce en el descenso del pH ms marcado en las canales, provocando un aumento en la terneza y el color de la carne a expensas de prdidas de agua especialmente en la refrigeracin (Velarde et al., 2003). El efecto de una estimulacin elctrica es deseable en los primeros 5 das de la maduracin aunque los resultados no se ven claramente sino a partir de los 7 das de maduracin (Jacob et al., 2010).
En los ltimos aos, la industria crnica diferente a la ovina, ha tenido grandes desarrollos tecnolgicos en cuanto a empaque, conservacin y maduracin de la carne con el fin de ofrecer alternativas al industrial en disminucin de mermas y costos; y al consumidor satisfaccin de sus expectativas que cambian su concepto de carne fresca. No obstante, esta preferencia por la carne fresca puede tener que ver con cierto tipo de percepcin heredado de las pocas en las que no exista la refrigeracin, sin considerar que el consumo de carne fresca es un consumo de musculo propiamente dicho (Guarin, 2008).
Por tanto, la informacin nacional en cuanto a maduracin de la carne de cordero es deficiente, debido a la falta de investigacin y desarrollo tecnolgico en el sector de la produccin, transformacin, empaque, conservacin y comercializacin industrial de esta carne. Al no encontrarse un sistema de maduracin, cortes y comercializacin para este tipo de carnes, se han venido manejando sistemas de corte y comercializacin similares a los de la industria bovina y porcina, sin experimentar algn tipo de desarrollo, siendo necesario que el estmulo primario deba provenir del esfuerzo conjunto del sector industrial y el sector acadmico.
Introduccin Objetivos
General Desarrollar las condiciones de sacrificio, manejo post-mortem y maduracin de carne de ovinos, como herramienta para el desarrollo productivo y tecnolgico de la cadena ovina en la Sabana de Bogot. Especficos 1. Estudiar las condiciones de sacrificio y faenado de corderos, bajo las condiciones de planta piloto respecto al sistema de cra y tiempo de ayuno.
2. Evaluar la efectividad de los mtodos de aturdimiento mediante la interpretacin y uso de electroencefalogramas.
3. Tipificar las condiciones de maduracin de la carne de corderos evaluando la calidad instrumental y sensorial.
Captulo I
1. Anlisis sensorial en carne
Anlisis sensorial en carne Sensory analysis on meat Anlise sensorial da carne
Ivn C Snchez 11*, IQ, Sp, Est MSc; William Albarracn23, IQ, MSc, PhD
Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medelln, Colombia

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Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos (ICTA). Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogot, Colombia
Grupo de investigacin Aseguramiento de la calidad de Alimentos y desarrollo de nuevos productos, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos
Resumen La seleccin de un mtodo de anlisis sensorial es una funcin de las caractersticas del producto, siendo los propsitos establecer un criterio objetivo en atributos de color, olor, sabor y palatabilidad y diferenciar con parmetros normalizados. Una seleccin
Tel: (051)3165000 Ext: 19226 Email: icsanchezb@unal.edu.co
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rigurosa de los evaluadores esta sujeta a pruebas especificas y diseo experimental, siendo los panelistas, sujetos objetivos y argumentativos capaces de interpretar y discriminar una sensacin en un lenguaje coherente. Estas interpretaciones pueden marcar una nueva normalizacin que permita, por medio de medidas instrumentales, obtener una valoracin ms inmediata y con menor porcentaje de error, soportado por mtodos estadsticos secuenciales de fcil entendimiento y manejo.
Palabras clave: Anlisis sensorial, carne, catadores, entrenamiento de panel, panel sensorial.
Abstract The selection of a sensory analysis method is a function of product characteristics, with the purpose to establish an objective criterion attributes of color, odour, flavor and palatability and differentiate with standard parameters. A rigorous selection of assessors is subject to specific testing and experimental design, being the panellists, objective and argumentative people able to interpret and discriminate a sensation in a coherent language. These interpretations may mark a new standard that allows, through instrumental measures, obtain a more immediate assessment and a lower error percentage, supported by sequential statistical methods easy to understand and use.
Key words: Sensory analysis, panel taste, training panel, meat, tasters.
Resumo A seleo de um mtodo de anlise sensorial uma funo das caractersticas do produto, sendo os objectivos estabelecer um critrio claro em atributos de cor, cheiro, sabor e palatabilidade e diferenciar com parmetros padro. Uma seleo rigorosa dos avaliadores esta sujeita a provas especificas e desenho experimental, sendo os panelistas, pessoas objetivas e argumentativas capazes de interpretar e discriminar uma
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sensao numa linguagem coerente. Estas interpretaes podem marcar uma nova normalizao que permite, por meio de medidas instrumentais, obter uma valorizao imediata e com menor percentagem de erro, suportado por mtodos estatsticos seqenciais de fcil compreenso e utilizao.
Palavras chave: Anlise sensorial, carne, catadores, treinamento do painel, painel sensorial
1.1 Introduccin
Segn el Informe de la cadena de la industria bovina, en Colombia el consumo aparente para el 2003 fue de 0.734 millones de toneladas (Agrocadenas, 2005) contrastado al consumo en Latinoamrica de 103 millones de toneladas (FAO, 2005) el cual muestra un consumo poco representativo, mientras el consumo de carne de pollo en Colombia corresponde a 0.678
millones de toneladas (Agrocadenas, 2005); comparado con el ao de 2005, el consumo de carne de pollo supera el consumo de carne de bovino en cerca de 0.05 millones de toneladas.
Para entender el comportamiento de la predileccin de los consumidores por carne de una especie, es necesario entender sus necesidades y restricciones, cambios en el poder adquisitivo, altos precios de los productos frescos o procesados y el contenido de grasa en estos mismos (Resurreccion, 2003; Armstrong y McIlveen, 2000). Estudios sectorizados del consumo, son evaluados con base en regiones delimitadas, pretendiendo entender la predileccin por una especie especifica, pero metodologas no relevantes como la preparacin de las muestras y desarrollo del vocabulario son razn para encontrar cambios en la aceptacin en un anlisis por regiones (Saudo et al., 2007). Con la implementacin de sistemas de inspeccin y aseguramiento de la inocuidad de la produccin de alimentos en Colombia, se pretende que los productores se vean abocados a implementar sistemas de calidad en alimentos estableciendo parmetros de control especficos a su produccin.
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Para obtener una metodologa generalizada, las aplicaciones actuales de mtodos sensoriales estn encaminadas a establecer correlaciones con parmetros instrumentales (Onega, 2003), as varios estudios buscan la objetividad de los panelistas correspondientes con medidas instrumentales (Raes et al., 2003; Swatland et al., 1995; Peachey et al., 2002); el principal problema consiste en la falta de homogeneidad en los atributos y descriptores de la sensaciones en los panelistas as como establecer que atributo es el principal en una catacin. Para varios autores, la jugosidad es el atributo de mayor aceptacin (Van Oeckel et al., 1999; Poste et al., 1993), el cual se contrarresta con una descripcin general de flavor (Calkins y Hodgen, 2007).
El objetivo de la presente revisin es la definicin de las bases y los procedimientos para la realizacin de estudios de anlisis sensorial en carne y productos crnicos, as como explorar las variables que se tienen con respecto al tratamiento de los datos y la bsqueda de objetividad evidenciada por resultados instrumentales.
1.2 Pruebas afectivas y analticas
En general las pruebas sensoriales se pueden distinguir 2 grupos principales: Pruebas afectivas y analticas. Las pruebas afectivas se dividen en test de aceptacin o preferencia y el test hednico de escalas relativas. Las pruebas analticas a su vez se dividen en pruebas discriminatorias y descriptivas (Figura 1).
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Pruebas sensoriales
Analticas
Afectivas
Descriptivas
Discriminatorias
Test hednico
Test de Aceptacin
Figura 1-1. Diagrama general de pruebas sensoriales.
Las pruebas analticas pretenden describir y diferenciar los productos. Las pruebas discriminatorias se establecen con la finalidad de distinguir diferencias en grupos de muestras en panelistas con un grado de entrenamiento. Las tcnicas ms usadas corresponden a duo-trio y prueba triangular: la prueba duo-trio se presenta como seleccin entre 2 muestras (A y B) estableciendo semejanza o diferencia de un patrn (R) conocido. En la prueba triangular, el panelista debe identificar entre 3 muestras (A, B, R), cuales son iguales y cual diferente (Stone y Sidel, 1993; Siegfried et al., 2006). Las pruebas descriptivas se establecen con la finalidad de encontrar descriptores que tengan un mximo de informacin sobre las caractersticas sensoriales del producto, usando panelistas con mayor entrenamiento que en los empleados en pruebas discriminatorias, los cuales evalan su percepcin con valores cuantitativos proporcionales a una intensidad. Se pueden definir con escalas estructuradas y equidistantes, donde el panelista a travs de estas valora su percepcin asignado un atributo particular con una intensidad determinada. Cada punto de esta escala estara determinado por un descriptor de la cualidad evaluada, relacionando en extremos su aprobacin o rechazo definiendo el porque de su decisin. El nmero de descriptores en la escala puede variar de 10 a 20 para cada cualidad. Se pueden usar los mismos descriptores en diferentes caractersticas (Nalan, 2002).
Las pruebas afectivas pretenden evaluar el grado de aceptacin y preferencia de un producto determinado empleando el criterio subjetivo de los catadores. En la mayora de los casos, los catadores corresponden a consumidores no entrenados en la descripcin de preferencias,
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donde su evaluacin se basa en gustos. Para esta evaluacin se usan frases sencillas y lgicas que cualquier consumidor pueda identificar (Noble et al., 1997; Owens, 2002) sin formular preguntas determinadas sobre intensidades sabores, tamaos y olores; deben ser enfocadas en decisin de compra y aceptacin general (Muoz, 1998).
Para elaborar las pruebas sensoriales se realizan documentos que cada panelista debe responder de una forma clara y precisa que no genere dudas e interpretaciones personales, cada panelista se debe limitar a contestar cada pregunta que se le haga. La combinacin de pruebas afectivas y descriptivas tiene como finalidad entender a travs de la aceptacin o preferencias de consumidor (afectivas), que cualidades se deben mejorar, mantener (descriptivas) o formular en el desarrollo de nuevos productos (Muoz, 1998).
En la definicin de la escala se establecen las caractersticas generales que identifican al producto, denominadas descriptores. Para definirlos, el lder del panel de catacin debe ser objetivo y usar diferenciaciones amplias en cuanto al uso de terminologa y palabras exactas (Muoz, 1998). En muchos casos el uso de lenguaje y palabras usadas en la regin donde se realiza la cata son mejores descriptores que lenguajes complicados o tcnicos (Nindjin et al., 2007).
Como consecuencia del uso de escalas estructuradas y equidistantes, se usan escalas normalizadas que consisten en comparar patrones en una secuencia lgica, con la muestra a analizar. Estas escalas se benefician en el empleo de pocas muestras de cata y menos catadores entrenados, aunque se puede caer en errores de fatiga (Cartie et al., 2006). Adicionalmente se pueden presentar escalas libres, donde el panelista usando descripciones subjetivas identifica en una lnea continua su evaluacin sin parmetros de referencia diferentes a los extremos (Westada et al., 2003). La aplicacin de estas escalas correspondera a factores de anlisis y diferencias estadsticas; es recomendable usar escalas equidistantes pues su cuantificacin es ms sencilla, pero en descriptores confusos, se puede caer en errores de valoracin cuanto las diferencias son mnimas en los descriptores (Westada et al., 2003).
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Existen otros mtodos de anlisis descriptivo: mtodo del perfil del flavor (Cairncross y Sjostrom, 1950), mtodo de perfil de textura (Brandt et al., 1963), anlisis cuantitativo descriptivo (Stone et al., 1974), perfil de libre eleccin (Langron, 1983; Thompson y MacFie, 1983); la combinacin de estos mtodos en uno generalizado permite usar las distintas escalas segn la caracterstica a analizar (Anon, 1999; Murray et al., 2001). Estas pruebas descriptivas deben preguntar por atributos ms amplios que simplemente ternura y jugosidad en carnes, es recomendable ampliar el rango de accin del catador para generar un juicio ms objetivo y acertado, el cual puede dar un indicio del la aceptacin del consumidor siempre y cuando se haya establecido una correlacin previa entre pruebas afectivas y descriptivas (Samuel et al., 2008).
1.3 Entrenamiento y seleccin de paneles sensoriales
El propsito de usar indiscriminadamente cualquier tipo de panel consiste en el contexto de evaluar preferencias o caractersticas de un producto usando el carcter subjetivo de los consumidores y el carcter objetivo que puede brindar un panelista entrenado.
Los consumidores no cuentan con un entrenamiento en atributos o cualidades sensoriales que pueda brindar una mayor informacin, por lo cual se recurre a los paneles entrenados, los cuales necesitan una preparacin previa para generar un veredicto objetivo. Se ha evaluado la pertinencia de usar escalas hednicas en pruebas de consumidores, los cuales pueden dar una evaluacin semejante a la que puede brindar un panel entrenado, pero el factor entrenamiento lleva a distinguir con mayor precisin diferencias que afectan un producto (Brouvold, 1970; Ishii et al., 2007). El perfil que debe presentar los catadores debe ser muy limitado donde los gustos, la expectativa y la objetividad son los factores psicolgicos ms importantes para convertirse en un catador y hacer parte de un panel sensorial (Lund et al., 2009). Es as que cuando se
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presenta una predileccin por un producto determinado el entrenamiento se puede reducir siendo el catador quien agiliza este proceso. Parmetros como la experiencia y la exposicin a las muestras definitivamente afectan el rendimiento de la evaluacin, mientras que la edad de los catadores no afecta su rendimiento (Bitnes et al., 2007).
Se espera que cada catador a medida que avance su entrenamiento (figura 2), pueda disminuir sus errores y el uso de replicas en el momento de la evaluacin para tener un valor certero. Este entrenamiento implica mnimo 1 hora diaria por 30 das en los atributos a analizar; en varios casos no es satisfactorio el entrenamiento para la totalidad de los atributos, pero se puede generar un vocabulario especfico sobre las sensaciones adquiridas (Kreutzmann et al., 2007). La memoria sensorial que presente el catador y la influencia de los medios afectarn su rendimiento, lo cual hace necesario un constante entrenamiento y eliminar los distractores que se presenten al momento de su evaluacin tales como sonidos, fuentes de iluminacin baja y contar con cubculos especializados para la cata de alimentos (Shapiro y Spence, 2002).
1. Entender el vocabulario especfico de la catacin
2. Realizar pruebas secuenciales modificando las sensaciones que el catador pretenda identificar.
3. Evaluar las diferencias entre las intensidades de la sensacin con grados de aciertos.
4. Reducir el nmero de muestras del entrenamiento y disminuyendo las diferencias de las intensidades 5. Evaluar en consenso con los otros catadores su desempeo
Figura 1-2. Entrenamiento de catadores (Labbe et al., 2004; McEwana et al., 2003).
Captulo I
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La seleccin de los evaluadores se realiza segn un entrenamiento especfico a travs de diferentes tcnicas con pruebas discriminatorias, de seleccin, ordenamiento o intensidad. Las pruebas ms empleadas en la catacin corresponden a pruebas triangulares discriminatorias, donde se evala el desempeo por el modelo binomial (Gallerani et al., 2000); el mtodo de tiempo intensidad corresponde a establecer un sistema de entrenamiento ms intenso mediante el cual el catador reafirma lo adquirido con las pruebas discriminatorias (Peyvieux y Dijksterhuis, 2001). En cada sesin se recuenta el nmero de aciertos y se realizan graficas del desempeo a travs del tiempo.
Debido a que en la carne fresca los atributos no cuentan con intensidades definidas, el entrenamiento de los catadores se debe realizar con simuladores de la sensacin a medir, es decir, sustancias que asemejen el producto en la cualidad requerida. En el momento en que el catador pueda evaluar objetivamente el simulador, se reduce el nmero de replicas, que en la catacin de carne puede producir errores de fatiga.
Se presentan conflictos en usar paneles entrenados o no en carnes debido a su complejidad (Bitnes et al., 2009); en parmetros de color y olor, donde su complejidad es menor se emplean correlaciones entre paneles entrenados y de consumidores aprovechado la memoria sensorial que puedan tener los consumidores y su predileccin en el momento de la compra (Sullivan et al., 2003). A medida que se reduce la complejidad del producto se aumenta la eficiencia de la catacin, pero por ms entrenamiento que se tenga el factor heterogneo de la carne reduce la sensibilidad del catador (Labbe et al., 2004).
1.4 Atributos y descriptores usados en carnes
El principal problema que se encuentra en el anlisis sensorial consiste en la dificultad en la repetibilidad y homogeneidad. La seleccin de las escalas de medicin tiene como finalidad indicar semnticas jerrquicas traducidas en un lenguaje lingstico coherente para un producto
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especfico, haciendo uso de su memoria sensorial para describir un impulso que causa una sensacin (Muoz y Civille 1998; Urdapilleta, et al., 1999; Davidson y Sun 1998). Cada panel sensorial debe identificar el producto al cual desea desarrollar su anlisis, identificando los atributos principales y las palabras precisas que describen la sensacin.
El procedimiento para establecer los descriptores de los atributos sensoriales inicia desde la seleccin del panel de catacin; a medida que se conoce el panel de catacin, cada jurado presenta los descriptores que puedan definir cada sensacin o atributo del producto. A su vez se busca mediante el uso de simuladores de la sensacin, discriminar o reducir los descriptores que los jueces plantearon inicialmente. Mediante el uso de herramientas estadsticas se definen los descriptores que los jurados evidencian ser los ms relevantes y con claridad cognitiva (Byrne et al., 1999b).
Cada jurado est en la capacidad de producir descriptores deseables o indeseables segn la intensidad de la sensacin o el atributo a medir. Cada descriptor puede tener significados amplios segn el uso lingstico que se atribuye, teniendo problemas de evaluacin de tendencia central de la sensacin, calificacin benvola hacia los valores mximos y el uso de una memoria sensorial de un descriptor falso (Muoz y Civille, 1998; Nevison y Muir, 2002).
Cada descriptor debe ser especfico y claro respecto a la sensacin y su intensidad. Para cada atributo (color, olor, sabor, etc.) sus descriptores deben ser relevantes al producto, discriminar claramente las muestras y no redundantes, siendo las habilidades discriminativas ms efectivas y un vocabulario amplio y contundente (Byrne et al. 1999a; Urdapilleta, et al.,1999); una correlacin lingstica y numrica puede presentar confusiones respecto a la intensidad de la sensacin, por ejemplo una calificacin alta (8 = muy dulce), no implica una menor (3 = dulce); as mismo es necesario evitar los sinminos en el uso de los descriptores, para esto es til emplear escalas normalizadas y marcos de referencia de comparacin de los atributos en diferentes productos comerciales y de espectro amplio de entendimiento y medicin (Byrne et al., 2001; Muoz y Civille, 1998).
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Se han desarrollado vocabularios especializados para carnes cocinadas de pollo, cerdo y res siendo los atributos empleados el color, olor, flavor, sabor y sabor residual. Cada uno de estos atributos tiene en comn descriptores de sensaciones de alimentos diferentes a los productos crnicos como linaza, aceites y semillas como se puede apreciar en la tabla 1.
Debido a cambios dinmicos en el vocabulario sensorial, adicional a los atributos mencionados, la palatabilidad y el esfuerzo al morder (Ruiz et al., 2005), se constituyen en los factores de diferenciacin en la preparacin de las muestras de carne (Byrne, et al., 1999a; Byrne et al., 2001; Davidson y Sun, 1998) siendo sus descriptores dura y blanda. El esfuerzo al morder permite adicionalmente la diferenciacin de carnes respecto a su especie (Sen et al., 2004). La ternura, firmeza, dureza, cohesividad, jugosidad y masticabilidad se constituyen en atributos de la palatabilidad siendo sus descriptores niveles de resistencia en escala de intensidad (Hofmann, 1993; Peachey et al., 2002).
Tabla 1-1. Vocabulario especifico segn el atributo y especie Carne olor Flavor Sabor Sabor residual
cartn; linaza; sulfuroso; General carne fresca; grasoso; pasto; nueces.
carne cocinada; carne fresca; pescado, rncido
umami; metlico; amargo; dulce; salado; cido
astringente
(Sullivan et al., 2002)
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Estudio de las condiciones de sacrificio y obtencin de carne de corderos cruzados con razas criollas colombianas cartn; linaza; sulfuroso; tostado; carne cocinada carne cocinada; rncido; aceitoso; apanado; tostado; nueces.
Pollo
umami; metlico; amargo; dulce; salado; cido
astringente
(Byrne et al., 1999a)
res
caramelo; linaza; sulforoso; carne fresca; tostado; carne cocinada
carne cocinada; metalico; sabor a carne de pollo; lactico (yogurt) rancido; aceitoso; apanado; tostado
umami; metalico; amargo; dulce;salado; cido
lactico (yogurt); metalico
(Byrne et al., 2001).
Cerdo
carton; linaza; sulforoso; carne fresca.
carne cocinada; pescado, rancido; aceitoso; apanado; nueces.
umami; metalico; amargo; dulce;salado; cido.
astringente
(Byrne et al., 1999b).
1.5 Preparacin de muestras de carne y productos crnicos para anlisis sensorial
Los mtodos de preparacin de las muestras para anlisis sensorial son funcin de variables de temperatura de coccin, tiempo y sistema de empaque que marcan las diferencias significativas y alta variabilidad en la preparacin de las muestras de la catacin (Peachey et al., 2002).
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En general las muestras se obtienen de carne previamente congelada para el anlisis, siguiendo un protocolo de descongelamiento, corte de msculo, coccin, atemperado, almacenado y presentacin hacia los catadores (AMSA, 1995).
El almacenaje de las muestras es funcin de la disponibilidad de los catadores y la programacin de la catacin (Wheeler, et al., en prensa; AMSA, 1995). Es recomendable mantener las muestras a temperaturas inferiores a los -20C por periodos variables entre 1 a 7 das antes de la coccin (Rdbotten et al., 2004).
Para muestras de carne de bovino y porcino, las muestras previamente congeladas a una temperatura inferior a los -20C, tiene un proceso de descongelacin lento por un periodo de 24 a 48 h hasta tener una temperatura interna entre 0 y 3C. Los fragmentos o msculos seleccionados son cortados en filetes de espesor aproximado a 2.54 cm. Cada filete independiente del sistema de coccin (parrilla o inmersin) es cocinado hasta obtener una temperatura interna de 71C por 5.5 minutos. El reporte de la temperatura final de coccin se realiza a los 2 minutos posteriores al retirar la muestra de carne de su sistema de coccin (Wheeler et al., en prensa; AMSA, 1995). Es de destacar que el muestreo de la temperatura se realiza en el centro geomtrico de las partes empleadas.
Existen variaciones respecto a las temperaturas de descongelacin, pero su intervalo oscila entre 0 y 5C (Wheeler et al., en prensa; Font et al., 2006; Rdbotten et al., 2004; Pittroff et al., 2006); igualmente las temperaturas internas de coccin tienen un intervalo entre 60 y 75C (Peachey et al., 2002; Font et al., 2006; Jeremiah y Phillips, 2000; McKenna et al., 2003). Para muestras de carne de aves, su temperatura interna es superior a este intervalo, debido al riesgo de no eliminar patgenos termoresistentes; su temperatura de coccin oscila entre los 75 y 100C (Rdbotten et al., 2004; Brannan, 2009).
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El sistema de coccin constituye el suministro de calor que requiere la muestra para obtener la temperatura interna requerida. En sistemas de parrilla, la coccin se realiza por transferencia de calor va indirecta, siendo el aire caliente el fluido calefactor, el cual presenta temperaturas entre los 160 y 220C (Font et al., 2006; Hoffman et al., 2007; Hoffman et al., 2008; Byrne et al., 2002). En sistemas de inmersin, la muestra es sumergida en el fluido calefactor asegurando un suministro de calor homogneo, siendo el intercambio de materia su restriccin; en este sistema es necesario emplear muestras empacadas al vaco en bolsas impermeables y termoresistentes (Jeremiah y Phillips, 2000; Rdbotten et al., 2004; Brannan, 2009).
Para asegurar una distribucin de la temperatura homognea, se realizan precalentamientos escalonados de las muestras a temperaturas de 35 a 40C por periodos de 5 a 10 minutos en el centro trmico de la muestra (Wheeler et al., en prensa; Jeremiah y Phillips, 2000; McKenna et al., 2003) y posteriormente un nuevo calentamiento hasta alcanzar los 60 75C establecidos.
En la presentacin de las muestras a los catadores, es necesario retirar la grasa de cobertura de la muestra y el tejido conectivo, cuando estas partes no son el objetivo del estudio. Estas muestras son recubiertas por papel aluminio y mantenidas a una temperatura constante de almacenamiento, donde vara segn las condiciones del experimento de 15 a 20C (Font et al., 2006; Hoffman et al., 2007; Hoffman et al., 2008). Los cortes de presentacin tienen una variacin de geometra, constituyndose 1cm2 la base de presentacin por una longitud entre 1 y 3 cm (AMSA, 1995; Peachey et al., 2002; Font et al., 2006; Pittroff et al., 2006; Hoffman et al., 2008); se puede presentar tambin formas irregulares pero con pesos previamente establecidos en 20g (Brannan, 2009).
El tiempo de presentacin corresponde de 5 a 10 minutos posteriores a un atemperado de las muestras. Se emplean como agentes limpiadores del sabor, sorbos de agua y galletas sin sal (Peachey et al., 2002).
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1.6 Mtodos estadsticos
Los mtodos estadsticos del anlisis sensorial se distinguen en diseo experimental y modelos de interpretacin de datos, siendo estos ltimos funcin de los parmetros en la respuesta (Forde et al., 2007). A partir de un anlisis exploratorio de los datos recogidos en el diseo de las pruebas y propiedades sensoriales conocidas, la discriminacin del modelo de interpretacin se divide en el tipo de variable de respuesta dependiente o independiente.
Los modelos empleados en variables de respuesta independientes continuas se distribuyen empleando mtodos de anlisis de regresiones, pruebas de hiptesis, anlisis de varianza y covarianza; variables dependientes categricas se distribuyen empleando anlisis segn su estructura, replicacin o anlisis multivariado.
Al emplear variables dependientes el nivel de discriminacin se determina por nmero de variables de respuesta de los datos, en el caso que sea una variable final, segn la forma de la distribucin (normal o censurados) se emplean los anlisis de varianza, diseo de bloques y anlisis de tiempo de falla; caso contrario donde la variable de respuesta sea mayor o igual a 2, el anlisis multivariado de varianza se constituye en la metodologa de anlisis.
El anlisis exploratorio de variables, marca un indicio de que modelo de anlisis se puede usar, discriminando el tipo de distribucin y parmetros de varianza. Puede proporcionar resultados simples y sencillos pero no permite un grado de certeza y correlacin con otras variables (Probola y Zander, 2007).
Modelos lineales y distribuciones f y t se emplean para establecer el grado de significancia y errores mnimos de correlaciones que puedan existir entre los atributos y las evaluaciones dadas por los catadores (Brockhoff, 2001). El modelo de rbol aleatorio es una nueva tcnica
24
para una descripcin predictiva. Existe una compatibilidad entre regresiones lineales con el cual se tienen en cuenta errores muy pequeos en la prediccin, dando importancia a cada atributo presentado (Granitto et al., 2007).
Es importante distinguir el tipo de error en los modelos lineales y pruebas de distribuciones; en el caso de anlisis sensorial, una reduccin de los errores tipo I corresponderan a una aproximacin de sistema ANOVA de una va tendiendo ms certeza de la hiptesis a aprobar (Brockhoff, 2001), pero el efecto de la aleatoriedad de las muestras tiene un grado de significancia en el anlisis ANOVA, siendo difcil la compatibilidad con distribucin (t o f) (Kunert, 2000). los modelos de
Dada complejidad en las matrices de anlisis en carnes donde los factores de anlisis se constituyen de una matriz de evaluadores, muestras y atributos, es muy elevada, siendo necesario disminuir las variables de respuesta a componentes principales que sean capaces de identificar cuales son ms representativas de las dems. PCA, regresin de mnimos cuadrados y regresin de principales componentes son los ms usados con estas matrices (Noes et al., 1996). Al emplear modelos de distribucin t o f en el anlisis de las variables de atributos se pueden eliminar muestras o datos segn el grado de significancia empleado; estos datos
eliminados pueden ser significativos en los modelos multivariables (Kubberd et al., 2002). El diseo multivariable es ms eficaz pues puede agrupar ms resultados que proporcionan evaluadores (Forde et al., 2007); un factor adicional de usar modelos multivariables consiste en la simplicidad de las regresiones pues corresponden a sistemas lineales (Noes et al., 1996).
El anlisis por componentes principales (PCA) procura disminuir ese nmero de variables, dando la posibilidad de realizar anlisis de tendencias e intervalos de confianza donde las variables de mayor significancia corresponden a la respuesta de algunas de menor peso (Carrasco y Siebert,1999; Probola y, Zander, 2007). El modelo de PCA requiere que las variables de entrada correspondan a un grado de significancia elevado siendo el p-vale muy bajo. Por medio de un anlisis de varianza ANOVA de una o 2 vas, se puede identificar el
Captulo I
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grado de significancia de cada variable; el siguiente paso corresponde al PCA de agrupar y reducir el nmero de variables, en este caso atributos, que sean representativos de las muestras del anlisis (Ellekjaer et al., 1996; Kutia et al., 2004; Probola y, Zander, 2007).
Para proporcionar el grado de significancia en los modelos ANOVA y obtener regresiones de mnimos cuadros, es necesario validar las varianzas de los factores de anlisis (Byrne et al., 2002), Jack Knife provee una buena aproximacin pero es dependiente de la aleatoriedad de los ensayos; para eliminar esta nueva variable, el modelo TOBIL proporciona una buena validacin sin violar los niveles nominales las variables que emplea ANOVA (Galiano y Kunert, 2006; Martens y Martens, 2000).
Es necesario establecer el orden de anlisis cuando se usa el modelo PCA Y ANOVA simultneamente. Se recomienda usar inicialmente el modelo ANOVA evaluando la significancia y posteriormente el modelo PCA (Arvanitoyannis et al., 2000; Luciano y Tormod, 2009). En estudios donde se involucrar la variable tiempo, se recomienda emplear mtodos especializados en temporalidad posterior a aplicar el modelo PCA (Parisi, et al., 2002).
Se presenta la lgica difusa como metodologa de estimacin de las propiedades sensoriales; este mtodo permite convertir las respuestas categricas en modelos continuos de fcil regresin (Lannoua et al., 2002).
1.7 Correlaciones de anlisis sensorial
Las correlaciones de anlisis sensorial se distinguen en identificar parmetros de calidad por medio de medidas instrumentales y relaciones entre atributos. La ltima tendencia de estudios de anlisis sensorial est encaminada a establecer la existencia de significancia y efectividad de las medidas instrumentales y atributos sensoriales de los productos crnicos. Un anlisis
26
sensorial pobremente implementado afecta directamente el juicio de los panelistas y por ende la correlacin con la medida instrumental; el anlisis sensorial est afectado por la subjetividad del panelista, el cual marca la diferencia con el anlisis instrumental respecto a su interpretacin y aplicacin siendo necesario aplicar ambos tipos de anlisis como medidas de calidad en los alimentos.
Variaciones pequeas en la composicin pueden presentar interferencias para obtener una correlacin lineal con los descriptores, pero se puede tener una visin global de la seleccin como parmetros de control de calidad (Jia et al., 2008), su anlisis es bastante complejo dependiendo del nmero de atributos a medir; es recomendable correlacionar un parmetro por medida instrumental (Lassoueda et al., 2008). Se presenta la relacin de medidas instrumentales con atributos sensoriales:
El atributo de olor es correlacionado con grupos de aromticos identificados por medio de una nariz electrnica que emplea celdas de deteccin a partir de sustancias obtenidas en un espacio de cabeza; en este punto los compuestos aromticos de la grasa animal corresponden a una huella del tipo de animal, este anlisis instrumental es muy limitado debido al gran nmero de descriptores que se pueden emplear al realizar el anlisis sensorial con panelistas (Hansen, et al., 2005).
Descriptores de palatabilidad son correlacionados con medidas instrumentales tomados por las metodologas de ciclos de compresin y el mtodo de cizalla de Warner-Bratzler, siendo la preparacin de las muestras y la forma de presentacin indicadores de una buena correlacin, por ejemplo el sentido de las fibras en las muestras (Poste et al., 1993); Warner-Bratzler proporciona un intervalo de confianza del 99% respecto al parmetro de dureza y la posibilidad de obtener correlaciones cannicas con solo 3 puntos de comparacin (Van Oeckel et al., 1999; Peachey et al., 2002; Combes et al., 2008); una aproximacin a establecer si la carne se encuentra dura o blanda es por fuera del intervalo de 52.68 y 42.87 N (Destefanis et al., 2008).
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En una metodologa de ciclos de compresin, las medidas instrumentales presentan una aceptacin inferior a la que presentara un panel de catacin (Peachey et al., 2002). La ternura y la dureza estn relacionados con la presencia de tejido conectivo y la presencia de cenizas (Vlkov et al., 2007); estos dos parmetros a su vez estn inversamente correlacionados (Hansen et al., 2004). Adicional a los parmetros de ciclos de compresin la fluorescencia del tejido conectivo del msculo proporcionara una medida de la intensidad de la dureza y ternura (Swatland et al., 1995).
El color es correlacionado con coordenadas de intensidad L, rojo-verde a*, amarillo-azul b*; donde la luminosidad y el color rojo tienen mayor aceptacin, constituyendo una medida directa y eficiente de la aceptacin comercial de la carne fresca (Vlkov et al., 2007); comparativos con imgenes digitales muestran mayor aceptacin visual que con muestras de carne, resaltando la intensidad lumnica L (OSullivana et al., 2003).
El flavor se relaciona con los parmetros de dureza y as mismo con las medidas instrumentales de un texturmetro (Spanier et al., 1997), pero segn el entrenamiento o las pruebas descriptivas la preparacin de las muestras constituyen el factor de mayor anlisis (Otremba et al., 2000).
Se presenta la espectroscopia de reflectancia de infrarrojo cercano como un mtodo inmediato de evaluacin de parmetros como composicin, pH, color y sensorial; se encuentra en desarrollo como por medio de la composicin se puede correlacionar con los descriptores de palatabilidad, el mayor inconveniente corresponde a la preparacin de las muestras pues la espectroscopia se realiza en carne cruda (Prieto et al., 2009).
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1.8 Conclusin
Los sistemas de calidad en auge en las plantas de alimentos dadas por la normatividad, conllevan a desarrollar metodologas de inspeccin y calidad de sus productos finales. Se presenta el anlisis sensorial como una herramienta practica y satisfactoria para obtener una medida objetiva a partir de apreciaciones dadas por personal entrenado. Por medio de 2 tipos de pruebas afectivas y analticas, panelistas o jurados de una sensacin que describe un atributo requieren una seleccin exhaustiva de entrenamiento especfico y capaces de desarrollar un lenguaje propio y de fcil entendimiento. Protocolos de preparacin de muestras, vocabulario especfico y metodologa de anlisis marcan la diferencia de seleccin, objetividad y repeticin de las pruebas sensoriales haciendo difcil la comparacin de carne. Por su carcter complejo el anlisis sensorial en carnes se debe describir ntegramente y secuencial con parmetros muy definidos de preparacin y seleccin.
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1.10 Instrucciones para los autores en la revista colombiana de ciencias pecuarias (RCCP)
Los trabajos enviados a la Revista para considerar su publicacin, debern ser inditos, y el (los) autor (es) deben constar que el contenido del manuscrito no ha sido ni ser enviado para su publicacin a otra revista mientras dure el proceso de evaluacin. Para el efecto los autores deben diligenciar y adjuntar el formato Constancia de los autores del artculo, requisito indispensable para considerar y evaluar el material recibido. Los autores deben ceirse a las siguientes indicaciones generales:
1. Los trabajos debern ser escritos en espaol, portugus, francs o ingls.
2. El manuscrito debe ser escrito en letra Arial 12, a 1.5 espacios. Mrgenes simtricas a 2 cm.
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3. Todas las pginas debern numerarse.
4. Todas las lneas, debern numerarse, reiniciando en cada pgina.
5. Los autores deben enviar el formato de Constancia de autores debidamente firmado y escaneado por el OJS o al Fax 2199111. Descargar Constancia de Autores
6. Anexar la hoja de constancia en el OPJ en pdf que los autores la puedan completar.
7. Enviar archivos o ficheros por el sistema Open Journal Systems en la pgina http://rccp.udea.edu.co/ Respecto de la organizacin del trabajo, esta depender de la seccin en la cual se ubique el manuscrito como se describe a continuacin:
1.10.1
Artculo original.
Es un artculo indito, producto de informes cientficos y tecnolgicos, resultado de una investigacin original. Consta de:
Ttulo. Deber escribirse en espaol, ingls y portugus. Centrado, en minsculas, negrilla y no exceder de 25 palabras. Nombres en latn en cursiva (p.e: Bos indicus, Escherichia coli, Brucella abortus).
Autores. Nombres centrados. Orden: primer nombre, inicial del segundo nombre y apellido completo, sin incluir entre ellos signos de puntuacin, seguidos del superndice en cursiva que indica la filiacin de cada autor, seguidos de coma y ttulos acadmicos abreviados, separados por coma. Cada autor separado por punto y coma (p.e: Jorge E Ossa1, MV, PhD; Juan D Rodas2, MV, PhD).
Filiacin. Debajo de los autores, centrado e iniciando con el superndice en cursiva, correspondiente a cada autor. Incluir filiacin completa (p.e: 1Programa de Biognesis, y
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2Laboratorio de Virologa, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, AA 1226, Medelln, Colombia; 3Laboratorio Mdico de la Amricas, Medelln, Colombia). Autor para correspondencia. Sealarlo con asterisco y en nota al pi de pgina, especificando su direccin postal completa y electrnica completas.
Resumen. En Cursiva y negrilla. Contiene el problema investigado, objetivo, descripcin concisa de los materiales y mtodos utilizados, resultados y conclusiones relevantes. Lmite: 200 a 300 palabras.
Palabras clave. Este subttulo deber ir en negrilla y sin cursiva, seguido de dos puntos; incluir a continuacin, en orden alfabtico, en minsculas, en cursiva y sin negrilla, tres a seis palabras.
Summary. Corresponde al resumen en ingls, en cursiva y en negrilla.
Key words. Palabras clave en ingls (tem 6).
Resumo. Corresponde al resumen en portugus, en cursiva y en negrilla.
Palavras chave. Palabras clave en portugs (item 6)
Introduccin. Ttulo en minsculas y negrilla. Contiene: estado actual del conocimiento del tpico tratado, hiptesis evaluadas y objetivos. No exceder 400 palabras.
Materiales y mtodos. Ttulo en minsculas y negrilla. Esta seccin puede subdividirse en subttulos. Incluir: Aval del Comit de tica para la experimentacin animal. Se indicar la fecha, nmero de acta de aprobacin del Comit de tica para la experimentacin animal y el concepto sobre el tipo de riesgo con el cual fue calificado.
Tipo de estudio. Indicar el tipo de estudio realizado, la poblacin objeto de estudio y el tamao de la muestra utilizado.
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Mtodos. Aquellos mtodos propios o estandarizados por los autores, debern describirse con la precisin necesaria. Si un mtodo ha sido descrito por otros autores, no incluir sus detalles, pero hacer la referencia respectiva. Mtodos modificados por los autores, debern incluir la referencia y la descripcin exacta de las modificaciones. Si se incluyen subttulos describiendo procedimientos y protocolos, proceder as: subttulos de primer orden escribirlos en cursiva, sin negrilla, iniciando en la lnea siguiente la descripcin del procedimiento. Subttulo de segundo orden escribirlo tambin en cursiva y sin negrilla, con punto seguido y la descripcin se har inmediatamente despus.
Anlisis estadstico. Debe indicar con claridad el procedimiento utilizado, las transformaciones hechas a los datos para facilitar el anlisis, los modelos estadsticos utilizados, el nivel de significancia y los tipos de error empleados.
Resultados. Los ttulos y subttulos en esta seccin se regirn al igual que lo indicado en materiales y mtodos.
Los resultados se deben expresar en tiempo pasado, anotando el nivel de signifiancia estadstica entre parntesis (p.e: p<0.05, p<0.01, p>0.05). Niveles superiores al 99.9% de confiabilidad se citarn como (p<0.01).
Las tablas y las figuras debern citarse o mencionarse en esta seccin en estricto orden. La citacin en el texto se podr hacer de dos maneras: a)... como se puede apreciar en la tabla 2...; o b) los resultados no mostraron diferencias estadsticas significativas (Tabla 2).
Las unidades de medida se citarn de acuerdo con el sistema mtrico decimal y se deber dejar un espacio entre el nmero y la unidad, excepto para los signos de porcentaje (%) y pesos ($) que siempre irn unidos a la cifra. Las unidades de medida no deben ser usadas en plural ni llevarn punto final (p.e: kg en lugar de kgs, kg.). Cuando una unidad de medida rige para varios nmeros, slo acompaar al ltimo valor (p.e: 3 - 5 kg en lugar de 3 kg 5 kg). Los decimales no se deben expresar con coma, sino con punto.
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Abreviaturas y siglas: los nombres en otro idioma no debern traducirse y se acompaarn de su sigla entre parntesis, por ejemplo, Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF); citando en adelante slo la sigla.
Todos los compuestos y reactivos, as como los equipos utilizados, debern incluir entre parntesis la casa matriz productora, ciudad sede y estado o pas (p.e: Sigma, St Louis, MO). No se debern incluir nombres comerciales en el texto y siempre se har referencia al principio activo; en caso de ser estrictamente necesario, el nombre comercial se citar como nota al pie de pgina.
Discusin. Es una seccin independiente de los resultados. Incluye los principales aportes de los autores, explicando y contrastando sus resultados con otros trabajos e interpretando las diferencias, para plantear finalmente las recomendaciones o hiptesis pertinentes. Se evitar hacer referencia a temas o hiptesis que no tengan relacin estricta con los resultados y el tema central objeto del trabajo.
Agradecimientos. Se pueden mencionar las instituciones y personas que financiaron o apoyaron el trabajo.
Se deben especificar los cdigos de los proyectos (Grants), si estos fueron financiados. Referencias. Se cita con nombre y ao: (Jaramillo, 2006; Zuluaga y Tobn, 2008; Botero et al., 2009) o Muoz et al. (1998). Se recomienda no citar ms de tres referencias por concepto.
Tablas y figuras. Las tablas y figuras (incluye fotografas) llevarn numeracin arbiga seguida de punto. El ttulo deber ubicarse en la parte superior, si es tabla o en la parte inferior, si es figura. Los encabezados de columnas y filas llevarn en mayscula slo la letra inicial.
Las tablas slo debern llevar lneas horizontales entre el ttulo y la caja, entre sta y el contenido de la tabla, y entre el contenido y las fuentes (vase como ejemplo una tabla en el nmero anterior de la Revista). No se deben usar lneas verticales.
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Las unidades de los encabezados se debern indicar entre parntesis. Los nmeros, letras o asteriscos que refieran al pie de la tabla o figura, medidas estadsticas o significados particulares, se harn en cursiva y en superndice. Asimismo, en casos especiales, al pie de tabla se podrn hacer comentarios especficos aclaratorios sobre la metodologa utilizada.
1.10.2
Revisiones de literatura y ensayos.
Revisin: Consiste en un anlisis crtico de la literatura publicada en torno a un tema de actualidad, inters y pertinencia para las ciencias pecuarias. Los manuscritos deben ajustarse a las mismas normas anteriores, exceptuando materiales y mtodos, resultados y discusin; en su lugar, se utilizarn ttulos y subttulos alusivos al tema en revisin. Los autores debern argumentar, sustentar o controvertir la informacin contenida en la revisin; adems, harn un aporte crtico sobre las fortalezas, debilidades y oportunidades de investigacin del tema propuesto.
Ensayo: consistir en un documento elaborado por el autor, en el que plasma sus ideas y
concepciones sobre un tpico especfico, por lo general relacionado con su especialidad.
1.10.3
Redaccin y citacin de las referencias.
La redaccin de las referencias debe ajustarse a los siguientes modelos, teniendo en cuenta que los nombres de las revistas se escribirn en abreviatura siguiendo los parmetros del Index Medicus, sin puntos despus de cada abreviacin. En el listado de referencias citar todos los autores.
1. Artculo original; ejemplo: Cushman RA, Allan MF, Kuehn LA, Snelling WM, Cupp AS, and Freetly HC. Evaluation of antral follicle count and ovarian morphology in crossbred beef cows: Investigation of infl uence of stage of the estrous cycle, age, and birth weight. J Anim Sci 2009; 87: 1971-1980.
2. Organizacin o entidad; ejemplo:
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Cardiac Society of Australia and New Zealand. Clinical exercise stress testing. Safety and performance guidelines. Med J Aust 1996; 164: 282-284.
3. Referencia sin autor; ejemplo: Cancer in South Africa [editorial]. S Afr Med J 1994;84:15.
4. Suplemento de revista; ejemplo: Shen HM and Zhang QF. Risk assessment of nickel carcinogenicity and occupational lung cancer. EnvironHealth Perspect 1994; 102 Suppl 1:275-282.
5. Referencia sin volumen ni nmero; ejemplo: Browell DA and Lennard TW. Immunologic status of the cancer patient and the effects of blood transfusion on antitumor responses. Curr Opin Gen Surg 1993:325-33.
B. Libros. 1. Autor(es); ejemplo: Ringsven MK and Bond D. Gerontology and leadership skills for nurses. 2nd ed. Albany (NY): Delmar Publishers; 1996.
2. Editor(es), compilador(es) como autor(es); ejemplo: Norman IJ and Redfern SJ, editors. Mental health care for elderly people. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1996.
3. Organizacin; ejemplo: Institute of Medicine (US). Looking at the future of the Medical program. Washington: The Institute; 1992.
4. Captulo de libro; ejemplo: Phillips SJ and Whisnant JP. Hypertension and stroke. In: Laragh JH, Brenner BM, editors. Hypertension: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. 2nd ed. New York: Raven Press; 1995. p.465-78.
C. Comunicacin personal.
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Se citan slo en el texto (no en las referencias) indicando el autor, su filiacin y el ao.
D. Referencia electrnica. Ejemplo: Morse SS. Factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 1995; [fecha de acceso...] URL: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/eid.htm
Ni la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, ni la Revista, se responsabilizan por los conceptos emitidos en los artculos publicados, cuya responsabilidad recae en el autor.
1.11 Constancia de evaluacin y aceptacin

Articulo Redactado y publicado en la Revista Colombiana de Ciencias Pecuarias, de la universidad de Antioqua.
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2. Electroencephalogram spectral power in sheep after stunning

Electroencephalogram spectral power in sheep after stunning Ivn C. Sncheza,c*2, Manuel Rojas B.b, William Albarracnd,c.
a Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medelln, Colombia. icsanchezb@unal.edu.co b Laboratorio de Fisiologa Animal. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogot, Colombia. marojasba@unal.edu.co d Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos (ICTA). Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogot, Colombia. walbarracinh@unal.edu.co c Grupo de investigacin Aseguramiento de la calidad de Alimentos y desarrollo de nuevos productos, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos
Abstract Spectral electroencephalogram power (SEP) shows the frequency band components of the brain electrical activity. The electroencephalogram (EEG) has a characteristic SEP during different behavioral states as waking or sleep, and also during pathological states as epilepsy or brain death. Methods of farm animals slaughtering should prevent needless suffering. All animals are expected being insensible to pain and unconsciousness before being hoisted, but there are not consistent studies of the animals brain activity after
Corresponding author. Tel.: +571 316500 Ext: 19226. Carrera 30 No. 45-03 Ed. 500B Bogot Colombia.
E-mail address: icsanchezb@unal.edu.co
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stunning. This study evaluated the sheeps brain activity after stunning by percussion or electricity means. Brain activity compatible with epileptic EEG was present after electrical stunning, with increasing of delta power and decreasing of theta and gamma power. After percussion stunning the EEG showed a slightly decreasing of high frequency power. Keywords: Electroencephalogram; spectral power; sheep; stunning.
2.1 Introduction
EEG is a technique to record brain electrical activity (Delamonica, 1987; Kay, 1998; Pastor et al., 2006; Vilatua and Yanchaliquin, 2007; Cwynar and Zawadzki, 2010). Neuronal groups fire in different frequency rates as following: delta (0.5-4.0 Hz), theta (4.0-8.0 Hz), alpha (8.1-12.0), beta (12.1-30.0 Hz) y gamma (30.1-80.0 Hz) (Angel, 2009; Bergamasco et al., 2006; Riquelme, 1995; Subasi and Ercelebi, 2005). Frequency band power analysis of the EEG can be done by means of the Fourier transformed formula (Angel, 2009; Riquelme, 1995; Vilatua and Yanchaliquin, 2007). Neurological disorders such as epilepsy have being described in animal models, sheep and rat. These EEG recordings show high amplitude and high frequency waves (Annegers, 1997; Guerrero et al., 1997; Opdam et al., 2002). Slaughtering of farm animals should induce unconsciousness and avoid pain (Caraves and Gallo, 2007). However, undesirable stress, anxiety and pain could affect the animals during slaughtering (Grandin, 1996; Jongman et al., 2000; Velarde et al., 2003; Gregory, 2004; Gregory, 2008; ). Several stunning methods have being described for slaughtering ruminants and monogastric animals, for instance: non penetrating captive bolt (Lopez and
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Vanaclocha, 2004), penetrating captive bolt (Gregory and Shaw, 2000), electrical shock (Velarde et al., 2000), and dioxide carbon exposure (Bercerril et al., 2009; Lopez and Vanaclocha, 2004). The bolt shot pistol stunning method causes an irreversible cerebral commotion, and brain injury, proportional to the pistol power and the target on the skull (Lambooij et al., 2003; Caraves and Gallo, 2007; Ros and Acosta, 2008; Grandin, 1999). The electric shock stunning method works by applying current through the brain or through the whole body, it induces an epileptiform brain status, loss of consciousness and absence of pain (Lopez and Vanaclocha, 2004), but also it might bring the animal into cardiac arrest (Lambooy, 1982; Solis, 2005). Electrical stunning efficacy is dependent on the electrodes placement, and electricity characteristics (Digre et al., 2010; Grandin, 1999). For electrical stunning is recommended a voltage between 70-250 V, a minimum amperage of 1,2 A during 2 to 8 s (Kun, 2008; Grandin, 1994; and Velarde et al., 2003; Velarde et al., 2000; Brancacci et al., 2006). Some of the parameters used to evaluate stunning are uncoordinated movements, clonic convulsions, and dilated pupils (Grandin, 2010; Blackmore and Newhook, 1983). Recent studies are focused on the cortical brain activity, and the quantitative analysis of the EEG as measurement of pain perception during slaughtering (Hermsworth and Mellor, 2009). This study attempts to evaluate the electroencephalographic status of sheep after stunning by non penetrating captive bolt method, and electrical shock.
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2.2 Materials and methods

2.2.1 Animals
During this study 60 lambs Dorper-mixed, 10 weeks old were used. Experimental animals were divided into 2 groups of 30 animals each. Animals from group 1 were stunned by electrical shock and those from group 2 by penetrating captive bolt.
2.2.2 Stunning method

Electrical shock The electro-narcosis was carried out by applying bipolar electrodes on the temporal area on each side of the skull at a point between the eyes and ears, previously moistened with saline solution (Velarde et al., 2000). An electrical alternating current of 250 V, and 0,9 A was administrated during 6 s (Humane Slaughter Association, 2005; Velarde et al., 2003). Stunning was performed in a V-shaped box where the animal was standing and immobilized.
Penetrating captive bolt A penetrating captive bolt pistol was used (Cash Special 22 caliber). The head of the animals was immobilized and the pistol shot addressed on the midline of the skull, behind
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the ridge between the horns, pointing to the base of the tongue (Humane Slaughter Association, 2006).
2.2.3 Electroencephalogram EEG recording

The EEG was recorded in a physiograph (Power Lab ADInstruments), at 1 kHz sample rate, 0.5 Hz digital filter. Two 2 subcutaneous needle electrodes were placed over the skull. The recording electrodes were placed bilaterally over the fronto-temporal area, and a reference electrode was placed on the parieto-occipital boundary. The recording began 30 seconds before stunning and continued until the time of lifting the animal (approximately 30 s after stunning).
2.2.4 EEG Analysis

The EEG recording from each animal was divided into two segments: baseline recording (prior to stunning) and post-stunning recording. Spectral power was obtained by applying the fast Fourier transform formula to EEG data. The spectral data was divided into 6 frequency bands: 1-4 Hz (Delta), 4-8 Hz (Theta), 8-13 Hz (Alpha), 13-30 Hz (beta), 30-80 Hz (range), 80-500 Hz (above). Data from each frequency band was normalized and reported as percentage (Beyssen et al., 2004).
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2.2.5 Statistical Analysis

Multi-factorial variance analysis ANOVA was carried ot for Statistical analysis (Statgraphics Centurion XV, Statistical Graphics Corp., U.S.A.). A multiple minimum range (Fischer test, P<0.05) was performed.
2.3 Results
Figure 1. Basal Spectral Encephalogram Power.
Figure 1 shows the frequency bands power of the EEG recorded from experimental animals from group 1 and 2 before stunning. There was no significant difference for the basal spectral encephalogram power of animals from groups 1 0.05). and 2 (P Frequency bands power average was as following: Delta 60% 1.5, beta 5.9% 1.4, alpha 3.4% 1.4 gamma 16.15% 1.4, theta 11% 1.4, and higher frequency band 7% 1.4.
Figure 2. Electrical shock stunning.
Figure 2 is a comparison of the spectral encephalogram power from experimental animals before and after the electrical shock stunning. There was a significant decreasing in delta
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power 23.2% 2.4, and a significant increasing in theta power 43.22% 1.75 (P<0.05) after stunning.
Figure 3. Penetrating captive bolt stunning
Figure 3 is a comparison of the spectral encephalogram power from experimental animals before and after the penetrating captive bolt stunning. The spectral power after stunning was as following: delta 60.4% 2.7, alpha 5.4% 2.1, beta 4.7% 2.7, theta 14.2% 2.4, gamma 17.1% 2.1, and higher frequency band 34.5% 2.3. There was no significant difference for the spectral power before and after penetrating captive bolt stunning.
Figure 4. Electrical shock vs. Penetrating captive bolt stunning.
Figure 4 shows a comparison of the spectral encephalogram power from experimental animals after the electrical shock and the penetrating captive bolt stunning. Delta power was significantly lower for the animals stunned by a penetrating captive bolt than those animals from the electrical shock group (68.06% 2.71, 23.21% 2.54 respectively (P<0.05). Gamma power was significantly higher for the animals stunned by electrical shock a penetrating captive bolt than those animals from the a penetrating captive bolt group (8.65% 2.61, 19.93% 2.43 respectively (P<0.05).
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Figure 5. EEG Recording.
Figure 5 shows in (a) basal EEG recording from an experimental animal before electrical shock stunning; (b) EEG recording after electrical shock stunning; (c) basal EEG recording from an experimental animal before penetrating captive bolt stunning; (d) EEG recording after penetrating captive bolt stunning. Figure 5 shows EEG traces from experimental animals before and after stunning by the two different methods used in this study. Amplitude of the EEG during basal recordings was about 200 V (a, c), as well as after penetrating captive bolt stunning (d). Amplitude of the EEG after electrical shock stunning was up to 600 V (b). The EEG during basal recording (a, c) and after penetrating captive bolt stunning show low frequency waves prevalence, but very high frequency waves after electrical shock stunning.
2.4 Discussion
The baseline EEG analysis from all the experimental animals showed a spectral power as reported in previous studies (Ong et al., 1997; Jongman et al., 2000). The perception of pain in animals is associated with physiological responses in humans and description of pain (Stubsjen et al., 2009), Pain intensity is associated in turn with the level of molecular biomarkers of stress (Sattari et al., 2009). However EEG recordings can also be associated with this type of responses. In humans an increase in delta and beta waves are related to the immersion of the hands in cold water, giving the perception
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of pain (Chen et al., 1989). During experiments in sheep, electrical stimulation was used to create stressful and painful situations. Those results showed an increase in delta waves and alpha waves decreased (Egsgaard et al., 2009); these results were contrasted with the response to immersion hands in water at different temperatures (Ong et al., 1997). Noninvasive measurement of pain have been evaluated in sheep, such as infrared thermography, ocular temperature, heart rates, where responses to painful stimuli are associated with pain perception in humans (Stubsjen et al., 2009 .) In a study was observed that the pain was related to delta, alpha and beta waves increasing, and, consequently, a reduction in pain by carbamazepine treatment was related to a decrease in those frequency waves (Music et al., 2008). As shown in Figure 2, electrical shock stunning showed a decrease in delta waves, allowing the inference that there was a reduction in pain perception. Epilepsy could be local or generalized (Subasi and Ercelebi, 2005; Sakkalis et al., 2010; Nelson et al., 2006; Bennet et al., 2006). Pain is not perceived during generalized epilepsy crisis but could be present during localized epilepsy crisis (Opdam et al., 2002; Sun et al., 2008; Charlesworth et al., 2009; Loddenkemper and Kotagal, 2005; Machado and Solarte, 2010). Based on these studies we might speculate that there was no pain perception in animals after electrical shock stunning because an epileptic like EEG was induced.
2.5 Conclusion
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By analyzing the power spectrum of EEG recordings, we evaluated the efficiency of the captive bolt method and the electric shock in sheep slaughtering. EEG recordings after the electric shock resemble an epileptic crisis where there is no pain perception. On the other hand, the results for captive bolt stunning suggest no change in cortical activity and no alteration in the EEG spectral power, in contrast there is a tendency to increase delta waves, which can be associated with pain perception. Although the penetrating captive bolt stun leads to loss of mobility during stunning, our findings do not show evidence of an absence of pain.
Acknowledgments Special thanks to the Direccin de investigacin Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Bogot (DIB) and sheep-farm la primavera.
2.6 References
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mitochondrial activity after asphyxia measured by near-infrared spectroscopy in preterm fetal sheep. Journal of physiology 572, 141-154. Bercerril, M., Alonso, M., Lemus, C., Legarreta, I., Olmos, A., Ramirez, R., Mota, D., 2009. CO2 stunning may compromise swine welfare compared with electrical stunning. Meat Science 81, 233-237. Bergamasco, L., Mecchi, E., Facello, C., Badino, P., Odore, R., Re, G., Osella, M.C., 2006. Electroencephalographic power spectral analysis of growing goat kids (Capra hircus). Small Ruminant Research 66, 265-272. Blackmore, D.K., Newhook, J.C., 1983. The assessment of insensibility in sheep, calves and pigs during slaughter. In: Eikenenboom, G. (Ed.), Stunning of animals for slaugther, Boston, USA, pp. 13-25. Brancacci, N., Alves de Souza, P., Alves de Souza, H., Garcia da Silva, A., Leone, E., 2006. Parmetros de qualidade da carne de cordeiros submetida aos processos de maturao e injeo de cloreto de clcio. Ciencia Rural 36, 1558-1564. Caraves, M., Gallo, C., 2007. Caracterizacin y evaluacin de la eficacia de los sistemas de insensibilizacin utilizados en equinos en Chile. Arch. Med. Vet. 39, 105-113. Charlesworth, G., Soryal, I., Smith, S., Sisodiya, S.M., 2009. Acute, localised paroxysmal pain as the initial manifestation of focal seizures: A case report and a brief review of the literature. Pain 141, 300-305. Chen, A.C.N., Dworrkin, S.F., Hang, J., 1989. Topographic brain measures of human pain and pain responsivity. pain 37, 129-141.
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Cwynar, P., Zawadzki, W., 2010. Recording of bioelectrical activity changes in sheep cerebral cortex. Arch Med Vet 42, 51-62. Delamonica, E.A., 1987. Encefalografa. El Ateneo, Buenos Aires Argentina. Digre, H., Erikson, U., Misimi, E., Lambooij, B., Van de vis, H., 2010. Electrical stunning of farmed Atlantic cod Gadus morhua L.: a comparison of an industrial and experimental method. Aquaculture research 41, 1190-1202. Egsgaard, L.L., Wang, L., Arendt, L., 2009. Volunteers with high versus low alpha EEG have diferent painEEG relationship: a human experimental study. Exp Brain Res 193, 361-369. Gibson, T.J., Johnson, C.B., Murrell, J.C., Mitchinson, S.L., Stafford, K.J., Mellor, D.J., 2009. Amelioration of electroencephalographic responses to slaughter by nonpenetrative captive-bolt stunning after ventral-neck incision in halothane anaesthetised calves. New zealand veterinary journal 57, 96-101. Grandin, T., 1994. Euthanasia and slaughter of livestock. Journal of american veterinary medical association 204, 1354-1360. Grandin, T., 1996. El bienestar animal en las plantas de faena. American association of bovine practitioners, 22-26. Grandin, T., 1999. Buenas practicas de trabajo para el manejo e insensibilizacion de animales. In: Grandin, T. (Ed.), Guia de manejo animal para plantas de faena, Fort Collins, pp. 1-9. Grandin, T., 2010. Auditing animal welfare at slaughter plants. Meat Science 86, 56-65.
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Gregory, N., 2004. Physiology and Behaviour of Animal Suffering. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK, pp. 162 Gregory, N., 2008. Animal welfare at markets and during transport and slaughter. Meat Science 80, 2-11. Gregory, N., Shaw, F., 2000. Penetrating Captive Bolt Stunning and Exsanguination of Cattle in Abattoirs. Journal of applied animal welfcare science 3, 215-230. Guerrero, M.F., Meneses, B., Gracia, C., 1997. Registro encefalografico computarizado en ratas para la obtencion de anticonvulsionantes. Revista colombiana de ciencias quimicas farmaceuticas 26, 59-62. Hermsworth, P., Mellor, D.J., 2009. Scientific comment on the welfare of sheep slaughtered without stunning. In. the humane slaughter association and council of justice to animals, united Kindom. Humane slaughter association, H., 2005. Insensibilizacin de animales de carne roja con instrumentos electricos. In: the humane slaughter association and council of
justice to animals, united Kindom. Humane slaughter association, H., 2006. Insensibilizacin de ganado con pistola neumatica de perno cautivo. In: The human slaughter association and council of justice to animals, United Kindom. Jongman, E.C., Morris, J.P., Barnett, J.L., Hemsworth, P.H., 2000. EEG changes in 4week-old lambs in response to castration, tail docking and mulesing. Autralian Veterinary journal 78, 339-343. Kay, I., 1998. Introduction to animal physiology. Bios Scientific, Oxford UK.
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Kun, C., 2008. Efecto del proceso duchado y tiempo de escaldado durante la cosecha de cerdo en las propiedades fsico-qumicas, microbiolgicas y sensoriales de la carne. In: Escuela agricola panamericana, Honduras. Lambooij, E., Kloostemboer, R.J., Pieterse, C., Gerritzen, M.A., Van de vis, J.W., 2003. Stunning of farmed African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) using a captive needle pistol; assessment of welfare aspects. Aquaculture research 34, 1353-1358. Lambooy, E., 1982. Electrical stunning of sheep. Meat Science 6, 123-135. Loddenkemper, T., Kotagal, P., 2005. Lateralizing signs during seizures in focal epilepsy. Epilepsy and behavior 7, 1-17. Lopez, R., Vanaclocha, A.C., 2004. Tecnologa de mataderos. Ed. Mundiprensa, Mexico. Machado, R.A., Solarte, R.A., 2010. Ictal extension (dorsiflexion) of the toes in a patient with temporal lobe epilepsy: A new ictal lateralizing sign. Epilepsy and behavior 18, 481-484. Music, M., Babic, N., Fajkic, A., Sivic, S., Huseinagic, S., Alicajic, F., Toromanovik, S., 2008. Analysis of the Electroencephalogram and Pain Characteristic in patients Before and After Carbamazepine Treatment. Medicinski arhiv 62, 256-258. Nelson, M.T., Todorovic, S.M., Perez, E., 2006. The Role of T-Type Calcium Channels in Epilepsy and Pain. current pharmaceutical design 12, 2189-2197. Ong, R.M., Morris, J.P., O'dwyer, J.K., Barnett, J.L., Hemsworth, P.H., Clarke, I.J., 1997. Behavioural and EEG changes in sheep in response to painful acute electrical stimuli. Autralian Veterinary journal 75, 189-193.
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Opdam, H., Federico, P., Jackson, G.D., buchanan, J., Abbott, D.F., Fabinyi, G.C.A., Vosmansky, M., Archer, J.S., Wellard, M., Bellomo, R., 2002. A Sheep Model for the Study of Focal Epilepsy with Concurrent Intracranial EEG and Functional MRI. Epilepsia 43, 779-787. Pastor, J., Uzcategui, Y.G., Gal-Iglesias, B., Ortega, G.J., Sola, R., Menendez, L., 2006. Bases fisiopatolgicas de la epilepsia del lbulo temporal: estudios en humanos y animales. revista de neurologia 42, 663-673. Ros, F.G., Acosta, D.C., 2008. sacrificio humanitario de ganado bovino e inocuidad de la carne. Nacameh 2, 106-123. Riquelme, L., 1995. Bases neurologicas de las seales bioelectricas cerebrales. In: Analisis computado del EEG, FADEC, Buenos Aires, pp. 32-41. Sakkalis, V., Cassar, T., Zervakis, M., Giurcaneanu, C.D., Bigan, C., Micheloyannis, S., Camilleri, K.P., Fabri, S.G., Karakonstantaki, E., Michalopoulos, K., 2010. A desicion support support framework for the discrimination of children with controlled epilepsy based on EEG analysis. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation 7, 24-38. Sattari, A., Mirzargar, S.S., Abrishamifar, A., Lourakzadegan, R., Bahonar, A., Mousavi, H.E., Niasari, A., 2009. comparison of electroanesthesia with chemical anesthesia(MS222 and Clove oil) in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) using plasma cortisol and glucose responses as physiological stress indicators. asian journal of animal and veterinary advances 4, 306-313. Shaw, N., 1986. Somatosensory evoked potentials after experimental head injury in the awake rat. Journal of neurological sciences 74, 257-270.
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Solis, J.L., 2005. Manual de practicas tecnologia de carnes. Departamento academico de ciencia y tecnologia de alimentos, Huncayo Per. Stubsjen, S.M., Fl, A.S., Moe, R.O., Janczak, A.M., Skjerve, E., Valle, P.S., Zanella, A.J., 2009. Exploring non-invasive methods to assess pain in sheep. Physiology and behavior 2009, 640-648. Subasi, A., Ercelebi, E., 2005. Classification of EEG signals using neural network and logistic regression. Computer methods and programs in biomedicine 78, 87-99. Sun, F.T., Morrell, M.J., Wharen, R.E., 2008. Responsive Cortical Stimulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy. Neurotherapeutics 5, 68-74. Velarde, A., Gispert, M., Diestre, A., Manteca, X., 2003. Effect of electrical stunning on meat and carcass quality in lambs. Meat Science 63, 35-38. Velarde, A., Ruiz de la Torre, J.L., Stub, C., Diestre, A., Manteca, X., 2000. Factors affecting the effectiveness of head-only electrical stunning in sheep. The veterinary record 147, 40-43. Vilatua, B.J., Yanchaliquin, V.J., 2007. Diseo y construccion de un sistema de monitorizacion del nivel de alerta humano en tiempo real basado en ondas cerebrales. Escuela Politecnica Nacional, Quito Ecuador, pp. 85.
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Figura 2-1. Basal Spectral Encephalogram Power.
Figura 2-2. Electrical shock stunning.
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Figura 2-3. Penetrating captive bolt stunning.
Figura 2-4. Electrical shock vs. Penetrating captive bolt stunning.
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Figura 2-5. EEG Recording .
2.7 Instrucciones para los autores en la revista small ruminant research
2.7.1 Article structure.
Manuscripts should have numbered lines, with wide margins and double spacing throughout, i.e. also for abstracts, footnotes and references. Every page of the manuscript, including the title page, references, tables, etc., should be numbered. However, in the text no reference should be made to page numbers; if necessary one may refer to sections. Avoid excessive usage of italics to emphasize part of the text.
Manuscripts in general should be organized in the following order: Abstract Keywords (indexing terms), normally 3-6 items Introduction
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Material studied, area descriptions, methods, techniques Results Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgment and any additional information concerning research grants, etc. References
2.7.2 Essential title page information
Title. Concise and informative. Titles are often used in information-retrieval systems. Avoid abbreviations and formulae where possible. Author names and affiliations. Where the family name may be ambiguous (e.g., a double name), please indicate this clearly. Present the authors' affiliation addresses (where the actual work was done) below the names. Indicate all affiliations with a lower-case superscript letter immediately after the author's name and in front of the appropriate address. Provide the full postal address of each affiliation, including the country name, and, if available, the e-mail address of each author. Corresponding author. Clearly indicate who will handle correspondence at all stages of refereeing and publication, also post-publication. Ensure that telephone and fax numbers (with country and area code) are provided in addition to the e-mail address and the complete postal address. Present/permanent address. If an author has moved since the work described in the article was done, or was visiting at the time, a "Present address" (or "Permanent address") may be indicated as a footnote to that author's name. The address at which the author actually did the work must be retained as the main, affiliation address. Superscript Arabic numerals are used for such footnotes.
2.7.3 Abstract
A concise and factual abstract is required. The abstract should state briefly the purpose of the research, the principal results and major conclusions. An abstract is often presented separately from the article, so it must be able to stand alone. For this reason, References
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should be avoided, but if essential, then cite the author(s) and year(s). Also, non-standard or uncommon abbreviations should be avoided, but if essential they must be defined at their first mention in the abstract itself.
2.7.4 Nomenclature and units
Follow internationally accepted rules and conventions: use the international system of units (SI). If other quantities are mentioned, give their equivalent in SI. You are urged to consult IUB: Biochemical Nomenclature and Related Documents: External link http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iubmb/ for further information. Authors are, by general agreement, obliged to accept the rules governing biological nomenclature, as laid down in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria, and the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. All biotica (crops, plants, insects, birds, mammals, etc.) should be identified by their scientific names when the English term is first used, with the exception of common domestic animals. All biocides and other organic compounds must be identified by their Geneva names when first used in the text. Active ingredients of all formulations should be likewise identified.
2.7.5 Math formulae

Present simple formulae in the line of normal text where possible and use the solidus (/) instead of a horizontal line for small fractional terms, e.g., X/Y. In principle, variables are to be presented in italics. Powers of e are often more conveniently denoted by exp. Number consecutively any equations that have to be displayed separately from the text (if referred to explicitly in the text).
Equations should be numbered serially at the right-hand side in parentheses. In general only equations explicitly referred to in the text need be numbered.
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The use of fractional powers instead of root signs is recommended. Powers of e are often more conveniently denoted by exp. Levels of statistical significance which can be mentioned without further explanation are *P< 0.05,**P<0.01 and ***P<0.001. In chemical formulae, valence of ions should be given as, e.g. Ca2+ , not as Ca++. Isotope numbers should precede the symbols, e.g. 18O. The repeated writing of chemical formulae in the text is to be avoided where reasonably possible; instead, the name of the compound should be given in full. Exceptions may be made in the case of a very long name occurring very frequently or in the case of a compound being described as the end product of a gravimetric determination (e.g. phosphate as P2O5).
2.7.6 Footnotes
Footnotes should be used sparingly. Number them consecutively throughout the article, using superscript Arabic numbers. Many wordprocessors build footnotes into the text, and this feature may be used. Should this not be the case, indicate the position of footnotes in the text and present the footnotes themselves separately at the end of the article. Do not include footnotes in the Reference list. Table footnotes Indicate each footnote in a table with a superscript lowercase letter.
2.7.7 Artwork
You will be sure: Make sure you use uniform lettering and sizing of your original artwork. Save text in illustrations as "graphics" or enclose the font. Only use the following fonts in your illustrations: Arial, Courier, Times, Symbol. Number the illustrations according to their sequence in the text. Use a logical naming convention for your artwork files. Provide captions to illustrations separately. Produce images near to the desired size of the printed version.
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Submit each figure as a separate file.
A detailed guide on electronic artwork is available on our website: External link http://www.elsevier.com/artworkinstructions You are urged to visit this site; some excerpts from the detailed information are given here.
Formats
Regardless of the application used, when your electronic artwork is finalised, please "save as" or convert the images to one of the following formats (note the resolution requirements for line drawings, halftones, and line/halftone combinations given below): EPS: Vector drawings. Embed the font or save the text as "graphics". TIFF: color or grayscale photographs (halftones): always use a minimum of 300 dpi. TIFF: Bitmapped line drawings: use a minimum of 1000 dpi. TIFF: Combinations bitmapped line/half-tone (color or grayscale): a minimum of 500 dpi is required. DOC, XLS or PPT: If your electronic artwork is created in any of these Microsoft Office applications please supply "as is". Please do not: Supply embedded graphics in your wordprocessor (spreadsheet, presentation) document; Supply files that are optimised for screen use (like GIF, BMP, PICT, WPG); the resolution is too low; Supply files that are too low in resolution; Submit graphics that are disproportionately large for the content.
Color artwork
Please make sure that artwork files are in an acceptable format (TIFF, EPS or MS Office files) and with the correct resolution. If, together with your accepted article, you submit usable color figures then Elsevier will ensure, at no additional charge, that these figures
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will appear in color on the Web (e.g., ScienceDirect and other sites) regardless of whether or not these illustrations are reproduced in color in the printed version. For color reproduction in print, you will receive information regarding the costs from Elsevier after receipt of your accepted article. Please indicate your preference for color in print or on the Web only. For further information on the preparation of electronic artwork, please see External link http://www.elsevier.com/artworkinstructions. Please note: Because of technical complications which can arise by converting color figures to "gray scale" (for the printed version should you not opt for color in print) please submit in addition usable black and white versions of all the color illustrations.
Figure captions
Ensure that each illustration has a caption. Supply captions separately, not attached to the figure. A caption should comprise a brief title (not on the figure itself) and a description of the illustration. Keep text in the illustrations themselves to a minimum but explain all symbols and abbreviations used.
Tables
Number tables consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text. Place footnotes to tables below the table body and indicate them with superscript lowercase letters. Avoid vertical rules. Be sparing in the use of tables and ensure that the data presented in tables do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article.
2.7.8 References
Web references: As a minimum, the full URL should be given and the date when the reference was last accessed. Any further information, if known (DOI, author names, dates, reference to a source publication, etc.), should also be given. Web references can be listed separately
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(e.g., after the reference list) under a different heading if desired, or can be included in the reference list.
Reference style Text: All citations in the text should refer to: 1. Single author: the author's name (without initials, unless there is ambiguity) and the year of publication; 2. Two authors: both authors' names and the year of publication; 3. Three or more authors: first author's name followed by "et al." and the year of publication. Citations may be made directly (or parenthetically). Groups of references should be listed first alphabetically, then chronologically. Examples: "as demonstrated (Allan, 1996a, 1996b, 1999; Allan and Jones, 1995). Kramer et al. (2000) have recently shown ...." List: References should be arranged first alphabetically and then further sorted chronologically if necessary. More than one reference from the same author(s) in the same year must be identified by the letters "a", "b", "c", etc., placed after the year of publication. Examples: Reference to a journal publication: Van der Geer, J., Hanraads, J.A.J., Lupton, R.A., 2000. The art of writing a scientific article. J. Sci. Commun. 163, 5159. Reference to a book: Strunk Jr., W., White, E.B., 1979. The Elements of Style, third ed. Macmillan, New York. Reference to a chapter in an edited book: Mettam, G.R., Adams, L.B., 1999. How to prepare an electronic version of your article, in: Jones, B.S., Smith , R.Z. (Eds.), Introduction to the Electronic Age. E-Publishing Inc., New York, pp. 281304.
2.7.9 Submission checklist
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It is hoped that this list will be useful during the final checking of an article prior to sending it to the journal's Editor for review. Please consult this Guide for Authors for further details of any item. Ensure that the following items are present: One Author designated as corresponding Author: E-mail address Full postal address Telephone and fax numbers All necessary files have been uploaded Keywords All figure captions All tables (including title, description, footnotes) Further considerations Manuscript has been "spellchecked" and "grammar-checked" References are in the correct format for this journal All references mentioned in the Reference list are cited in the text, and vice versa Permission has been obtained for use of copyrighted material from other sources (including the Web) Color figures are clearly marked as being intended for color reproduction on the Web (free of charge) and in print or to be reproduced in color on the Web (free of charge) and in black-and-white in print If only color on the Web is required, black and white versions of the figures are also supplied for printing purposes For any further information please visit our customer support site at http://support.elsevier.com.
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2.8 Constancia de envo para evaluacin
3. Caracterizacin del sacrificio de corderos de pelo a partir de cruces con razas criollas colombianas
Caracterizacin del sacrificio de corderos de pelo a partir de cruces con razas criollas colombianas
Slaughter characterization of hair lambs from crosses with Colombian landraces
Caracterizao do sacrifcio de cordeiros de cabelo a partir de cruzes com raas colombianas
Ivn C Snchez 31*, IQ, Sp, MSc; William Albarracn23, IQ, MSc, PhD
Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medelln, Colombia

2
Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos (ICTA). Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogot, Colombia
Grupo de investigacin Aseguramiento de la calidad de Alimentos y desarrollo de nuevos productos, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos
Tel: (051)3165000 Ext: 19226. Carrera 30 No 45-03 Ed. 500B Email: icsanchezb@unal.edu.co
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Resumen
La produccin de carne ovina en el pas se encuentra retrasada frente a otro tipo de especies, debido principalmente a que su cadena productiva no est desarrollada, las plantas de sacrificio son muy pocas y no se han evaluado las condiciones optimas para desarrollar este proceso , teniendo en cuenta los genotipos existentes en el pas. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar el efecto gentico del cruce de corderos Dorper con razas criollas colombianas, tiempo de ayuno y aturdimiento sobre los rendimientos del sacrificio; niveles de glucosa como medida de estrs y pH como calidad de la canal; para lo cual se analizaron animales criados en pastoreo y semi-estabulacin, con edades al sacrificio cercanas a las 10 semanas, debido a que es a esta edad su comercializacin. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que el efecto combinado de ayuno y sistema de cra influencian los rendimientos de canal y despojos y que a tiempos prolongados de ayuno se aumenta la concentracin de glucosa en sangre, aunque el tiempo de ayuno incide sobre el pH ltimo. El efecto del aturdimiento, solo se presenta en el cambio de pH durante 24 horas, siendo evidente un efecto de estimulacin elctrica por parte de la electronarcosis. Los animales de raza Dorper x criollo criados en sistema de pastoreo, presentaron mejores rendimientos en canal, pero menores porcentajes de vsceras blancas y rojas. El porcentaje medio de rendimiento en canal es similar a los presentados en razas puras Dorper, siendo viable y comparable el uso de este cruzamiento.
Palabras clave: Carne, corderos, glucosa, pH, razas criollas colombianas, rendimientos sacrificio.
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Abstract Sheep meat production in the country is lagging behind compared to other species, mainly due its production chain is not developed, slaughterhouses are few and have not evaluated the optimal conditions for developing this process, taking into account existing genotypes in the country. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genetic effect of Dorper lambs crosses with Colombian landraces, time of fasting, stunning on slaughter yield; blood glucose levels as a measure of stress and pH as carcass quality; for which analyzed animals raised on grazing and semifeedlot, close at 10 weeks in age to slaughter, due they are marketing at this age. The results showed that the combined effect of fasting and breeding systems influence the carcass and offal yield, and at prolonged times of fasting the concentration of blood glucose increases, although the time of fasting affects the ultimate pH. The stunning effect only occurs in the pH change for 24 hours, with obvious effect of electrical stimulation by the electrical stunning. Animals Dorper crosses with Colombian landraces breeding in grazing system, showed better carcass yields, but lower percentages of white and red viscera. The average yield for the carcasses is similar in pure Dorper breeds, remain viable and comparable use of this crossing.
Keywords: Colombian landraces, glucose, lambs, meat, pH, slaughter, yields.
Resumo
Produo de carne de ovinos no pas est ficando para trs em comparao com outras espcies, principalmente porque sua cadeia produtiva no se desenvolveu, as plantas de sacrifcio so poucas e ainda no avaliou as condies ideais para o desenvolvimento deste processo, tendo em conta os gentipos existentes no pas. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito gentico de ovinos Dorper cruzes com raas colombianas, tempo de jejum e aturdimento sobre o desempenho do
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sacrifcio; nveis de glicose no sangue, como medida de estresse e pH como qualidade da carcaa; para que animais analisados criados a pastejo e semiconfinamento, perto da idade de sacrifcio em 10 semanas, porque nesta idade sua comercializao. Os resultados mostraram que o efeito combinado do jejum e do sistema da produo afeta o rendimento de carcaa e miudezas e que perodos prolongados de jejum a concentrao de glicose no sangue aumenta, embora o tempo de jejum afeta o pH final. O aturdimento efeito, s ocorre na alterao do pH por 24 horas, ainda evidente a efeito da estimulao eltrica pelo aturdimento eltrico. Animais raa Dorper cruzes com raas colombianas levantadas em sistema de pastejo, apresentaram melhor rendimento de carcaa, mas menor porcentagem de vsceras brancas e vermelhas. O rendimento mdio para o canal semelhante na raa Dorper, permanecem viveis e comparveis uso deste cruzamento.
Palavras chave: carne, cordeiros, glicose, pH, raas colombianas, rendimento, sacrifcio.
3.1 Introduccin
Para el ao de 2008, Colombia contaba con una poblacin cercana a 3.5 millones de cabezas de ovinos con un crecimiento anual del 1.5% (FAOSTAT), sin embargo el consumo per capita anual de 310 g es superada por pollo, bovino y porcino en cerca de 10 kg, debido a que su cadena productiva no est desarrollada (Agrocadenas, 2006) y no se cuenta con establecimientos autorizados para el sacrificio de esta especie, pese a tener un potencial exportador hacia los pases del Caribe. Con la normatividad legal vigente, donde se hace nfasis en las buenas prcticas de sacrificio y el bienestar animal (Ministerio de la Proteccin Social, 2007) se hace necesario establecer las condiciones de sacrificio y protocolos adecuados para las razas presentes en el pas. El sacrificio de un animal es la muerte profesional e indolora de un animal destinado para el consumo humano (Lopez y Vanaclocha, 2004), con operaciones de descanso,
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aturdimiento y desangrado adecuados, donde el animal sea expuesto un nivel bajo de estrs haciendo humanitaria su muerte (Ros y Acosta, 2008; Torrescano et al., 2008). El transporte y descanso de los animales son los factores que ms afectan la presencia estrs en el animal (Miranda-de la lama et al., 2010), siendo las concentraciones de glucosa, cortisol y catecolaminas (adrenalina y noradrenalina) la respuesta a estas
alteraciones (Linares et al., 2008); el ayuno es un factor que permite adaptar al animal frente a las alteraciones dadas por el transporte y permitir que haya una estabilizacin en las variables sanguneas (Miranda-de la lama et al., 2009). Los niveles de glucosa plasmtica han mostrado ser la mejor respuesta a las alteraciones por el ayuno segn el proceso de glicognesis de cada variable gentica y la absorcin de nutrientes (Koruse y Terashima, 2007). Algunos autores tambin han sealado la existencia de un relacin entre el manejo ante mortem de animales y calidad de la carne (Saudo et al., 1998).
Varios estudios han mostrado la necesidad de un aturdimiento encaminado a establecer inconsciencia en el animal y reducir la percepcin de dolor y angustia (Grandin, 1996), aturdimientos con corriente o electronarcosis (Lambooy, 1982; Rodriguez et al., 2006), perno cautivo penetrante(Gregory y Shaw, 2000) e inhalacin de CO2 (Bercerril et al., 2009; Brnez et al., 2009) han mostrado su eficiencia en la evaluacin de rendimientos de procesos y calidad de la carne (Gonzales et al., 2006); no obstante la evaluacin de la eficacia del aturdimiento es subjetiva a evaluar respuestas a estmulos musculares (Gregory, 2008) y a respuesta en los niveles de glucosa sin encontrar diferencias entre los tipos de aturdimiento (Koruse y Terashima, 2007; Tadich et al., 2003).
Las instalaciones de sacrificio deben ser aptas para las actividades donde el msculo se encuentra en contacto con una posible contaminacin microbiolgica tanto del ambiente como de los residuos del sacrificio (Joshi et al., 2003), siendo la carne fresca un medio rico para el crecimiento microbiano, que conduce a la descomposicin si no se mantiene correctamente almacenado y refrigerado; pero una reduccin acelerada en la temperatura, puede causar defectos en la calidad final de la canal como rigor por frio y aumentar las perdidas por exudacin (Diaz, 2001), algunos autores recomiendan una
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reduccin lenta de la temperatura de la canal durante un tiempo mximo de 8 horas entre el sacrificio y la refrigeracin para obtener una mejor calidad final de la carne, sin
prdidas significativas en peso de canal (Bianchi et al., 2006) y mantener una calidad higinica y organolptica (Marques-almeida et al., 2003).
Varios factores tienen influencia en la calidad de la carne como la especie, el sexo, la raza, el genotipo, y ambientales como el tipo y el nivel de alimentacin, vivienda, tratamiento antemortem y el manejo postmortem en cuanto a la velocidad de
enfriamiento y maduracin (Okeudo y Moss, 2005), La produccin de carne ovina en base al uso del macho de razas productoras de carne, con cruzamientos con razas locales es una alternativa que ha funcionado bien en pases como Australia, Nueva Zelanda y el Reino unido; no se ha encontrado evidencias que permita caracterizar el producto carne y el efecto racial sobre la calidad de la carne (Bianchi et al., 2004), aunque varios autores encuentran diferencias en cuanto a rendimientos segn la raza otros no y es debido por las diferencias y los diferentes niveles de madurez de los animales (Osrio et al., 2000). Cada especie se debe evaluar independientemente, tanto su sistema de alimentacin como su incidencia en la calidad final de la carne (Martinez-Cerezo et al., 2005) las diferencias entre los tipos genticos en parmetros productivos como velocidades de crecimiento, rendimientos y conformacin, hacen necesario el uso de partes de razas especializadas en la produccin de carne, mostrando tambin que el cruce ayuda un aumento en el peso al momento del sacrificio (Bianchi et al., 2005)
Hay una tendencia al sacrificio de corderos a una edad ms joven debido a que la canal tiene partes con menor contenido graso y su palatabilidad es mayor que en animales ms viejos, pese a obtener rendimientos y pesos de canales inferiores (Diaz et al., 2006); el empleo de cruces de corderos lactantes a un peso aproximado de 15 kg muestran buenos efectos en componentes corporales para una comercializacin sin afectar el rendimiento (Prez et al., 2007). Por otra parte el efecto del sistema de alimentacin se
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da no solo en el rendimiento de la canal; los efectos del sistema de pastura y semiestabulado, afectan el grado de engrasamiento del animal y por ende la calidad de la canal (Costa et al., 2008). La alimentacin artificial que marca la diferencia con un sistema de pasturas, permiti una mejora los rendimientos y variables fisicoqumicas de la carne, aunque estos efectos slo se manifiestan en 56 das de edad. Por lo tanto, este sistema de alimentacin debe ser conveniente para obtener animales ms pesados para el sacrificio, aumentando las rentabilidad a partir de los pesos de levante y sacrificio (Barone et al., 2007). No obstante en animales de tan corta edad y bajo peso, los efectos de raza, sexo o peso pueden llegar a ser detectados en una evaluacin de la canal (Migulez et al., 2007); la respuesta al contenido graso es menor en animales jvenes (Ermias et al., 2006) disminuyendo su palatabilidad obtener animales con menores contenidos grasos y mayores rendimientos de peso de canales con cerca del 55.8% en canal caliente. (Sen et al., 2004) El pH es el resultado de los cambios bioqumicos en el rigor mortis y la maduracin, donde el pH final se conoce como el pH a las 24 horas del sacrificio (Zimerman, 2010). El rigor mortis dura entre 12 y 24 horas en ovinos, mostrando una disminucin desde valores cercanos a 7.7 hasta un pH final de 5.5 sin presentar defectos caractersticos como los presentados en carnes PSE o DFD; la estabilidad durante la refrigeracin y desde las 24 horas posteriores al sacrificio se da en torno a valores de 5.5 y 5.7 (Dighiero et al., 2010). Entre los factores importantes que afectan esta variacin estn la raza, el sistema de produccin donde los animales criados en pradera presentan menor potencial gligoltico definido como la capacidad de obtener energa rpidamente y una menor reserva de glucgeno, presencia de estrs por el manejo de los animales, transporte, aturdimiento, y en menor medida el efecto del sexo, almacenamiento, oreo, dieta y la edad y peso de sacrificio. Se encuentra bastante relacionado el pH con la capacidad de retencin de agua de la canal y factores fisicoqumicos como textura, olor y composicin que afectan directamente la calidad de la carne(Dighiero et al., 2010; Marques-almeida et al., 2003; Saudo et al., 1998). No obstante el pH no se puede predecir en funcin de la glucosa sangunea pero puede indicar la efectividad del ayuno (amtamann et al., 2006) y su respuesta al estrs.
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El objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar el efecto gentico del cruce de corderos Dorper con razas criollas colombianas, tiempo de ayuno y aturdimiento sobre los rendimientos del sacrificio, niveles de glucosa como medida de estrs y pH como calidad de la canal.
3.2 Materiales y mtodos
3.2.1 Animales de estudio

Para este experimento, se emplearon 60 corderos de 10 semanas de cruces de ovinos Dorper X criollo pertenecientes a 2 fincas, una aplicando sistema de pastoreo (n=30) y otra el sistema semiestabulado (n=30); los 60 animales se distribuyeron 3 grupos con un ayuno de 6, 12 y 18 horas respectivamente. En cada grupo de ayuno, 10 animales fueron aturdidos mediante electronarcosis y los 10 restantes fueron aturdidos por medio de un perno cautivo penetrante.
3.2.2 Sacrificio
El sacrificio de los animales se desarroll en la planta de sacrificio del Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos (ICTA) distribuidos 6 grupos de corderos (n=10) en igual nmero de das. Los animales durante su ayuno solamente tuvieron acceso a agua segn los tiempos descritos en la seccin anterior. El aturdimiento mediante electronarcosis se realiz por aplicacin de electrodos con corriente alterna de 0.9 A(humane slaughter association, 2005) y 250 V (Velarde et al., 2003) entre el ojo y la oreja en ambos lados de la cabeza, previamente humedecidos con solucin salina (Velarde et al., 2000) durante 6 segundos; el aturdimiento con perno cautivo se localiz en la lnea media detrs de la cresta entre los cuernos, apuntando hacia la base de la lengua (humane slaughter association, 2006). 30 segundos despus del aturdimiento los animales fueron izados de las 2 piernas y desangrados por corte parcial de vena cava
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superior y la arteria cartida derecha. Posteriormente fueron desollados y eviscerados manualmente. Los despojos del sacrificio fueron embolsados, pesados y registrados. Las canales de los corderos fueron lavadas con agua potable y dejados en oreo por 2 horas, posteriormente pesadas, envueltas en bolsas de polietileno y refrigeradas durante 7 das a 4C, con pesado a los das 4 y 7 de refrigeracin.
3.2.3 pH
La medicin de pH se realiz con un equipo porttil de sonda de puncin Hanna en el lomo del animal y la paleta izquierda. La medicin se realiz inmediatamente despus de lavadas las canales y cada 2 horas durante 1 da. La medicin de 24 horas se define como pH ltimo (Zimerman, 2010).
3.2.4 Niveles de glucosa

Se tomaron 10 mL de muestras de sangre de los animales recin llegados a la planta de sacrificio y durante el desangrado en la sala de sacrificio. Cada muestra fue llevada al laboratorio clnico de la facultad de Medicina Veterinaria, donde fueron centrifugadas tomando alcuotas de plasma a la cual se midi la glucosa por mtodo de glucosa oxidasa con medicin de la absorbancia a 505 nm y reportado en mmol/L. (Tadich et al., 2003)
3.2.5 Anlisis estadstico

Los datos obtenidos fueron analizados estadsticamente por medio de un Anlisis de la Varianza multifactorial (ANOVA) utilizando el paquete estadstico STATGRAPHICS CENTURION XV (Statistical Graphics Corp., U.S.A.), realizando una prueba de rangos mltiples mediante el procedimiento de diferencia mnima significativa (LSD) de Fisher y de mltiples interacciones a una significancia (p<0.05).
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3.3 Resultados
En la Figura 1 se presentan las prdidas de peso durante el descanso y ayuno en los corrales, para animales procedentes de cruces de corderos Dorper con razas criollas colombianas.
kg 2,4 2 1,6 1,2 0,8 0,4 0 06 12 18Horas de ayuno Sistema de cra Pastoreo Semiestabulado
Figura 3-1. Perdidas de peso durante el descanso y el tiempo de ayuno por el sistema de cra
Se observ que el tiempo de ayuno y el sistema de cra son los factores que influencian la prdida de peso en los corrales de descanso (Figura 1), encontrndose en general un aumento en la prdida de peso con mayores tiempos de ayuno, para los dos sistemas de cra, encontrndose diferencias estadsticamente significativas entre las 6 y 12 horas de ayuno (p 0.05); mientras que entre las 12 y 18 horas de ayuno no se presentaron diferencias (p0.05). Para 6 horas de ayuno, la respuesta de l os animales criados en sistema semiestabulado frente a la prdida de peso fue menor que los criados en pastoreo (p0.05). A las 12 y 18 horas de ayuno no hubo diferencias entre los 2 sistema cra mantenindose en valores cercanos a 1.6 kg.
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Los niveles de glucosa en sangre posteriores al transporte y el aturdimiento respecto al tiempo de ayuno, se presentan en la Figura 2.
mmol/L 6,6 6,2 5,8 5,4 5 4,6 4,2 06 12 18 Horas de ayuno Post transporte post aturdimiento
Figura 3-2. Niveles de glucosa en sangre para 6, 12 y 18 horas de ayuno
Para este parmetro se encontr que el tiempo de ayuno es el nico factor significativo sobre los niveles de glucosa en los animales. En las mediciones posteriores al transporte no se presentaron diferencias significativas, mostrando la homogeneidad a la respuesta por el estrs durante el transporte. Las diferencias se presentaron entre 6 y 18 horas de ayuno (p0.05) y una tendencia de aumento a tiempos prolongados ayuno.
En la Figura 3 se presentan los resultados del porcentaje de canal o rendimiento de canal en caliente
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% 52 50 48 46 44 42 06 12 18 Horas de ayuno Sistema de Cra Pastoreo Semiestabulado
Figura 3-3. Rendimiento de canal en caliente para los sistemas de cra y los tiempos de ayuno evaluados.
Se encontr que los factores de sistema de cra y tiempo de ayuno, son los factores estadsticamente significativos sobre este rendimiento. En general, a mayores tiempos de ayuno hay mayores porcentajes de la canal; este factor afecta el balance general de los rendimientos, debido a que al disminuir el porcentaje de vsceras blancas, la base de clculo que es el peso antemortem, se ve modificado. Respecto a los sistemas de cra, los rendimientos de canal son estadsticamente mayores en los animales criados en sistema de pastoreo (p 0.05). Los mayores rendimientos de canal se presentaron con animales criados en pastoreo y con ayunos de 12 y 18 horas, en donde este ltimo factor no present diferencias significativas (p 0.05)
Los porcentajes de los despojos de los animales sacrificados en el estudio se presentan en la tabla 1.
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Tabla 3-1. Relacin de los porcentajes de los despojos del sacrificio Pastoreo Semiestabulado 18 horas 2,76 7,89 5,47 23,45a 4,53c 6 horas 2,43 8,44 5,61 24,29b 5,49c 12 horas 18 horas 2,58 2,31 6,94 7,16 5,83 5,86 23,72 22,91b 4,18c 5,32c
Ayuno Patas Piel Cabeza Vis. Blanca Vis. Roja
a,b,c. Diferencias estadsticamente significativas entre las mismas letras a (p 0.05).
6 horas 2,37 6,78 5,72 27,03a 4,43c
12 horas 2,64 7,47 6,03 25,33 4,99c
Para los animales de experimentacin de sacrificio no hubo diferencias significativas (p0.05) en cuanto a las partes de conformacin como lo son las patas, piel y cabeza debido a la homogeneidad en la edad de los animales, este resultado implica tambin que no hay un efecto por el sistema de cra, ayuno o tipo de aturdimiento. En cuanto al porcentaje de vsceras blancas, se evidenciaron diferencias estadsticamente significativas entre los dos sistemas de cra 0.05), (p siendo mayores en los animales criados en pastoreo; a su vez, hubo un efecto entre los tiempos de ayuno en ambos sistemas de cra, en los cuales, a mayor tiempo de ayuno el porcentaje de vsceras blancas disminuye, siendo estadsticamente significativo entre 6 y 18 horas (p 0.05). El porcentaje de vsceras rojas mostr diferencias debido al sistema de cra, con mayores porcentajes en el sistema de cra semiestabulado.
En la Figura 4 se encuentran las perdidas por almacenamiento durante 7 das a 4C representadas como porcentaje de la canal caliente.
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% 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 06 12 18 Horas de ayuno sistema de cra Pastoreo Semiestabulado
Figura 3-4. Perdidas de peso por almacenamiento debido al ayuno y el sistema de cra.
El sistema de cra y el tiempo de ayuno son los factores estadsticamente significativos en el porcentaje de perdidas por almacenamiento 0.05). (p En general se observaron mayores prdidas a tiempos de ayunos prolongados, donde las diferencias estadsticas se encontraron entre las 6 y 18 horas. Para cada tiempo de ayuno hay mayores prdidas en los animales criados en sistema de pastoreo respecto al sistema semiestabulado (p0.05). Es importante mencionar que no se evidenci efecto debido al sistema de aturdimiento sobre las mermas durante el almacenamiento en frio.
La disminucin del pH entre el tiempo transcurrido de las 2 y 24 horas posteriores al sacrificio se presenta en la Figura 5 como la diferencia pH entre los valores de pH a 2 horas pH ultimo.
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Figura 3-5. Cambio de pH (pH) entre 2 y 24 horas posteriores al sacrificio, para el aturdimiento mediante electronarcosis y perno cautivo.
El aturdimiento y el ayuno tuvieron un efecto significativo en este descenso. Para los animales aturdidos mediante electronarcosis, no se presentaron diferencias a los diferentes tiempos de ayunos (p 0.05), con una variacin cercana a 0.66 unidades de pH. Para el aturdimiento por perno cautivo, el cambio en el pH, desciende a medida que el tiempo de ayuno es mayor, encontrndose diferencias entre 6 y 18 horas de ayuno (p0.05) en los animales aturdidos por perno cautivo. Los valores del cambio de pH en los animales con 12 y 18 horas de ayuno y aturdimiento con perno cautivo no presentaron diferencias con los valores registrados en animales aturdidos por electronarcosis (p0.05).
En la Figura 6 se presentan los valores de pH ultimo respecto a los tiempos de ayuno evaluados en la experimentacin.
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pH ltimo 6,3 6,2 6,1 6 5,9 06 12 18 Horas de ayuno
Figura 3-6. pH ultimo de las canales, en funcin del tiempo de ayuno.
El ayuno es el nico factor que afecta estadsticamente el pH ltimo; solamente se presentaron diferencias entre las 6 y 12 horas de ayuno (p0.05) y entre las 6 y 18 horas de ayuno (p0.05).
3.4 Discusin
Los resultados presentados en la Figura 1, sugieren un efecto del sistema de cra y tiempo de ayuno, existiendo diferencias de peso entre el sistema de pastoreo y semi estabulado para 6 horas de ayuno, este resultado concuerda con lo observado por Tompshon y colaboradores (1997), quienes evidenciaron que el efecto en la prdida de peso durante el ayuno est ligado a animales con menores contenidos de grasa. No obstante, Ferguson y Warner (2008), sugieren que las prdidas de peso se hacen evidentes entre las primeras 12 horas por la falta de agua y comida, lo cual se evidenci en el presente estudio, donde posterior a las 12 horas no se presentaron diferencias entre los sistemas de cra.
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Los resultados obtenidos en el presente estudio respecto a los niveles de glucosa en sangre (Figura 2), donde no se encontraron diferencias en los niveles de este compuesto, posterior al transporte, pueden ser debidos a los factores de manejo previo, (Miranda-de la lama et al., 2009; Tadich et al., 2009) y su homogeneidad en la reproducibilidad en estas actividades. Miranda de la Lama y colaboradores (2009), recomiendan que 9 horas son necesarias para que el cortisol y la glucosa se regulen, pero la respuesta a la homeostasis se puede dar a 24 horas posteriores a la alimentacin (Bassett et al., 1966) y puede ser ms lenta en adultos (Cowett et al., 1998). Para los animales criados en sistema de pastoreo, resulta un factor estresante la presencia de humanos, aumentando los valores de cortisol y glucosa (Carrasco et al., 2009), donde estas variables tiene un relacin directa (Bassett et al., 1966).
El ayuno est acompaado de una hipoglicema que acta sobre la liberacin de catecolaminas, estas a su vez, inciden en la produccin energtica a travs de procesos de Liplisis, glucogenlisis y gluconeognesis para satisfacer la demanda de glucosa en el citoesqueleto y el cerebro (Ferguson y Warner, 2008); este hecho concuerda con lo obtenido en el presente estudio, donde se pudo observar (Figura 2), como la evolucin de la glucosa postaturdimiento present niveles elevados a travs del tiempo, el cual puede ser debido a una inhibicin de la utilizacin de la glucosa por la accin del cortisol (Bassett et al., 1966). Pero, como se mencion anteriormente el efecto de la homeostasis se puede dar a las 24 horas, y el consumo de glucosa debido al tiempo de ayuno se puede presentar a tiempos superiores a los evaluados en este estudio, conllevando a una disminucin de su concentracin de acuerdo a lo evidenciado en novillos por Tadich y colaboradores (2003). As mismo periodos largos de descanso son necesarios para que los niveles de cortisol se repongan sin presentar defectos posteriores en la carne (Carrasco et al., 2009).
El trasporte y el ayuno per se no tiene efecto directo en los porcentajes de la canal caliente (Thompson et al., 1987). Los resultados obtenidos Figura 3 (variacin de
96
rendimientos en canal respecto al ayuno), se debe a un cambio en la base de clculo del peso antemortem. Este hecho tambin fue reportado por Priolo y colaboradores (2002), debido que efecto del contenido intestinal es funcin del tiempo de descanso y cambia la relacin que se tiene con los pesos de las canales, dando una falsa incidencia sobre el rendimiento. No obstante, Ferguson y Warner (2008), mencionaron que las prdidas de peso en la canal debido al ayuno se hacen evidentes a tiempos superiores a las 24 horas. Para los animales analizados en el presente estudio se encontr que hubo mayores rendimientos en las canales de los animales criados en sistema de pastoreo que en el estabulado contrario a lo presentado por varios autores (Burke y Apple, 2007; Joy et al., 2008; Santos-Silva et al., 2002), donde se evidenciaron mayores rendimientos en sistema de suplementacin o estabulados.
La eficiencia del cruzamiento con las razas criollas colombianas respecto a los porcentajes de canal donde se mantienen cercanos al 50% (Figura 3) es comparable con el porcentaje de rendimiento en canal medio para razas puras Dorper (Cloete et al., 2000); Burke y Apple (2007) evidenciaron que las razas de pelo (Dorper, Catahdin, entre otras) no presentaron mayores diferencias en estos rendimientos, al igual que el cruce de Raza merino con mestizajes franceses (Santos-Silva et al., 2002), permitiendo inferir que los cruces de razas especializadas en carne con mestizajes colombianos, pueden proveer buenos rendimientos a edades tempranas aunque con menores tamaos del animal al alcanzar su madurez fisiolgica similar a lo presentado por Schoeman y colaboradores (1995).
En los rendimientos de los subproductos del sacrificio presentados en la tabla 1, las diferencias significativas en los porcentajes de vsceras blancas se deben a los factores de sistema de cra y el ayuno. Lo anterior concuerda con lo observado por Joy y colaboradores (2008), donde se observ que los animales en pastoreo presentaron mayores porcentajes de vsceras blancas a ayunos cortos, indicando menor transformacin del alimento y mayor acumulacin en los estmagos; en comparacin de sus resultados con variacin en la dieta (suplementacin), donde el efecto de la
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maduracin temprana aument el porcentaje de vsceras rojas, hecho que tambin fue evidenciado en el presente estudio.
Las mediciones del peso de las canales a los 4 das de almacenamiento a 4C, muestran que el efecto del sistema de cra incide en las perdidas por almacenamiento o driploss (Figura 4). Este efecto est relacionado con la perdida de la capacidad de retencin de agua y es funcin de la variacin de pH, no obstante en la Figura 5 no se evidencia un efecto debido al sistema de cra sobre los valores de pH, por lo cual se puede inferir que la conformacin y contenido muscular en animales de pastoreo, present mayores prdidas y por ende menor rentabilidad en la comercializacin.
Los resultados presentados en la figura 5, muestran que el cambio de pH por efecto de la electronarcosis no presenta diferencias significativas, esto se puede atribuir al efecto de estimulacin que recibe el animal cuando recibe la descarga elctrica. No obstante, lo presentado anteriormente respecto a la influencia del ayuno sobre el estrs del animal, indica que el descenso est ligado a las reservas de glucgeno que presenta el animal, por lo cual se puede explicar el comportamiento del tiempo de ayuno cuando fueron aturdidos por el perno cautivo. Al comparar las figuras 2 y 5 se puede inferir que la demanda de glucosa est ligada al cambio de pH, presentando mayores cambios cuando hay menores concentraciones de glucosa en sangre, pero los valores de pH ultimo (Figura 6) muestran que el efecto de ayuno es incidente solo hasta las 6 horas de ayuno, efecto consistente con la disponibilidad de glucosa y bloqueo por efecto del cortisol para ser utilizado en la produccin de energa y consecuentemente en la produccin de acido lctico (Bassett et al., 1966).
Hay que aclarar que los valores de pH cercanos a 6 obtenidos en las canales empleadas en el presente estudio, indicaran un defecto en la calidad de la canal, pero de acuerdo con las prdidas de peso por almacenamiento (Figura 4), este factor no representa una alta significancia. Devine y colaboradores 2006 encontraron que animales con tiempos de
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recuperacin menores a 3 das presentaron pH superiores a 5.7 y con tiempos de 10 das el 8% de los animales mostraron valores superiores a 5.8; sugieren que para carnes con pH superiores a este 5.8 es necesario un tiempo de maduracin para obtener fuerzas de corte menores y recomiendan que valores intermedios de pH entre 5.7 y 5.8 se pueden alcanzar por medio de una estimulacin elctrica para no tener problemas con la terneza de la carne a 72 horas del sacrificio.
Adicionalmente, el pH ltimo no se vi afectado por el sistema de alimentacin al igual que lo encontrado por Carrasco y colaboradores (2009), donde la presencia de humanos durante el pastoreo resultara estresante y por consiguiente presentara menores descensos en el pH a las 24 horas del sacrificio (Ripoll et al., 2008), lo cual tampoco se evidenci.
3.5 Conclusin
El efecto combinado de ayuno y sistema de cra influencian en los rendimientos tanto de la canal y sus despojos. A tiempos prolongados de ayuno, se aumenta la concentracin de glucosa en sangre lo cual est relacionado con cargas altas de estrs. No obstante el tiempo de ayuno incide sobre el pH ltimo, donde el menor valor de este se alcanza para las 18 horas de ayuno; caso contrario se presenta en la variacin del pH durante las 24 horas posteriores a la muerte, evidencindose un cambio mayor para 6 horas de ayuno. El efecto del aturdimiento, solo se presenta en el cambio de pH durante 24 horas, siendo evidente un efecto de estimulacin elctrica por parte de la electronarcosis. Los animales de raza Dorper x criollo criados en sistema de pastoreo, presentaron mejores rendimientos en canal, pero menores porcentajes de vsceras blancas y rojas. El porcentaje medio de rendimiento en canal es correspondiente a los presentados en razas puras Dorper, siendo viable y comparable el uso de este cruzamiento.
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Agradecimientos
Especiales agradecimientos a la Direccin de investigacin DIB de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Bogot, por financiar este trabajo y al criadero de ovinos la Primavera por su asistencia y apoyo con los animales del estudio.
3.6 Referencias
Agrocadenas. La cadena ovinos y caprinos en colombia. 2006. Amtamann VA, Gallo C, Van Schaik G, Tadich N. Relaciones entre el manejo antemortem, variables sanguneas indicadoras de estrs y pH de la canal en novillos. Arch Med Vet 2006;38(3):259-64. Barone CMA, Colatruglio P, Girolami A, Matassino D, Zullo A. Genetic type, sex, age at slaughter and feeding system effects on carcass and cut composition in lambs. Livest Sci 2007;112:133-42. Bassett JM, Mills C, Reid RL. The influence of cortisol on glucose utilization in sheep. Metabolism 1966;15(10):922-32. Bercerril M, Alonso M, Lemus C, Legarreta I, Olmos A, Ramirez R, et al. CO2 stunning may compromise swine welfare compared with electrical stunning. Meat Sci 2009;81:2337. Bianchi G, Bentancur O, Saudo C. Efecto del tipo genetico y del tiempo de maduracin sobre la terneza de la carne de corderos pesados. Agrociencia 2004;8(1):41-50.
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Bianchi G, Garibotto G, Bentancur O, Feed O, Franco J, Peculio A, et al. Caracteristicas productivas y calidad de la canal y de la carne en corderos pesados Corriedale y Hampshire Down X Corriedale. Rev Argent Prod Anim 2005;25:75-91. Bianchi G, Garibotto G, Forichi S, Zabala A, Benia P, Feed O, et al. Efecto del sistema de refrigeracin sobre la calidad de la carne de corderos pesados Dohne Merino X Corriedale. Rev Argent Prod Anim 2006;26(1):217-24. Brnez R, Beln M, Vergara H. Systems stunning with CO2 gas on Manchego light lambs: Physiologic responses and stunning effectiveness. Meat Sci 2009;82:133-8. Burke JM, Apple JK. Growth performance and carcass traits of forage-fed hair sheep wethers. Small Rumin Res 2007;67:264-70. Carrasco S, Panea B, Ripoll G, Sanz A, Joy M. Influence of feeding systems on cortisol levels, fat colour and instrumental meat quality in light lambs. Meat Sci 2009;83:50-6. Cloete SWP, Snyman MA, Herselman MJ. Productive performance of Dorper sheep. Small Rumin Res 2000;36:119-35. Costa JCC, Osrio JC, Faria HV, Mendona G, Esteves RMG, Barbosa JA. Produccin de carne de ovinos corrientales en tres sistemas de terminacin. SEOC . 2008.
Cowett RM, Rapoza RE, Gelardi ML. The Contribution of Glucose to Neonatal Glucose Homeostasis in the Lamb. Metabolism 1998;47(10):1239-44. Devine CE, Lowe TE, Wells RW, Edwards NJ, Hockings JE, Starbuck TJ, et al. Preslaughter stress arising from on-farm handling and its interactions with electrical stimulation on tenderness of lambs. Meat Sci 2006;73:304-12. Diaz MT. Caractersticas de la canal y de la carne de corderos lechales manchegos. correlaciones y ecuaciones de prediccin. 2001. Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
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Diaz MT, De la Fuente J, Prez C, Lauzurica S, Alvarez I, Ruiz de Huidobro F, et al. Body composition in relation to slaughter weight and gender in suckling lambs. Small Rumin Res 2006;64:126-32. Dighiero A, Montossi F, Brito G, Bonilla O, Rovira P, Castro L. Caracterizacin de la calidad de la canal y la carne de Corderos Pesados y Super Pesados Romney Marsh en el sistema arroz-pasturas de la UPAG-INIA Treinta y Tres. Sitio Argentino De Produccin Animal 2010;1-8. Ermias E, Yami A, Rege JEO. Slaughter characteristics of Menz and Horro sheep. Small Rumin Res 2006;64:10-5. Ferguson DM, Warner RD. Have we underestimated the impact of pre-slaughter stress on meat quality in ruminants?. Meat Sci 2008;80:12-9. Gonzales AM, Cepero Y, Bencomo E. Efecto del aturdimiento elctrico con alto voltaje sobre la calidad de la carne. Ciencia y Tecnologia De Alimentos 2006;16(3):55-8. Grandin T. El bienestar animal en las plantas de faena. American Association of Bovine Practitioners 1996;22-6. Gregory N. Animal welfare at markets and during transport and slaughter. Meat Sci 2008;80:2-11. Gregory N, Shaw F. Penetrating Captive Bolt Stunning and Exsanguination of Cattle in Abattoirs. J Appl Anim Welf Sci 2000;3(3):215-30. Humane Slaughter Association H. Insensibilizacin de animales de carne roja con instrumentos electricos. [4]. 2005. United Kindom. The humane slaughter association and council of justice to animals.
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Joshi DD, Maharjan M, Johansen MV, Willingham AL, Sharma M. Improving meat inspection and control in resource-poor communities: the Nepal example. Acta Trop 2003;87:119-27. Joy M, Ripoll G, Delfa R. Effects of feeding system on carcass and non-carcass composition of Churra Tensina light lambs. Small Rumin Res 2008;78:123-33. Koruse Y, Terashima Y. Roles of central histaminergic system in glucose metabolisms and food intake in sheep. Anim Sci J 2007;78:66-9. Lambooy E. Electrical stunning of sheep. Meat Sci 1982 Feb;6(2):123-35. Linares MB, Brnez R, Vergara H. Cortisol and catecholamine levels in lambs: Effects of slaughter weight and type of stunning. Livest Sci 2008;115:53-61. Lopez R, Vanaclocha AC. Tecnologa de mataderos. 1 ed. Mexico: Ed. Mundiprensa; 2004. Marques-almeida M, Mendes I, Franqueza MJ, Ferreira CJ, Barreto AS, Silva-Pereira M, et al. efecto del peso de la canal y del sistema de refrigeracin en la calidad de la carne de corderos merino branco. SEOC 2003;338-40. Martinez-Cerezo S, Saudo C, Medel I, Olleta JL. Breed, slaughter weight and ageing time effects on sensory characteristics of lamb. Meat Sci 2005;69:571-8. Migulez E, Zumalacrregui JM, Osorio MT, Mateo J. Caractersticas de la canal de cordero lechal de diversas razas producidas en Espaa (revisin bibliogrfica). ITEA 2007;103(1):14-30. Ministerio de la Proteccin Social C. Decreto 1500 de 2007. "Por el cual se establece el reglamento tcnico a travs del cual se crea el Sistema Oficial de Inspeccin, Vigilancia y Control de la Carne, Productos Crnicos Comestibles y Derivados Crnicos Destinados para el Consumo Humano y los requisitos sanitarios y de inocuidad que se deben cumplir
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en
su
produccin
primaria,
beneficio,
desposte,
desprese,
procesamiento,
almacenamiento, transporte, comercializacin, expendio, importacin o exportacin".
Miranda-de la lama GC, Villarroel M, Liste G, Escs J, Maria GA. Critical points in the preslaughter logistic chain of lambs in Spain that may compromise the animal's welfare. Small Rumin Res 2010;90:174-8. Miranda-de la lama GC, Villarroel M, Olleta JL, Alierta S, Saudo C, Maria GA. Effect of the pre-slaughter logistic chain on meat quality of lambs. Meat Sci 2009;83:604-9. Okeudo NJ, Moss BW. Interrelationships amongst carcass and meat quality characteristics of sheep. Meat Sci 2005;69:1-8. Osrio JC, Oliveira NM, Osrio MT, Pimentel M, Pouey JL. Efecto de la edad al sacrificio sobre la produccin de carne en corderos no castrados de cuatro razas. revista brasilea de Agrociencia 2000;6(2):161-6. Prez P, Maino M, Kobrick K, Morales MS, Pokniak J. Efecto del peso de sacrificio y sexo sobre la canal de corderos lactantes del cruce suffolk Down X Merino precoz aleman. Rev Cient 2007;7(6):621-6. Priolo A, Micol D, Agabriel J, Prache S, Dransfield E. Effect of grass or concentrate feeding systems on lamb carcass and meat quality. Meat Sci 2002;62:179-85. Ros FG, Acosta DC. sacrificio humanitario de ganado bovino e inocuidad de la carne. Nacameh 2008;2(2):106-23. Ripoll G, Joy M, Muoz F, Albert P. Meat and fat colour as a tool to trace grass-feeding systems in light lamb production. Meat Science 2008;80:239-48. Rodriguez P, Oliver MA, Manteca X, Dalmau A, Velarde A. efecto del *aturdimiento sobre la calidad de la canal y la carne en corderos. Eurocarne 2006;148(1):1-8.
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Santos-Silva J, Mendes I, Bessa RJB. The effect of genotype, feeding system and slaughter weight on the quality of light lambs 1. Growth, carcass composition and meat quality. Livest Prod Sci 2002;76:17-25. Saudo C, Sanchez A, Alfonso M. Small Ruminant Production Systems and Factors Affecting Lamb Meat Quality. Meat Sci 1998;49(1):29-64. Schoeman SJ, De Wet R, Botha MA, Van der Merwe CA. Comparative assessment of biological efficiency of crossbred lambs from two Composite lines and Dorper sheep. Small Rumin Res 1995;16:61-7. Sen AR, Santra A, Karim SA. Carcass yield, composition and meat quality attributes of sheep and goat under semiarid conditions. Meat Sci 2004;66:757-63. Tadich N, Gallo C, Brito G, Broom DM. Effects of weaning and 48 h transport by road and ferry on some blood indicators of welfare in lambs. Livest Sci 2009;121:132-6. Tadich N, Gallo C, Echeverria R, Van Schaik G. Efecto del ayuno durante dos tiempos de confinamiento y de transporte terrestre sobre algunas variables sanguneas indicadoras de estrs en novillos. Arch Med Vet 2003;32(2):171-85. Thompson JM, O'Halloran WJ, Mcneill DMJ, Jackson NJ, May TJ. The effect of fasting on liveweight and carcass characteristics in lambs. Meat Sci 1987;20(4):293-309. Torrescano G, Snchez A, Gonzales NF, Camou JP. Tecnologa e ingenieria del sacrificio y su repercusin en la calidad de la canal de animales de abasto. Nacameh 2008;2(1):78-94. Velarde A, Gispert M, Diestre A, Manteca X. Effect of electrical stunning on meat and carcass quality in lambs. Meat Sci 2003;63:35-8. Velarde A, Ruiz de la Torre JL, Stub C, Diestre A, Manteca X. Factors affecting the effectiveness of head-only electrical stunning in sheep. Vet Rec 2000;147:40-3.
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Zimerman M. pH de la carne y factores que lo afectan. Aspectos estrategicos para obtener carne de ovino de calidad en el cono sur americano. 1 ed. Bariloche,Arg.: INTA; 2010. p. 141-52.
3.7 Instrucciones para los autores en la revista colombiana de ciencias pecuarias (RCCP)
Las instrucciones para los autores de la Revista Colombiana de Ciencias Pecuarias se encuentran en la seccin 1.10.
4. Hair sheep lamb meat ageing an instrumental and sensory analysis of crosses with Colombian breeds. Part I: Texture
Hair sheep lamb meat ageing an instrumental and sensory analysis of crosses with Colombian breeds. Part I: Texture Ivn C. Snchez1,3*4 , William Albarracn2,3
1 Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medelln, Colombia 2 Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos (ICTA). Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogot, Colombia 3 Grupo de investigacin Aseguramiento de la calidad de Alimentos y desarrollo de nuevos productos, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos
Abstract Ageing consists in a series of biochemical transformations undertaken by the muscle, after the animal has been slaughtered, this biochemical processes can be affected by different parameters as such animal age, breed, and are specially affected by the slaughter conditions. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of the feeding system of lambs of the Dorper X Colombian breeds, slaughtered after three different times of fasting, and ageing periods of 0, 7 and 15 days, for longissimus dorsi stored in vacuum packed and cold storage (4C) through Warner Bratzler shear force analysis and texture profile analysis (TPA) with its sensory evaluation given by a trained panel of tasters. Results obtained showed that lamb meat from crosses with Colombian breeds exhibits a tender texture that depends on ageing that was significant at 7 days of ageing; later times
Corresponding author. Tel.: +571 316500 Ext: 19226. Carrera 30 No. 45-03 Ed. 500B Bogot Colombia. e-mail address: icsanchezb@unal.edu.co
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showed worst sensorial scores. TPA variables are concluded better descriptors than WB variables in sensory evaluations. Keywords Lamb meat, Texture, Sensorial scores, Slaughter conditions, TPA, Warner Bratzler
4.1 Introduction
Ageing consists of a series of biochemical transformations undergone by the muscle after an animal has been slaughtered (Bianchi, Bentancur, & Saudo, 2006), differentiated into 2 main stages: rigor-mortis and post-rigor (Garcia, 2001). The muscles lose their elastic properties during rigor-mortis due to glucolysis in anaerobic conditions, producing lactic acid and therefore a reduction of pH and decreased ATP production rate (Garcia, 2001). the actin-myosin complex concentration is at its maximum once ATP reserves from residual glycogen are depleted (Schmidt, 1984) thus leading to maximum muscle rigidity (Devine, Payne, & Wells, 2002). The post-rigor stage is defined as being the time elapsed between rigor-mortis developing in muscle and the consumption of the meat (Bianchi et al., 2006b). Endogenous enzyme action begins during this stage, affecting pH by increasing it, along with water holding capacity (Bianchi, Bentancur, & Saudo, 2004). Endogenous enzymes include proteases, endopeptidases and lipases which are responsible for the development of rigor-mortis, softening the meat and aroma, flavour and colour generation. The main proteolytic action is due to the action of the enzyme inhibitor complex, calpain, calpastatin and, to a lesser degree, cathepsins (Bianchi et al., 2004), denaturing sarcomere proteins, starting with Z-line proteins (Chavez, 2010; Garcia, 2001). Calpain depends on the acidity, temperature and presence of calcium, hence the importance of these factors which are affected by stress prior to slaughter (Diaz, 2001). The action of calpain occurs at 5.5. to 6.5 pH in regular lamb meat storage conditions. On the other hand, calpastatin is an enzyme that intervenes in the regulation of calpain activity by inhibiting its effect (Herrmman, 2006; Diaz, 2001). Texture is a variety of sensations given by hardness and softness related to mastication, cut and penetration which are related to water holding capacity, pH, connective tissue and muscle fibers (Osrio, Osorio, & Saudo, 2009), making texture being the parameter held in the highest regard by consumers (Bianchi, 2004). A variable ageing period is used for obtaining optimum tenderness (Bianchi et al., 2006b); nevertheless, the degree of tenderness has been related to two muscle components: myofibril structure and connective tissue (mainly collagen, elastin and reticulin). This is due to their intertwining
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with myofibril proteins (Garcia, 2001) and other factors, such as age (Indurain, Insausti, Beriain, & Sarris, 2007), gender (Bianchi et al., 2006b), muscle type (Bianchi et al., 2006), the conditions in which ageing is carried out (Garcia, 2001; Chavez, 2010) and the size of the muscle bundle and its degree of degradation (Carvajal et al., 2008). The effect of genetics is being debated because of the other factors high variability (Bianchi et al., 2004). The shortening produced during rigor-mortis is an important problem due to variation in ageing conditions (Lopez & Vanaclocha, 2004) as a consequence of isometric tension induced by storage temperature; if temperature decrease is fast and its value reaches 10C before rigor-mortis take place, then there is a flux of calcium through the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria, producing cold shortening. Electrical stimulation is an alternative which should only be used in the case of rapid temperature drop (Devine et al., 2002). Likewise, increased age leads to higher collagen production, associated with an increase in texture (Indurain et al., 2007). Indirect texture measurement is based on the length of the sarcomeres and on quantitative and qualitative analysis of collagen while direct measurements can be estimated through sensory (physiological or psychological) or physical methods (mechanical and rheological) (Garcia, 2001). The instrumental methods used for measuring the mechanical properties of meat are classified as cutting, penetration, compression and tension analysis. The most widely used methods are the WarnerBratzler method (Wheeler, Shackelford, & Koohmaraie, 2005) for determining cutting and texture profile analysis (TPA) (Ruiz de Huidobro, Miguel, Blzquez, & Onega, 2005) by evaluating parameters like hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, chewiness and cohesiveness. TPA analysis is based on the degree of meat sample compression depending on the effect of the different proteins present in the sample; the effect of myofibril proteins is evaluated at lower compression levels and the effect of connective tissue is evaluated at higher compression levels close to 80% or higher (Bianchi et al., 2005).
Nevertheless, instrumental and sensory analysis should be performed at the same time for evaluating the human factor in such appreciation. Several authors have emphasised the canonical correlation between these types of variable; Warner Bratzler shear force and sensory acceptance leads to anticipating commercial selection (Destefanis, Brugiapaglia, Barge, & Dal Molin, 2008) but low correlation was found between them in an evaluation provided by consumers, even though there was high correlation when a trained panel was used (Toohey & Hopkins, 2006). Another type of correlation is established between final pH and shear force, but different variation factors affect pH response thereby making it necessary to evaluate an animals ante-mortem factors (Okeudo & Moss, 2005), such as the effect of feeding on shear force
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but not on sensory acceptance (Hoffman, Muller, Cloete, & Schmidt, 2003) and an effect only appreciated due to pH effect on sensory evaluation (Bianchi, 2005; Martinez-Cerezo, Saudo, Medel, & Olleta, 2005). Sensory evaluation may recognize differences between the selected muscle, the weight of the live animal, and to a smaller extent, the ageing of meat and race, but the best evaluations are obtained in young animals (Saudo, 2008) related to appreciation of flavour and acceptance in general (Bianchi et al., 2006a). The production system affects the level of growth, greasing and accelerated physiological ageing. A high feeding level makes an animal develop faster and younger and have lower weight with higher fat content (Diaz, 2001). Feeding variations can help to establish muscle composition and the response to ageing itself (Ballin, 2010). Pasture-fed animals are more tender, ageing of no more than 8 days at 4C being recommended (Bianchi et al., 2006). The use of cross-feeding specialised breeds to obtain greater genetic variation and therefore optimize meat production efficiency have been evaluated, leading to the same results (Garcia, 2001). 1 to 2 week ageing periods have been evaluated in lambs, specifically 8 days ageing has improved commercial acceptance (Bianchi, 2004). The longissimus dorsi has been seen to be more sensitive to softening after 7 days ageing, presenting a reduction of 47% of shear force up to the 12th day of ageing (Abdullah & Qudsier, 2009). In particular, no significant differences have been recorded from the 2nd day of ageing which could have been attributed to the type of muscle, allowing the homogenisation of variations in sensory evaluation which were attributed to different muscles (Bianchi et al., 2006a). Still, no significant differences have been present in the instrumental and sensory values in studies where ageing was carried out for 8 days (Bianchi et al., 2004); additionally, a pronounced decline in both texture and acceptance given by odour and flavour was evidenced on the 16th day (Bianchi et al., 2006). The great variability in results does not lead to establishing a specifically given ageing period where simultaneously instrumental and sensory evaluation may infer an ageing trend in different breeds. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of Dorper X Colombian breed lambs feeding system on longissimus dorsi in vaccum-packed and cold storage (4C) through Warner Bratzler shear force analysis and TPA. Lambs were slaughtered after three fasting times, and 0, 7 and 15 day ageing periods were used. Sensory evaluation was made by a trained panel of tasters.
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4.2 Material and methods
4.2.1 Experimental management

Fifty four 10-week-old Dorper X Colombian breed lambs were used in 2 feeding systems: grazing and semi-feedlot (n=27). Each feeding group was divided into 3 fasting groups (6, 12 and 18 hours) prior to slaughter. In each fasting group, 5 animals were stunned by electrical stunning and the remaining 4 were stunned with a penetrating captive bolt in accordance with the Food Science and Technology Institutes (ICTA) meat plant testing slaughter protocol.
4.2.2 Meat samples

The right longissimus dorsi muscle was taken from each animal 24 hours after sacrifice, vacuum packed and stored at 4C for 0, 7 and 15 days.
4.2.3 pH
The pH was measured in the selected muscle with portable Hanna puncture probe equipment. The measurement was performed immediately after washing the carcasses, after 24 hours and at the moment of being used for texture determination after 0, 7 and 15 days storage.
4.2.4 Texture determination

The stored samples were unpacked and half the muscle was taken and re-packed in a vacuum and cooked in water until reaching 72C internal temperature. The samples were then refrigerated for 24 hours at 4C and 1.27 cm diameter, 3 cm-long cylinders were extracted. Analysis was made with 3 repeats. Texture analysis was carried out on TA-TX2 equipment (Texture Technologies Corp.) where Warner-Bratzler maximum shear force tests and shear energy tests (defined as the area being submitted to a force vs. time graph) (Destefanis et al., 2008) were carried out using the 3 cm-long samples at 1.3 mm/s testing speed.
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TPA was performed with 50% deformation (Ruiz de Huidobro et al., 2005), 1.3 mm/s testing speed and 5 s time between cycles on 1.27 cm diameter 1cm-long cylindrical samples.
4.2.5 Sensory analysis

The second halves of the selected muscles were frozen for 2 weeks at -20C and unfrozen for one day at 4C. Each muscle was wrapped in aluminium foil and coded with 3 random numbers for identification. The samples were cooked in a preheated oven at 170C until reaching 72C internal temperature. These muscles were subsequently cut into 2x2x2 cm3 cubes and covered in aluminium foil again until being evaluated. A panel of testers was used, consisting of 8 people from the Universdad Nacional de Colombias Chemistry department who had been trained in meat defects (Prieto, 2009). The testers evaluated texture by using a 10 cm-long scale describing items as being juicy, tender, chewable (7-10), too juicy, not juicy, rubbery (4-6), dry, hard, not chewable, fibrous, presence of exudates (0-3) (Sanchez & Albarracin, 2010).
4.2.6 Statistical analysis.

The data so obtained was statistically analyzed by multifactorial variance analysis (ANOVA), using Statgraphics Centurion XV (Statistical Graphics Corp., U.S.A.) statistics software, a multiple range test using Fishers least significant difference (LSD) and one level of significance for multiple interactions (p<0.05).
4.3 Results and Discussion
4.3.1 pH reduction
Figure 1 shows the results for pH 2 to 24 hours after slaughter, presented for periods of fasting and feeding system.
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Figure 1. Decreased pH given as pH 2 to 24 hours after slaughter Stunning type and fasting time had a significant effect on pH decrease since, in the case of electrically-stunned animals, no differences were seen regardless of fasting period (p>0.05), 0.66 pH unit variation. pH decreased for captive bolt stunning while fasting time increased. Differences were seen after 6 to 18 hours fasting (p<0.05) in animals stunned by captive bolt method. The decreased pH values for animals who underwent 12 to 18 hours fasting, stunned with captive bolt, presented no differences from the values recorded for electrically-stunned animals (p>0.05). The results presented in Figure 1 established that there was a more significant decrease in pH values depending on fasting. A smaller decrease was observed with prolonged fasting periods in animals stunned by captive bolt, possibly due to stress generated by prolonged fasting where energy reserves in glycogen molecules were reduced, thereby affecting water holding capacity (WHC) (Jacob, Pethick, & Chapman, 2005). Nevertheless, following a short rest, the last pH would present values of around 5.8 to 6.0 where the worst conditions for obtaining low shear force and hardness were generated (Okeudo & Moss, 2005); however, texture became reduced with values above or below this range, due to the curve-line relationship between pH and texture (Hoffman et al., 2003). For electrically-stunned animals, assuming that there was an electrical stimulation effect, normalization in decreased pH was observed in 0.66 units; this change in pH values was also found by Dighiero et al., (2010) but direct or indirect electrical stimulation may cause problems during the ageing of meat, thereby accelerating proteolytic processes, and may lead to having meat which is too soft with long periods of ageing (Devine et al., 2002; Devine et al., 2006).
4.3.2 Warner Bratzler shear force

Figure 2 shows Warner Bratzler Shear force test results presented by periods of fasting, feeding system and ageing. Figure 2. Warner Bratzler shear force due to feeding system, fasting and days of ageing. Figure 2 shows that the feeding system and time of ageing were the factors that presented statistical differences (p<0.05). Lower shear forces were presented in animals raised on grazing (pasture) systems. Likewise, lower shear forces were observed at higher ageing period . There were significant statistically differences between 0 and 15
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days of ageing (p<0.05) while there were no significant differences (p>0.05) between 7 and 15 days. The differences between feeding systems were not significant for 15 days ageing regardless of the fact that average values in the semi-feedlot system were higher than those for the grazing system. Figure 3. Warner Bratzler shear energy regarding feeding system, fasting and days of ageing. On the other hand, Figure 2 shows that shear energy presented significant differences between ageing time and feeding system; additionally, an effect can be observed in Figure 3 for animals feed by semi-feedlot system, due to fasting time at day 0 of ageing, having significant differences between 6 and 12 hours of fasting (p<0.05) and between 6 and 18 hours of fasting (p<0.05). There were no significant differences between the factors analysed for the 15 days of ageing (p>0.05). The relationship between ageing and shear force has been studied by different authors (Bianchi et al., 2006; Dighiero et al., 2010; Boleman, McKenna, Ramsey, Peel, & Savell, 2004; Abdullah & Qudsier, 2009) finding an inverse relationship between the variables. Nevertheless, it would be expected that WB shear force would be affected because of stress factors (fasting time in this case) resulting in higher forces during ageing (Kadim et al., 2009), but no significant differences were evidenced in descending tendencies due to this factor. Furthermore, the difference was given by the feeding system where animals raised by grazing presented lower shear forces. This behaviour could be attributed to the low fat and connective tissue which would be present compared to the semi-feedlot system with supplements (Dighiero et al., 2010). Variation in shear force found in this study (Figure 2) was not significant at times beyond 7 days of ageing, similar to that found by Abdullah and Qudsieh (2009) in Awassi lambs with ageing over 7 days being unnecessary for achieving low shear forces, different to that stated by Kuber et al., (2003) who suggested that ageing of just 48 hours was sufficient for this effect to be observed. WB shear force trend was related to the energy needed for cutting fibrillar proteins. The results presented in Figure 3 shows this similarity, corroborating the fact that the direct relationship between shear energy and WB shear force depend on connective tissue fat content (Franco et al., 2007). The slow decrease in cutting energy regarding ageing time for animals bred by semi-feedlot system where there is vitamin D supplement use in feeding has also been presented by Boleman et al., (2004).
4.3.3 Texture profile analysis (TPA)
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Results for hardness from TPA are shown in Figure 4; both feeding system and ageing played a significant role on such values. In much the same way as in Figures 1 and 2, grazing animals presented decreased hardness with ageing, and significant differences between days 0 and 15 (p<0.05). Animals in semi-feedlots had different results to those from grazing animals and Warner-Bratzler analysis trend (Figures 1 and 2) having increased hardness, with statistically significant differences between ageing days 0 and 15 (p>0.05). Day 0 showed no difference between both feeding systems. By contrast, semi-feedlot animals displayed a difference in fasting effect by day 15 of between 6 and 12 hours (p<0.05) and between 6 and 18 hours (p<0.05). Figure 4. TPA: hardness as a function of feeding system, ageing, and fasting The hardness values obtained with 50% compression are shown in Figure 4; both fibrillar and connective tissue effects should be noted. An increase in meat hardness due to animal feeding in semi-feedlots could be attributed to the greater presence of connective tissue. This phenomenon has been analyzed by Campo et al., (2000) who attributed it mainly to genetics. The ageing effect on meat hardness becomes significant between days 0 and 15, mainly being due to muscular degradation with an interfering effect of connective tissue (Onega, 2003). Comparing different TPA variables from other authors is difficult to analyze because such authors use different speed tests and compression percentages (Franco, Bispo, Gonzalez, Vsquez, & Moreno, 2009). Nevertheless, there is a clear relationship between WB shear force test and TPA tenderness (Ruiz de Huidobro et al., 2005). Velasco et al., (2007) have ascertained that, depending on compression gradients, hardness can be attributed to the proteolysis effect on fibrillar proteins with a 20% compression gradient while 80% is used for evaluating the effect on connective tissue (Franco et al., 2007). Figure 5 shows springiness results from TPA values. Springiness decreased as ageing increased, with statistically significant differences between days 0 and 15 for grazing animals and between days 7 and 15 for semi-feedlot (p<0.05). Even though no significant differences were found between both feeding systems, all mean values for grazing animals were lower than those for feedlot animals for days 015 (p>0.05). Figure 5. TPA: springiness as a function of feeding system and ageing Springiness is related to tissue responsiveness after a certain force has been applied; here both connective tissue and fat help muscle recover more quickly, thus improving meat elasticity. According to the results shown in Figure 5, feedlot animals (known to display higher percentages of connective tissue and fat) had higher springiness values; nevertheless, no statistically significant differences were found when comparing them to grazing animal. This phenomenon can be attributed to the age of the animals studied as the entire lot had not reached physiological maturity and had not developed enough fat
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and connective tissue. Springiness variation has been analyzed as a function of connective tissue in a comparative study between bovines and ovines (Onega, 2003). The general view was that intermediate compression percentages should be used in future analysis for studying the effects on myofibrillar and connective tissue simultaneously, as analyzed in this study. TPA cohesiveness results are shown in Figure 6; they are presented for feeding systems during ageing. Cohesiveness increased with an increase in ageing time i. Significant differences were found between days 0 and 7 (p<0.05) and days 0 and 15 (p<0.05). Grazing animals showed higher cohesiveness values than feed-lot animals for feeding systems, significantly between 0 and 15 days of ageing (p<0.05). Figure 6. Cohesiveness as a function of feeding system and ageing Cohesiveness in TPA was related to the degree of myofibril deformation before snapping or tearing. This would suggest that meat having more fat tissue exhibits less cohesiveness (Franco et al., 2007). This effect is clearly shown in Figure 6 where grazing animals displayed greater cohesiveness. As concluded by some rabbit meat ageing studies (Gil et al., 2006), it was evident that cohesiveness was not affected by proteolysis in prolonged periods of ageing by contrast with the phenomenon exhibited by some other breeds such as Charoles and Serrana Soriana where cohesiveness behaves much like hardness (Asenjo, 1999). Chewiness values in TPA are shown in Figure 7 as a function of feeding system, ageing and stunning. Figure 7. TPA: chewiness as a function of feeding system, ageing and stunning Chewiness values showed significant differences as a function of stunning on semifeedlot animals, differences becoming evident after day 7 as a function of ageing; significant differences were seen between days 0 and 7 and between days 0 and 15 (p<0.05). By contrast, grazing animals did not show significant differences as a function of stunning (p>0.05). When compared to Figure 3, chewiness results for semi-feedlot animals displayed similar trend to those displayed for hardness while ageing time increased. Chewiness in TPA was related to the number of times that the product had to be chewed to reach an optimum state for swallowing. It consists of a combination of hardness, cohesiveness and springiness (Onega, 2003). Figure 7 shows the effect of ageing time on chewiness due to the moment where the stunning method could affect meat texture. Even though hardness, cohesiveness and springiness did not constitute a significant effect by the stunning system, indirect electrical stimulation used in electrical stunning may change
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meat pH. Although hardness in TPA tended to be the same as chewiness in feed-lot animals in TPA, this variable could be considered to be a combination of other variables . Garca (2001) has asserted that chewiness is perhaps the one variable that changes most with ageing; this view clearly contrasts with this studys findings. Ruiz Huidobro et al., (2005) on the other hand, produced similar findings to those obtained here, as this study compares sensory acceptance to TPA variables in aged meat.

Table 1 shows the mean values for the panel of testers sensory evaluation of texture in meat samples with the combined effects of feeding system, animal fasting time and ageing
Fasting (hours) Ageing (days) 0 7 15
Grazing 6 12
18
Semi-feedlot 6 12 18___ 6.430 6.050 6.109 6.350 6.333 5.933 6.400 5.011 6.211
7.202 6.300 6.166 7.477 6.355 6.250 5.750 6.486 6.333
Tabla 4-1. Texture sensory evaluation Sensory analysis did not show significant results when comparing feeding systems and ageing (p>0.05). However, all interactions showed the same trend in Figures 4 and 7. It should be stated that whatever instrumental measurement changes became evident are of no importance whatsoever if they are not accompanied by sensorial interpretations (Sanchez & Albarracin, 2010) because the purpose of ageing regarding texture is to obtain a more tender and desirable product as determined by sensory interpretation. In fact, in some cases extremely tender meat can become undesirable. Even though there was significant variation regarding hardness, springiness and chewiness in TPA when analyzing ageing effect, a significant effect was not perceived by tasters, similar to that found in work presented by Huidobro et al., (2005). There was a negative effect on sensory interpretation as ageing increased. In fact, evaluations on day 15 were worse than those from day 0 for both types of feeding systems and all fasting periods. Texture sensation was directly linked to water holding capacity where defects may have occurred when some meats may have been extremely exudative. The young age of the animals used in this study could have inferred
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tenderness and juiciness without ageing. This view is shared by Idurain et al., (2007) who noted better sensory acceptance without ageing. However, odour and flavour could have affected texture sensory interpretation with prolonged ageing, assuming a general defect similar to that presented by Bianchi et al., (2006). Acceptance can also be attributed to sensory memory. Lamb in Colombia is not consumed regularly and, whenever it is, it is usually not as tender as other species. When tasters evaluated meat as being soft this may have been erroneous because the tasters considered soft meat to be a defect. Martinez Cerezo et al., (2005) pointed out that ageing brought about an increase in sensory interpretation. This is debatable on account of the different regional perceptions regarding meat consumption. Similar to cohesiveness in TPA, the evaluation panel analyzed samples on days 0 and 7 and considered grazing to be marginally superior to semi-feedlot. By day 15, the evaluations also pointed to the same phenomenon regarding shear force test and springiness in TPA. Sensory acceptance in this study suggested that grazing animals were marginally better semi-feedlot ones, although this conclusion was not statistically significant. These observations clearly contrasted with Velasco et al., (2007) who concluded that feedlot animals displayed better results for cattle.
4.4 Conclusion
Lamb meat from crosses with Colombian breeds exhibited a tender ageing-dependant texture, becoming significant after 7 days ageing; longer times were not significantly, different. Measurement produced contradictory effects in hardness in TPA. Extreme ageing resulted in undesirable texture change leading to excessive water loss as a result of biochemical changes modifying fibre water retention. TPA variables would thus seem to be better descriptors than WB variables in sensory evaluation. Acknowledgments
We would like to give special thanks to the Universidad Nacional de Colombias Research Office in Bogot (DIB) and La Primavera sheep-farm.
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4.5 References
Abdullah, A. Y. & Qudsier, R. I. (2009). Effect of slaughter weight and ageing time on the quality of meat from Awassi ram lambs. Meat Science, 82, 309-316. Asenjo, B. (1999). Efecto de la raza y de la alimentacin en los parametros productivos y de calidad de canal y de carne en aojos de razas charlores y serrana soriana. Universidad de Valladolid. PhD thesis. Ballin, N. Z. Authentication of meat and meat products. Meat Science, (in press). Bianchi, G. (2004). Aprendamos a consumir carne ovina. Revista del plan agropecuario, 31-33. Bianchi, G. (2005). El analisis sensorial como una herramienta para evaluar la calidad de la carne de cordero. Revista del plan agropecuario, 34-38. Bianchi, G., Bentancur, O., Garibotto, G., Feed, O., Franco, J., & Saudo, C. (2006a). Efecto del tiempo de maduracin postmortem sobre la calidad sensorial de la carne de corderos corriedale y cruza. Agrociencia, 10, 81-87. Bianchi, G., Bentancur, O., & Saudo, C. (2004). Efecto del tipo genetico y del tiempo de maduracin sobre la terneza de la carne de corderos pesados. Agrociencia, 8, 4150. Bianchi, G., Bentancur, O., & Saudo, C. (2006). La maduracin de la carne de cordero como una herramienta para mejorar su terneza y calidad sensorial. Revista argentina de produccin animal, 26, 39-55. Bianchi, G., Garibotto, G., Forichi, S., Zabala, A., Benia, P., Feed, O. et al. (2006b). Efecto del sistema de refrigeracin sobre la calidad de la carne de corderos pesados Dohne Merino X Corriedale. Revista argentina de produccin animal, 26, 217-224. Bianchi, G., Garibotto, G., Franco, J., Ballesteros, F., Feed, O., & Bentancur, O. (2005). Calidad de carne ovina: impacto de decisiones tomadas a lo largo de la cadena. In G. Bianchi (Ed.), Alternativas Tecnolgicas para la Produccin de Carne Ovina de Calidad en Sistemas Pastoriles. (pp. 278). Montevideo: Editorial Hemisferio Sur.
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Boleman, C. T., McKenna, D. R., Ramsey, W. S., Peel, R. K., & Savell, J. W. (2004). Influence of feeding vitamin D3 and ageing on the tenderness of four lamb muscles. Meat Science, 67, 185-190. Campo, M. M., Santolaria, P., Saudo, C., Lepetit, J., Olleta, J. L., Panea, B. et al. (2000). Assessment of breed type and ageing time effects on beef meat quality using two different texture devices. Meat Science, 55, 371-378. Carvajal, L. M., Ospina, N., Martinez, O., Ramirez, L., Restrepo, C. C., Adarve, S. S. et al. (2008). Evaluacin de textura a cinco cortes de carne de res conservados por esterilizacin en envases de hojalata. Vitae, 15, 232-243. Chavez, J. (2010). La maduracin o aejamiento de las carnes. CORFOGA. Destefanis, G., Brugiapaglia, A., Barge, M. T., & Dal Molin, E. (2008). Relationship between beef consumer tenderness perception and WarnerBratzler shear force. Meat Science, 78, 153-156. Devine, C. E., Lowe, T. E., Wells, R. W., Edwards, N. J., Hockings, J. E., Starbuck, T. J. et al. (2006). Pre-slaughter stress arising from on-farm handling and its interactions with electrical stimulation on tenderness of lambs. Meat Science, 73, 304-312. Devine, C. E., Payne, S. R., & Wells, R. W. (2002). Effect of muscle restraint on sheep meat tenderness with rigor mortis at 18C. Meat Science, 60, 155-159. Diaz, M. T. (2001). Caractersticas de la canal y de la carne de corderos lechales manchegos. Correlaciones y ecuaciones de prediccin. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. PhD thesis. Dighiero, A., Montossi, F., Brito, G., Bonilla, O., Rovira, P., & Castro, L. (2010). Caracterizacin de la calidad de la canal y la carne de Corderos Pesados y Super Pesados Romney Marsh en el sistema arroz-pasturas de la UPAG-INIA Treinta y Tres. Sitio argentino de produccin animal, 1-8. Franco, D., Bispo, E., Gonzalez, L., Vsquez, J. A., & Moreno, T. (2009). Effect of finishing and ageing time on quality attributes of loin from the meat of Holstein Fresian cull cows. Meat Science, 83, 484-491. Franco, D., Gonzlez, L., Bispo, E., Moreno, T., Prez Seijas, N., & Monserrat, L. (2007). Acabado de vacas de desecho holstein frisian: efecto duracion del acabado y tiempo de maduracion sobre la textura de la carne . In Jornadas sobre Produccin Animal, 12., Zaragoza (Espaa), 16-17 May 2007 Zaragoza Spain.
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Garcia, R. (2001). Efecto de las enzimas endogenas sobre las propiedades fisicoquimicas y estructurales de carne de bovino durante la maduracion. Universidad autonoma metropolitana. PhD thesis. Gil, M., Ramirez, J. A., Pla, M., Ario, B., Hernandez, P., Pascual, M. et al. (2006). Effect of selection for growth rate on the ageing of myofibrils, meat texture properties and the muscle proteolytic potential of m. longissimus in rabbits. Meat Science, 72, 121-129. Herrmman, P. (2006). Carne angus en busca del futuro. Sitio argentino de produccin animal, 234, 38-40. Hoffman, L. C., Muller, M., cloete, S. P. W., & Schmidt, D. (2003). Comparison of six crossbred lamb types: sensory, physical and nutritional meat quality characteristics. Meat Science, 65, 1265-1274. Indurain, G., Insausti, K., Beriain, M. J., & Sarris, V. (2007). Analisis sensorial de tres tipos de carne de ovino por un panel de consumidores.Universidad de Navarra. PhD thesis. Jacob, R. H., Pethick, D. W., & Chapman, H. M. (2005). Muscle glycogen concentrations in commercial consignments of Australian lamb measured on farm and postslaughter after three different lairage periods. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, 543-552. Kadim, I. T., Mahgoub, O., Al-Mazoorqi, W., Khalaf, S., Al-Sinawi, S. S. H., & Al-Amri, I. S. (2009). Effects of transportation during the hot season and low voltage electrical stimulation on histochemical and meat quality characteristics of sheep longissimus muscle. Livestock Science, 126, 154-161. Kuber, P. B., Duckett, S. K., Busboom, J. R., Snowder, G. D., Dodson, M. V., Vierck, J. L. et al. (2003). Measuring the effects of phenotype and mechanical restraint on proteolytic degradation and rigor shortening in callipyge lamb longissimus dorsi muscle during extended ageing. Meat Science, 63, 325-331. Lopez, R. & Vanaclocha, A. C. (2004). Tecnologa de mataderos. (1st ed.) Mexico: Ed. Mundiprensa. Martinez-Cerezo, S., Saudo, C., Medel, I., & Olleta, J. L. (2005). Breed, slaughter weight and ageing time effects on sensory characteristics of lamb. Meat Science, 69, 571-578. Okeudo, N. J. & Moss, B. W. (2005). Interrelationships amongst carcass and meat quality characteristics of sheep. Meat Science, 69, 1-8.
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Onega, M. E. (2003). Evaluacin de la calidad de carnes frescas: aplicacin de tcnicas analticas, instrumentales y sensoriales. Universidad complutense de madrid. PhD thesis. Osrio, J. C., Osorio, M. T., & Saudo, C. (2009). Caractersticas sensoriais da carne ovina. Revista brasileira de zootecnia, 38, 292-300. Prieto, L. M. (2009). Analisis de la evolucion sensorial de carne bovina proveniente de la raza ceb brahman, para diferentes tiempos de maduracion. Bogot,Colombia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Monograph. Ruiz de Huidobro, F., Miguel, M., Blzquez, B., & Onega, E. (2005). A comparison between two methods (WarnerBratzler and texture profile analysis) for testing either raw meat or cooked meat. Meat Science, 69, 527-536. Sanchez, I. C. & Albarracin, H. (2010). analisis sensorial en carne. Revista colombiana de Ciencias Pecuarias, 23, 227-239. Saudo, C. (2008). Calidad de la canal y de la carne ovina y caprina y los gustos de los consumidores. Revista brasileira de zootecnia, 37, 143-160. Schmidt, H. (1984). Carne y sus productos carnicos. (vols. 1) Santiago Chile: Ed. Universitaria. Toohey, E. S. & Hopkins, D. L. (2006). Eating quality of commercially processed hot boned sheep meat. Meat Science, 72, 660-665. Velasco, S., Silva, M. T., Jimnez, M., Cuevas, F. J., Dochao, J., Tejerin, J. I. et al. (2007). Calidad sensorial e instrumental de la carne de terneros cebados con diferentes sistemas de alimentacin ecolgica. In Zaragoza (Spain). Wheeler, T. S., Shackelford, S. D., & Koohmaraie, M. (2005). Shear force procedures for meat tenderness measurement. Agricultural Research Service. United States Department of Agriculture.
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Figura 4-1. pH values for fasting periods and breeding system.
Figura 4-2. Warner Bratzler Shear Force for the different breeding system, fasting periods and ageing time analyzed.
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Figura 4-3. Warner Bratzler shear work for the different breeding system, fasting periods and ageing time analyzed.
Figura 4-4. Hardness values for the different breeding system, fasting periods and ageing time analyzed.
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Figura 4-5. Springiness values for the different breeding system and ageing time analyzed.
Figura 4-6. Cohesiveness values for the different breeding system and ageing time analyzed.
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Figura 4-7. Chewiness values for the different breeding system, stunning method and ageing time analyzed.
4.6 Instrucciones para los autores en la revista meat science

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5. Hair sheep lamb meat ageing an instrumental and sensory analysis of hair sheep crossed with Colombian breeds. Part II: color
Hair sheep lamb meat ageing an instrumental and sensory analysis of hair sheep crossed with Colombian breeds. Part II: colour Ivn C. Snchez13*5 , William Albarracn23.
1 Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medelln, Colombia 2 Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos (ICTA). Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogot, Colombia 3 Grupo de investigacin Aseguramiento de la calidad de Alimentos y desarrollo de nuevos productos, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos
Abstract The colour of meat may be modified by physiological or process factors such as species, gender, the amount of muscle fibres, genetic characteristics and age, producing differences that can be observe by the consumer. This work was aimed at evaluating the effect of a feeding system for hair sheep lambs crossed with Colombian breeds slaughtered in 3 ageing conditions (0, 7 and 15 days), using L*, a* and b* colour values obtained by instrumental and sensory evaluation. The results showed that, despite the fact that analysing the trend for each coordinate individually might not have shown effects due to ageing or feeding system, the E value did unify tri -stimulus coordinate variation factors. Nevertheless, the tri-stimulus response given by the panel members using the Pantone scale was comparable with instrumentally obtained values which were also
Corresponding author. Tel.: +571 316500 Ext: 19226. Carrera 30 No. 45-03 Ed. 500B Bogot, Colombia E-mail address: icsanchezb@unal.edu.co
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related to the interpretation of the E value regarding the degree of being noticeable or light. Keywords Instrumental colour, Sensorial colour, Lamb meat, Sensorial scores, Slaughter conditions.
5.1 Introduction
Colour is a subjective sensation that results from a series of physiological and psychological responses to electromagnetic radiation (Garcia, 2001) where the visible spectrum is just a fragment of energy that can be captured by the human being (Vicente & Gonzales, 2007); colour can be determined by tri-stimulus colourometry or reflectance spectrophotometry instrumental methods (Garcia, 2001). From a physical point of view, colour is the result of the spectral distribution of light on a surface and the intensity of light reflected by such surface (Diaz, 2001); this is why the interaction between object, observer and the latters position must be established.
Colour is defined by identifying procedures based on spectro-photometric curves or base colour mixes, giving place to a geometric space, leading to a determined colours special location. Colour representation systems include those developed by the Commission Internationale dEclairage (CIE), Hunter Lab, CMYK or RGB. The CIELAB system uses trichromatic coordinates L* (luminosity), a* (red index) and b* (yellow index) so that colorimetric coordinates can be obtained from the relationships between them (Diaz, 2001).
Luminosity (L*), depends on several factors such as pH, water holding capacity and moisture and is also related to a consumers grading of freshness. The a* values (redgreen) are related to myoglobin content, b* values (yellow-blue) are related to myoglobin state and fat contribution (Diaz, 2001; Ripoll, Joy, Muoz, & Albert, 2008) in yellow components.
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The main compound responsible for fresh meat colour is myoglobin which is the intracellular pigment synthesised in mitochondria (Bianchi et al., 2005) where the haemo group is responsible for myoglobins intense dark-red colour and for the pigments different states in meat (Dosi et al., 2006). Still, it should be pointed out that enzymatic type compounds (whose co-enzymes or prosthetic groups have chromophore properties) also impart a reddish colour and that intramuscular fat percentage, cytochromes and flavonoids also have an affect on colour (Lucciano et al., 2009).
Myoglobin may present itself as reduced myoglobin in fresh meat characterised by a purple-red colour due to low oxygenation or as oxy-myoglobin due to superficial oxidation of bright red colour normally associated with fresh meat and meta-myoglobin produced by prolonged oxygenation leading to brownish colours. There are other types of pigment such as green from sulpha-metha-myoglobin produced by the action of enterobacteria and lactobacillus (Nychas, Skandamis, Tassou, & Koutsoumanis, 2008), bright red from carboxy-myoglobin in conserved meat and red produced by the presence of nitrousmyoglobin in cured meat (Osrio, Osorio, & Saudo, 2009). The de-colouration index represents a measurement of the degree of colour referring to the difference between myoglobin and oxy-myoglobin in spectral values (620 and 580 nm, respectively).
The colour of meat may be modified by physiological or process factors such as species, gender, amount of muscle fibre, genetic characteristics and age (Garcia, 2001). Low pH is associated with increased luminosity and a greater degree of myoglobin oxidation generating darker and brown pigments. Likewise, variations in luminosity are due to the degree of muscle fibre compacting where a little diffusion of oxygen in the muscle generates a purple colour and an increased myoglobin reduction (Okeudo & Moss, 2005). The effect associated with breed is produced by greater or lesser oxygenation of the body parts involved in the animals exerting physical effort (Saudo, 2008), thereby affecting their colour.
Studies have shown that luminosity (L*) is not affected by ageing; however, an increase in a* (Abdullah & Qudsier, 2009) and b* values is observed when ageing is longer (Bianchi et al., 2006). No evident changes in colour are seen for lambs during 4 days ageing, but
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as more time elapses, these changes become associated with degradation by microorganisms that change the meats final colour (Martinez-Cerezo, Saudo, Medel, & Olleta, 2005; Ripoll et al., 2006). ). The effect of feeding consists of a variation in muscle composition, especially in fat content and the effect on its appearance (Ballin, 2010). Animals fed by grazing system have lower luminosity values than supplemented ones due to increased fat production; a* and b* values present major changes in animals on pasture due to the physical activities typically involved in such production systems (Perlo et al., 2008). The age factor combined with ageing contributes to producing paler meat in young animals; the change in colour in suckling lambs is greater during the first 3 days ageing (Ripoll et al., 2006) ) while ageing over 6 days displays no significant changes in colour.
Colour is the first sensory sensation perceived by a consumer when purchasing meat and is related to the degree of freshness (Sanchez & Albarracin, 2010); if meat is redder, it is considered that it is fresher. Saudo et al., (1998) have established that breed, diet, storage and ageing are the most variable factors regarding lamb meat colour; Mancini and Hunt (2005) have stated that different reactions between myoglobin and available oxygen are the factors producing the most changes in visual stimuli when evaluating colour.
Colour can be determined by sensory methods but these are generally subjective due to variability in individual judgment (Garcia, 2001), most trained people being able to predict favourable acceptance up to 14 days ageing (Goi, Beriain, Indurain, & Insausti, 2007). Different hedonic scales have been used for defining colour. OSullivan et al., (2003) found positive correlation between in panel members evaluations with instrumental measurements in individual colourimetry studies when evaluating the degree of red or brown intensity, luminosity, tones of blue, green and yellow, emphasising panel members prior training (O'Sullivan, Byrne, & Martens, 2003). By contrast, when evaluating hedonic measurements from 1 to 4 regarding the intensity of redness, instrumental-sensory correlation only achieved 65% positive colour discrimination, 33% luminosity and 36% a* (Toohey, Hopkins, Stanley, & Nielsen, 2008).
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The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of feeding systems on Dorper X Colombian hair lambs slaughtered in 3 fasting conditions and aged for 0, 7 and 15 days. Their longissimus dorsi were vacuum-packed, refrigerated at 4C and stored; a trained panel of tasters evaluated their visual appearance and L*, a* and b* values were applied for instrumental evaluation.
5.2 Materials and methods
5.2.1 Experimental management

Fifty-four 10-week-old Dorper X Colombian lambs were used in 2 feeding systems: grazing and semi-feedlot (n=27); each feeding group was divided into 3 fasting groups (6,12 and 18 hours) prior to slaughter. 5 animals were stunned electrically in each fasting group and the remaining 4 were stunned with a penetrating captive bolt in accordance with the Food Science and Technology Institutes (ICTA) testing meat plant slaughter protocol.
5.2.2 Meat samples

The right longissimus dorsi muscle was taken from each animal 24 hours after having been slaughtered, vacuum-packed and stored at 4C for 0, 7 and 15 days.
5.2.3 Colour determination

Colour was measured by Minolta CM-2002 colorimeter. L*, a* and b* values were obtained by 30 direct determinations in raw meat sample. A D65 Illuminator was used
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with a 2 observer. Differences between colour coordinates and formulations were determined by total colorimetric difference (E) (Vicente & Gonzales, 2007).

A panel of testers was used; it consisted of 8 people from the Universidad Nacional de Colombias Chemistry department who had been trained in detecting meat defects (Prieto, 2009). The testers evaluated the colour attribute by evaluating raw meat samples compared with a normalized Pantone scale as their guiding colour chart.
5.2.5 Statistical analysis

The data was statistically analysed by multifactor variance analysis (ANOVA) using a Statgraphics Centurion XV (Statistical Graphics Corp., U.S.A.) statistics pack, performing a multiple range test through Fishers least significant difference (LSD) procedure and multiple interactions having one level of significance (p<0.05).
5.3.1 Instrumental analysis

Figure 1 shows the instrumental colour analysis results regarding feeding system, fasting time and ageing for L*,a* and b* values. Figure 1. Instrumental L* variation for feeding system (a) , instrumental a* for fasting time (b), instrumental b* for feeding system (c) and fasting time (d) during ageing.
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There was increased luminosity for ageing time (Figure 1a) with significant differences between the three ageing days (p<0.05) in the semi-feedlot feeding system; no differences were observed in the grazing feeding system after 7 and 15 days ageing (p>0.05). There were only significant differences between the feeding systems at days 7 ageing (p<0.05). Figure 1a shows that instrumental L* values increased with ageing. Ageing is a proteolytic process where myofibrillar proteins lose their water holding capacity (WHC), leaving a liquid coating behind on the surface. The released water provides brighter colours when being measured (as shown in Figure 1a). Nevertheless, measurements do not range much, which is why such variations (despite presenting significant differences) do not constitute fundamental changes in luminosity, as presented for Manchega breed lambs, during vacuum-packed storage for 14 days, while there is a significant increase in luminosity L* (Berruga, Vergara, & Gallego, 2005) in Morkaram lambs where the evaluation was carried out for 12 days ageing without vacuum-packing, showing that there is an increase in L* until day 7 followed by a decrease (Macit et al., 2003). It should be emphasised that the storage setting contributes to the development of colour, which is why vacuum-packing should help to retain the initial colour during ageing, retarding proteolysis and lipolysis reactions which will modify colour. However, the feeding system can be differentiated by luminosity on day 7 of ageing as found by Alcalde and Neguerela (2001); ruminants fed on pasture are more likely to have darker coloured meat (Priolo, Micol, & Agabriel, 2001).
Figure 1b shows the results for instrumental a* value for 6, 12 and 18 hours of fasting. An increase in a* value was observed during ageing, having differences between 0 and 7 days (p<0.05) and between 0 and 15 days (p<0.05) for the 3 fasting times. There were differences between fasting times for the 0 to 7 days ageing (p>0.05) while no differences were presented at 15 days; a* value variation was due to the presence/absence of myoglobin in the meat and its degradation reaction with oxygen. No differences were presented in this study due to the feeding system (therefore affecting breeding) where ranges are very narrow for similar variation found for luminosity L*, despite presenting significant differences by the factors analysed here (Figure 1b), contrary to that stated in several studies showing that diet causes a reduction in coordinate a* (Sant Lhoutellier, Engel, & Gatellier, 2008; Alcalde & Negueruela, 2001) even though a* values increase in
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Morkaraman lambs when being stored without vacuum (Macit et al., 2003). The packaging system affects both luminosity and myoglobin degradation which is slower and has a smaller rise in a* values as presented in bovine meat (Ismail, Lee, Ko, & Ahn, 2008) and in irradiated turkey (Nam & Ahn, 2002) during different storage or ageing times. Nevertheless, an effect due to fasting may occur due to different stimuli prior to slaughter, thereby affecting pH changes and resolution of rigor mortis; an effect has been shown in Dorset-Merino crossbreeds which has been caused by electric stimulation a short time after slaughter concerning difference in redness (Jacob, D'Antuono, Smith, Pethick, & Warner, 2010) and irradiation in the meat affecting anti-oxidant agents concerning redness during ageing (Franco et al., 2008).
Likewise, there was a significant increase in b* values (Figure 1c) for each ageing time (p<0.05) for the 2 feeding systems. Differences between the systems were presented on days 7 and 15 of ageing (p<0.05). Figure 1c shows the effects of fasting times where there was an increase in b* during ageing, having a significant effect on all ageing periods in animal samples having 6 and 18 hours fasting (p<0.05); at 12 hours fasting, differences were only found between days 7 and 15 of ageing (p<0.05).
Regarding b* values, there is a relationship between different myoglobin states and possible yellow patterns in intramuscular fat. The results presented in Figures 1c and 1d show an increase in these values regarding the factors being evaluated. This might have been due to the samples fat content and vacuum-packaging where lipid oxidation reactions were reduced. However, the effect of UV radiation as catalyst for these reactions is known to be independent of the presence of oxygen (Belitz, 1985); this is how different studies with vacuum atmospheres, permeable to oxygen, have shown that there can be an increase in b* values due to auto-oxidation of lipids present in meat (Berruga et al., 2005; Macit et al., 2003; Nam & Ahn, 2002; Carrasco, Panea, Ripoll, Sanz, & Joy, 2009). The results given in Figure 1c show that there was a difference between the feeding systems, such difference may have been due to the animals daily exercise modifying lipid reserve in muscles and changing myoglobin content as well, although such differences may be more visible depending on the type of muscle being studied as observed in cattle (Realini, Duckett, Brito, Dalla, & De Mattos, 2004). By contrast, it is
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clear that the presence of oxygen during storage increases b* values and reduces a* values, the most pronounced example presenting itself at 7 days ageing in the Machenga breed (Brnez, Linares, & Vergara, 2009), corroborating the fact that the packaging system used delays this significant increase until 15 days ageing (see Figure 1d). Table 1 gives the E values for coordinates
L*, a*, and b* for instrumental analysis
regarding contrasts between fasting times and ageing. Tabla 5-1. Comparative E values and degree of sensorial differentiation according to Vicente and Gonzales (2007) Grazing a Eb 06 - 12 hours fasting 12 - 18 hours fasting 06 - 18 hours fasting 0 - 07 days ageing
X
Semi-feedlot a______ Eb Differentiation
Differentiation
2.059 noticeable 1.083 noticeable 2.727 noticeable 2.073 noticeable 1.064 noticeable 2.890 noticeable
1.240 noticeable 1.177 noticeable 0.671 light 2.291 noticeable 2.962 noticeable 4.977 noticeable
07 - 15 days ageing X 0 - 15 days ageingX
X, a and b showed statistical differences at p<0.05
The results of interaction between captive bolt and electrical stunning have not been presented since there were no significant differences in any of the L*, a*, and b* values. It was observed thatE colorimetric difference was higher at higher ageing and fasting times. Instrumental measurements in both feeding systems are mostly noticeable according to Vicente and Gonzales (2007). E colour difference is the best way to
interpret differences by colour instead of analysing the coordinates separately (Carrasco et al., 2009). According to Table 1 there was a difference between the feeding systems which was only evident in Figure 1c but not in Figures 1a and 1b. Nevertheless, the differences might have been greater between the different ranges of ageing time as observed for contrasts between days 0 and 7 of ageing and days 7 and 15 of ageing, showing the simultaneous effect of the 3 coordinates. Khliji et al., (2010) have presented reference values for the commercial acceptance of meat where instrumental measurements higher than 35, 9.5 and 3 for L*, a* and b* values respectively are
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accepted as being fresh meat in the eyes of consumers; they have also pointed out that it may be the best way to measure how to evaluate acceptability. The L*, a*, and b* values presented in this study are very similar to those presented by Ruiz de Huidobro et al.s studies (1998) and those found by Brnez et al., for the Lataverana breed (2009) and Chizzolini et al., in pig hams (1996).

The results obtained from the Pantone scale were transformed to tri-stimulus coordinates L*, a* and b* by using Adobe Photoshop CS5 graphics pack for statistical analysis and comparison with tendencies shown by the instruments and presented in Figure 2. Figure 2. Sensory L* variation (a), sensory a* (b), sensory b* (c) for feeding systems during ageing
Figure 2a gives sensory L* value variation regarding ageing and feeding system which displayed significant differences (p<0.05). Changes in luminosity due to feeding system were not statistically significant except during days 0 and 7 of ageing (p<0.05), the semifeedlot system samples being the most luminous ones. There were no statistical differences due to ageing for the grazing system (p>0.05) while differences were found for the semi-feedlot system after 15 days ageing (p<0.05). The sensory differentiation presented in Table 1 (where the degree may have been noticeable) was comparable to the tri-stimulus results shown in Figures 2a, 2b and 2c. Regarding sensory luminosity L*, variation due to ageing shown in Figure 2a showed that this trend was not significant and was not stable; compared to Figure 1a, the differences were explained because of the instrumental measurements short range, despite presenting significant instrumental differences. However, significant variation due to feeding system during the first 7 days ageing was only evident by E but not by instrumental L*. Figure 2b shows variations in sensory a* values regarding ageing and feeding system factors. No differences were presented between feeding systems and different ageing
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periods (p>0.05). There was no difference by grazing system due to ageing (p>0.05) while there was a decrease with ageing for the semi-feedlot system, this being significant between days 0 and 15 (p<0.05). Figure 2c shows variation in b* sensory value regarding ageing factors and feeding system. A general increase in b* values was observed according to ageing time. There were no differences between feeding systems at different ageing periods (p>0.05); there were no differences for grazing system on account of ageing (p>0.05), while the semi-feedlot system showed differences between days 0 and 15 of ageing (p<0.05).
The a* values obtained by sensory analysis were very far from those presented in instrumental measurement; this was possibly due to numerical conversions from the Pantone scale to a L*, a*, b* system, without considering the observer and the instrumentally-managed illuminant in conversions; however, tendencies regarding analysis factors may be comparable. The a* variations did not present significant differences, having the same behaviour as those shown instrumentally for longer than 7 day ageing periods. Likewise, sensory b* values were not comparable with instrumental b*, but the tendency to increase due to ageing agreed with that presented in Figure 1c where the panel members were able to discriminate between 0 and 15 days ageing by the colour of b* values.
5.4 Conclusion
Ageing time and feeding system presented significant variations in tri-stimulus coordinates L*, a* and b*. Despite the fact that analysing each colour coordinates behaviour individually may not have revealed effects due to ageing or feeding system, the E value unified tri-stimulus coordinate variation factors. Reactions responsible for changes in colour were slow since ageing occurred in vacuum packaging, myoglobin and lipid degradation and were unperceivable in most cases. Nevertheless, the tri-stimulus response given by the panel members using the Pantone scale may have a comparable tendency to those values obtained instrumentally and related to E value interpretation regarding the degree of being noticeable or light.
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Acknowledgments
5.5 References
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Brnez, R., Linares, M. B., & Vergara, H. (2009). Effects of stunning with different carbon dioxide concentrations and exposure times on suckling lamb meat quality. Meat Science, 81, 493-498. Carrasco, S., Panea, B., Ripoll, G., Sanz, A., & Joy, M. (2009). Influence of feeding systems on cortisol levels, fat colour and instrumental meat quality in light lambs. Meat Science, 83, 50-56. Chizzolini, R., Novelli, E., Campanini, G., Dazzi, G., Madarena, G., Zanardi, E. et al. (1996). Lean colour of green and matured Parma hams: comparative evaluation and technological relevance of sensory and objective data. Meat Science, 44, 159172. Diaz, M. T. (2001). Caractersticas de la canal y de la carne de corderos lechales manchegos. Correlaciones y ecuaciones de prediccin. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. PhD thesis.
Dosi, R., Di Maro, A., Chamberry, A., Colonna, G., Costantini, S., Geraci, G. et al. (2006). Characterization and kinetics studies of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) myoglobin. Comparative biochemistry and physiology, 145, 230-238. Franco, J., Feed, O., Bianchi, G., Garibotto, G., Ballesteros, F., Nan, F. et al. (2008). Parmetros de calidad de carne en cinco msculos de novillos Holando durante la maduracin post-mortem. II. Evolucin del colour durante su almacenamiento. Agrociencia, 7, 69-73. Garcia, R. (2001). Efecto de las enzimas endogenas sobre las propiedades fisicoquimicas y estructurales de carne de bovino durante la maduracion. Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana. PhD thesis.
Goi, M. V., Beriain, M. J., Indurain, G., & Insausti, K. (2007). Predicting longissimus dorsi texture characteristics in beef based on early post-mortem colour measurements. Meat Science, 76, 38-45.
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Ismail, H. A., Lee, E. J., Ko, K. Y., & Ahn, D. U. (2008). Effects of ageing time and natural antioxidants on the colour, lipid oxidation and volatiles of irradiated ground beef. Meat Science, 80, 582-591. Jacob, R. H., D'Antuono, N. F., Smith, G. M., Pethick, D., & Warner, R. D. (2010). Effect of lamb age and electrical stimulation on the colour stability of fresh lamb meat. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 58, 374-382. Khliji, S., van de ven, R., lamb, R. A., Lanza, M., & Hopkins, D. L. (2010). Relationship between consumer ranking of lamb colour and objective measures of colour. Meat Science, 85, 224-229. Lucciano, G., Monahan, F. J., Vasta, V., Biondi, L., Lanza, M., & Priolo, A. (2009). Dietary tannins improve lamb meat colour stability. Meat Science, 81, 120-125. Macit, M., Aksakal, V., Emsen, E., Infar, M., Karaoglu, M., & Esenbuga, N. (2003). Effects of vitamin E supplementation on performance and meat quality traits of Morkaraman male lambs. Meat Science, 63, 51-55. Mancini, R. A. & Hunt, M. C. (2005). Current research in meat colour. Meat Science, 71, 100-121. Martinez-Cerezo, S., Saudo, C., Medel, I., & Olleta, J. L. (2005). Breed, slaughter weight and ageing time effects on sensory characteristics of lamb. Meat Science, 69, 571-578. Nam, K. C. & Ahn, D. U. (2002). Mechanisms of Pink Colour Formation in Irradiated Precooked Turkey Breast Meat. Journal of Food Science, 67, 600-607. Nychas, G. J., Skandamis, P. M., Tassou, C. C., & Koutsoumanis, K. P. (2008). Meat spoilage during distribution. Meat Science, 78, 77-89. O'Sullivan, M. G., Byrne, D. V., & Martens, M. (2003). Evaluation of pork colour: sensory colour assessment using trained and untrained sensory panellists. Meat Science, 63, 119-129.
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O'Sullivan, M. G., Byrne, D. V., Martens, M., Gidskehaug, L. H., Andersen, H. J., & Martens, H. (2003). Evaluation of pork colour: prediction of visual sensory quality of meat from instrumental and computer vision methods of colour analysis. Meat Science, 65, 909-918. Okeudo, N. J. & Moss, B. W. (2005). Interrelationships amongst carcass and meat quality characteristics of sheep. Meat Science, 69, 1-8. Osrio, J. C., Osorio, M. T., & Saudo, C. (2009). Caractersticas sensoriais da carne ovina. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, 38, 292-300. Perlo, F., Bonato, P., Teira, G., Tisocco, O., Vicentin, J., Puello, J. et al. (2008). Meat quality of lambs produced in the Mesopotamia region of Argentina finished on different diets. Meat Science, 79, 576-581. Prieto, L. M. (2009). Analisis de la evolucion sensorial de carne bovina proveniente de la raza ceb brahman, para diferentes tiempos de maduracion. Bogot,Colombia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Monograph.
Priolo, A., Micol, D., & Agabriel, J. (2001). Effects of grass feeding systems on ruminant meat colour and flavour. A review. Animal Research, 50, 185-200. Realini, C. E., Duckett, S. K., Brito, G., Dalla, M., & De Mattos, D. (2004). Effect of pasture vs. concentrate feeding with or without antioxidants on carcass characteristics, fatty acid composition and quality of Uruguayan beef. Meat Science, 66, 567-577. Ripoll, G., Delfa, R., Joy, M., Panea, B., Carrasco, S., & Albert, P. (2006). Evolucin del colour y de la dureza de la carne de tres tipos de cordero de raza churra tensina. SEOC, 73-75. Ripoll, G., Joy, M., Muoz, F., & Albert, P. (2008). Meat and fat colour as a tool to trace grass-feeding systems in light lamb production. Meat Science, 80, 239-248.
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Ruiz de Huidobro, F., Sancha, J. L., Lopez, D., Cantero, M. A., Caeque, V., Velasco, S. et al. (1998). Caracteristicas instrumentales y sensoriales de la carne de corderos lechales de raza talaverana. Invest Agr Prod Sanid Anim, 13, 21-29. Sanchez, I. C. & Albarracin, H. (2010). analisis sensorial en carne. Revista Colombiana de Ciencias Pecuarias, 23, 227-239. Sant Lhoutellier, V., Engel, E., & Gatellier, P. (2008). Assessment of the influence of diet on lamb meat oxidation. Food Chemistry, 109, 573-579. Saudo, C. (2008). Calidad de la canal y de la carne ovina y caprina y los gustos de los consumidores. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, 37, 143-160. Saudo, C., Sanchez, A., & Alfonso, M. (1998). Small Ruminant Production Systems and Factors Affecting Lamb Meat Quality. Meat Science, 49, 29-64. Toohey, E. S., Hopkins, D. L., Stanley, D. F., & Nielsen, S. G. (2008). The impact of new generation pre-dressing medium-voltage electrical stimulation on tenderness and colour stability in lamb meat. Meat Science, 79, 683-691. Vicente, I. & Gonzales, A. (2007). El colour en la industria de alimentos. (1 ed.) (vols. 1) La habana Cuba: Ministerio de la Educacin Superior, (pp. 35).
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Figura 5-1. Instrumental L* values Variation for the breeding system (a) , instrumental a* values for fasting time (b), instrumental b* values for the breeding system (c) and fasting time (d) during ageing.
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Figura 5-2. Sensory L* values Variation (a), sensory a* values (b), sensory b* values (c) for the breeding systems during ageing.

Las instrucciones para los autores de la revista seccin 4.6. Meat Science se encuentran en la
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6. Hair sheep lamb meat ageing an instrumental and sensory analysis of crosses with Colombian breeds. Part III: odour
Hair sheep lamb meat ageing an instrumental and sensory analysis of crosses with Colombian breeds. Part III: odour Ivn C. Snchez1,3*6 , William Albarracn2,3.
1 Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medelln, Colombia 2 Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogot, Colombia 3 Grupo de investigacin Aseguramiento de la calidad de Alimentos y desarrollo de nuevos productos, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Alimentos
Abstract
The electronic nose is a device based on chemical, biological and electro-chemical responses from the compounds present in food known as the aromatic footprint which might discriminate different food states. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of feeding system, fasting periods and ageing times in meat samples taken from Doper X Colombian lambs on instrumental and sensory aromatic profile and the samples statistical discrimination. The results showed that discrimination was possible between feeding (PC1 90.6%, PC2 72.6% data variability) and ageing systems (88.89% correct discriminating function) due to the volatile compounds forming the aromatic profile of cooked lamb meat, especially sulphur-aromatic ones.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +571 316500 Ext: 19226. Carrera 30 No. 45-03 Ed. 500B Bogot, Colombia e-mail address: icsanchezb@unal.edu.co
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Keywords
Electronic nose, odour, lamb meat, aromatic footprint.
6.1 Introduction
Flavour is defined as being the result of stimulating two senses simultaneously: smell and taste (Almela et al., 2009). This usually consists of human evaluation (Descalzo et al., 2007) but advances in the development of sensors able to identify substances in a short period of time have led to specialised equipment being developed, such as the electronic nose and the electronic tongue. These devices are based on chemical, biological and electro-chemical responses from the compounds present in food; the electronic nose, in particular, uses the compounds present in head space. Electronic nose production is currently based on metal oxide semiconductors, organic conducting polymers and piezoelectric crystals (Ghasemi, Nohtasebi, Siadat, & Balasubramanian, 2009).
The electronic nose is a system of sensors which is far from a real noses sensitivity; traditional analysis methods, such as gas chromatography, infrared and mass spectrometry, must thus be used to help in quantitative identification of substances to be analysed (Rajamaki et al., 2006) since the electronic nose allows a rapid description of a products aroma fingerprint. Nevertheless, simultaneous use of sensory analysis by testers enables the feeling of pleasure or dislike to be correlated with the panels subjective evaluation when there has been training regarding the sensory matrix. Besides identifying volatile compound groups, it enables quality control, predicting known and unknown samples and cataloguing sensory descriptions such as sour, meat-like, acid or musinose smell with previous standardisation of smell patterns and degree of decomposition caused by microbiological effects (Vestergaard, Martens, & Turkki, 2007b). It has been used successfully for classifying samples having a similar smell, such as agricultural products, ovine meat, beef meat and milk (Descalzo et al., 2007).
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The electronic nose has been used recently for evaluating (in real time) the effect of the presence of substances produced when feeding animals and their residues in fresh meat; the presence of vitamin E in animals fed on grazing leads to an antioxidant lipid effect (Vestergaard, Martens, & Turkki, 2007a) due to the presence of volatile aldehyde products produced by oxidation reactions as a vitamin E residual factor indicator (Descalzo & Sancho, 2008). This equipment has been seen to be a useful instrument for discriminating the aroma of meat samples having different antioxidant states (Sala, Masoero, Gattaglini, ornale, & Arbera, 2009).
The electronic nose has proved useful in meat analysis; however, it has rarely been used for characterising how smell is perceived by meat consumers. Braggins and Frost (1997) evaluated raw and cooked lamb meat odour and flavour during prolonged storage in refrigerated conditions (one CO2 atmosphere and vacuum); they used the canonic discriminating analysis for reliably distinguishing raw and cooked lamb meat samples using different storage conditions for 4- to 14-week periods. One or two exposures of standard meat samples to the electronic nose are enough for the instrument to recognise fresh meat with 100% probability (Musatov, Sysoev, Sommer, & Kiselev, 2010), although in meat pizza analysis it could not detect all the unacceptable meat due to changes in the samples volatile composition after being cooked (Vestergaard et al., 2007a).
The relationship between meat ageing and sensor response is lineal but the degree of meat organoleptic spoilage has not been clearly detected (Zhang, Tong, Chen, & Lan, 2008). Also, samples of pig meat stored for 4 to 14 days have been analysed using a semi-conduction sensor matrix and relating chemical and sensory characteristics (Tikk, Haugen, Andersen, & Aaslyng, 2008), thereby showing that the aromatic profile and the presence of residual substances produced during feeding are evidently related.
Other meat product applications have been evaluated and are still being explored. Eklov et al., (1997) compared sensory analysis and the electronic nose during sausage fermentation; they used a 10-sensor nose, revealing differences in quality between small batches of sausages at different times (2009), Garcia, Aleixandre, Guiterrez, & Horrillo used it for discriminating ham and determining origin (2006) and Ghasemi et al., for revealing the presence of pathogenic micro-organisms during ageing (2009).
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Sexual odour is a distinctive and unpleasant smell perceived through a combination of sensory odours (especially in pig meat and its products) during cooking and consumption. Animal-like and urine or faecal matter sensory descriptors are indicators of uncastrated adult males. Sensorial perception of sexual smell has been related to andoresterone and escathol levels in fat tissue, these becoming the main contributing factors for the smell known as berrinche. Using the sensors in the electronic nose has led to discriminating meat having the aforementioned defects before they are consumed or evaluated by a tester (Vestergaard, Haugen, & Byrne, 2006). The electronic nose has also enabled diseases to be detected when breeding animals. This is how the presence of decomposition odours has led to detecting attack by flies in the skins of ovines known as flystrike (Cramp, Sohn, & James, 2009).
The success of the electronic nose consists of the correct interpretation of an aroma profile given by the sensors. Multivariate descriptive methods such as lineal discriminative analysis (LDA) and quadratic discriminative analysis (QDA) have been able to differentiate samples by using 9 metallic oxide sensors (Panigrahi, Balasubramanian, Gu, Logue, & Marchello, 2006; Musatov et al., 2010). Neuron networks based on unsupervised training methods could be used for predicting meat storage time (Ghasemi et al., 2009), few samples being required for its exploration and quantification.
Over 1,000 compounds have been identified when developing odour and taste sensations when testing different species. Even though it is true that combining these sensations is known as meat flavour, the descriptions used for taste and odour correspond to different linguistic terms commonly used for discriminating flavour (Sanchez & Albarracin, 2010). Factors such as fat content, humidity, diet, pH and cooking are important when producing aroma and taste in meat (Calkins & Hodgen, 2007). Cooking temperature effectively constitutes a catalyst for Maillard reactions and is a function of the concentration and synthesis of characteristic aromas arising from the interaction between meat proteins and reducing carbohydrates (Belitz, 1985).
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This work was aimed at evaluating the effect of feeding system, fasting and ageing times on meat samples from Dorper X Colombian lambs regarding their instrumental and sensory aromatic profile and the statistical discrimination of samples.
6.2 Materials and Methods
6.2.1 Slaughter and ageing conditions

Fifty-four 10-week-old lambs were used. They came from Dorper X Colombian cross breeds using 2 feeding systems: grazing (n=27) and semi-feedlot (n=27); each feeding group was divided into 3 fasting groups (6, 12 and 18 hours) prior to slaughter. 5 animals were electrically stunned for each fasting group and the remaining 4 were stunned by penetrating captive bolt. Following slaughter, the Longissimus dorsi muscle was removed and refrigerated at 4C for 0, 7 and 15 days; 10g samples were taken during these days and ultra-frozen at -80C until experimenting with them.
6.2.2 Sample preparation

10 g of sample was weighed, vacuum-packed and cooked for 60 minutes until reaching 72C internal temperature and stored at 4C.
The samples were placed in 40 mL vials closed with 22 mm PTFE-silicone septa to start the analysis and then placed at 16C for 10 minutes. Afterwards, they were incubated at 35.5C for 20 minutes.
6.2.3 Selecting test conditions
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For selecting test conditions, three 2 g, three 3 g and three 4g ovine meat samples were taken, occupying around 1/3 of test vial volume. Three reference gas flows were taken between 100 mL/min and 200 mL/min. When selecting work conditions, the response of the 10 available sensors was evaluated regarding the degree of saturation by evaluated sample component concentration in the head space. 3 g of sample was selected so that such saturation was not presented; a 100 mL/min flow was selected to avoid presenting low responses in the sensors. 40C was established to prevent water condensate formation that could have interfered in the sensors response.
6.2.4 Electronic nose tests

The Airsense PEN3 system was used with 10 selective sensors for a group of volatile compounds present in the vials head space. A 100mL/min gas flow was used with 380 s cleaning time, 10s base line correction, 30s air purging and 180s sample run time (Tikk et al., 2008). The recorded data for each sample was stored and the operation cycle was restarted. Table 1 presents the sensors recognition pattern. Tabla 6-1. Airsense PEN3 sensors recognition pattern.
Sensor Sensor 1 W1C Sensor 2 W5S Sensor 3 W3C Sensor 4 W6S Sensor 5 W5C Sensor 6 W1S Sensor 7 W1W Sensor 8 W2S Sensor 9 W2W Sensor 10 W3S
Sensor array Aromatic Broad range Aromatic Hydrogen Aliphatic-aromatic Broad methane Sulphur-Organic Alcohol Sulphur-Chloride Methane-Aliphatic
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The remaining parts of the selected muscles were frozen for 2 weeks at -18C and unfrozen for a day at 4C. Each muscle was wrapped in aluminium foil and coded with 3 random numbers for identification. The samples were cooked in a preheated oven at 170C until reaching an internal 72C temperature. These were then cut into 2cm2 cubes and covered in aluminium foil again being evaluated (Prieto, 2009).
The panel of testers used consisted of 8 people from the Universidad Nacional de Colombias Chemistry department who had been previously trained in detecting meat defects. The testers evaluated the flavour attribute using a 10 cm long scale describing items as characteristic of meat, cooked, sweet (7-10), insipid, blood-like (4-6) and rancid, rusted (0-3) (Sanchez & Albarracin, 2010).
6.2.6 Statistical analysis

The data was statistically analysed by principal components analysis (PCA) with extraction by 2 standard components, discrimination analysis and multifactor variance analysis (ANOVA) using Statgraphics Centurion XV (Statistical Graphics Corp., U.S.A.) statistics pack. A multiple range test used Fishers least significant difference (LSD) procedure with multiple interactions having one level of significance (p<0.05).

Figure 1 shows the distribution of the results for the 10 sensors for 2 principal components and their differentiation by feeding system. Figure 1. Principal component 1 and principal component 2 by feeding system discriminating analysis.
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Both components explained 90.6% of data variability, principal component 1 having 72.6% variance. Qualitative differentiation of the 2 feeding systems was observed. It was found that sensors 3, 4 and 7 had the highest significance in model description by regression adjustment in discriminating function analysis, being able to correctly classify the feeding system (100%).
Figure 2 shows the dispersion of data using the discriminating functions 3 significant sensors. The same differentiation found in Figure 1 was observed by PCA. The discriminating functions sensors only corresponded to sensors 3, 4 and 7 in regression analysis to discriminate between the different feeding systems, having 1.7711, 1.0777 and 0.9552 discrimination coefficients, respectively. Figure 2. Dispersion graph for discriminating function by feeding system
Figure 1 shows that using metal oxide sensors (MOS) led to the analysed samples aroma fingerprint allowing clear discrimination between both systems where feeding regime was different. Figure 2 shows that lineal discrimination analysis identified 3 statistically significant sensors regarding discriminating function; sensor 3 W3C was selective for ammonium and aromatic compounds in general, sensor 4 W6S was mostly selective for hydrogen and sensor 7 W1W was selective for sulphur compounds, hydrogen sulphur and terpens. Nevertheless, W2S sensors had high selective levels for alcohols and W5S had a wide range. The sensors degree of sensitivity is further described in the work of Baietto et al., (2010). Very similar results have been presented by Sala et al., (2009) in bull meat samples having a degree of supplements where sensors W5S, W2S and W1S had the highest response. Nevertheless, discrimination between raw and cooked meat was attribute to sensors W3C, W6S and W5C.
Sensor W1W discrimination may be due to the presence of sulphur aromatic compounds produced by Maillard reaction during cooking (Calkins & Hodgen, 2007), this being identified by cysteine and cysteine degradation of 4,6-dimethyl-1,3-oxatiane, 3,5-
dimethyl-1,2,4-titriolane and 2,4,6-dimethylperhydro-1,3,5-ditiacine (Almela et al., 2009).
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W3C and W6S sensor differentiation was possibly due to the presence of compounds such as aldehydes, alcohols, and a hydrocarbon-aromatic compounds (1,2 dimethylbenzene), alkenes, terpens, ketones, one unidentified aromatic and one unidentified nitrogenated compound presented by Vasta et al., (2007) in chromatographic analysis differentiation of meat from lambs fed on pasture and concentrates where 2-butanone, pentan-1-ol and 1-octen-3-ol were the compounds presenting most differences in their concentration. Similar to this study, an electronic nose with MOSFET sensors has been used for cooked pig meat and comparing hexanal, pentanal and nonanal (aldehydes) patterns, pentanol and 1-octen-3-ol (alcohols) which have been identified as contributing to cooked pig meat odour (Tikk et al., 2008), thereby ratifying the relationship of the compounds presented by Vasta et al., with the response of the sensors described in this study.
Ten electronic nose sensors were used in discrimination by ageing, obtaining 88.89% correctly classified cases for the grazing feeding system and 85.19% for the semi-feedlot system (Figure 3a and 3b).
Figure 3. Discriminating functions regarding ageing time for grazing (a) and semi-feedlot (b) systems
Some cooked meat smell and taste precursors, such as peptides and free amino acids, are developed during the ageing of meat, due to protease and endogenous peptidase activity, being hydrolysis and lipid oxidation products (Almela et al., 2009). By comparison with feeding system discrimination response, most volatile components need 10 sensors for identifying ageing meats aromatic fingerprint. In the application of Branggins and Frost, quoted by Haugen and Kvaal (1998), 18 MOS sensors had to be used for distinguishing between lamb meat stored for 4 and 14 weeks in CO2 atmospheres and in a vacuum, inferring that the methodology developed in this work was satisfactory when using fewer sensors. This discrimination was achieved using PCA multi-varied methods and lineal discriminators, as presented by Grigioni et al., (2000) using polymeric sensors.
Figure 4a gives odour sensory descriptors results with taste sensation results. A general decrease in appreciation was observed related to ageing times. The significant
164
differences were found between 0 and 15 days ageing (p<0.05) for both feeding systems, with no differences between them (p>0.05). The taste attribute is presented in Figure 4b, due to ageing and feeding systems. No significant differences were found on account of ageing (p>0.05) in both feeding systems. The only significant difference was shown between feeding system at 15 days ageing (p<0.05) with grazing system having higher grades (6.4).
Figure 4. Sensory variation analysis of odour (a) and taste (b) related to ageing time
The sensory evaluation presented in Figure 4a and 4b shows decreased acceptance of odour during ageing, while there was a different trend between feeding systems regarding the taste attribute. The meat of lambs bred on an extensive (pasture) system may lead to low odour acceptance (Almela et al., 2009) where the presence of side chain fatty acids, phenols and linoleic acid oxidation may cause the lamb meat factor described above (Priolo, Micol, & Agabriel, 2001). In descriptions provided by the tasters, the term lambsmell and lamb-taste was considered to be a defect, this being why evaluation regarding ageing was little evaluated. Rouset et al., (1997) showed that pasture-fed lambs presented more intense odours where a describing factor similar to that described in this work sheepmeat led to discriminating feeding systems. Likewise, the panel members discriminated more by odour than taste. Regarding taste, the panelists gave pasture-bred animals better marks, thereby showing similarity with work carried out on United Kingdom inhabitants preferences having greater inclination towards animals bred on organic pastures instead of supplemented ones due to taste and higher fat content (Angood et al., 2008). Nevertheless, some work has inferred that ageing is harmful for periods over 4 days due to strange flavours being produced (Martinez-Cerezo, Saudo, Medel, & Olleta, 2005) and non-favourable odours are produced at 16 days affecting indirectly the sensory evaluation of texture and taste (Bianchi, Bentancur, & Saudo, 2006).
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6.4 Conclusion
Using the electronic nose led to discriminating between feeding and ageing systems due to the volatile compounds forming cooked lamb meats aromatic profile, especially sulphur-aromatic ones. A greater number of sensors are necessary for discriminating between different ageing times on account of the multiple aroma-producing reactions. By contrast, sensory acceptance of odour is unfavourable because the term lamb odour is considered to be a defect. Acknowledgments
6.5 References
Almela, E., Jordn, M. J., Martinez, C., Sotomayor, J. A., Bedia, M., & Baon, S. (2009). El flavor de la carne cocinada de cordero. Eurocarne, 178, 1-12. Angood, K. M., Wood, J. D., Nute, G. R., Whittington, F. M., Hughes, S. I., & Sheard, P. R. (2008). A comparison of organic and conventionally-produced lamb purchased from three major UK supermarkets: Price, eating quality and fatty acid composition. Meat Science, 78, 176-184. Baietto, M., Wilson, A., Bassi, D., & Ferrini, F. (2010). Evaluation of three electronic noses for detecting incipient wood decay. Sensors, 10, 1062-1092. Belitz, H. D. (1985). Quimica de los alimentos. (2nd ed.) Spain: Ed. Acribia, (pp. 378). Bianchi, G., Bentancur, O., & Saudo, C. (2006). La maduracin de la carne de cordero como una herramienta para mejorar su terneza y calidad sensorial. Revista Argentina de Produccin Animal, 26, 39-55. Braggins, T. J. & Frost, D. A. (1997). The effect of extended chilled storage in Co2 atmosphere on the odour and flavour of sheepmeat as assessed by sensory panel
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and an electronic nose. In: Proceedings of the 43rd ICoMST (pp. 198-199). Auckland, New Zealand. Calkins, C. R. & Hodgen, J. M. (2007). A fresh look at meat flavor. Meat Science, 77, 6380. Cramp, A. P., Sohn, J. H., & James, P. J. (2009). Detection of cutaneous myiasis in sheep using an 'electronic nose'. Veterinary Parasitology, 166, 293-298. Descalzo, A., Rossetti, L., Grigioni, G., Irurueta, M., Sancho, A. M., Carrete, J. et al. (2007). Antioxidant status and odour profile in fresh beef from pasture or grain-fed cattle. Meat Science, 75, 299-307. Descalzo, A. & Sancho, A. M. (2008). A review of natural antioxidants and their effects on oxidative status, odour and quality of fresh beef produced in Argentina. Meat Science, 79, 423-436. Eklov, T., Johansson, G., Winquist, F., & Lundstrom, I. (1997). Monitoring sausage fermentation using an electronic nose. In Methods to Improve the Selectivity of Gas Sensors (pp. 40-50). Linkoping, Sweden: Department of Physics and Measurement Technology, University of Linkoping. Garcia, M., Aleixandre, M., Guiterrez, J., & Horrillo, M. C. (2006). Electronic nose for ham discrimination. Sensors and actuators B:Chemical, 114, 418-422. Ghasemi, M., Nohtasebi, S. S., Siadat, M., & Balasubramanian, S. (2009). Meat quality assessment by electronic nose (machine olfaction technology). Sensors, 9, 60586083. Grigioni, G., Margaria, C. A., Pensel, N. A., Sanchez, G., & Vaudagna, S. R. (2000). Warmed-over flavour analysis in low temperature long time processed meat by an "electronic nose''. Meat Science, 56, 221-228. Haugen, J. E. & Kvuaal, K. (1998). Electronic nose and artificial neural network. Meat Science, 49, 279-286. Martinez-Cerezo, S., Saudo, C., Medel, I., & Olleta, J. L. (2005). Breed, slaughter weight and ageing time effects on sensory characteristics of lamb. Meat Science, 69, 571-578. Musatov, M. Y., Sysoev, V. V., Sommer, M., & Kiselev, I. (2010). Assessment of meat freshness with metal oxide sensor microarray electronic nose: A practical approach. Sensors and Actuators B:Chemical, 144, 99-103.
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Panigrahi, S., Balasubramanian, S., Gu, H., Logue, C., & Marchello, M. (2006). Design and development of a metal oxide based electronic nose for spoilage classification of beef. Sensors and Actuators B:Chemical, 119, 2-14. Prieto, L. M. (2009). Analisis de la evolucion sensorial de carne bovina proveniente de la raza ceb brahman, para diferentes tiempos de maduracion. Bogot,Colombia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Monograph. Priolo, A., Micol, D., & Agabriel, J. (2001). Effects of grass feeding systems on ruminant meat colour and flavour. A review. Animal Research, 50, 185-200. Rajamaki, T., Alakomi, H. L., Ritvanen, T., Skitta, E., Smolander, M., & Ahvenainen, R. (2006). Application of an electronic nose for quality assessment of modified atmosphere packaged poultry meat. Food Control, 17, 5-13. Rouset, S., Young, O. A., & Berdague, J. L. (1997). Diet and growth effects in panel assessment of sheepmeat odour and flavour. Meat Science, 45, 169-181. Sala, G., Masoero, G., Gattaglini, L. M., ornale, P., & arbera, S. (2009). Electronic nose and use of bags to collect odorous air samples in meat quality analysis (pp. 337340). Sanchez, I. C. & Albarracin, H. (2010). Analisis sensorial en carne. Revista Colombiana de Ciencias Pecuarias, 23, 227-239. Tikk, K., Haugen, J. E., Andersen, H. J., & Aaslyng, M. D. (2008). Monitoring of warmedover flavour in pork using the electronic nose correlation to sensory attributes and secondary lipid oxidation products. Meat Science, 80, 1254-1263. Vasta, V., Ratel, J., & Engel, E. (2007). Mass spectrometry analysis of volatile compounds in raw meat for the authentication of the feeding background of farm animals. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 4630-4639. Vestergaard, J. S., Haugen, J. E., & Byrne, D. V. (2006). Application of an electronic nose for measurements of boar taint in entire male pigs. Meat Science, 74, 564-577. Vestergaard, J. S., Martens, M., & Turkki, P. (2007a). Analysis of sensory quality changes during storage of a modified atmosphere packaged meat product (pizza topping) by an electronic nose system. LWT, 40, 1083-1094. Vestergaard, J. S., Martens, M., & Turkki, P. (2007b). Application of an electronic nose system for prediction of sensory quality changes of a meat product (pizza topping) during storage. LWT, 40, 1095-1101.
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Zhang, Z., Tong, J., Chen, D., & Lan, Y. (2008). Electronic nose with an air sensor matrix for detecting beef freshness. Journal of Bionic Engineering, 5, 67-73.
Figura 6-1.Principal component 1 and principal component 2 by the breeding system.
Captulo VI
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Figura 6-2. Dispersion graph of the discriminating function by breeding systems
Figura 6-3. Discriminating functions of ageing time for grazing system (a) and semifeedlot (b) system.
170
Figura 6-4. Sensory analysis variation of odour (a) and taste (b) fore ageing time analyzed.

Las instrucciones para los autores de la revista Meat Science se encuentran en la seccin 4.6.
Captulo VI
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7. Conclusiones y recomendaciones
7.1 Conclusiones
Se elaboraron 5 artculos originales y 1 artculo de revisin investigacin. a partir de esta
Existen diferentes metodologas de evaluacin sensorial de carne y lenguajes, por lo cual el protocolo de preparacin y presentacin de muestras de carne se ha normalizado en este trabajo.
Mediante la evaluacin del poder encefalografico y registros EEG, para los animales aturdidos mediante el sistema de perno cautivo penetrante no se present un cambio en la actividad cortical respecto un animal despierto en los patrones de frecuencia de las ondas delta, alfa, beta, teta, gama o superiores asociable con el aumento en el dolor.
Los animales aturdidos mediante electronarcosis presentaron un registro EEG similar a un ataque epilptico durante el aturdimiento, lo cual puede inferir usando el modelo humano, una ausencia de dolor y angustia.
El efecto combinado de ayuno y sistema de cra influencian en los rendimientos tanto de la canal y sus despojos.
174
A tiempos prolongados de ayuno, se aumenta la concentracin de glucosa en sangre lo cual est relacionado con cargas altas de estrs. No obstante el tiempo de ayuno incide sobre el pH ltimo, donde el menor valor de este se alcanza para las 18 horas de ayuno; caso contrario se presenta en la variacin del pH durante las 24 horas posteriores a la muerte, evidencindose un cambio mayor para 6 horas de ayuno.
El efecto del aturdimiento sobre la calidad de la canal, solo se presenta en el cambio de pH durante 24 horas, siendo evidente un efecto de estimulacin elctrica por parte de la electronarcosis.
El porcentaje medio de rendimiento en canal es correspondiente a los presentados en razas puras Dorper, siendo viable y comparable el uso del cruzamiento Dorper X criollo.
La carne de corderos cruzados con razas criollas colombianas, present una textura suave dependiente del grado de maduracin, donde se hace significativo el cambio hasta los 7 das de maduracin, tiempos posteriores no presentan diferencias significativas y en el caso de la medida de Dureza puede traer efectos contrarios a los esperados.
Una excesiva maduracin, conlleva a una disminucin de la textura hasta considerarse un defecto por la presencia de agua perdida debido a los cambios bioqumicos que modifican la capacidad de retencin de la fibra muscular.
Se corrobor que los parmetros de TPA son mejores descriptores de una evaluacin sensorial que los parmetros de WB.
Conclusiones
175
La maduracin y el sistema de cra presentaron diferencias significativas respecto a las coordenadas triestimulares L*, a* y b*.
El valor E unifica los factores de variacin de las coordenadas triestimulares presentando los diferentes cambios estadsticos que presentaron las 3 coordenas L*, a* y b*.
La respuesta triestimular dada por los panelistas usando la escala PANTONE, puede ser comparable en tendencias con los valores obtenidos instrumentalmente y a su vez relacionada con la interpretacin del valor E respecto a la calificacin notable o ligera.
Mediante el uso de la nariz electrnica, se pudo discriminar entre los sistemas de cra y la maduracin, debido a la serie de compuestos voltiles que componen el perfil aromtico de la carne cocinada de cordero especialmente los sulfuroaromticos.
Debido a las mltiples reacciones de generacin de aromas, es necesario un mayor nmero de sensores para discriminar entre los diferentes tiempos de maduracin.
La aceptacin sensorial para el olor es desfavorable, debido a que se considera el trmino olor a cordero como un defecto.
176
7.2 Recomendaciones
Se sugiere para futuras investigaciones evaluar los registros encefalograficos durante el beneficio en diferentes especies de animales de abasto, con el fin de evidenciar la eficiencia de los sistemas de aturdimiento.
Adoptar un protocolo unificado de anlisis sensorial de carne de panelistas entrenados de acuerdo con descriptores propios de carne en general.
Evaluar los diferentes parmetros instrumentales y sensoriales de calidad en carne ovina de edades adultas y contrastarlos con los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo ya que no existe una informacin clara de las edades de sacrificio.
Bibliografa
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Eikenenboom (ed), pp. 13-25. Boston, USA. BRANCACCI, N., Alves de Souza, P., Alves de Souza, H., Garcia da Silva, A., Leone, E. Parmetros de qualidade da carne de cordeiros submetida aos processos de maturao e injeo de cloreto de clcio. Ciencia Rural, Vol. 36, No.5, 2006, pp. 1558-1564.
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CARAVES, M.,Gallo, C. Caracterizacin y evaluacin de la eficacia de los sistemas de insensibilizacin utilizados en equinos en Chile. Arch Med Vet, Vol. 39, No.2, 2007, pp. 105-113. CHAVEZ, J. La maduracin o aejamiento de las carnes. Disponible en URL:
http://www.corfoga.org/pdf/revvol07/maduracion.pdf. Vistado: 27-09-10, 2010. DANE. Encuesta nacional de sacrificio de especies menores. Disponible en URL: http://www.dane.gov.co/daneweb_V09/index.php?option=com_content&view=article &id=47&Itemid=73. Visitado: 26-09-10, 2009. -------. Encuesta nacional de sacrificio de especies menores. Disponible en URL: http://www.dane.gov.co/daneweb_V09/index.php?option=com_content&view=article &id=47&Itemid=73. Visitado: 26-09-10, 2010. DEISS, V., Temple, D., Ligout, S., Racine, C., Bouix, J., Terlouw, C., Boissy, A. Can emotional reactivity predict stress responses at slaughter in sheep?. Applied animal behaviour science, Vol. 119, 2009, pp. 193-202. DEVINE, C.E., Payne, S.R., Wells, R.W. Effect of muscle restraint on sheep meat tenderness with rigor mortis at 18C. Meat Science, Vol. 60, No.2002, pp. 155-159. DIAZ, M.T. Caractersticas de la canal y de la carne de corderos lechales manchegos. Correlaciones y ecuaciones de prediccin. Tesis doctoral, Universidad
Complutense de Madrid, 2001. FEDEGAN. Plan estrategico de la ganaderia colombiana. Disponible en URL: http://portal.fedegan.org.co/Documentos/pega_2019.pdf. Visitado: 26-09-10,2006. FERGUSON, D.M.,Warner, R.D. Have we underestimated the impact of pre-slaughter stress on meat quality in ruminants?. Meat science, vol. 80, no.2008, pp. 12-19. GARCIA, R. Efecto de las enzimas endogenas sobre las propiedades fisicoquimicas y estructurales de carne de bovino durante la maduracion. Tesis doctoral, universidad autonoma metropolitana, 2001.
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transporte, comercializacin, expendio, importacin o exportacin. ROS, F.G.,Acosta, D.C. Sacrificio humanitario de ganado bovino e inocuidad de la carne. Nacameh, Vol. 2, No.2, 2008, pp. 106-123. SAUDO, C. Calidad de la canal y de la carne ovina y caprina y los gustos de los consumidores. revista brasileira de zootecnia, Vol. 37, No.2008, pp. 143-160. SAUDO, C., Sanchez, A., Alfonso, M. Small Ruminant Production Systems and Factors Affecting Lamb Meat Quality. Meat Science, Vol. 49, No.1, 1998, pp. 29-64. SCHMIDT, H. Carne y sus productos carnicos. Ed. Universitaria, Santiago Chile, 1984. SERVICIO NACIONAL DE SANIDAD Y CALIDAD AGROALIMENTARIA S. Manual de bienestar animal en plantas de faena de aves y lagomorfos, Argentina, 2010. THOMPSON, J.M., O'Halloran, W.J., Mcneill, D.M.J., Jackson, N.J., May, T.J. The effect of fasting on liveweight and carcass characteristics in lambs. Meat Science, Vol. 20, No.4, 1987, pp. 293-309. TORRESCANO, G., Snchez, A., Gonzales, N.F., Camou, J.P. Tecnologa e ingenieria del sacrificio y su repercusin en la calidad de la canal de animales de abasto. Nacameh, Vol. 2, No.1, 2008, pp. 78-94. VELARDE, A., Gispert, M., Diestre, A., Manteca, X. Effect of electrical stunning on meat and carcass quality in lambs. Meat Science, Vol. 63, No.2003, pp. 35-38. VELARDE, A., Ruiz de la Torre, J.L., Stub, C., Diestre, A., Manteca, X. Factors affecting the effectiveness of head-only electrical stunning in sheep. The veterinary record, Vol. 147, No.2000, pp. 40-43.

Estudio de Las Condiciones de Sacrificio Y Obtención de Carne de Corderos de Pelo Cruzados Con Razas Criollas Colombianas

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ESTUDIO DE LAS CONDICIONES DE SACRIFICIO Y OBTENCIN DE CARNE DE CORDEROS DE PELO CRUZADOS CON RAZAS CRIOLLAS COLOMBIANAS

IVN CAMILO SNCHEZ BARRERA

Universidad Nacional de Colombia Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias Medelln, Colombia 2011

IVN CAMILO SNCHEZ BARRERA

Universidad Nacional de Colombia Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias Medelln, Colombia 2011

IVAN CAMILO SANCHEZ BARRERA

Director (a): Ph.D. William Albarracn Hernndez

Universidad Nacional de Colombia Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias Medelln, Colombia 2011

A la Direccin de Investigacin de la sede Bogot (DIB), por financiar este estudio.

Resumen y abstract 4.6

2. Evaluar la efectividad de los mtodos de aturdimiento mediante la interpretacin y uso de electroencefalogramas.

1. Anlisis sensorial en carne

Anlisis sensorial en carne Sensory analysis on meat Anlise sensorial da carne

Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medelln, Colombia

Tel: (051)3165000 Ext: 19226 Email: icsanchezb@unal.edu.co

1.2 Pruebas afectivas y analticas

Figura 1-1. Diagrama general de pruebas sensoriales.

1.3 Entrenamiento y seleccin de paneles sensoriales

1.4 Atributos y descriptores usados en carnes

cartn; linaza; sulfuroso; General carne fresca; grasoso; pasto; nueces.

carne cocinada; carne fresca; pescado, rncido

umami; metlico; amargo; dulce; salado; cido

(Sullivan et al., 2002)

umami; metlico; amargo; dulce; salado; cido

(Byrne et al., 1999a)

caramelo; linaza; sulforoso; carne fresca; tostado; carne cocinada

umami; metalico; amargo; dulce;salado; cido

lactico (yogurt); metalico

(Byrne et al., 2001).

carton; linaza; sulforoso; carne fresca.

carne cocinada; pescado, rancido; aceitoso; apanado; nueces.

umami; metalico; amargo; dulce;salado; cido.

(Byrne et al., 1999b).

1.5 Preparacin de muestras de carne y productos crnicos para anlisis sensorial

1.6 Mtodos estadsticos

1.7 Correlaciones de anlisis sensorial

Aaslyng MD and Byrne DV. Sensory and instrumental analysis of

randomization/permutation/ANOVA. Food Qual Pref 2000: 11; 141-143.

Murray JM, Delahunty CM and

Baxter IA. Descriptive sensory analysis: past, present and

future. Food Res Int 2001: 34, 461471.

Leaa P and Martens H. Variable selection in PCA in sensory

1. Los trabajos debern ser escritos en espaol, portugus, francs o ingls.

3. Todas las pginas debern numerarse.

4. Todas las lneas, debern numerarse, reiniciando en cada pgina.

Summary. Corresponde al resumen en ingls, en cursiva y en negrilla.

Key words. Palabras clave en ingls (tem 6).

Resumo. Corresponde al resumen en portugus, en cursiva y en negrilla.

Palavras chave. Palabras clave en portugs (item 6)

Revisiones de literatura y ensayos.

concepciones sobre un tpico especfico, por lo general relacionado con su especialidad.

Redaccin y citacin de las referencias.

2. Organizacin o entidad; ejemplo:

1.11 Constancia de evaluacin y aceptacin

2. Electroencephalogram spectral power in sheep after stunning

E-mail address: icsanchezb@unal.edu.co

2.2 Materials and methods

2.2.2 Stunning method

2.2.3 Electroencephalogram EEG recording

2.2.4 EEG Analysis

2.2.5 Statistical Analysis

Figure 1. Basal Spectral Encephalogram Power.

Figure 2. Electrical shock stunning.

L, a, and b* for instrumental analysis