Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Connectedness With Nature Environmental Identity and Self Dimensions
Connectedness With Nature Environmental Identity and Self Dimensions
Facultad de Psicologa
Departamento de Psicologa Social
NDICE
Agradecimientos
ix
Abstract
xiii
13
13
15
18
26
32
32
34
42
44
46
57
61
61
62
63
65
3.3.- Study 1.
65
3.3.1.- Method.
66
3.3.1.1.- Participants.
66
66
3.3.2.- Results.
67
67
69
3.4.- Study 2.
70
3.4.1.- Method.
71
v
3.4.1.1.- Participants.
71
71
3.4.2.- Results.
72
72
72
72
73
77
77
78
80
81
4.3.- Study 1.
83
4.3.1.- Method.
83
4.3.1.1.- Particpants.
83
83
4.3.2.- Results.
84
84
85
4.4.- Study 2.
88
90
4.4.1.- Method.
93
4.4.1.1.- Participants.
93
93
4.4.2.- Results.
97
98
99
4.5.- Discussion.
101
104
104
105
107
108
vi
111
112
117
119
5.3.- Estudio 1.
120
5.3.1.- Mtodo.
120
5.3.1.1.- Participantes.
120
120
5.3.2.- Resultados.
121
121
122
5.4.- Estudio 2.
123
5.4.1.- Mtodo.
124
5.4.1.1.- Participantes.
124
124
5.4.2.- Resultados.
128
128
129
5.5.- Discusin.
134
134
135
137
141
141
145
150
151
153
REFERENCIAS
159
NDICE DE TABLAS
187
vii
NDICE DE FIGURAS
189
ANEXOS/APPENDIX
191
CHAPTER 3
Appendix 1.- Questionnaire study 1.
191
193
CHAPTER 4
Appendix 3.- Questionnaire study 1.
195
201
203
204
CAPTULO 5
Anexo 7.- Cuestionario estudio 1.
205
211
Anexo 9.- Resultado detallado del anlisis de las respuestas a las preguntas
abiertas.
viii
215
Agradecimientos
Entre
las
contribuciones
institucionales
ms
valiosas
para
mi
ix
A la doctora Vernica Sevillano que, tal vez sin ella saberlo, ha sido un
constante referente profesional para m. El listn a alcanzar.
Gracias totales.
xi
Abstract
In the midst of this frenetic race, which has, incidentally, seized on the
curricular ambience of professional domains and the massive proliferation of theories
and concepts, very little time is dedicated to concentrating on the urgent clarification
of some of the knowledge accumulated. This is the spirit in which this study is
presented.
xiv
structures of the self to environmental questions (e.g. Arnocky, Stroink & DeCicco,
2007; Leary, Tipsord, & Tate, 2008), pertinent to the study of connectedness to
nature. This will be commented on hereunder.
The third chapter is the beginning of the presentation of the results of six
studies carried out to respond to the ten objectives formulated. Chapter 3 mainly
tackles the psychometric challenges of measuring connectedness, predominantly
using Mayer and Frantzs (2004) Connectedness to Nature Scale (CNS). In an
attempt to understand the psychometric properties of this instrument, two studies are
xv
carried out. 135 university students and 112 inhabitants from the city of Madrid
participated in the first one, and 204 university students in the second one (64 of
whom had participated in the previous study). In both studies the internal consistency
and the convergent and discriminant validity are evaluated in relation to different
scales that measure the same or something different, respectively and in the second,
the test-retest reliability is also studied. Based on factorial analyses of principal
components and reliability, small changes are proposed to the original scale; this
means that acceptable values of internal consistency can be reached. Moreover, CNS
correlates positively with Egobiocentrism (EGO), Biocentrism (BIO), another
connectedness measure (Inclusion of Nature in Self, INS. Schultz, 2001), the
Environmental Identity Scale (EID. Clayton, 2003), and negatively with
Anthropocentrism (ANT). The results of internal consistency are similar in both
studies. An adequate test-retest reliability of the CNS is also observed in the second
one.
Thus, two studies are carried out. In the first one, 282 students participated
and they replied to a questionnaire composed of the CNS, the EID, the Amrigo et
al.s environmental beliefs scales (2007. EGO, BIO, ANT) used previously, a
modified version of the INS designed to measure the inclusion of environment in the
self (IES) divided into two sub-scales, one corresponding to the inclusion of the
natural environment (INES) and the other to the built environment (IBES).
Moreover, the students also responded to measures of pro-environmental behaviour.
xvi
The psychometric results obtained for the CNS are fairly positive, similar to those in
Chapter 3. An orthogonal principal component analysis conducted on the IES and
EID to examine the dimensions underlying peoples inclusion of environment in self
and environmental identity, shows in the first case that the natural environment is
divided into a global concept of nature, green dimensions and non-live components
of nature, called Green Nature, and another dimension related to animal
components of nature (Animal Naure). Although there are five factors under EID,
only four of them are relevant for their eigenvalues and percentage of explained
variance: Environmentalism; Enjoyment of nature; Connectedness to nature; and
Appraisal or valuation of nature.
In the second study 73 students participated who had also taken part in the
previous study. They answered an implicit procedure for measuring attitudes, called
IAT-Nature (Schultz et al., 2004). Different analyses were carried out to test if this
procedure fulfils the properties characteristic of the implicit measures and avoids its
main weaknesses (e.g. De Houwer, 2006; Fazio & Olson, 2003).
IAT-Nature correlations with other scales are not high, and do not fulfil the
minimum requisites to be considered as an implicit measure. However, despite being
weak, the implicit connectedness makes them positive and significant with CNS, EID
Enjoy, EID Appraisal and environmental behavior. A step-wise multiple regression
analysis shows that CNS is the best variable in the prediction of pro-environmental
behaviour, followed by EID Environmentalism.
xvii
For this, 286 students took part in a first study, those who had answered a
similar questionnaire to the previous studies, except that on this occasion they
responded to the Self-Construal Scale (SCS. Arnocky et al., 2007), which measures
independent, interdependent and metapersonal selves. As well as confirming the
reliability results of the CNS, as in previous studies, correlational analyses
demonstrate that the meta-personal self is positively and significantly related to
connectedness measures (CNS, INES), as well as being the dimension of the self that
is most closely correlated with EGO and BIO. Moreover, it correlates positively,
although weakly, with pro-environmental behaviour.
In the second study, 40 participants who had involved in the previous study,
went on a guided excursion of approximately two hours on a predefined route in the
Valsan hills (Montes de Valsan). During this excursion the students observed
emblematic elements in the mountain range, they listened to explanations about the
ecosystem in the area and they experienced the surroundings at first hand. After the
excursion, they answered a questionnaire composed of the CNS, INES, IBES scales,
a dychotomic measure of environmental behaviour, and some open questions to give
a brief description in writing of the place visited and what it meant to them.
The t-test for related samples indicates that there are significant differences
between the first and second applications of the CNS, partially increasing the degree
of connection with nature after the excursion. An analysis of the replies to the open
xviii
Although the chapters are organised in a logical sequence, where the results
of some lead to others, each chapter has been written largely as an independent
document. Moreover, due to the fact that the entire study is presented to obtain the
European Doctorate, some of its chapters (specifically, Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 6) have
been written in English as part of the requisites for this Doctorate.
xix
Cuando el viajero est lejos de aqu, all en la gran ciudad donde vive, y sea amargo
su da, recordar este lago, estos brazos de agua que invadieron los valles
pedregosos y a veces tierras frtiles y casas de los hombres, ver con los ojos del
recuerdo las laderas pinas, el reflejo de todo esto en la superficie incomparable, y
entonces, dentro de s, se har el gran silencio para pode murmurar, como si fuese
su nica respuesta: Yo soy. Que la naturaleza sea capaz de permitir tanto a un
simple viajero, slo sorprender a quien a esta albufera de Caniada nunca vino. El
viajero tiene que explicar cmo son las cosas: mal pas por all quien despus va a
alabarse y a decir slo: Yo estuve ah, o: Pas por ah. Ay de quien no pueda
declarar, con verdad: No fui a verlo, fui all a mostrarme!
xxi
Para comprender las variables que estn detrs del comportamiento de las
personas en favor o contra el medio ambiente se han estudiado muchos conceptos,
desde diferentes niveles de integracin, diversos enfoques tericos y diferentes
tradiciones del pensamiento, tales que histricas, filosficas, educativas, biolgicas,
ecolgicas, psicolgicas, sociolgicas, antropolgicas y econmicas.
Tal vez los estudios sobre percepcin o valoracin esttica del paisaje han
logrado precisar mejor una idea de naturaleza bajo el concepto de paisaje al
intentar acotar las propiedades fsicas de los entornos que se valoran. Sin embargo,
en el campo que interesa a esta investigacin en particular, tanto los valores como las
preocupaciones ambientales, as como la conectividad con la naturaleza, han
recurrido a ideas muy generales sobre esta ltima.
inexplorado). Una interpretacin de este tipo podra discrepar con los resultados
relativos a la preocupacin ambiental bajo el efecto de hipermetropa descrito por
Uzzell (2000). Sin embargo, pueden resultar congruentes con los resultados de
Opotow (1993) que indican que la percepcin de utilidad de la naturaleza para el ser
humano predice mejor la atribucin de derechos que la similitud ser humanonaturaleza, pues la similitud puede generar competencia.
10
Igualmente difcil que encontrarse caminando por la sabana africana con un len
valiente, en una playa sudafricana con un tiburn perverso, o en el metro de Madrid
con Spiderman.
11
12
13
Proshansky, Rivlin, & Winkel, 1974; Stokols & Altman, 1987), los esquemas
cognitivos como los descritos por Descola o Ellen resultan de gran ayuda para
interpretar en contextos determinados las claves de la interiorizacin de la naturaleza
que describe la conectividad. Y entre ellos, la naturalizacin parece dar un marco
para las explicaciones de las relaciones de identificacin con la naturaleza en la
modernidad.
14
15
16
de ellas frecuentemente utilizadas en la investigacin psicolgica, como selfassessment, self-awareness, self-concept, self-steem, self-image, por mencionar slo
algunas. Por esta razn, en espaol suele traducirse esta expresin como el prefijo
auto cuando va acompaada (autovaloracin, autoconciencia, autoconcepto,
autoestima o autimagen, para los ejemplos mencionados. Goldsmith, Prez, Willis,
2000, p. 623).
17
18
fantasma dentro de la mquina que regula la conducta de las personas (el agente, selfas-a-decision-maker). Debido a la tremenda imprecisin con la que se ha usado el
trmino, los autores sugieren que los investigadores debieran acotar con ms
exactitud a qu se refieren cuando estudian fenmenos al amparo de un amplio y
ambiguo concepto de self, debiendo reservarlo para el estudio de los mecanismos
cognitivos que dan lugar al pensamiento reflexivo sobre s mismo.
19
interaccin. Este es el carcter procesual y dinmico de los roles, que los define
como pautas de conducta reiterativas, pero que se configuran especficamente en la
interaccin social. Segn Torregrosa (1983, p. 236) esto podra tener implicancias
metodolgicas para el estudio de la identidad, pues si el rol es subjetivizado, la
identidad personal queda en cierto modo objetivizada, esto es, vinculada de modo
sistemtico a los resultados de la interaccin social y a los roles desempeados o
asumidos por la persona.
20
el
desafo
de
su
multidimensionalidad,
operacionalizacin
21
diferenciarse segn nuestro transitar por endo y exogrupos, como por ejemplo los
grupos profesionales, nacionales o raciales. Un tercer y ltimo nivel correspondera
al subordinado, en que los individuos se diferencian entre s debido a su carcter de
personas nicas y singulares. A propsito de esta categorizacin, Morales y Moya
(1996) sostienen que el proceso de despersonalizacin, que determina la formacin
de una identidad social, se basa en la relacin dialctica de los niveles intermedio y
subordinado, descartando el papel del nivel supraordenado debido a su excesiva
generalidad e inclusividad.
22
Kashima, Foddy, & Platow, 2002; Kashima et al., 1995 y 2004; Onorato & Turner,
2004; Tesser, 2002; Tesser, Felson, & Suls, 2000; Tesser, Stapel, & Wood, 2002).
Sin embargo, tambin se han hecho ver barreras para el estudio de lo que
tradicionalmente se ha llamado identidad. Por una parte algunos antroplogos
postmodernos han sido muy crticos acerca de la utilidad y funcionalidad extendida
del concepto (e.g. San Romn, 1996; Pasos, 2004), pues lo consideran una
construccin terica que atomiza la experiencia individualizadora del sujeto, adems
de exponer al investigador a la trampa de creer que la experiencia subjetiva se
organiza en historias ordenadas, coherentes e infalibles.
23
24
El self es visto como un proceso antes que como un producto, a travs del
cual la persona conceptualiza su comportamiento, es decir, categoriza sus conductas
externas y sus estados internos. Es el sistema de conceptos disponibles para que la
persona intente definirse a s misma, que le ayudan al individuo a resolver problemas
de interaccin social, realizar generalizaciones sobre s que persistan a travs del
tiempo, e incrementar la eficacia de la comunicacin (Gergen, 1971). Debido a la
necesidad de significados culturales comunes para coordinar las acciones sociales,
adems del carcter procesual, tambin hay que destacar su carcter eminentemente
social. Es un proceso de identificacin donde los otros, como lo destaca la
teorizacin antropolgica, juegan un papel clave al identificarnos antes de que
nosotros mismos podamos hacerlo. La identidad es una construccin social que surge
en la interaccin.
Algunos autores (e.g. Aug, 1994/1996; Revilla, 2003), han planteado que
el anlisis adecuado del sentido de los otros para un individuo debe estar centrado en
lo que han llamado anclajes, que seran algo as como representaciones que las
personas guardan respecto de sus antepasados, de Dios, del nombre, del cuerpo, o la
conciencia. Todos ellos elementos consustanciales al ser humano que permiten
sujetar el Yo a la individualidad, aunque no de forma esencial ni totalizadora. Los
nombres y las demandas de la interaccin otorgan al cuerpo y a la conciencia un
mayor papel en cuanto anclajes identitarios, debido a que obliga a mantener un
aspecto reconocible y nos recuerdan constantemente quines somos y lo que
hacemos, forzando la autoconciencia, la memoria y la responsabilidad sobre los
propios actos. La autoconciencia corresponde a la capacidad de verse y pensarse a
25
uno mismo como sujeto entre otros sujetos, un sentimiento de continuidad biogrfica
en el tiempo y el espacio de quien habla (Giddens, 1991/1998).
26
27
28
En este sentido, la identidad con el ambiente formara parte del eje de las
relaciones (Aug, 1994/1996), donde la alteridad se pone en juego en la gestin del
espacio fsico, o incluso, donde se podran establecer relaciones de alteridad con el
ambiente mismo, mediante su naturalizacin, como si fuera un otro de referencia que
se interiorizara mediante un complejo de creencias, animistas o totmicas.
29
a nadie
ancianos
Figura 3.- Afiches de la campaa diseada por la agencia Sra. Rushmore para el
Zoo de Madrid, ejecutada durante 2007 en diversos puntos de la ciudad, cuyo lema
dice Los animales nos ensean a ser personas (Aprendamos de los animales, 2007,
30 de Marzo).
30
31
32
33
34
la tierra dados los numerosos problemas ambientales que enfrenta la sociedad. Las
ideas de este autor, publicadas originalmente en 1949, han inspirado investigaciones
y reflexiones filosficas y sociopolticas hasta el da de hoy (e.g. Ripple & Beschta,
2005; Higgs, 2005; Anker, 2003; Mellory, 2001).
35
36
Dunlap y Van Liere (1984) construyeron una escala que buscaba medir
empricamente el DSP a travs del grado de acuerdo de las personas con 37
afirmaciones tems tipo likert de cuatro puntos que se agrupaban en ocho factores
representativos de los valores que caracterizan a la cultura estadounidense: un
gobierno laissez faire; mantener el status quo; derechos a la propiedad privada; fe en
la ciencia y la tecnologa; apoyo a los derechos individuales; apoyo al crecimiento
econmico; fe en la abundancia material; y fe en la prosperidad futura. Los autores
no solo confirmaron los factores subyacentes al DSP, sino que adems comprobaron
una relacin general negativa entre la aceptacin del Paradigma Social Dominante
(DSP) y la preocupacin ambiental, y una explicacin de entre el 13% y el 42% del
DSP global sobre diversas dimensiones de la preocupacin ambiental tales que el
control de la poblacin, el control de la contaminacin, la conservacin de recursos,
la subvencin y la regulacin ambiental, entre otras. Particularmente importantes
resultaron las dimensiones de apoyo a la propiedad privada, apoyo al crecimiento
econmico y fe en la abundancia material, que tuvieron efectos consistentemente
fuertes y negativos sobre todas las medidas de preocupacin ambiental. El cuarto
lugar de importancia lo ocup el factor apoyo a un gobierno laissez faire.
Aquellos resultados parecan indicar, segn los autores, que el DSP influa
negativamente sobre la preocupacin ambiental, influencia que result ser ms
significativa que algunas variables sociodemogrficas tales que edad, educacin,
ingreso, residencia y gnero. Estos resultados fueron interesantes, ya que Milbrath
(1984), otro destacado socilogo, haba comprobado en otras investigaciones que los
jvenes y las mujeres son ms proambientales que los mayores y los varones,
respectivamente. No encontr resultados consistentes segn clase social, aunque el
nivel educacional si pareci estar relacionado con preocupaciones por el ambiente,
as como tambin el sector econmico en que se desempea una ocupacin. Sin
embargo, y en coincidencia con los plateamientos de Dunlap, este autor sostuvo que
el inters personal, las creencias y los valores ambientales seguan siendo los mejores
predictores del proambientalismo.
En
la
presente
investigacin
no
se
consideran
las
37
variables
38
39
40
mencionados,
sin
embargo,
sus
propios
autores
sostuvieron
que
41
Tabla 2.- Anlisis comparado del NEP y el DSP, segn Milbrath (1984, p. 22).
Nuevo Paradigma Ecolgico (NEP)
Lmites al crecimiento.
- Escasez de recursos.
- Lmites necesarios para el aumento explosivo
de la poblacin.
- Conservacin.
Nueva poltica.
- Consultiva y participativa.
- Disputa partidista sobre la relacin del ser
humano con la naturaleza.
- Consentimiento para emplear acciones directas.
- nfasis en la previsin y planificacin.
Vieja poltica.
- Determinacin por expertos.
- Disputa partidista sobre la administracin de la
economa.
- Oposicin al empleo de acciones directas.
- nfasis en el control del mercado.
42
Sus estudios, sumados a los de Dunlap, han dado origen a varias propuestas
acerca de la forma en que se organizan o estructuran las creencias ambientales en el
mbito de la preocupacin ambiental. As, por ejemplo, Paul Stern prest atencin
especial al estudio de las preocupaciones ambientales, definidas como un conjunto de
creencias acerca de las consecuencias del deterioro ambiental sobre aspectos
valorados por las personas. Extendiendo el trabajo de Schwartz al anlisis del
comportamiento regulado por normas morales, sostuvo que a la base de estas
creencias estaran los valores, entendidos como estructuras estables que predisponen
a la accin (Stern & Dietz, 1994). De este modo, segn las consecuencias que
preocupen a las personas recaigan en s mismos, los otros o la naturaleza,
predominarn orientaciones de valor egostas, altruistas o biosfricas,
respectivamente, dependiendo tambin del valor que las personas le otorguen a cada
uno de estos tres mbitos en su experiencia (Stern et al., 1993). Sus estudios le
condujeron
la
formulacin
de
la
Teora
Valor-Creencia-Norma
del
Ambientalismo (Stern et al., 1999; Stern, 2000), segn la cual las tres orientaciones
de valor mencionadas dan pie a un conjunto complejo de creencias que se pueden
agrupar como una evaluacin de las consecuencias de los problemas ambientales
sobre los objetos valorados, una habilidad percibida para reducir las amenazas
43
44
Aunque por una parte los resultados de Stern han sido confirmados en
estudios transculturales (e.g. Schultz, 2001; Schultz, Unipan, & Gamba, 2000;
Schultz & Zelezny, 1998), por otra Thompson y Barton (1994), investigando la
preocupacin ambiental en la forma de actitudes ambientales, propusieron una
organizacin bidimensional de este sistema de creencias. Por un parte el
antropocentrismo, que correspondera a la subordinacin de la naturaleza a las
necesidades del ser humano, y que segn las autoras seran similares a las
orientaciones de valor egostas y socio-altruistas de Stern et al. (1993), as como a las
instrumentales propuestas por Stokols (1990) o las utilitarias sugeridas por Seligman
(1989). Por otra parte, el egocentrismo que implica la atribucin de valor en s
misma a la naturaleza, relativamente equivalente a las orientaciones biosfricas en
Stern, las espiritualistas en Stokols, y las consideraciones morales en Seligman.
45
Sus resultados pueden interpretarse de tal modo que las creencias medio
ambientales se organizaran en torno a la convergencia de dos ejes: uno
antropocntrico, que se expresa en polos que van del egosmo al altruismo; y otro
ecocntrico, que van del egobiocentrismo al biosferismo. Sin embargo, tambin
pueden interpretarse prescindiendo de los ejes, simplemente como una clasificacin
tetradimensional de las creencias.
Self
Ecocentrismo
egobiocentrismo
Antropocentrismo
egosmo
Naturaleza/Otros
biosferismo
altruismo
46
El trabajo de Schultz (e.g. Schultz, 2001, 2002a, 2002b; Schultz & Zelezny,
1998, 1999, 2004), adems de confirmar la estructura tripartita de las orientaciones
de valor ambientales de Stern, plantea una cuestin adicional a los trabajos citados de
Schwartz y Stern. Segn Reser y Bentrupperbumer (2005), en lugar de concebir la
existencia de valores especficos para preocupaciones ambientales especficas,
Schultz considera la valoracin del mundo natural como una extensin de la
representacin cognitiva de s mismo: El grado en que una persona cree que forma
parte del ambiente natural, provee el fundamento para el tipo de preocupaciones
ambientales que una persona desarrolla, y el tipo de situaciones que la motivarn a
actuar. (Schultz et al., 2004, p. 32).
47
de problemas
ambientales
no
necesariamente
implica
una
48
con ambientes urbanos o construidos (e.g. Amrigo, 1995; Lima & Castro, 2005). No
obstante, en el caso del ambiente natural una valoracin como esa estara centrada
ms bien en una relacin de dependencia y subordinacin de la naturaleza al ser
humano, al estilo del DSP.
49
50
Observaron un segundo factor, que obtuvo una varianza del 12%, no obstante lo desestimaron a
favor del primero.
51
52
con la naturaleza, que Mayer et al., encontraron que las experiencias de contacto
directo con ambientes naturales reales tienen efectos positivos sobre la conectividad,
la capacidad de atencin, las emociones positivas, y la habilidad para reflexionar
sobre los problemas de la vida cotidiana (ability to reflect on a life problem). Sus
resultados indican que la conectividad tiene un rol mediador en los efectos positivos
de esas experiencias, incluso mejor que el aumento en la capacidad de atencin.
Por ejemplo, las escalas propuestas por Dutcher, Finley, Luloff, & Jhonson
(2007), y por Nisbet, Zelenski, & Murphy, (2008) intentan mejorar algunas de las
medidas de conectividad ms utilizadas, basados en sus debilidades psicomtricas o
conceptuales, principalmente de la INS y la CNS. Hasta los mismos Mayer y Frantz
(Mayer et al., 2008) han propuesto un ajuste a la escala CNS para convertirla en una
53
54
55
Certain questions to guide the research could well be asked about the material
presented. For example: i) Is the CNS a psychometrically recommendable scale for
measuring connectedness?, What is the relation between connectedness and
environmental concern and other similar measures?; ii) If it expresses the relation
between Self and Nature, what type of self is involved in this process?, What is the
concept of Nature with which one constructs an image of oneself?, Is connectedness
susceptible to situational changes?; iii) Is connectedness a biophilic process of
identification? and, related to this, Is there a connectedness implicit to nature?.
A series of studies have been done to explain these questions. The objectives,
hypothesis, procedures and results are presented in the following chapters. The next
chapter contains two of these studies. The first one aims at assessing the internal
consistency and convergent and discriminant validity of the Connectedness to Nature
Scale (CNS, Mayer & Frantz, 2004). The result anticipated was that the scale would
adequately fulfil these psychometric criteria. The second study set out to prove the
test-retest reliability and to compare it with a similar measurement, the
Environmental Identity Scale (EID, Clayton, 2003). In this case, it was anticipated
that the CNS would again present a reliable measure, as well as a positive correlation
with environmental identity.
58
Chapter 3
Studies
1
Objectives
a.
Anticipated Results
a.
a.
a.
CNS.
b.
b.
first two studies mentioned, two further studies were done and the results of
these are set out in Chapter 4. The first objective dealt with in Study 1 attempted to
describe the relation of the CNS with another scale for measuring connectedness
(INS, Schultz, 2001) as well as the beliefs associated with environmental concern
(Amrigo et al., 2007), and how these relations could vary depending on the
environment (natural or built) involved in them. The anticipated results consisted in
finding a difference in connectedness depending on the type of environment related
to it. In this study another aim was also suggested, relating to the dimensions
underlying the EID previously used. This aim consisted in exploring in greater detail
the environmental identity and its relations with connectedness to nature, to
environmental beliefs and the type of environment approached in the same study.
The second Study, also in the fourth chapter, was directed at comparing the
implicit and explicit measurements of connectedness to nature, using the IAT-Nature
procedure (Schultz et al, 2004; Schultz & Tabanico, 2007) and measures of proenvironmental behaviour. The anticipated results consisted in finding a positive
relation between explicit and implicit connectedness, and also with behavioural
measures.
Although this is not an explicit objective, many of the analyses carried out in
these and in other studies, aimed at providing evidence in favour of the psychometric
59
Chapter 4
Studies
1
Objectives
a.
Anticipated Results
a.
ANT).
b.
b.
environment type.
c.
c.
a.
a.
connectedness and
pro-environmental behaviour.
behavioural measures.
properties of the scales, particularly the CNS, which is the centre of the investigation.
Therefore, in each study analyses were done to provide results on the internal
consistency of the scale, as well as to confirm its convergent and discriminant
validity in relation to environmental beliefs (preoccupations) and other, or similar,
means of connectedness.
In Chapter 5 two other studies are explained, designed from the results
obtained in the previous ones. The aim of Study 1 in this case was to verify if the
dimension of the Self involved in connectedness to nature is a type of supra-order
identity in the form of a metapersonal self (Arnocky, Stroink, & DeCicco, 2007;
DeCicco & Stroink, 2007). The anticipated results were that connectedness to nature
had a strong, positive relation with this type of Self.
In Study 2 there were two objectives. In the first place, to verify whether
connectedness could alter after an experience of direct contact with nature. It was
60
Chapter 5
Studies
1
Objectives
a.
a.
b.
Anticipated results
a.
metapersonal self.
a.
Increase in connectedness
nature.
b.
Conceptual organisation
investigations, and
nature.
Each chapter concludes with a brief discussion about their results and the
specific antecedents. However, in Chapter 6 there is a general discussion where the
main conclusions of each study are presented and the results of the research are
debated in perspective together with the theoretical and conceptual antecedents
derived from the Chapter 1. All this is an attempt to provide answers to the questions
which guide this work, as well as to formulate new ones and challenges for further
research.
To progress in this direction, this chapter presents two studies whose purpose
is to test the psychometric properties of a Spanish version of the CNS. However,
before entering into methodological descriptions, connectedness to nature should be
theoretically situated in the field of study of environmental concerns and in that of
relations with the self and the natural environment. Thus, the results can be analysed
later on concerning the validity and reliability of the scale in relation to similar
concepts proposed in this field of research.
61
62
63
64
Recent research using explicit scale-type measures similar to the INS has
confirmed that connectedness can predict environmental concerns and behavior to a
greater extent than socio-demographic variables, such as gender, age, education,
income and political ideology (Dutcher et al., 2007).
65
commonly criticized, which are linked to the participants sensitivity to the stimuli
with which they are presented (Rothermund, Wentura & De Houwer, 2005).
The authors analysis of the scale achieved an alpha score of 0.84 (Mayer &
Frantz, 2004). Their results also showed, among other aspects, that the CNS
correlates positively with biospheric concerns, the IAT-Nature and the INS, as well
as with ecological behavior. It is, however, the only one of the three connectedness
measures in their studies that correlates negatively with an egotistic orientation.
With this aim in mind, two studies have been conducted. The first of these
sought to provide evidence on the internal consistency of the CNS, as well as on its
convergent and discriminant validity. The result anticipated was that the scale would
adequately fulfil these psychometric criteria.
In addition to delving into the robustness of the CNS, the second study adds a
test-retest analysis and its results are compared with EID. In this case, it was
anticipated that the CNS would again present a reliable measure, as well as a positive
correlation with environmental identity.
3.3.- Study 1.
This study aims to assess the internal consistency of the CNS scale through
factor analysis and the analysis of its internal reliability, along with an analysis of its
convergent and discriminant validity, by correlating its results to another
connectedness scale (INS) and two dimensions of environmental beliefs, namely
ANT and EGO. It is foreseen that the two connectedness measures will correlate
66
positively, and that connectedness will correlate positively with EGO and negatively
with ANT.
3.3.1.- Method.
3.3.1.1.- Participants.
247 participants in two samples took part in this study. The first sample was
composed of students from the Complutense University of Madrid (STU, N=135),
and the second sample of people from the general population of the city of Madrid
(GEN, N=112).
Males accounted for 32% of the total sample and females 68%. This
difference was mainly due to the greater proportion of women in the STU sample
(68%), as the percentage of males and females in the GEN sample was similar (51%
and 49% respectively). The average age in the STU sample was M = 20 years, SD =
1.26. The average age in the GEN sample was M = 44 years and SD = 9.09.
Distribution as a function of educational attainment in the GEN sample was 37%
tertiary education, 33% secondary education and 30% primary education. The
students in the STU sample were considered to have reached the equivalent of
tertiary education.
Mayer's and Frantz's (2004) CNS scale, composed of 14 items written in the form
of a 5-point Likert-type scale (the scale was adapted to Spanish using two-way
translation).
The INS (Schultz, 2001), which uses Venn diagrams to represent connections
between the self and nature that progressively overlap on a seven-point scale.
67
The INS, EGO and BIO enable the assessment of the convergent validity of
connectedness, while the ANT assesses its discriminant validity.
Each application lasted 20 minutes. In the case of the student sample, it was
carried out at the beginning of classes and, in the case of the general population, a
group of trained students interviewed Madrid residents following a predefined quota
based on age, gender and level of education.
3.3.2.- Results.
The original 14-item CNS scale reached an internal reliability score for the
STU sample of
the main components following the procedure carried out by Mayer and Frantz
(2004) was conducted, forcing the extraction of a single factor in each sample; the
explained variances were 26.4% for the STU sample and 24.6% for the GEN sample.
When observing the factor loadings, it was seen that item 12 had a loading of less
than 0.2, which was even negative in the GEN sample (see Table 4). In a second
analysis of main components with 13 items, it was observed that all of them had a
positive load of between 0.25 and 0.68 with an average weight of 0.5. At the same
time, the internal reliability of the scale and the explained variance in both samples
increased, as can be seen in Table 4. The descriptive analysis of the 13-item version
of the CNS scale did not reveal any significant differences between the samples
(F(1;246) = 0.241; ns).
68
69
statistic (1;197,705) = 0.026; ns). With connectedness thus measured, in the STU sample
M = 4.50 and SD = 1.22, and in the GEN sample M = 4.53 and SD = 1.676.
The ANT scale showed acceptable reliability in both the STU sample ( =
0.722) and in the GEN sample ( = 0.725); and the same could be said of the EGO
scale (STU
= 0.794; GEN
= 0.527; EXT
In the case of the ANT scale, the measurements of both samples differed
significantly (F(1;246) = 7.689; p < 0.05), with M = 2.10 and SD = 0.60 for the STU
sample, and M = 2.33 and SD = 0.71 for the GEN sample. On the contrary, the EGO
scale revealed no significant difference between the two samples (F(1;246) = 0.119;
ns), with M = 4.01 and SD = 0.62 for the STU sample, and M = 3.99 and SD = 0.63
for the GEN sample. The same happened with BIO (F(1;246) = 1,978; ns), without
significative differences between EST (M = 4.06; DT = 0.48) and GEN (M = 3.97;
DT = 0.52).
To provide support for convergent and discriminant validity of the CNS scale,
its average score was correlated with the scores of the other connectedness measure
(INS) and the two environmental belief scales, the EGO, BIO and ANT, in both
samples (see Table 5).
The correlations between the two connectedness measures are consistent with
what was expected. Likewise, connectedness correlates differently with the
dimensions of environmental beliefs, doing so positively with egobiocentrism and
biospherism, but negatively with anthropocentrism. All the correlations are similar as
regards strength and valence in both samples.
70
Table 5.- Correlation between mean scores for Connectedness (CNS and INS), EGO, BIO and ANT
for the STU (N = 135) and GEN (N = 112) samples.
INS
CNS
EST
INS
(N=135)
EGO
0.561(**)
--
EGO
0.440(**)
-0.370(**)
0.532(**)
0.268(**)
-0.292(**)
0.282(**)
-0.246(**)
--
GEN
INS
(N=112)
EGO
-0.472(**)
BIO
--
ANT
0.483(**)
BIO
CNS
BIO
-0.321(**)
0.469(**)
0.506(**)
-0.343(**)
0.500(**)
0.310(**)
-0.339(**)
0.436(**)
-0.355(**)
--
--
-0.100
The results indicate that the CNS improves its psychometric properties once
an item is deleted. When connectedness was thus measured, no significant
differences were found between the two samples, although they did exist as regards
anthropocentric beliefs. Despite this, the coherent correlations between the
connectedness and environmental belief measures suggest that people connected with
nature value the environments intrinsic aspects and its positives effects on each
personal experience with nature, within which they feel explicitly included, and do
not subordinate it to human needs.
3.4.- Study 2.
Clayton and Opotow (2003), in their book Identity and the Natural
Environment, distinguish different meanings proposed to describe this phenomenon.
The authors sustain that whilst some researchers prefer the term ecological identity,
because it better describes the sense of self as part of an ecosystem and avoids the
confusion provoked by the fact that the word environment might include the built
environment and even the social one, others prefer environmental identity, as it has a
more intuitive sense for people in general, and is consequently easier to understand.
In the definition that Clayton (2003, p. 45-46) finally proposed, an environmental
71
identity is one part of the way in which people form their self-concept [] similar to
another collective identity (such as a national or ethnic identity). This relates
significantly to values, attitudes and behaviour, the environment being an important
source of self-relevant beliefs which allows a persons self-definitions. Taking the
general reference to three studies, Clayton sustains that the EID, composed of 24
items, reached alpha values of .90 or higher.
Study 2 presented here was conducted two months after the previous study
had been carried out. Its main aim was to delve further into the psychometric
properties of the CNS and to compare it with EID. In addition to the correlations, a
test-retest measure was done to look into the reliability of the CNS. Positive
correlation is expected as regards the connectedness and environmental identity
measures. The CNS should show a satisfactory measure of reliability in successive
applications within the same sample.
3.4.1.- Method.
3.4.1.1.- Participants.
204 university students took part in this study, some of whom were residents
in the cities of Toledo and Madrid. Also, 64 students from Madrid had taken part in
Study 1 two months earlier. The average age of the sample was 20 years and SD =
2.55. Distribution according to the gender variable was 18% males and 82% females.
72
with nature, the way in which nature contributes to the group one identifies with,
agreement with a pro-environmental ideology associated to the group and the level of
enjoyment and pleasure obtained from nature, etc. In all cases the questionnaire was
administered at the beginning of class and lasted approximately 20 minutes.
3.4.2.- Results.
The 13-item CNS scale showed an acceptable level of internal reliability. The
same factor analysis of main components conducted in Study 1 was repeated and
revealed similar results (see Table 1). All the items had a positive load with values of
between 0.30 and 0.71. Their mean weight was 0.54. Mean connectedness was 3.65
and its SD = 0.47. As regards the EID scale,
The CNS correlates positively and significantly with the EID (r = 0.629; p <
0.01), thus repeating the expected pattern of convergence and discrimination between
the scales.
A series of tests were conducted in order to compare the means among the
CNS scores of the students that responded to the scale in both Study 1 and Study 2
(N=64). A T-test of mean differences for related samples indicated that the scores
between the first application (M = 3.51; SD= 0.36) and the second (M = 3.58; SD =
0.34) were not different (t(63) = -2.233; ns). Simultaneously, the correlation of the
mean scores between both applications was high and positive (r = 0.754; p < 0.001).
73
74
coherent with connectedness due to the valuation it makes of the relation of the
human being and nature as a whole. The comparison of the CNS with these two
scales, previously tested in Spain, contributes on the one hand to confirming the
validity of the first, and also links the study of egobiospherism with an important line
of investigation in social psychology concerning the relations of the self with the
environment.
The correlation between CNS and EID was also positive, contributing to the
validity of both measurements, tested together for the first time. However, these
results should be analysed with precaution. Despite the fact that the EID obtained
higher reliability values than this investigation (Clayton, 2003), more studies have
been published on the CNS that cast doubt on its psychometric properties. Moreover,
the differences in the alpha scores obtained in this investigation between both scales
(less than 0.15 points) could be the effect of the difference in the number of items,
higher in the EID. Furthermore, despite both scales referring to a type of relation of
identification with the natural environment, in the case of connectedness there is an
underlying idea of biological disposition favourable to nature (biophilia), and thus of
universal pretension. However, the environmental identity suggests an attribution of
rights via an identification process that considers nature as a social other. A study
still has to be done, therefore, on connectedness and environmental identity in
relation, for example, to different categories of identification, as certain authors have
been suggesting on pro-environmental behaviour (e.g. Arnocky, Stroink & DeCicco,
2007), and on the biological disposition of connectedness, as suggested in studies on
the restoring effect of natural environments (e.g. Mayer et al., 2008).
75
A peripheral discussion on the aims of this research, yet relevant from the
point of view of the conceptual clarification of the variables studied, refers to the
label with which EID has been named. The term environmental includes very
different senses, incorporating both built and natural environments. For this reason,
despite the use of this word being suggested to define the processes of identification
with the natural environment, it would be more appropriate to use a label like identity
with nature, to avoid confusion with other applications referring to built or social
environments previously developed (e.g. Holland, 1973; Smart & Thompson, 2001).
For the purpose of this study, it can be concluded that the Connectedness to
Nature Scale (CNS) is a valid and reliable measure of connectedness, useful for
investigation in social psychology concerning the processes of self-formation in
relation to the natural environment, as well as being a valid tool for the study of
connectedness in a Spanish-speaking context. More detailed studies are still pending
on the EGO, the INS and the EID, to amplify the theoretical explanations underlying
the self-nature relationship.
4.1.-
77
78
Previous research in this area offers few studies examining the concept of
nature (e.g. Vining, Merrick, & Price, 2008) and the concept of self (e.g. Arnocky et
al., 2007; Frantz et al., 2005). Although some of them study the relationship between
both perceptions of the self and environmental behavior, current studies focus
attention on the environmental dimension of connectedness to nature.
Environment: 1. Noun - Act of environing; state of being environed; 2. Noun - That which environs
or surrounds; surrounding conditions, influences, or forces, by which living forms are influenced and
modified in their growth and development (Wehimer, 2000). In Spanish the word environment is
composed of two words: medio ambiente. Medio ambiente: 1. assembly of social, economic and
cultural circumstances in which a person lives; 2. m. Biol. assembly of exterior circumstances to a
living being (Real Academia Espaola de la Lengua [RAE], 2007). The word Ambiente also exists
alone, and is related to chemistry, art, architecture, sociology (the social strata) and psychology (the
predominant mood in a socially shared space).
79
The study of the NEP was initiated in contrast to that conception. This study
was proposed by Riley Dunlap (Dunlap, 1997; Dunlap & Jones, 2002; Dunlap & Van
Liere, 1978, 1980, 1984; Dunlap et al., 2000), and it conceives the need not to disrupt
natural equilibrium and recognises the limitations of human growth and the value of
nature. It has perhaps been one of the most studied scales in environmental
psychology, although there are almost no studies comparing it with the DSP.
Milbrath (1984) was one of the few who compared both paradigms, recognizing that
they are pure stereotypes, which do not exist in real life, because in most
industrialized countries people have beliefs that combine modernist or liberal (NEP)
and conservative (DSP) beliefs. This means that those who support the environment
can simultaneously have aspirations in the material world. They recognize the need
for social change, but they dont want to give up their lifestyle or consumption.
The research of Vining et al. (2008) shows a similar kind of dialectic relation,
related to a global conception of nature. People who believed they were part of
nature, defined nature as a place without any human interference. At the same time,
those people show positive emotions such as caring, enjoyment and love of nature,
and explain their bonds with nature as connectedness, actions, emotional feelings and
as humans being part of it. They even want to live near nature.
80
The human relation with nature is complex and dialectic, as indeed the
concept of nature is. Yet there is some doubt as to whether this relation is established
with a global idea of nature or with certain dimensions of the natural environment.
In this investigation procedures are carried out to verify some of the most
important properties for defining a measurement of implicit association between the
81
Self and the natural environment, as well as relations with environmental beliefs,
environmental identity and other measures of connectedness to nature.
4.2.-
Specific Objectives.
82
experiences
with
nature,
the
scale
also
includes
an
The third objective dealt with in Study 2 is related to the implicit measures of
connectedness to nature. It consists in comparing explicit and implicit measures of
connectedness to nature, using the IAT-Nature procedure and environmental
behavior measures. We hope to find a positive relation between explicit and implicit
measures of connectedness to nature, and to environmental behavior.
83
beliefs. Tests have also been carried out to compare connectedness measures with
pro-environmental behaviour measures.
Two studies were developed to carry out those objectives; they are described
below.
4.3.-
Study 1.
4.3.1.- Method.
4.3.1.1.- Participants.
Participants in the study were 282 students from the Complutense University
of Madrid. Gender distribution was 18% males (N=51) and 82% females (N=230).
Connectedness to Nature Scale (CNS. Mayer & Frantz, 2004) with 13 items
in the form of the 5-point Likert agreement scale, as previously applied in this
research.
Inclusion of Environment in Self (IES) with 14 items in two groups: Nature
Environment (INES) and Built Environment (IBES), all using Venn diagrams
in the form of the 5-point Likert scale. This scale incuded the item of
Inclusion of Nature in Self (INS. Schultz, 2001), used in the previous chapter.
Environmental Beliefs, with Egobiocentric, Biospheric and Anthropocentric
scales (EGO/BIO/ANT. Amrigo et al., 2007), as previously applied in this
research.
Environmental Identity Scale (EID. Clayton, 2003), used in the previous
study.
84
4.3.2.- Results.
SD
0.79
3.58
0.50
0.90
3.58
0.51
3.67
0.96
Egobiocentrism (EGO)
0.82
4.09
0.61
Biospherism (BIO)
0.42
4.13
0.45
Anthropocentrism (ANT)
0.74
2.01
0.59
0.86
3.80
0.86
0.80
2.48
0.74
0.66
3.67
0.49
85
CNS was positively related to INS (r= 0.53; p<0.01) and EID (r= 0.65;
p<0.01) and also received positive correlations with EGO (r=0.51, p<0.01) and BIO
(r=0.39; p<0.01), and negative ones with ANT (r=-0.16; p<0.01), as in the last
studies. Practically all the correlations are strong or moderate except the last two
which, although significant, are much lower. In the case of BIO, this may well be
because it is a low reliability scale ( =0.42), probably due to the fact that in this and
in other studies it has been seen to have two underlying dimensions (Appendix 4). In
the case of ANT, even though the correlation is negative, its lack of strength might
indicate that its relation is not necessarily completely antagonistic or opposed to the
others; it may well be the reflection of a dialectical relation, similar to the relation
between NEP and DSP.
86
To compare the relation between the INES (including all its items), the IBES,
and the sub-dimensions that have arisen within the natural environment, correlations
were carried out with connectedness, environmental identity and environmental
beliefs (see Table 8).
Table 7.- Factor loadings for varimax orthogonal three-factor solution of Inclusion of Environment in
Self Scale: eigenvalues, percentages of variance, means, and standard deviations.
Items
Factor loading
Earth
.783
-.057
.035
Nature
.766
-.183
.208
Trees
.745
.016
.392
Plants
.707
.037
.363
Water
.597
.130
.110
-.007
.828
-.064
.061
.819
-.024
City
-.052
.747
-.113
Computer
-.127
.711
.190
Car
-.035
.630
.251
Factory
.266
.521
-.254
Animals
.209
.061
.775
Whales
.397
-.109
.677
Birds
.527
.082
.664
Eigenvalues
3.18
3.16
2.02
22.74
22.60
14.46
3.60
2.48
3.00
SD
0.75
0.74
0.97
Building
Street
% of variance
The extent to which people feel a part of the natural environment (INES) and
of Green nature has a stronger correlation with CNS than the extent to which they
feel a part of Animal nature. The same relation can be found for EID. As
mentioned in the Introduction, this would seem to suggest that both Connectedness to
87
Nature and Environmental Identity are related to a global idea of nature which
appears to include vegetation and water more clearly than animals.
Table 8.- Correlations between INES, IBES, INES dimensions, CNS, INS, EID, Environmental
beliefs and behaviour.
IES dimenstions
Scales
Original scales
INES Subdimensions
INES
IBES
Green Nature
Animal Nature
CNS
.584**
-.181**
.588**
.463**
INS
.882**
-.152*
.807**
.476**
EID
.631**
-.285**
.666**
.499**
EGO
.579**
-.302**
.569**
.319**
BIO
.217**
-.174**
.229**
.319**
ANT
-.123*
.191**
-.134*
-.123*
BEHAV
.409**
-.120*
.472**
.434**
It is also possible to see that both CNS and EID are negatively related to
IBES, which is yet further evidence in favour of the conceptual coherence of the
scales.
88
The EID have a high internal consistency ( =0.90), and the mean score
(M=3.58; SD=0.57) suggests that participants identify with the environment.
However, an orthogonal principal components analysis found five factors which
explained 56% of the variance (see table 9), with eigenvalues of higher than one, and
with saturations of the items in each factor with an average of 0.61. The first one,
composed of 6 items, is related to environmentalism and explains 14% of the
variance. The second factor consists of 7 items, related to enjoyment of nature, such
as outdoor areas. It explains 13.5% of variance. The third factor consists of 4 items
related to connectedness to nature (as CNS), and explains 11.2% of variance. The
fourth, composed of 5 items, is related to appraisal or valuation of nature, and
explains 9.7% of variance. The fifth factor (7.5%) could be rejected because it is
composed of only two items, and one of them also holds positive and considerable
weight in the fourth factor (0.449).
As we can see in the Table 10, CNS has a stronger relation with the
Connectedness to nature component. Also, it is possible to see that each of the EID
subscales are more strongly related to being a part of Green Nature than a part of
Animal Nature. But the biggest difference is in the Enjoy sub-dimension, that is,
89
Table 9.- Factor loadings for varimax orthogonal three-factor solution of Inclusion of Environmental
Identity Scale: eigenvalues, percentages of variance, means, and standard deviations.
Items
Factor loading
3
4
5
Behaving responsibly toward the Earth -living a sustainable
.746
.166
.080
.182 -.066
life-style - is part of my moral code.
Engaging in environmental behaviours is important to me.
.719
.205
.154
.215 -.029
If I had enough time or money, I would certainly devote
.182
.137
.070
.159
.652
some of it to working for environmental causes.
I have a lot in common with environmentalists as a group.
.643
.230
.309
.033
.265
My own interests usually seem to coincide with the position
.043
.393
.097
.302
.581
advocated by environmentalists.
Learning about the natural world should be an important
.053
.140
.141
.302
.542
part of every childs upbringing.
I spend a lot of time in natural settings (woods, mountains,
.076
.744
.098
.167 -.105
desert, lakes, ocean).
I really enjoy camping or hiking outdoors.
.175
.644 -.020
.146
.350
I would feel that an important part of my life was missing if
.221
.604
.203
.439
.146
I was not able to get out and enjoy nature from time to time.
I take pride in the fact that I could survive outdoors on my
.206
.089 -.229
.272
.601
own for a few days.
When I am upset or stressed, I can feel better by spending
.203
.294
.296
.084
.564
some time outdoors communing with nature.
Living near wildlife is important to me; I would not want to
.155
.045
.245
.442
.504
live in a city all the time.
I like to garden.
.180
.327
.191 -.050
.362
I feel that I have a lot in common with other species.
.138 -.150
.104
.187
.773
Being a part of the ecosystem is an important part of who I
.214
.304
.670
.161
.045
am.
I think of myself as a part of nature, not separate from it.
.301
.339
.630
.034 -.072
In general, being part of the natural world is an important
.257
.464
.152
.039
.549
part of every childs upbringing.
I keep mementos from the outdoors in my room, such as
.323
.283
.069
.387 -.018
shells or rocks or feathers.
I feel that I receive spiritual sustenance from experiences
.277
.133
.325
.209
.609
with nature.
I have never seen a work of art that is as beautiful as a work
.025
.270
.006
.583
.256
of nature, like a sunset or a mountain range.
I feel that I have roots to a particular geographic location
.273
.035
.116
.576 -.173
that had a significant impact on my development.
Sometimes I feel like parts of nature certain trees, or
.046
.027
.465
.530
.236
storms, or mountains- have a personality of their own.
I believe that some of todays social problems could be
.214
.065
.155
.013
cured by returning to a more rural life-style in which people
.747
live in harmony with the land.
I would rather live in a small room or house with a nice
view than in a bigger room or house with a view of other
.056
.253
.012
.449
.539
buildings.
Eigenvalues
3.30
3.25
2.68
2.33
1.80
% of variance
13.74 13.52 11.17
9.70
7.51
M
3.62
3.56
3.47
3.61
3.69
SD
0.58
0.65
0.61
0.68
0.83
Note. Boldface indicates highest factor loadings. Factor 1 = Environmentalism ( = .82); Factor 2 =
Enjoy of nature ( = .80); Factor 3 = Connectedness to nature ( = .76). Factor 4 = Appraisal of
nature ( = .67); Factor 5 = rejected. N = 282, = .90, M = 3.58 and SD = 0.51 for entire measure.
90
this factor is more correlated with Green Nature in relation to Animal Nature
than the other factors.
Table 10.- Correlations between EID Factors, CNS, INS, INES, IBES, INES dimensions,
Environmental beliefs and behaviour.
Scales
EID factors
Environmentalism
Enjoy
Connectedness
Appraisal
CNS
.533**
.482**
.721**
.487**
INS
.434**
.576**
.502**
.462**
INES
.469**
.575**
.578**
.465**
IBES
-.191**
-.327**
-.113
-.198**
Green Nature
.522**
.594**
.607**
.482**
Animal Nature
.468**
.407**
.482**
.316**
EGO
.517**
.774**
.497**
.539**
BIO
.391**
.248**
.485**
.367**
ANT
-.283**
-.092
-.167**
-.195**
BEHAV
.581**
.376**
.417**
.336**
Note. CNS = Connectedness to Nature; INS = Inclusion of Nature in Self; INES = Inclusion of
natural environment in self; IBES = Inclusion of built environment in self; EGO = Egobiocentrism;
BIO = Biospherism; ANT = Anthropocentrism; BEHAV = Environmental behaviour.
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
All factors have positive correlations with EGO and BIO, and negative
correlations with ANT. But the most interesting result is a stronger relationship
between EGO and Enjoy, which could suggest a kind of hedonic relationship with
nature under the concept of Environmental Identity measured with EID.
4.4.-
Study 2.
91
Banaji, & Klauer, 2005; Greenwald, Nosek, & Sriram, 2006; Nosek, Greenwald, &
Banaji, 2005; Paladino et al., 2002).
92
independently. Fazio and Olson (2003), on the contrary, sustain that the
disagreement between the score of implicit and explicit measures which supposedly
measure the same attitudes does not contribute evidence guaranteeing the
unawareness of attitudes measured implicitly. For this reason, they assume that only
measures, not attitudes, can be called implicit and explicit. These same authors
consider that both measures can predict behaviour (mediated by motivational
factors), although the literature recognises that implicit measures normally have very
low correlations.
Amongst the implicit measures most used and studied are the Priming of
Fazio (Fazio et al., 1995) and the IAT (Greenwald et al., 1998). These measures, like
all implicit measures, are not ideal for guaranteeing properties of unawareness,
unconsciousness and uncontrollability. Also, their final scores are strongly
influenced by the apprenticeship of the task and the valence of the stimuli used (e.g.
Bargh, Chaiken, Govender, & Pratto, 1992; De Houwer, 2003; Hermans, De
Houwer, & Eelen, 2001; Ortiz y Ruiz, 2006; Rothermund & Wentura, 2004;
Rothermund, Wentura, & De Houwer, 2005).
Despite this, De Houwer (2003, p. 236) sustains that IAT is less vulnerable
than priming as to the valence effects of each one of the individual stimuli used,
because when target concepts differ in valence, IAT effects result from the fact that
stimuli automatically activate those responses that are compatible with the valence of
the relevant feature of the stimuli. In other words, only the level of relevant S-R
[Stimulus-Response] compatibility seems to matter.
In the following study procedures are carried out to verify the impact of the
valence of the stimuli and also the fulfilment of some of the most important
properties that allow us to define an implicit measurement in the case of
connectedness to nature, as Schultz et al. (2004) did. They found positive relations
between IAT-Nature and biospherism and INS. But they also recognize that IATNature cannot distinguish clearly between an implicit association and explicit
attitudes towards nature.
93
4.4.1.- Method.
4.4.1.1.- Participants.
In these tasks the subjects have to classify four groups of words in their
respective categories. Two groups of words correspond to two pairs of categories,
and the other two groups to another pair of categories. Thus following one of the
examples most referred to (Greenwald et al., 2003) the two groups of words
representing flower names (e.g. Tulip) and the names of insects (e.g. Beetle) ought to
be classified in the FLOWERS or INSECTS categories respectively. And the groups
representing positive words (e.g. Friend) and negative words (e.g. Murderer) should
be classified in the POSITIVE or NEGATIVE categories respectively.
The aim of the training tasks is to learn the categories into which each group
of words should be classified. In experimental tasks the categories are combined and
the subjects should classify the words as quickly as possible without making
94
mistakes 2 . In each task the words are presented randomly one by one and the
participants have to classify them in the corresponding categories quickly pressing a
key on the left or the right. Thus, when the classification categories are associated
(e.g. FLOWERS/POSITIVE and INSECTS/NEGATIVE) the classification tasks
ought to be faster than when the
NATURE
or
ME
BUILT
or
NOT ME
TREES
BUILT
or
ME
NATURE
or
NOT ME
TREES
Greenwald et al.'s (2003) IAT design procedures have been followed, available in the IAT website at
Yale University (https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/ demo/ racefaqs.html), which include a feedback
of responses for incorrect answers.
95
The supposition behind the association of this test is that the participants
should more rapidly associate the words corresponding to the ME category with the
NATURE category and NOT ME with BUILT than the contrary. This would
indicate that the participants are more connected to nature because this connection
would be the consequence of the relation between the words referring to the Self and
the words referring to nature.
The first phenomenon is very important in the studies using times of reaction
to evaluate or classify stimuli, because doing the task can vary depending on whether
the stimuli used share the same valence. To measure the presence of this effect in the
test, a stimulation valence analysis was done of the words used. As a reference was
took the procedures used in linguistic studies that assess valence, activation and
dominance of words used in Spanish (e.g. Prez, Campo y Navaln, 2001; Redondo,
Fraga, Comesaa y Perea, 2005; Redondo, Fraga, Padrn & Comesaa, 2007). Once
the IAT-Nature had been answered, the degree of pleasure-displeasure that the
people felt for each of the words used in the test was measured using the SelfAssessment Manikin (SAM) with a scale of nine points: 1 = very displeasing and 9
= very pleasing, as can be seen in Figure 7. The scales for measuring the valence
(using the SAM) give a good internal reliability (NATURE
ME
= .92; NOT ME
= .92; BUILT
= .82;
96
Together with the valence, familiarity with the words was also observed using
lexical and morphological studies of the Spanish language (e.g. Juilland & ChangRodrguez, 1964; Terrdez, 2001). These studies on the frequency of use of words in
Spanish indicate that practically all the words used in the IAT-Nature procedure have
a High or Very High frequency, except Factory, Whale and Birds, which are
well-known words but with a Notable use, or Self and Myself which are
compound words in spanish for which there is no register of use frequency (Almela
et al., 2005).
97
if the participants realised what the test was trying to measure and what the correct
answers were, and a closed question of five points on whether the task was easy,
where 1 was very easy and 5 very difficult (Appendix 6). The answers to the open
questions were classified in accordance with whether the subjects were or were not
aware of the aim of the test.
On the question about knowing what the test measures and knowing the
correct answers, 24.3% (N=18) of the participants knew, versus 4.1% (N=3) who did
not know. The ease of the test was assessed with an average score of 2.22 (SD=0.83).
These results suggest that the properties unaware and uncontrol are not fulfilled
in all cases necessary to guarantee the implicit nature of the process.
4.4.2.- Results.
The scores of IAT-Nature were calculated from the times of reaction in four
of the seven blocks in the test. There is a standard procedure for eliminating subjects
with very slow answers and very quick ones, as well as an adjustment of the times in
tests where participants make mistakes, for which the standard deviations calculated
98
for two pairs of blocks (B3 and B6; B4 and B7) are used, and a penalisation of + 600
ms. In this way, no participant was eliminated because of excessively fast or slow
answers. Only 0.09% of them was under 300 ms, and 0.01% over 10000 ms. The
average error rate = 7.02%.
An analysis of the correlations between the valence of the stimuli (SAM) and
implicit connectedness (IAT-Nature), shows that the block of words corresponding to
NATURAL environment (r= 0.31; p<0.01) and those corresponding to BUILT
environment (r=-0.25; p<0.05) correlate weakly but significantly. On the contrary, of
the other block of words, only those corresponding to ME (r= -0.25; p<0.05)
correlate significantly with the IAT score. These results also demonstrate coherence
between the stimuli evaluations and the IAT score finally obtained.
99
These results suggest that, despite the fact that the positive valence of the
group of words belonging to the NATURAL environment could influence the score
of the IAT effect in favour of connectedness to nature, its participation in the
variance of the relation between implicit and explicit connectedness is too low
(9.3%) to be completely sure. Moreover, as already observed, the differences
between the stimuli valences coincides with that anticipated for the IAT procedure.
A t-test was conducted to examine whether any order effects had emerged in
the IAT-Nature test. The analysis revealed a significant difference between the two
different groups (t=3.183; df=86; p<0.01, see Table 11). As already mentioned in the
Introduction to the chapter, this has been one of the more commented weaknesses of
the IAT procedure (e.g. Greenwald et al., 2003; Nosek et al., 2005).
However, a specific t-test was carried out to look at time reactions difference
to each stimulus between rotations. This showed that there were significant
differences only in City (t=3.079; df=86; p<0.01) and Factory (t=2.973; df=86;
p<0.01).
100
Time Reactions
IAT-Nature Scores
Rotation 1
Rotation 2
Differences
826.76
0.785
0.520
0.265
533.90
850.47
0.838
0.567
0.270
WHALES
444.76
839.55
0.688
0.399
0.289
PLANTS
366.92
668.58
0.811
0.446
0.365
TREES
401.27
635.00
0.717
0.603
0.114
BUILDING
328.91
764.57
0.742
0.287
0.455
CAR
421.63
740.68
0.836
0.565
0.271
CITY
365.43
846.42
0.891
0.225
0.665
FACTORY
455.34
670.76
0.911
0.355
0.556
STREET
648.86
1440.12
0.691
0.548
0.143
420.47
594.03
0.733
0.698
0.035
MYSELF
280.40
537.37
0.600
0.478
0.123
ME
347.30
548.98
0.822
0.417
0.405
MINE
349.42
553.42
0.673
0.571
0.102
SELF
423.32
852.05
0.465
0.526
-0.061
THEM
520.99
818.40
0.553
0.336
0.217
THEY
547.69
894.19
0.655
0.491
0.164
IT
532.48
839.37
0.642
0.732
-0.090
OTHER
559.06
880.22
0.831
0.439
0.392
THEIR
402.81
852.68
0.457
0.648
-0.191
SD
ANIMALS
464.83
BIRDS
NATURE
BUILT
ME
NOT ME
Practically all the scales reach their highest correlations with EGO, except
Animal Nature, which correlates slightly more with BIO. The highest correlations
correspond to EID Enjoy and INS to EGO.
101
Table 12.- Correlations between Connectedness measures, EID Factors, Environmental behaviour and
Environmental beliefs.
EGO
BIO
ANT
CNS
.623**
.466**
-.277*
IAT-Nature
.259*
.229
-.053
INS
.725**
.265*
-.233*
INES
.642**
.174
-.121
Green Nature
.677**
.192
-.138
Animal Nature
.246*
.305**
-.096
EID Environmentalism
.628**
.360**
-.388**
EID Enjoy
.794**
.238*
-.121
EID Connectedness
.539**
.461**
-.213
EID Appraisal
.608**
.360**
-.137
BEHAV
.388**
.277*
-.270*
A series of analyses were carried out to compare the scales and sub-scales
that measure connectedness to nature, in relation to pro-environmental behaviour.
The aim of these analyses was to acquire more evidence in favour of CNS.
102
As mentioned in Methodology, two procedures were used to measure proenvironmental behaviour. One of them was on Commitment with environmental
activities, which requested the students email and/or telephone number for contact
to participate in a simulated extra curricula activity related to promoting
environmental behaviour. Approximately 23.6% of the participants wrote down their
email address or telephone number to become involved in pro-environmental
activities in the near future.
A means difference analysis was done and the results can be seen in Table 13.
Those who gave their email or telephone number also show more connectedness with
CNS, EID-Connectedness, but the strongest differences were found for the INS,
INES and Green Nature. There are no significant differences with IAT-Nature and
Animal Nature.
These results could mean that participants who have committed themselves to
participating in environmental activities are more connected with natural
environment, as Green Nature more than Animal Nature. The IAT-Nature score
did not change. However, all the EID factors show that participants with high
commitment also have more environmental identity.
The other procedure used to measure behaviour was the Scale BEHAV,
which has a moderate internal consistency in the group corresponding to this study
(
= 0.63). The mean score suggests that participants occasionally carry out
103
Table 13.- Group differences for Connectedness measures, Environmental identity factors, and
Environmental beliefs, between matched groups who gave (N=17) or did not give (N=55) their
telephone number or email.
YES gave telephone or
NO did not give
email
telephone or email
M
SD
M
SD
df
t
CNS
3.88
0.41
3.51
0.49
70 2.81**
IAT-Nature
0.74
0.53
0.70
0.46
70 0.31
INS
4.41
0.80
3.51
0.92
70 3.64**
INES
4.41
0.71
3.66
0.87
69 3.17**
Green Nature
4.19
0.52
3.51
0.76
69 3.35**
Animal Nature
3.42
0.92
2.93
0.99
69 1.77
EID
4.07
0.36
3.46
0.51
70 4.57**
EID Environmentalism
4.17
0.46
3.50
0.54
70 4.62**
EID Enjoy
4.07
0.42
3.44
0.65
70 3.74**
EID Connectedness
3.91
0.52
3.39
0.58
70 3.30**
EID Appraisal
4.11
0.57
3.46
0.72
70 3.41**
Note. CNS = Connectedness to Nature; IAT-Nature = Implicit association test; INS = Inclusion of
Nature in Self; INES = Inclusion of natural environment in self; EID = Environmental identity. N = 72
** p < .01.
Scales
Table 14.- Step-wise regression analysis predicting Self-reported environmental behaviour with
Connectedness, Environmental identity, and Environmental belief measures.
Model and predictor variable
Model 1
R2
.50 .24
F
23.13**
CNS
Model 2
0.50**
.30 .28
14.72**
CNS
0.31*
EID Environmentalism
0.30*
104
4.5.-
Discussion.
The concept of nature becomes complex, as some authors have pointed out,
when supporting a dialectic relation, a paradox cluster of meanings or sociocultural
evolution of the relations between humans and nature (e.g. Descola & Plsson,
1996/2001; Hartig, 2003; Schroeder, 2007; Vining et al., 2008). The current research
contributes to distinguishing a different representation of nature relating to
connectedness, composed on the one hand by Animals, and on the other by a
Green idea of nature.
105
The desire for closeness with wildlife has been explained as a romantic and
anthropomorphic view of the animal kingdom (e.g. Franklin, 1999; Ingold, 2001). As
Curtin (2005, p. 5) emphasises, following Franklins analyses, animals are uniquely
positioned relative to humans in that they are both like us, but not us [...] Unlike
trees, plants and rocks, they have the capacity to represent the differentiations,
characters and dispositions of any given society.
Contact with animals awakens our curiosity and playfulness, because they
reflect human behaviour and social habits. We tend to internalize animal
representations in terms of human experience, language and emotions (Curtin, 2005).
Wildlife allows us contact with our wild nature side, better than trees, plants or
water. As Ingold (1988) points out, social relations are not exclusively human
relations.
CNS has a strong correlation with INES, stronger with Green Nature than
Animal Nature. Thus, it is possible to imagine that Connectedness to Nature is a
kind of membership of oneself with a global idea of nature, which includes
dimensions like trees, plants, and water. And animal correlation could be related in a
different way, as another aspect of the representation of nature and connectedness.
106
Nature
Connectedness
to Nature
Self
Almost all of them were published in a series of Altmans and Wohlwills volumes entitled Human
Behaviour and Environment: Advances in theory and research.
107
Although the IAT score is not affected by the particular valence of each of the
stimuli used, as discussed by De Houwer (2003), it is affected by the order in which
the classification tasks are presented, as studied by Nosek et al. (2005). This would
affect the interpretation of the IAT score, because the effect could be due,
presumably, more to the difficulty of the task than to the association between stimuli.
However, a detailed analysis of the reaction times shows that the difference by
rotation occurs only in two of the twenty stimuli. A positive interpretation of this
specific result would be the possibility of assuming that the IAT score effectively
measures the association between the groups of stimuli used, and that it only fails in
two stimuli that do not even form part of the natural environment or the Self stimuli.
A negative interpretation would be that the algorithm improved in 2003 (Greenwald
et al., 2003) does not reach the minimum effect described, because it occurs even if
the difference in the reaction times is significant in only two of the twenty stimuli
used.
108
Consequently, there are some alternatives to improve it, adding task classification in
the IAT blocks, as has been suggested by Nosek et al (2005). Also, by changing the
stimuli that provoked the rotation effect (factory, city) for others in their group (built
environment).
At the same time, the EID is a measure that, on the one hand, is strongly
related to CNS in the dimension of environmental identity measuring connectedness
(EID-Connectedness). On the other hand, it is strongly related to EGO in the part of
environmental identity that measures pleasure and enjoyment of nature (EID-Enjoy).
109
The hypothesis behind the application of the IAT-Nature for the deduction of
a relation between connectedness and biophilia is that the implicit association or the
automatic or unconscious association between the Self and the natural environment
would reflect the type of basic or innate tendency mentioned by Wilson. However, an
implicit association cannot be interpreted as a sense of belonging and identity
between the categories it associates, and even less a measure of innate tendencies. As
already seen, the IAT properties do not allow to be sure that it is an implicit measure
stricto sensu.
110
Sin embargo, Schultz et al. (2004, p. 32) han sugerido que la valoracin del
medio ambiente es ms bien una extensin de la representacin cognitiva que cada
uno tiene de s mismo: la creencia individual acerca de la forma en que alguien es
parte de la naturaleza provee el tipo de preocupacin que una persona desarrolla, y el
tipo de situaciones que le motivarn a actuar. Para ello propuso el concepto de
conectividad con la naturaleza, que relaciona el self con el ambiente natural.
111
112 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
113
114 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
Otros estudios evalan el papel predictor de ciertos conceptos del self sobre la
conservacin, cooperacin y preocupacin ambientales. Arnocky et al. (2007)
midieron diferencias individuales en la construccin del self, utilizando escalas que
distinguen entre las categoras formuladas por Markus y Kitayama (1991): self
independiente; self interdependiente; y una tercera dimensin propuesta en un
estudio previo (DeCicco & Stroink, 2007), el self metapersonal (ver Figura 9).
Self
Interdependiente
Self
Metapersonal
Naturaleza
Otros
Individuo
Self
Independiente
Figura 9.- Diagrama de las dimensiones del self en la relacin de los individuos, las
otras personas y la naturaleza. Las lneas discontinuas indican permeabilidad en la
construccin de la identidad.
115
116 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
117
118 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
Schroeder (2007) interpret estos resultados como una compleja relacin gestltica
de la relacin ser humano-ambiente natural.
119
Berlyne, 1974; Berlyne & Madsen 1973; Defrancesco, Rosato, & Rossetto, 2006) y
propiedades ambientales en la prediccin de preferencias por ambientes naturales y
construidos (e.g. Hagerhall, 2001; Han, 2007; Kaplan, R., 1973, 2001; Kaplan, R. &
Kaplan, S., 1989; Kaplan, R., Kaplan, S., & Brown, 1989; Kaplan, S. 1983, 1995;
Kaplan, S. & Kaplan, R., 1989; Kaplan, S. & Talbot, 1983; Purcell, et al., 1994;
Stamps, 2004).
5.2.-
Objetivos Especficos.
120 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
5.3.-
Estudio 1.
5.3.1.- Mtodo.
5.3.1.1.- Participantes.
121
5.3.2 Resultados.
122 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
La escala que mide el self independiente (Self IND, M=3.35 y DT=0.31) tiene
una consistencia interna ms baja ( =0.43) que las que miden self interdependiente
(Self INT, =0.63, M=3.39 y DT=0.34) y self metapersonal (Self MET, =0.75,
M=3.36 y DT=0.47). Como se puede ver, sus puntuaciones medias son muy
parecidas.
123
Tabla 16.- Correlacin entre las escalas de Conectividad, Creencias ambientales, Comportamiento
proambiental y Dimensiones del self.
Self IND
Self INT
Self MET
CNS
.210**
.128*
.640**
INES
.124*
.045
.497**
IBES
-.043
.076
-.035
EGO
.127*
.175**
.454**
BIO
.144*
.059
.368**
ANT
.053
.227**
-.024
BEHAV
-.026
.010
.220**
Nota. CNS = Conectividad con la Naturaleza; INES = Inclusin del
ambiente natural en el self; IBES = Inclusin del ambiente construido
en el self; EGO = Egobiocentrismo; BIO = Biosferismo; ANT =
Antropocentrismo; BEHAV = Comportamiento proambiental; Self
IND = Self independiente; Self INT = Self interdependiente; Self MET
= Self metapersonal.
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
5.4.-
Estudio 2.
124 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
5.4.1.- Mtodo.
5.4.1.1.- Participantes.
Del total de los participantes, solo 5 declaran vivir cerca de un lugar parecido
al visitado, siendo los lugares mencionados por los alumnos zonas cercanas a
Boadilla del Monte, El Guijar, Pueblo de Cuidad Real y Toledo.
125
Las actividades se llevaron a cabo como parte de una actividad prctica del
curso de psicologa ambiental de la Facultad de Psicologa de la Universidad
Complutense de Madrid. El lugar escogido fue un entorno natural ubicado en la
localidad de Valsan, a 70 kilmetros al norte de la ciudad de Madrid y a 30
kilmetros de Segovia. Es una zona caracterstica del norte de la Sierra de
Guadarrama, aproximadamente a 1200 metros sobre el nivel del mar,
correspondiente al municipio de La Granja de San Ildefonso.
126 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
127
128 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
5.4.2.- Resultados.
129
Unidad de registro
Flora; Vegetacin; Plantas; rboles; Pinos; Robles; Encinas;
Porcentaje*
25.67 %
naturaleza
Fauna
9.58 %
8.81 %
6.51 %
tranquilo
Nota. Ver resultados detallados en Anexo 9.
* Calculado a partir de la proporcin de nominaciones de unidades de registro sobre el total de
nominaciones en esta pregunta (N=261)
130 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
131
Tabla 18.- Porcentaje de nominaciones para la descripcin de lo que el lugar visitado signific para
los participantes.
Categora
Recuerdos
Unidad de registro
Recuerdo de un lugar; Recuerdo; Recuerdos de infancia;
Porcentaje*
23.78 %
25.00 %
Bienestar
9.76 %
Belleza y
6.71 %
Grandiosidad de la
naturaleza
Nota. Ver resultados detallados en Anexo 9.
* Calculado a partir de la proporcin de nominaciones de unidades de registro sobre el total de
nominaciones en esta pregunta (N=164)
En tercer lugar, cuando los participantes tuvieron que indicar aquellos lugares
que les evocan lo mismo que el visitado (ver Tabla 19), mencionan con frecuencia:
algunos lugares especficos, la mayora en los alrededores de Madrid; luego algunos
lugares con mar o fuentes naturales de agua; despus mencionan el recuerdo de
pueblos; luego mencionan la montaa; entre otros.
132 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
Tabla 19.- Porcentaje de nominaciones para los lugares que a los participantes les evocan lo mismo
que el visitado.
Categora
Unidad de registro
Lugares
especficos
Porcentaje*
19.61 %
naturales de
naturales
18.63 %
agua
Recuerdo de
7.84 %
Montaas
6.86 %
pueblos
Montaas
Tabla 20.- Porcentaje de nominaciones para los lugares que a los participantes les evocan lo contrario
que el visitado.
Categora
Unidad de registro
Porcentaje*
Ciudades y su zona
35.56
centro
Trfico y Transporte
pblico
Zonas industriales
Fbricas; Industrias
6.67
Lugares de entretencin
6.67
bohemia y ocio
comercializados; Playa
14.07
133
Tabla 21.- Ejemplos de respuestas de los participantes correspondientes con cada elemento
connotativo de evaluacin del paisaje.
Categora de evaluacin
Respuestas
Agrado
Activacin
Impacto
Control
Hay otro grupo de resultados pertinentes para el anlisis que se lleva a cabo
en esta investigacin, en la lnea de los antecedentes acerca de la sensacin de
conexin individual con la naturaleza a partir de la experiencia personal con el lugar.
En este estudio aparece una serie de contenidos referidos a la sensacin de estar
incluidos en la naturaleza desde un punto de vista individual, alejado de otras
personas y de la ciudad, que se conciben separados o contrarios a la naturaleza.
134 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
5.5.-
Discusin.
Egobiocntricas
las
Biosfricas,
negativamente
con
el
135
El self metapersonal supone una definicin del self que involucra las formas
de vida humanas y no humanas, por considerarse unida a ellas. Es este nivel de
136 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
Naturaleza
Conectividad con
la Naturaleza
Self
Metapersonal
137
donde ego y naturaleza se asocian en una idea de unidad (Figura 12). Conectividad
no implicara entonces un desdoblamiento del self, sino un claro sentido de
pertenencia consciente del papel del individuo y sus afectos en ese escenario.
5.5.3.- Experiencia y Valoracin del Ambiente Natural: Agrado y Conectividad.
138 CAPITULO 5.- Dimensiones del Self, Concepto de Naturaleza y Aumento de la Conectividad.
del paisaje y valorar el entorno. Tal vez sera interesante estudiar comparativamente
los cambios en los niveles de conectividad en distintos usuarios de reas protegidas,
los que hacen uso de sus instalaciones con diferentes propsitos. Esto permitira
valorar ms especficamente la contribucin de una ruta guiada en un contexto
similar.
139
The CNS has proved to be a valid and reliable scale for measuring
connectedness to nature in the Spanish context. Table 22 summarises these results.
Throughout the investigation the reliability was between .74 and .84, averaging .8.
And, with respect to a main factor, the explained variance of the items in it varied
between 26% and 37%, with an average of 31%.
Table 22.- Summary of psychometric indicators and central tendency measures for the CNS
throughout the investigation (N = 1019*).
Chapt. 3
Chapt. 4
Chapt. 5
M
1
1a
2
1
2
1
2
% expl. V.
28.31
26.30
29.93
30.29
29.95
33.46
36.76 30.71
0.76
0.74
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.82
0.84 0.79
M
3.45
3.48
3.65
3.58
3.60
3.52
3.71 3.57
SD
0.45
0.48
0.47
0.50
0.49
0.52
0.51 0.49
* In the total summation, the samples of studies 2 in the fourth and fifth chapters have not
been considered, because the participants also took part in the samples in the first study in
both cases.
a
Non-university population.
142
Another tool used for measuring connectedness was the Inclusion of the
Environment in Self scale (IES). This measure was used mainly as a comparison
criterion with the CNS; however, it has also offered the possibility of delving more
deeply into the distinction of its environmental dimensions. Its two sub-dimensions,
Inclusion of Natural Environment in Self (INES) and Inclusion of Built Environment
in Self (IBES), appear clearly differentiated in most cases where they were applied,
except in Chapter 4; here, there was a sub-division in the natural environment which
will be mentioned later on.
Table 23.- Summary of psychometric indicators and central tendency measures for the INES and the
IBES throughout the investigation (N = 568*).
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
M
1
1
2
INES
IBES
INES
IBES
INES
IBES
INES
IBES
% expl. V.
29.99
22.61
31.25
22.54
29.87
27.68
30.37
24.28
0.86
0.80
0.88
0.80
0.85
0.86
0.86
0.82
M
3.80
2.48
3.36
2.64
3.27
2.60
3.48
2.57
SD
0.86
0.74
0.77
0.78
0.65
0.92
0.76
0.81
* In the total summation, the sample in study 2 of the fifth chapter has not been considered,
because the participants also took part in the samples in the first study.
143
When forcing the extraction of two factors, using factorial analysis with
Varimax rotation, the items are clearly organised into the principal sub-dimensions
anticipated, as can be seen in Table 23. The strength of the scale has been confirmed
thanks to these results. The
With regards the IAT-Nature, the results obtained in general reveal that it is a
method of measuring connectedness to nature, yet not as strong as the CNS or the
INES, because its correlations are low and its relation with pro-environmental
behaviour weak, although positive and significant.
Due to the weaknesses attributed to the IAT (e.g. De Houwe, 2003; Nosek et
al., 2005; Ortiz & Ruiz, 2006), the final score was not affected by the stimuli
valence, but by its order of presentation. According to these results the IAT effect in
this case could be due, presumably, more to the difficulty of the task than to the
association between stimuli. However, the difference in the score due to rotation was
produced only by the differences in the reaction times of two of them (factory and
city), which, of course, both correspond to the built environment. On the other hand,
the coherence in the correlations between implicit and explicit measures of
connectedness with other scales suggests that they measure similarly. Therefore, the
IAT-Nature could represent part of the connectedness measure with the CNS or the
144
INES. All in all, it can be assumed that connectedness to nature can be measured
with the IAT-Nature, although certain modifications might have to be introduced to
reduce the potential effect of rotation, such as changing the stimuli that have caused
the problem, or adding more classification tasks, as suggested by other researchers
(e.g. Nosek et al., 2005).
However, the theoretically more relevant results are related to the principle
underlying the measure, or to its implicit nature. Almost 25% of the participants in
this study recognised the answers that seemed to be correct, or rather, the
combination of answers which meant that the anticipated effect could be provoked,
and all (on average) considered that the classification tasks were relatively easy.
These results suggest that the properties of unawareness of associations and
uncontrollability in the answers, were not fulfilled. These properties are fundamental
to ensure the implicit, or automatic, nature of the test (e.g. De Houwer, 2006; De
Houwer & Moors, in press).
From the point of view of connectedness to nature, this is the most important
result, because it is literally the confidence in this property that would mean it could
be used to prove an underlying biophilic hypothesis (e.g., Schultz et al., 2004).
Obviously, the results in Chapter 4 coincide with the literature mentioned in Chapter
1 which points out that there are no implicit or explicit attitudes, but procedures of
different measurements to make the same construct operative (e.g. Fazio & Olson,
2003). Despite this, a possible biophilic basis in connectedness cannot be rejected.
The results only allow rejection of the IAT-Nature to prove this.
Another scale studied in this research, in comparison with the CNS, was the
Environmental Identity (EID) proposed by Clayton (2003, 45-46) to measure one
part of the way in which people form their self-concept [...] similar to another
collective identity (such as a national or ethnic identity). The scale obtained
excellent psychometric properties in both the studies in which it was used, averaging
an
=.90 and 32% of explained variance for the principal factor after forcing its
extraction. However, a detailed analysis revealed that this scale consisted of different
145
dimensions. The most relevant, for their results and theoretical coherence with the
investigation, were: EID-Connectedness; EID-Enjoy; and EID-Environmentalism.
The first of these is the environmental identity which refers to forming part of
nature, just like one of the ideas that defines the connectedness measure with the
CNS. In fact, it is the sub-dimension of the EID which most strongly correlates with
connectedness, as shown from the results in Chapter 4. The second sub-dimension
refers to enjoyment of nature, principally in outdoor activities. This valuation, which
also forms part of a general environmental identity, is the sub-dimension most
strongly correlated with environmental beliefs, particularly with egobiocentrism, that
is, the valuation of nature based on the individual benefits it offers people.
Moreover, together with the EID-Connectedness, it is the one that most strongly
correlates with the INES. The third sub-dimension is relevant for its participation in
the prediction of behaviour, after the CNS, according to the results in Chapter 4.
As some authors have pointed out, the concept of nature is complex because
it includes categories with paradoxical meanings and dialectical relations between
the human being and nature as, for example, what has been suggested based on the
co-existence of opposed environmental paradigms such as DSP and NEP (eg.
Milbrath, 1984).
In the Chapter 1 there are two ideas concerning the human being-nature
relationship. One of them consisted in a biological predisposal towards the living and
the natural; for this, the concept of biophilia proposed by Wilson and Kellert was
146
used (e.g. Wilson, 1984; Kellert, 1997; Kellert & Wilson, 1993), that has been
regarded as the basis of connectedness to nature (e.g. Mayer et al., 2008; Schultz et
al., 2004). The other idea emphasised the socio-cultural and historical differences in
the concept of nature and the way humanity has related to it throughout time; for this,
anthropological research was used as an example (e.g. Descola & Plsson,
1996/2001). Both ideas respond to explanations of the human being-nature
relationship at different levels of emergence, not necessarily incompatible. The
results related to the first idea will be mentioned below.
According to Diener (Diener et al., 1999; Diener & Seligman, 2002, 2004)
there are subjective dimensions related to well-being (subjective well-being)
corresponding to satisfaction with life and the respective presence and absence of
positive and negative states of mind. This interpretation is related to an idea of
happiness, similar to the concept of hedonic well-being described by Kahneman,
Diener & Schwarz (1999) such as the study of what makes life experiences
pleasurable or not pleasurable, the preferences and satisfactions of the body and the
147
mind. However, another idea is that which some theoreticians have called
eudaimonic well-being, typified by a sensation of aim and meaning in life. This fills
someone with an optimism, confidence and satisfaction (e.g. Huppert, 2006;
Kahneman et al., 1999; Keyes, Schmotkin, & Ryff, 2002; Ryff, 1995; Ryff & Keyes,
1995; Waterman, 1993; Waterman, Schwartz, & Conti, 2008), similar to personal
development or self-actualisation in the theory of psychological development.
It is not easy to distinguish both types of well-being, because they are very
closely related. Notwithstanding, some authors (e.g. Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham,
2004; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Keyes, 1995) have identified needs
related to eudaimonic well-being, such as independence, competence, positive interpersonal relations, personal growth, sense in life, self-acceptance, complete
connection and sensation of challenge in ones own activities, and a sensation of
curiosity, as well as the will to learn new things.
In the research the second idea was partly approached. This implies a sociocultural framework in the construction of the natural concept and its relation to the
human being. Although there was no ethnographical or historical approach,
prospective research was done on the underlying concept of nature in participants
perceptions and descriptions in some studies, based on their experiences with the
148
natural environment (e.g. Schroeder, 2007; Vining et al., 2008). The results in
Chapter 4 taken from the factorial analysis of the inclusion of the Environment in
Self (INES, IBES), and the qualitative analysis of participants answers on the
excursion to the Valsan Hills (Montes de Valsan), described in Chapter 5, have
meant that the concept of nature accompanying connectedness can be explored.
The results of the fourth chapter offer a clear distinction between natural
environment (INES) and built environment (IBES) in the inclusion of the
environment in self. Furthermore, they insinuate that the participants make a
distinction within the natural environment, between Animal Nature and another
distinction referring to a global idea of nature that incorporates vegetation and water,
called Green Nature. In line with what has been said on identity and connectedness,
these results could suggest that animals are differentiated within nature. This may be
because of their traditional use as a reflection of human behaviour, which stimulates
the desire to be close to animals, tending to internalise representations of them
according to concepts and categories typical of human social interaction as a
romantic and anthropomorphised vision of the animal kingdom (e.g. Curting, 2005;
Franklin, 1999; Ingold, 1988, 2001).
Although there was a distinction between INES and IBES in all the studies
where the scale was used, the distinction between green nature and animal nature
was only evident in one of them. The CNS, as well as the other connectedness and
environmental identity measurements, always correlated more with the INES than
with the IBES; in this latter case, the correlations were always negative. In the study
distinguishing dimensions within nature, the results showed that the connectedness
measures correlated more strongly with green nature than with animal nature.
Although the interpretation of this isolated result is risky, it could support the idea
suggested in the Chapter 1 that in measures of this type, as well as in values, attitudes
and environmental concern, a general idea of nature is inherent, in this case, green
more than anything else.
149
These results strengthen the idea of using the label nature identity instead
of environmental identity. According to Clayton (2003) environmental identity
was preferable because it is impossible to make a mistake when speaking of
environment in the process of identity construction, even though its concept includes
built environment. However, in this study, it has been demonstrated that the
participants are capable of easily distinguishing between both types of environment
in relation to the self. The psychosocial literature already features many theoretical
and conceptual developments using the word environment in relation to the
construction of identity, from Goffmans well-known descriptions of social
environment (1971/1979), to applications in the world of vocational orientation
where environmental identity scales were used before Clayton (e.g. Holland, 1973;
Smart & Thompson, 2001).
All these results, interpreted together, bring forward two ideas. On the one
hand, behind connectedness to nature there is a global idea of natural environment.
And on the other, the affective experience involved comes from a sensation of
pleasure and well-being when in contact with nature and from the memory of
childhood or adolescent experiences. From these ideas it is possible to observe the
concurrence of different explanatory levels in the description of the results on
150
In the first Chapter a revision of the literature was made situating the origin of
connectedness to nature within the study of environmental concern. Different
theories were set out on organising the constellation of beliefs underlying
environmental concerns; the most salient of these proposals was that made by
Amrigo et al. (2007) which introduces egobiocentrism as a type of belief where the
environment is valued for the benefits it bestows on individuals. This proposal was
done by the authors on the assumption that in ecocentric valuations of nature, the self
plays an important role, over and above the concept of nature as an other, object of
social interaction.
The results clearly showed a correlation of the CNS with EGO and BIO
beliefs, stronger than with ANT, with which it even correlated negatively in all cases,
as was anticipated (see Table 24). However, the difference between EGO and BIO
was not sufficiently noticeable to assume that they are totally different. This is more
than likely due to the fact that in both cases a positive valuation of nature
151
Table 24.- Summary of the correlations between the CNS and environmental beliefs (EGO, BIO,
ANT) throughout the investigation.
Chapt. 3
1
1a
EGO
0.48(**)
0.47(**)
BIO
0.44(**)
0.51(**)
ANT
-0.37(**)
-0.34(**)
* p<.05; ** p<.01
a
Non-university population.
Chapt. 4
1
0.51(**)
0.39(**)
-0.16(**)
Chapt. 5
1
0.56(**)
0.41(**)
-0.13 (*)
M
0.50
0.44
-0.25
152
self-conception in it are brought into play. As Castells (1998) pointed out in relation
to the ecologist argument, amongst its political and social orientations there is an
identity proposal where humanity is a component of nature.
Both the INES and Egobiocentrism correlate more with this latter type of self
than with the two former types. Yet the strongest correlation was observed with the
CNS. As the metapersonal self corresponds to an idea of oneself interconnected with
all life forms, a relation with all living beings, the results confirm the anticipated idea
of the self associated with connectedness to nature. However, this idea of
transcendence should not be confused with a post-modern proposal of identity
construction like Gergens (1991/2006), for example, because the Us derived from a
relational self represents an individualist synthesis that uses the others as passing
reflections, without materialising in a clearly defined positive identity.
The type of self involved in connectedness would seem to suggest that the
natural environment operates as yet another anchor for the construction of a positive
identity, through beliefs that demonstrate a dynamic relation with nature, with people
as valid interlocutors in cultural surroundings where environmental things are
recognised as a relevant priority theme. The different mechanisms to which humanity
has resorted to establish a meaningful relation with the environment (totemism,
animism, anthropomorphism, naturalisation, dwelling, etc.) provide them with
symbolic content for the construction of an identity, to understand one another and
153
The results obtained open up certain fields of application and new questions
in investigation, where the concept and the methods here employed for the study of
connectedness to nature can contribute to confronting certain challenges from novel
perspectives.
154
moral anchor and thoughtful apprenticeship connecting a persons vital choices with
his ecological vision of the world, serving as a guide to coordinate meanings, a
transition towards a new way of being oneself in the world. From this perspective, an
environmental educator should direct the apprenticeship scenarios so that people can
see themselves reflected in the possibilities of identity with nature.
Another field of application, this time derived from the methods used in this
research, is the development of rapid, valid and reliable procedures for the
measurement of indicators with an impact. How to register the changes in
connectedness to nature after participating in interactive activities with the
environment and even with the built environment. Although it does not guarantee its
implicit character, the IAT-Nature gave positive results as a measure of
connectedness. Duly perfected (as suggested in Chapter 4) and adapted, using
graphic methods and computational programming, to procedures which are more
accessible and easier to answer, it could be a valuable tool for the study of the
positive effects of certain experiences in connectedness to nature. An example of this
is the group investigation work in designing games for children and adolescents, with
which the reaction times needed can be registered to calculate the desired
associations. Some designs of the IAT procedure have been developed along these
lines and other implicit measures to be answered through Internet, as well as some
traditional and other new adaptations in the form of games (e.g. Callejas, 2007;
Schultz & Tabanico, 2007).1
155
personalities (e.g. Fangler & Schwarzer, 2008) like the internationally renowned
school for training in leadership NOLS (www.nols.edu), or private cultural leisure
projects such as Micropolix (www.micropolix.com) where children and adolescents
have real experiences of urban interaction in a simulated environment, where
activities have been designed to transmit values, generate habits and create a shared
sense of responsibility.
Finally, another field for applying connectedness stems from the mediator
potential attributed to it with regard to the restorer effect of natural environments. As
emphasised, there is a lot of information available on the positive effects that natural
environments have on peoples health and well-being (e.g. Burns, 2005; Dasgupta,
2001; Gatersleben, 2008; Kaplan. R., 2001; Kaplan. S., 1995; Sagar, 2007; Sequeira
e Silva, 2002; Staats et al., 1997; Wallenius, 1999), but the relation of connectedness
with these effects has only just begun to be studied. Taking the report of the Health
Council of the Netherlands (2004), Mayer et al. (2008) as a reference, it has been
emphasised that the study of these properties has focused on the reduction of stress
and recuperation from fatigue, and that other studies on other positive effects have
been marginal, such as the stimulus to exercise, facilitating social contacts, stimuli
for the optimal development of children and opportunities for personal development,
more related to eudaemonic well-being. These researchers, after a series of
experiences in natural and built environments, both real and virtual, have proposed
not only that connectedness increases after direct contact with nature, but that it also
has a mediator effect on the increase of positive states of mind derived from these
experiences.
Considering that this could benefit people who have difficulty moving or
people in hospital awaiting physical and psychological recuperation, the comparison
between wild, natural areas and natural spaces in urban surroundings, could suggest
the environmental elements for landscape, to architects and interior designers, which
would favour connectedness and, through it, well-being, as has recently begun to be
studied (e.g. Martens & Bauer, 2008). Thus, for example, these studies could help the
design and construction of the healing gardens and their impact on levels of
156
Therefore, despite the consistency and regularity of many of the results in this
investigation, there are still several questions pending; for example, the development
of a complex, evolutive process of identification in which connectedness is a
participating factor. Under different labels, the individualist and collectivist
categories have normally been used as opposite poles in the explanation of human
psychological development, both from the intercultural point of view (e.g. Campbell
et al., 1996; Kashima et al., 2004; Markus & Kitayama, 1991) and in the
development process of children and adolescents in Western culture (e.g. Deci &
Ryan, 1995; Harter, 1999). However, a lot of research sustains that both processes
are closely related to the integral development of the self (Allen, Hauser, Bell &
OConnor, 1994; Cooper, Grotevant & Condon, 1983; Grotevant & Cooper, 1986;
Harter, 1999).
157
in the sense of a feeling of belonging and kinship with the natural environment in
general, exists harmoniously with a hedonic valuation of nature in the enjoyment of
open air experiences.
158
natural environment, and its aim is to evaluate the explanatory potential of the
concept of connectedness to nature. Also, the development of further investigation
from questions still pending will open the way to search for alternative, more
complex explanations in the fields of study and environmental application, extremely
popular amongst specialists today, such as well-being or environmental education.
***
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185
NDICE DE TABLAS
Captulo 1
Tabla 1.- Principales esquemas o patrones cognitivos de organizacin de la experiencia con la
Naturaleza (Descola, 2001; Ellen, 2001).
Tabla 2.- Anlisis comparado del NEP y el DSP, segn Milbrath (1984, p. 22).
41
53
Chapter 3
Table 4.- Factor analysis of main components, reliability index and corresponding descriptive
statistics of CNS.
68
Table 5.- Correlation between mean scores for Connectedness (CNS and INS), EGO, BIO and
ANT for the STU (N = 135) and GEN (N = 112) samples.
70
Chapter 4
Table 6.- Reliability, means and standar deviation of the scales.
84
Table 7.- Factor loadings for varimax orthogonal three-factor solution of Inclusion of
Environmen in Self Scale: eigenvalues, percentages of variance, means, and standard
deviations.
86
Table 8.- Correlations between INES, IBES, INES dimensions, CNS, INS, EID,
Environmental beliefs and behaviour.
87
Table 9.- Factor loadings for varimax orthogonal three-factor solution of Inclusion of
Environmental Identity Scale: eigenvalues, percentages of variance, means, and standard
deviations.
89
Table 10.- Correlations between EID Factors, CNS, INS, INES, IBES, INES dimensions,
Environmental beliefs and behaviour.
90
100
101
Table 13.- Group differences for Connectedness measures, Environmental identity factors,
and Environmental beliefs, between matched groups who gave (N=17) or not gave (N=55)
their telephone number or email.
103
Table 14.- Stepwise regresion analysis predicting Self-reported environmental behaviour with
Connectedness, Environmental identity, and Environmental belief measures.
103
187
188
Captulo 5
Tabla 15.- Correlacin entre las escalas de Conectividad, Creencias ambientales y
Comportamiento proambiental.
122
123
129
Tabla 18.- Porcentaje de nominaciones para la descripcin de lo que el lugar visitado signific
para los participantes.
131
Tabla 19.- Porcentaje de nominaciones para los lugares que a los participantes les evocan lo
mismo que el visitado.
132
Tabla 20.- Porcentaje de nominaciones para los lugares que a los participantes les evocan lo
contrario que el visitado.
132
Tabla 21.- Ejemplos de respuestas de los participantes correspondientes con cada elemento
connotativo de evaluacin del paisaje.
133
Chapter 6
Table 22.- Summary of psychometric indicators and central tendency measures for the CNS
throughout the investigation (N = 1019*).
141
Table 23.- Summary of psychometric indicators and central tendency measures for the INES
and the IBES throughout the investigation (N = 568*).
142
Table 24.- Summary of the correlations between the CNS and environmental beliefs (EGO,
BIO, ANT) throughout the investigation.
151
Anexos/Appendix
Table 25.- Factor loadings for varimax orthogonal four-factor solution of Environmental
beliefs: eigenvalues, percentages of variance, means, and standard deviations.
201
202
Tabla 27.- Frecuencia y porcentaje de nominaciones para la descripcin del lugar visitado.
215
216
Tabla 29.- Frecuencia y porcentaje de nominaciones para los lugares que a los participantes
les evocan lo mismo que el visitado.
217
Tabla 30.- Frecuencia y porcentaje de nominaciones para los lugares que a los participantes
les evocan lo contrario que el visitado.
218
NDICE DE FIGURAS
Captulo 1
Figura 1.- Imagen de un autobs del sistema de transporte pblico de Londres, verano de
2008. Publicidad de una popular bebida gaseosa: La naturaleza est ms cerca de lo que
crees. 100% sabores naturales.
10
Figura 3.- Afiches de la campaa diseada por la agencia Sra. Rushmore para el Zoo de
Madrid, ejecutada durante 2007 en diversos puntos de la ciudad, cuyo lema dice Los
animales nos ensean a ser personas (Aprendamos de los animales, 2007, 30 de Marzo).
29
37
Figura 5.- Estructura de los motivos ambientales (basado en Amrigo, Aragons, Frutos,
Sevillano, & Corts, 2007).
45
Chapter 4
Figure 6.- Sample screenshots of compatible and incompatible tasks from IAT-Nature.
94
96
106
Captulo 5
Figura 9.- Diagrama de las dimensiones del self en la relacin de los individuos, las otras
personas y la naturaleza. Las lneas discontinuas indican permeabilidad en la construccin de
la identidad personal.
114
Figura 10.- Imgenes del paisaje de la sierra de Guadarrama correspondientes a los Montes de
Valsan.
126
127
136
189
191
192
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
193
194
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
195
196
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
197
198
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
199
200
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
201
Scales
Component
2
3
EGO01
.720
-.071
.064
.005
EGO04
.828
.020
.064
.056
EGO06
.848
-.065
.041
.098
EGO08
.386
-.126
.274
.342
EGO11
.848
-.028
.070
.023
ANT02
.045
.689
.028
-.112
ANT05
.003
.747
-.095
-.048
ANT07
-.012
.752
.022
-.088
ANT09
-.252
.731
-.002
.006
ANT13
-.031
.554
-.117
.106
BIO03
BIO10
-.040
.244
-.056
-.256
.770
.428
-.090
.075
BIO12
.120
.080
.742
.154
BIO14
.055
-.031
.134
.764
BIO15
.052
-.025
-.067
.767
Items
I can enjoy spending time in natural settings just
for the sake of being out in nature.
I need time in nature to be happy.
Sometimes when I am unhappy I find comfort in
nature.
It makes me sad to see natural environments
destroyed.
Being out in nature is a great stress reducer for
me.
The worst thing about the loss of the rain forest is
that it will restrict the development of new
medicines.
The thing that concerns me most about
deforestation is that there will not be enough
lumber for future generations.
One of the most important reasons to keep lakes
and rivers clean is so that people have a place to
enjoy water sports.
One of the best things about recycling is that it
saves money.
Continued land development is a good idea as
long as a high quality of life can be preserved.
I prefer wildlife reserves to zoos.
Nature is valuable for its own sake.
One of the most important reasons to conserve the
environment is to preserve wild areas.
Sometimes animals seem almost human to me.
Humans are as much a part of the ecosystem as
other animals.
202
Table 26.- Correlations between Connectedness measures, Environmental identity and Environmental
beliefs factors, from table 22.
ANT
BIO
BIO 1
BIO 2
CNS
EID
INS
.426(**)
EGO
ANT
BIO
BIO 1
-.150(*)
-.134(*)
-.090
1 .762(**) .736(**)
1
.122(*)
BIO 2
Note. CNS = Connectedness with Nature; EID = Environmental identity; INS = Inclusion of
Nature in Self; EGO = Egobiocentrism; BIO = Biospherism; ANT = Anthropocentrism;
BEHAV = Environmental behaviour. Study 1, Chapter 4.
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
NATURALEZA
CONSTRUIDO
Animales
Plantas
rboles
Ballenas
Pjaros
Edificios
Ciudades
Coches
Calles
Fbricas
YO
NO YO
Mi
Mo
S mismo
Yo
Yo mismo
Eso
Ellos
Sus
Otro
De ellos
203
204
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
205
206
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
207
208
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
209
210
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
211
212
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
213
214
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
215
Sonidos de la
naturaleza
Fauna
Pacfico y
tranquilo
Diversidad
Ro
Bello y
Maravilloso
Educacin
ambiental
Un lugar
especfico
Naturaleza
Insatisfaccin
Conectividad
con la naturaleza
Luminosidad
Montaa
Senderos
Pasear
Instalaciones del
CENEAM
Bajo impacto
antrpico
Aire puro
Olores de la
naturaleza
Zona abierta
Campo
Curiosidades
Buena
temperatura
Otros:
Unidad de registro
Flora; Vegetacin; Plantas; rboles; Pinos; Robles;
Encinas; Arbustos; Matorrales; Jaras; Bosque; bosque
de transicin; Parcela de bosque; Musgo
Sonidos; Ruido de fondo; Sonido de los rboles;
Sonido de los pjaros; Sonido del agua; Viento
Fauna; Animales; Ardillas; Caballos; Aves; Pjaros;
Carpinteros; Cucos; Vida; Seres vivos
Paz; Tranquilidad; Relajante; Disfrutar; Disfrutar;
Cmodo; Cmodo
Diferentes; Distintas; Otras especies; Muchos;
Variedad
Agua; Arroyo; Manantial; Riachuelo; Ro
Belleza; Precioso; Encantador; Inmenso; Ejemplar;
Paraso; nico; Riqueza
Comprender; Conocer; Saber; Labor educativa;
Aprender; Gua; Descrito
La Granja; Segovia; Navacerrada; Madrid; Sierra
Frecuencia
67
Porcentaje*
25.67
25
9.58
23
8.81
17
6.51
16
6.13
14
13
5.36
4.98
3.45
3.07
Naturaleza
Poco verdor; No se ha observado; Poco bello
Conectividad con la naturaleza
8
6
5
3.07
2.30
1.92
4
4
4
4
4
1.53
1.53
1.53
1.53
1.53
1.53
4
3
1.53
1.15
3
2
2
2
1.15
0.77
0.77
0.77
216
Unidad de registro
Recuerdo de un lugar; Recuerdo; Recuerdos de
infancia; Recuerdos de familia; Recuerdo de
emociones; Paso del tiempo; Recuerdo de las
excursiones del colegio; Recuerdo del trabajo como
monitora; Recuerdo de actividades; Recuerdo de
campamentos
Paz; Tranquilidad; Calma; Relajacin
Frecuencia
39
Porcentaje*
23.78
Paz y
41
25.00
Tranquilidad
Bienestar
Bienestar; Agrado; Comodidad
16
9.76
Belleza y
Belleza y Grandiosidad de la naturaleza
11
6.71
Grandiosidad de
la naturaleza
Aromas de la
Aromas de la naturaleza; Aire puro
9
5.49
naturaleza
Distancia del ser
Distancia del ser humano
9
5.49
humano
Sonidos de la
Sonidos de la naturaleza; Silencio
8
4.88
naturaleza
Entretencin
Alegra; Diversin
5
3.05
Libertad
Libertad
5
3.05
Conectividad
Conectividad; Armona
5
3.05
Vitalidad
Vitalidad; Estimulacin
5
3.05
Emociones
Emociones
2
1.22
Buen clima
Buen clima
2
1.22
Inters
Inters
2
1.22
Otros:
vivir cerca, bien organizada, Agobia, Joven, Ilusin
5
3.05
TOTAL
Suma total de nominaciones
164
100
Nota. Respuestas a la pregunta: Dganos brevemente que significa este lugar para usted, describiendo
los pensamientos, emociones, recuerdos, experiencias, o cualquier otro evento que se le haya venido a
la mente en conexin con el entorno durante la visita.
* Calculado a partir de la proporcin de nominaciones de unidades de registro sobre el total de
nominaciones en esta pregunta (N=164)
ANEXOS / APPENDIX
217
Tabla 29.- Frecuencia y porcentaje de nominaciones para los lugares que a los participantes les evocan
lo mismo que el visitado.
Categora
Lugares
especficos
Mar y Fuentes
naturales de
agua
Recuerdo de
pueblos
Montaas
Lejos de la
ciudad
Ambiente
natural
Parques y
reservas
Cielo
El campo
Lugar de
residencia
Pensamiento
Ambiente
urbano
Ninguno
Animales
Otros parajes
Pinos
Viajar
Otros:
Unidad de registro
Boca del asno; Cantocochino; Casa de Campo; Vigo;
Doana; El Pilago; Escorial; Guadarrama; Jarandilla;
Islas Cies; Nacedero del Urredera (Navarra);
Rascafra; Cercedilla, Rascafria; Santander;
Alrededores de Madrid; Raso
Mar; Playa; Costa; Charcos; Gargantas; Manantiales;
Piscinas naturales
Frecuencia
20
Porcentaje*
19.61
19
18.63
7.84
7
7
6.86
6.86
5.88
Parque; Reserva
4.90
5
4
4
4.90
3.92
3.92
Idea; Pensamiento
Iglesia; Museo; Ciudad
3
3
2.94
2.94
Ninguno; Diferente
3
2.94
Zoo; Animales
2
1.96
Otros parajes
2
1.96
Pinos
2
1.96
Viajar
2
1.96
Chopera, miradores, olivar, Olor, tranquilidad,
7
Perderse en la vegetacin, Inexplorado
TOTAL
Suma total de nominaciones
109
100
Nota. Respuestas a la pregunta: Nombre otros tipos de ambientes que le evoquen lo mismo que el que
acaba de visitar.
* Calculado a partir de la proporcin de nominaciones de unidades de registro sobre el total de
nominaciones en esta pregunta (N=109)
218
Tabla 30.- Frecuencia y porcentaje de nominaciones para los lugares que a los participantes les evocan
lo contrario que el visitado.
Categora
Ciudades y su zona
centro
Trfico y Transporte
pblico
Zonas industriales
Lugares de entretencin
bohemia y ocio
Actividades comerciales
Calles y carreteras
Hora punta
Universidad
Lugares ruidosos,
estrechos y oscuros
Aglomeraciones
Edificaciones
Zonas de contraste
Unidad de registro
Preciados; Gran Va; Castellana; Plaza Mayor;
Sol; Centro de Madrid; Mstoles; Vigo;
Centro; Ciudades
Atascos; Trfico; Trnsito; Circulacin;
coches; Autobuses; Metro; Transporte pblico
Fbricas; Industrias
Discotecas; Cines; Bares; Ocio; Hoteles;
paisajes naturales comercializados; Playa
Compras; Colas; Navidad; Centro comercial;
Supermercado
Calles; Carreteras
Hora punta
Cafetera; Facultad; Exmenes; Universidad
Ruidos; Cerrado; Oscuro; Pequeo
Frecuencia
48
Porcentaje*
35.56
19
14.07
9
9
6.67
6.67
5.19
6
5
5
5
4.44
3.70
3.70
3.70