Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41513-020-00154-9

RESEARCH PAPER

Ophiolitic rocks and plagiorhyolites from SW Ecuador (Cerro San José):

petrology, geochemistry and tectonic setting
E. Berrezueta1   · K. López2 · L. González‑Menéndez1 · B. Ordóñez‑Casado1 · S. Benítez3

Received: 14 July 2020 / Accepted: 26 November 2020 / Published online: 28 January 2021
© Universidad Complutense de Madrid 2021

Abstract
This work investigates the petrology and geochemistry of ophiolitic rocks that belong to basalt formations of Cretaceous
age and outcrop south of Nobol (Guayas, Ecuador). We studied their petrogenesis and tried to establish the tectonic set-
ting and correlations with the regional geology. These mafic rocks, together with associated felsic dykes, are interpreted to
be part of an ophiolite sequence (Cerro de San José). Our results show that the mafic rocks are iron rich tholeiitic basalts
­(Fe2O3t = 13–14.7 wt%), with arc geochemical signature. The associated felsic dykes are trondhjemites (­ Na2O = 6.5 wt%;
­K2O = 0.1 wt%) and can be interpreted as plagiorhyolites derived by partial melting of a hydrated mafic oceanic crust. The
tectonic setting proposed for these rocks is an arc or back-arc basin where infiltration of melts/fluids derived from a subducted
slab and its mantle wedge could have generated the arc signature of these tholeiitic basalts. Furthermore, these melts/fluids
could also have induced partial melting of country rock basalts and generation of plagiorhyolite dykes.

Keywords  Basalt · Ophiolite · Plagiorhyolite · Volcanic arc · Ecuador

Resumen
En este trabajo se investiga la petrología y la geoquímica de las rocas ofiolíticas que afloran al sur de Nobol (Guayas,
Ecuador), pertenecientes a formaciones basálticas Cretácicas. Se estudia su petrogénesis y se intenta establecer el contexto
tectónico y las relaciones con la geología regional. Estas rocas máficas, junto con diques félsicos asociados, se interpretan
como parte de una secuencia ofiolítica (Cerro de San José). Nuestros resultados muestran que las rocas máficas son basaltos
toleíticos ricos en hierro ­(Fe2O3t = 13-14.7 % en peso), con características geoquímicas de arco volcánico. Los diques félsicos
asociados son trondhjemitas ­(Na2O = 6.5 % en peso; ­K2O = 0.1 % en peso) y pueden interpretarse como plagioriolitas o
plagiogranitos derivados de la fusión parcial de una corteza oceánica máfica hidratada. La situación tectónica propuesta para
estas rocas es una cuenca de arco o tras-arco donde la infiltración de fundidos/fluidos, derivados de una placa subducente y
de su manto suprayacente, podrían haber generado la afinidad de arco de estos basaltos toleíticos. Además, estos fundidos/
fluidos también podrían haber inducido la fusión parcial de basaltos adyacentes y la generación de plagioriolitas.

Palabras clave  Basaltos · Ofiolitas · Plagioriolita · Arco volcánico · Ecuador

Supplementary Information  The online version contains
supplementary material available at https​://doi.org/10.1007/s4151​
3-020-00154​-9.
1 Introduction and objectives

* E. Berrezueta The continental crust can grow by means of lateral and

e.berrezueta@igme.es vertical contributions. Terrane accretion and obduction are
1 examples of lateral growth mechanisms, while intrusion of
Instituto Geológico y Minero de España, Calle Matemático
Pedrayes, 25, 33005 Oviedo, Spain mantle derived plutonic and volcanic rocks generates verti-
2 cal growth (Irwin 1972; Stern and Scholl 2010; Tetreault and
Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad de Guayaquil,
Av. Raúl Gomez Lince s/n y Juan Tanca Marengo. Campus Buiter 2014). In the Andean Cordillera both mechanisms
Mapasingue, Guayaquil 090612, Ecuador have operated through time (Hughes and Pilatasig 2002).
3
Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias de la Tierra, Polytechnic Lateral accretion of mafic terranes is a common case in
University (ESPOL), Campus Prosperina Espol, active margins, such as the one in the west and southwest of
Guayaquil 090903, Ecuador

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368 Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386

Calacaí-Pjilí-Pallatanga
A Fault Zone Colombia
Esmeraldas Peletec-Girón
Block
Fault

Ecuador
Naranjal
Pedernales Block
Pedernales
O˚ Block

Quito

San Lorenzo
Block
Portoviejo WC
San Lorenzo
Subduction Front

Study Area
W
Piñón
Block
Santa Elena
Santa Elena Guayaquil
Block

Peru N

100 Km

Major Fault or sheare zone

Pliocene to recent volcano deposits Volcanic basament and overlying volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rocks
Tertiary to recent sedimentary rocks Triassic to Cretaceus rocks
Tertiary granitoids Jurassic granitoids
Paleocene to Mid Miocene volcano-sedimentary rocks Proterozoic to Paleozoic rocks

San Lorenzo
B Block N

20 Km
Manabí Basin

Pedro Carbo Daule Cerro San José

-2˚ Ch Nobol
on Tertiary - Quaternary deposits
gó
nC
olo
nch
eM
Piñon
Cayo Formation (erosion of an oceanic arc ?)
ou
nta Block
Ch ins
on
gó Las Orquideas Formation (oceanic arc) and Calentura Formation
nC
olo
Progreso Basin nch
eF Guayaquil Piñón Formation
aul
s
Santa Elena Santa Elena Block Association of arc rocks

Fig. 1  a Geological map of Ecuador. Modified from BGS-CODI- the main geological and tectonic units (Cretaceous rocks). Modified
GEM (1983), Aspden and Litherland (1992) and Cediel et al. (2003). from Reynaud et  al. (1999), Van Melle et  al. (2008) and Reyes and
b Schematic geological map of the study area (Piñón block) showing Michaud (2012)

Ecuador (Kerr et al. 2002; Jaillard et al. 2009). This region terranes against the South American continental margin
is characterized by the presence of terranes of oceanic ori- (Megard and Lebrat 1986; Reynaud et al. 1999; Benitez
gin (Gansser 1973), as a result of the accretion of oceanic 1995; Spikings et al. 2001; Kerr et al. 2002; Mamberti et al.

13
Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386 369
Table 1  Synthesis of contributions related to the study zone
Interpretations N-MORB
Main references Goossens and Rose (1973)
Juteau et al. (1977)
Data Field + Petrography
Main points Essentially normal MORB basalts form E- and N-MORB signatures with dif-
(Western Ecuador the terrane accreted to west-southwest ferent associated Arc rocks: boninites, subordinate Arc rocks. This is cor-
Terrane) Ecuador
N/E-MORB normal/enriched mid ocean ridge basalt, OIB oceanic island basalt, ARC​oceanic arc
2003; Allibon et al. 2008; Borrero et al. 2012; Vallejo et al.
2009) since at least Early Jurassic times (James 1971; Asp-
den et al. 1987; Jaillard et al. 1990). In the western part of
Ecuador, according to radiometric dating (e.g. Sm–Nd radio-
metric dating), the accretion occurred either in several epi-
sodes at ~ 75, ~ 68 and ~ 58 Ma (Hughes and Pilatasig 2002;
Kerr et al. 2002; Jaillard et al. 2009), or during a single
phase dated 75–65 Ma (Vallejo et al. 2009). Coastal Ecua-
dor is a forearc region, which is part of the South-American
northwestern margin, composed of a complex of juxtaposed
tectonic fragments (Benitez 1995; Sinton et al. 1998; Kerr
et al. 2002; Marcaillou and Collot 2008) (Fig. 1a). Coastal
Ecuador (South American NW margin) is an oceanic terrane
(Goossens and Rose 1973 and Lebrat et al. 1987) accreted
to the Andean continental margin during Late Cretaceous
to early Tertiary times (Lebrat et al. 1987). This terrane
is composed of different blocks separated by SSW–NNE
faults (Benitez 1995; Sinton et al. 1998; Kerr et al. 2002;
Marcaillou and Collot 2008; Luzieux et al. 2006). These
blocks are named: Esmeraldas, Pedernales, Piñon, San Lor-
enzo and Santa-Elena blocks (Fig. 1a). All of them share
the same mafic basement (Piñon formation; Luzieux et al.
2006). The Piñon block, where the studied rocks are located,
has a sequence of formations that consists of, from base to
top: (1) the Piñon Formation, (2) the Orquideas Formation
(island-arc lavas) and (3) the Cayo Formation (a thick vol-
canoclastic sequence). A detailed explanation about these
formations will be addressed in the geological background
N/E-MORB + ARC​ OCEANIC PLATEAU
OIB ± MORB ± ARC​
Goossens et al. (1977) Reynaud et al. (1999)
Lebrat et al. (1985, 1987) Lapierre et al. (2000)
Van Thournoutt et al. (1992) Kerr et al. (2002)
Jaillard et al. (1995) Mamberti et al. (2003, 2004)
Kerr and Tarney (2005)
Luzieux et al. (2006)
Luzieux (2007)
Vallejo et al. (2006)
Vallejo (2007)
Altamira and Burke (2015)
Whattam and Stern (2015)
Zapata-Villada et al. (2017)
Fied + Petrography Fied + Petrography
Major elements ± Trace elements Major elements ± 
Trace elements ± REE
Isotopegeology
Geochronology
OIB rocks formed the plateau with
arc tholeiites, andesites, dacites related to the Caribbean-Colombian
Oceanic Plateau
section. Figure 1a shows a schematic geological map of
Ecuador (BGS-CODIGEM 1983; Aspden and Litherland
1992; Cediel et al. 2003).
Different interpretations of the origin of mafic rock base-
ment have been proposed by a number of studies conducted
since the seventies. The first ones claimed an exclusive
N-MORB (normal mid-ocean ridge basalts) origin for these
mafic rocks (i.e. Goossens and Rose 1973). These interpre-
tations were followed by other works that pointed to addi-
tional affinities such as MORB and oceanic arc signatures
for some of these mafic rocks (Feininger and Bristow 1980;
Van Thournout et al. 1992; Lebrat et al. 1985). Since the
nineties until recent times, several investigators suggested
that the mafic rocks formed part of an oceanic plateau linked
to the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic plateau (i.e. Reynaud
et  al. 1999; Lapierre et  al. 2000; Mamberti et  al. 2003,
2004; Kerr et al. 2002; Kerr and Tarney 2005; Luzieux et al.
2006; Vallejo 2007; Whattam and Stern 2015). This plateau
hypothesis states that the main signature of the mafic rocks
is that of OIB (oceanic island basalts) (i.e. Reynaud et al.
1999; Luzieux et al. 2006; Vallejo 2007). A synthesis of con-
tributions related to the study zone is show in Table 1. In the
south west of Ecuador there are outcrops of intrusive felsic
rocks that constitute calc-alkaline granodiorites and tonalites
(Lebrat et al. 1987; Benitez 1995; Reynaud et al. 1999; Luz-
ieux et al. 2006; Vallejo 2007; Mora 2014; Alcívar-Aguilera
2018; Macías-Mosquera 2018) with a range of ages from 98
to 56 Ma (i.e. U–Pb zircon dating, Macías-Mosquera 2018).
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370
Fig. 2  Field observations: a pillow lavas. b Contact (transitional) between massive lavas and acid dykes. c Contact (sharp) between dyke and
basalt
Fig. 3  a Geological map showing the position of samples taken for
petrographic and/or chemical analysis in the study area next to the
river Daule. b View from the North of the outcrop exposed (orienta-
tion SE–NW) by the construction of the Perimetral Highway includ-
These intrusives crosscut the Cretaceous mafic rocks of the
Ecuadorian coast and are considered the result of an acid-
intermediate effusive event accompanied by sedimentary
contributions in an island-arc environment (Benitez 1995;
Luzieux et al. 2006; Vallejo 2007; Van Melle et al. 2008).
Although the main Cretaceous mafic rocks have been
identified, a large number of outcrops remain seriously
understudied. The Cerro San Jose is in the focus of the pre-
sent research. This zone of basaltic rocks intruded by felsic
dykes has been included in the Piñón block and Fm. (Van
Melle et al. 2008; Reyes and Michaud 2012). The main goal
of this work is to understand the petrogenesis of these mafic
13
Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386
ing geological interpretation based on field work and the position of
some samples. c View form the South of the outcrop exposed (ori-
entation NW–SE) including geological interpretation and the position
of some samples
and felsic rocks, and to assign them to suitable tectonic envi-
ronments of formation and correlations with the regional
geology. The petrographic and geochemistry characteriza-
tion of the main rock types of this bimodal magmatism could
add relevant information on the ophiolitic sequence: (1) the
bulk-rock geochemical signature of mafic and felsic rocks
and (2) the thermodynamic and geochemical modeling of
melting processes of both compositional groups. In this way,
contributing to the knowledge of the nature of the ophiolitic
sequences and the magmatic evolution of the Pacific-derived
accreted units during Cretaceous times.
Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386 371
Fig. 4  Textural and mineralogi-
cal characterization of the igne-
ous rocks by transmitted light
OpM. Microphotographs were
obtained under cross-polarized
light conditions (left) and
plane-polarized light conditions
(right) from samples. a basalt
(sample 48). b basaltic andesite
(sample 5). c plagiorhyolite
(sample 27)
2 Geological background
The study area (Cerro de San José) is located SE of Nobol
city in the Guayas province, along one of the meanders of
the Daule river. The Piñón Fm. (Fig. 1b) forms the regional
basement in this zone and is mainly composed of mafic
rocks (Luzieux et al. 2006; Luzieux 2007; Vallejo 2007;
Kerr et al. 2002). According to Luzieux et al. (2006), stud-
ies based on hornblende 40Ar/39Ar analysis suggest an age
of 88.8 ± 1.6 Ma for this formation. The Piñon Formation
is composed of olivine-free basalts and dolerites. Basalts
are either massive, or pillowed, and shallow level intrusions
include micro-gabbros and ferro-gabbros (Reynaud et al.
1999; Pourtier 2001). Its geochemical signature has been
interpreted as that of ocean island basalts (OIB) from an
oceanic plateau (Reynaud et al. 1999; Lapierre et al. 2000;
Luzieux et al. 2006).
Towards the south, the Piñón Fm. is in contact with Las
Orquídeas Fm. This formation (Fig. 1b) is characterized by
explosive volcanic products including andesitic to basal-
tic volcanic breccias with porphyric andesitic fragments,
scarce, locally brecciated, basaltic flows (hyaloclastites),
volcanoclastic debris flows, and subordinate tuffs. Frag-
ments of red radiolarian cherts and scarce limestones
also occur. Those limestones contain abundant micro-
fauna of pelagic foraminifers and radiolarians, associated
with locally abundant inoceramids. The association of the
foraminifers and the radiolarian indicate a lower to mid
Coniacian age (89.8–87.0 Ma) (Ordóñez 2007). Accord-
ing to Benitez (1995) and Luzieux (2007), possibly age for
Las Orquideas Fm. could be Turonian to mid Campanian
age (93.9–76.7  Ma). The geochemical signature of Las
Orquídeas Fm. is an island arc (Lebrat et al. 1987; Benitez
1995; Reynaud et al. 1999).
The Cayo Fm. (Fig. 1b) of Coniacian to Campanian age
(89.8–72.1 Ma) (dated by biostratigraphic studies; Bristow
1976; Luzieux et al. 2006) is located over the Las Orquídeas
Fm. This formation corresponds to a thick series of turbidite
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372 Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386

Fig. 5  Mineralogical charac-
terization of igneous rocks by
Scanning Electron Microscopy.
a Backscattered electron SEM
microphotographs from a basalt
(sample 18). b basaltic andesite
(sample 5). c plagiorhyolite
(sample 27). Minerals identified
by SEM–EDX microanalysis

Table 2  Petrographic description by OpM and OpM-SEM (1)

Samples Field observations Rock classification Description

02, 03, 09, 10, 15, 39, 44 Massive basic rock Basalt Plagioclase (10–70%), olivine phenocrysts, clinopyroxene and
18 (1),19, 48 (1) Pillow Lavas Basalt chlorite (4–10%), quartz (2%). Texture: aphanitic, holocrys-
talline, massive microcrystalline matrix, not fragmented,
porphyric (Figs. 4a, 5a)
05 (1) Massive basic rock Basaltic andesite Plagioclase (60–70%), quartz (3%) and smaller amounts of
amphibole, chlorite, epidote, opaque minerals, prehnite and
some K-feldspar crystals (observed by SEM). The matrix
consists of plagioclase crystals. Texture: aphanitic, holocrys-
talline, massive microcrystalline matrix, not fragmented,
serial porphyric (Figures 4b, 5b)
08, 17, 27 (1) Acid rock dyke Plagiorhyolite ± Plagiogranite Plagioclase (30–40%), in some cases with zonation, volcanic
glass (15%), apatite, chlorite and epidote, titanite. The matrix
consists of microcrystals of quartz (20%) and plagioclase
and of volcanic glass. Texture: porphyric with fenocristales
of plagioclase (Figs. 4c, 5c)

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Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386 373

Table 3  Chemical analyses of Elements Samples

mafic volcanic samples obtained
by XRF analysis: main elements 05 18 48 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5
in oxides (wt%) and trace
elements (ppm) SiO2 52.60 49.00 46.80 48.16 49.62 49.30 49.54 47.06
TiO2 1.04 0.91 1.01 1.19 1.19 1.10 1.12 1.00
Al2O3 12.30 12.50 13.00 13.70 13.59 13.20 13.39 13.08
Fe2O3 t 11.7 11.1 13.00 14.28 13.69 14.70 13.35 14.23
MgO 6.96 6.21 6.28 7.91 7.25 7.60 7.67 7.36
MnO 0.20 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.17 0.21 0.21 0.24
CaO 10.20 14.40 16.40 9.58 8.63 10.78 8.90 10.57
Na2O 2.91 1.38 1.05 3.30 3.90 2.33 3.74 2.45
K2O 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.04 0.10 0.03 0.04 0.05
P2O5 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07
LOI 1.61 4.26 1.79 1.60 1.34 0.40 1.78 3.76
Total 100.07 100.08 100.10 100.06 99.56 99.72 99.82 99.86
Sc 44.4 42.3 53.3 40.7 40.5 46.6 40.6 36.0
V 356.8 304.0 392.5 384.3 381.3 391.3 368.4 314.1
Cr 149.5 149.5 161.6 160.2 158.3 175.9 161.3 140.4
Co 24.8 38.0 22.7 45.9 40.9 39.5 42.3 36.9
Ni 70.1 93.1 78.9 97.0 93.2 92.4 86.8 80.7
Cu 153.9 147.2 64.00 164.6 153.0 152.2 130.8 85.0
Zn 126.0 59.6 30.7 77.1 37.3 79.9 74.9 63.8
Rb 7.9 7.9 8.9 8.2 7.1 7.8 7.1 8.2
Sr 95.2 144.6 217.2 107.1 84.00 91.00 87.9 211.5
Y 21.7 18.2 19.0 20.2 22.0 20.00 18.8 18.3
Zr 47.6 47.6 44.1 51.8 54.4 49.2 48.8 40.9
Nb 2.9 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.5 3.1 2.6 2.7

and debris flow deposited in a submarine fan with considera-
ble volcanic input as part of breccias and megaturbidites and
acid intrusives, with geochemical data indicating an island-
arc setting (Benitez 1995; Reynaud et al. 1999). Accord-
ing to these ages and together with the data from Benitez
(1995), Luzieux et al. (2006) and Luzieux (2007) from the
Guayaquil area, both formations document an Upper Creta-
ceous oceanic volcanic arc.
The Chongón-Colonche Fault (CCF) is the boundary
of these formations (Las Orquídeas and Cayo) to the south
(Fig. 1a, b). This fault (N110) separates the Piñon block
(north) of the Santa-Elena block (south). This transtensional
fault is part from a fault system that predominates in the
Ecuadorian fore arc (Campbell 1974). To the northwest of
the Piñon block is the San Lorenzo block, formed by an
association of arc rocks: basalts, hyaloclastites and pillow
lavas with intercalated sediments (Luzieux et al. 2006).
3 Samples and methods
The first part of this study was dedicated to the field geol-
ogy description based on observations and literature sur-
vey. Samples were taken and structural data was collected
from several outcrops along a road trench (Cerro San José
in Fig. 1b). Further data of samples are given in Online
Resource 1. 48 samples (01–48) were taken during a first
sampling campaign, 14 were selected for petrographic stud-
ies via optical microscopy (OpM, samples 02, 03, 05, 08, 09,
10, 15, 17, 18, 19, 27, 39, 44 and 48). Four of these (samples
05, 18, 27, 48) were also used for Scanning Electron Micros-
copy (SEM) observations and chemical analysis. In a second
sampling campaign, 8 samples were taken (samples M1, M2,
M3, M4, M5, S2, IVS2 and CDT) for chemical analysis.
The second part of the study addressed the petrographic
and geochemical characterization and classification of the
volcanic rocks. This consisted of (1) visual characterization
and selection of representative samples for further studies,
(2) petrographic characterization of texture and mineral-
ogy by Optical Microscopy (OpM) and Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) on thin sections and (3) analysis of the
chemical composition of samples by X-ray fluorescence
spectroscopy (XRF). Samples for these detailed studies
were taken every 20 m or at any point where a visual altera-
tion was not detected. Altogether 53 hand specimens were
taken. Twelve of these samples were selected for thin sec-
tion preparation for transmitted light observations by OpM,
and five of them were used for polished section preparation

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374 Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386

Table 4  Chemical analyses of plagiorhyolite/plagiogranite samples Table 4  (continued)

measured obtained by XRF analysis: main elements in oxides (wt%)
and trace elements (ppm) Elements Samples
27 S2 IVS2 CDT
Elements Samples
27 S2 IVS2 CDT Ho 0.5 0.48 0.83
Er 1.4 1.38 2.44
SiO2 71.8 74.39 74.05 72.79 Tm 0.19 0.20 0.34
TiO2 0.24 0.20 0.21 0.23 Yb 1.61 1.47 2.73
Al2O3 13.7 12.31 13.43 13.26 Lu 0.24 0.25 0.41
Fe2O3 t 3.40 3.23 3.59 3.71
MgO 0.57 0.76 0.63 0.72
MnO 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.05 for reflected light observations by OpM. Four samples were
CaO 1.54 1.38 1.32 1.76 prepared for SEM–EDX analysis, and twelve samples were
Na2O 6.35 5.72 6.54 6.16 used for chemical analysis including major and trace ele-
K 2O 0.10 0.07 0.07 0.05 ments composition.
P2O5 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 The thin sections were prepared in the laboratory of the
LOI 1.14 1.45 0.99 1.06 Faculty of Natural Sciences of the University of Guayaquil
Total 100.09 99.61 100.93 99.87 (UG), while the polished sections were prepared at the Uni-
Sc < 2 9 10 9 versity of Oviedo (UO) and the Escuela Superior Politécnica
V 15.9 11 12 16 del Litoral (ESPOL). A Leica DM 6000 microscope of the
Cr 6.1 6.83 6.83 6 Spanish Geological Survey (IGME) and a CARL ZEISS
Ni < 2 1 1.8 47.7 JENA of UG/ESPOL were used for microscopic observa-
Cu 16.2 24.9 11.4 166.6 tion. For the SEM studies, a JSM-6010LA InTouchScope
Zn 12.1 34 48 51 microscope with a thermo-ionic W filament of up to 30 kV
Rb 6.00 19 12.8 19.6 and an EDX analysis system was applied, at the IGME. The
Sr 99.3 75.39 41.88 58.63 composition (major and trace elements) of the rock samples
Y 11.3 11 11 12 was determined by XRF analysis performed at the Univer-
Zr 81.5 81 85 61 sity of Oviedo using a WD-XRF spectrometer (model 2404;
Nb 1.6 2.2 2.2 2.4 PANalytical) coupled with a Rh tube and Pro-Trace-XRF
Ga 19 12.8 19.6 PANalytical software. Major element analyses were per-
Hf 2.4 2.3 1.6 formed using glass beads of powdered rocks after fusion
Ta 0.2 0.2 0.3 with lithium tetraborate, and trace elements were determined
Ba 17.91 17.95 17.9 on pressed pellets.
Ti 0.1 0.09 0.1
Pb 0.6 1.7 0.3
U 0.5 0.4 0.1 4 Results
Th 0.8 0.7 0.3
La 5.1 5.3 3.4 4.1 Field geology
Ce 11.8 11.8 8.4
Pr 1.69 1.78 1.32 Massive basalts, pillow lavas and plagiorhyolite intrusions
Nd 8 7.8 6.9 were identified in the outcrop of the Cerro San José (Fig. 2),
Sm 2.19 2.1 2.37 all of which have low disperse sulfide content. Carbonate,
Eu 0.77 0.67 0.95 quartz, epidote and sulfide filled veins were also observed.
Gd 2.5 2.61 3.06 The most common fractures are subvertical and have
Tb 0.39 0.36 0.59 NE–SW and NW–SE orientation, but in some cases N–S and
Dy 2.39 2.11 3.93 E–W orientations were also found. Massive basalt dominates
Ho 0.5 0.48 0.83 the outcrop. Pillow lavas are closely packed and follow the
Er 1.4 1.38 2.44 morphology of the lowermost pillow unit (Fig. 2a). They
Tm 0.19 0.2 0.34 have an outer crust formed by concentric layers and radial
Yb 1.61 1.47 2.73 joints. The size of the pillows is in the meter range. The con-
Lu 0.24 0.25 0.41 tact of massive basalts and pillow basalts is transitional. The
Sn 1 0.9 1 dykes are plagiorhyolitic, and their typical orientation is N
W 1 1.3 1.6 60°–70°/70° SE. The contact of massive-pillow basalts and

13
Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386 375

80
0 Zr/TiO2 SiO2
10 Pnonolite
A Comendite B Rhyolite
Pantellerite
70 Comendite
Rhyodacite / Dacite Pantellerite
-1 Rhyolite Trachyte
10 Compositional Compositional
Gap Trachy Gap Trachyte
Dacite - andesite 60
Pnonolite
Andesite Trachy
Andesite - andesite
-2
10
Andesite / Basalt Alkaline Basalt
Basanite 50
Alkaline Basalt
Subalkaline Basalt Basanite
Subalkaline Basalt
-3 Nb/Y Nb/Y
10
-2 -1 0 1 -2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Basalt Basaltic andesite Plagiorhyolite

Fig. 6  Classifications of volcanic rocks based on chemical composition (XRF, Table  3). a Diagram Nb/Y vs Zr/TiO2 (Winchester and Floyd
1977). b Diagram Nb vs ­SiO2

felsic dykes are sharp (Fig. 2b, c). The samples for further
petrographic and geochemical characterization were taken
after and according to a detailed lithological and structural
description of the outcrops (Fig. 3a). Additional material
(Online Resource 1) shows the exact location of the 56 sam-
ples taken from the outcrops exposed by the construction of
the highway (Fig. 3b). Macroscopic inspection revealed a
large number of millimetric fissures consisting of carbonate,
quartz, epidote and arsenopyrite (C + Qz + Ep + Apy) filling
similarly to the fractures observed in the outcrops. Amphi-
bole crystals of up to 1 mm size were observed (samples
03, 05, 14, 27, 42). Most samples contain dispersed sulfide
minerals typically in a chalcopyrite + arsenopyrite + pyrite
association. Some of the studied samples (02, 10, 12, 16,
23, 29, 35, 36, 38, 42, 44 y 48) contain magnetite and show
magnetic properties.
and tabular plagioclase crystals of seriate type. The acidic
intrusives rock consists of plagioclase and quartz. They can
be classified as plagiogranites or plagiorhyolites depending
on its plutonic/volcanic textures. All the studied samples
show moderate alteration. The observed chlorite + epidote
may be product of sea-floor metamorphism replacement
of Fe and Mg rich phases, like amphiboles and pyroxenes.
Prehnite probably originates from plagioclase by hydrother-
mal metamorphism at very low-T (150–200 °C).
4.3 Geochemistry
Twelve samples were selected for whole rock chemical
analysis by means of XRF. The results of main element
analysis are shown in Table 3 (mafic volcanics) and Table 4
(plagiogranites/plagiorhyolites).

4.2 Petrography 4.3.1 Mafic volcanics

The petrographic study allowed us to identify rock forming
minerals (Figs. 4, 5), to observe rock textures and to deter-
mine precise rock types. Basalts, basaltic andesite and pla-
giorhyolites with mostly porphyritic textures were identified.
A detailed petrographic description is presented in Table 2.
The mafic volcanites (Fig. 4a–c) include mainly basalts
and a basaltic andesite. Basalts are either pillow or massive
basalts, and contain plagioclase and clinopyroxene, they are
embedded in a glass-poor groundmass, which contains small
rounded vesicules filled with epidote and dendritic clinopy-
roxene crystals. Basaltic andesite exhibit “pilotaxitic” tex-
ture and a massive microcrystalline matrix with elongated
Major elements Seven of the analyzed samples (05, 18, 48,
M1, M2, M3, M4, y M5,) were classified as sub-alkaline
basalts with a S­ iO2 content between 46.8 and 49.62 wt%.
The studied basalt rocks are rich in ­Fe2O3 t (11.1–14.7
wt%) and CaO (8.63–16.4 wt%). Other oxides such as ­Na2O
(1.05–3.90 wt%), ­TiO2 (0.91–1.19 wt%) MgO (6.21–7.67
wt%) and P ­ 2O5 (0.07–0.09 wt%) show normal to low con-
tents. On the other hand, ­K2O is present in very low amounts
(0.03–0.10 wt%). This combination of very high iron + cal-
cium and relatively low magnesium and very low potassium
is not commonly found in normal basalt series (MORB, IAT,
OIB). Transitional MORB are similar but have lower iron

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376 Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386

pyrite, magnetite and siderite TiO2

epidote
calcite ankerite dolomite actinolite tremolite chlorite ocean-island
100 tholeiite
A Chl + Carb
90
mid-ocean
er) ridge basalt
80 (S
+

Ca
Py

rb
l +

+
70 Ch
Se
ocean-island
r
Gabbro-Basalt

Ser + Chl + Py
alkaline basalt
60
CCPI

50
Tonalite-Dacite
40 Ser sericite
least- (phengite)
altered island-arc tholeiite
box
30
boninite
field
K-

20 Granite-Rhyolite island-arc calc-alkaline basalt

fe
ld
+
Se

10 MnO x 10 P2O5 x 10
r

albite muscovite
K-feldspar Basalt Basaltic andesite
0 20 40 60 80 100
AI
Fig. 8  A MnO–TiO2–P2O5 discrimination diagram for basalts and
Basalt Basaltic andesite Plagiorhyolite basaltic andesite (45–54 wt% S
­ iO2) (after Mullen 1983)

B CaO
SiO2 between the felsic and mafic studied rocks. There are no
20 b ile intermediate andesite-dacite compositions.
mo
im
T i as In order to assess the degree of weathering imprint on the
Gains Al-
Pi−018 : [scaled] ± altered rock

samples, we used the Ishikawa alteration index [AI = 100×

15 (MgO + K2O)/(MgO + K2O + CaO + Na2O)] (Ishikawa et al.
1

Al2O3 1976) and the chlorite-carbonate-pyrite index [CCPI = 100×

1:

10
MnO
K2O
5 box for basalt compositions. The observed alterations are
P2O5
0 with the observed secondary mineralogy of chlorite and
0 5
M2: [scaled] - precursor rock
Fig. 7  a AI-CCPI diagram with the least alteration boxes for mafic,
intermediate and felsic composition. b Isocon diagram for major ele-
ments showing the region of least mobility comprised between the
1:1 isocon line and the isocon lines defined by ­TiO2 and ­Al2O3 as
immobile elements
contents (Wilson 1989). The studied basalts projected in the
Nb/Y vs Zr/TiO2 and Nb vs ­SiO2 diagrams show a subal-
kaline geochemistry (Fig. 6a, b). The only deviations are a
basaltic andesite (Fig. 6b), and the rhyolite samples (Fig. 6a,
b). An important feature is the compositional gap (Daly Gap)
Fe2O3t
(FeO + MgO)/(FeO + MgO + Na2O + K2O)] (Large et  al.
2001). The AI-CCPI alteration box plot (Fig. 7a) shows a
MgO
low to moderate alteration (AI = 30 y CCPI = 90) and the
samples project into and close to the minimum alteration
TiO2 L o sses
Na2O probably due to sea-floor metamorphism, consisting of
Chl + Ser + Cb + Ep alteration trends. This is in agreement
carbonates. To further investigate the possible mobility of
10 15 20
major elements in the mafic rocks, we performed anisocon
analysis (Grant 1986, 2005). We considered sample M2
as the least altered composition (lowest CCPI value ≈ 83,
inside the minimum alteration box of Fig. 7) being a pos-
sible precursor to the slightly more altered sample Pi-018
(second highest CCPI value ≈ 92). The 1:1 isocon line and
the isocons obtained considering T ­ iO2, ­Al2O3 as immobile
◂
Fig. 9  Discrimination diagram for basalts. a MgO vs T­ iO2; b MgO
vs ­Fe2O3; c MgO vs Nb; d MgO vs Y; e MgO vs Zr; f MgO vs Zr/
Nb; g Zr/Y vs Nb/Y. Data sets: green circles and blue square present
study. Ocean island basalt (OIB) and normal mid-ocean ridge basalt
(N-MORB) average data are from Rollingson (1993) and references
therein. Back-arc basin basalt (BABB) and island-arc tholeiite (IAT)
averages are from Saunders and Tarney (1979) and Luff (1982)
respectively

13
Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386 377

A TiO2 B
Fe2O3
1.5 20
N-MORB
OcPl
OcPl
15

N-MORB
1 BABB 10 IAT

BABB
IAT 5

MgO MgO
0.5 0
0 6 7 8 9 0 6 7 8 9

C Nb D Y
N-MORB
5 100

4 BABB OcPl 80
OcPl
3 60

2 N-MORB
40
BABB
1 20 IAT
IAT MgO MgO
0 0
0 6 7 8 9 0 6 7 8 9

E Zr N-MORB F Zr/Nb
30
100 BABB IAT BABB
N-MORB
80
OcPl
60
15
40 OcPl

20
IAT MgO MgO
0 0
0 6 7 8 9 0 6 7 8 9

G Nb/Y
0
10
Basalt
Basaltic andesite
BABB
IAT: island-arc tholeiite
-1
10
N-MORB BABB: back-arc basin basalt
OcPl
IAT N-MORB: normal mid-ocean ridge basalt

OcPl: oceanic plateau

Zr/Y
-2 (~ OIB: ocean island basalt)
10
0 1
10 -2 10 10

13

378 Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386

A Ti/Y B 2 Nb
Within-plate
alkaline basalt E-Type
Transitional MORB
Alkaline Within-plate
Tholeiitic
alkaline basalt
1000 N-Type
and
VAB MORB
WPB Within-plate
and
tholeiite
400 VAB
Within-plate
tholeiite
MORB and
180
VAB
Nb/Y
100 Zr/2 Y
0.1 0.18 0.4 0.86 1.48 2.1 10.6

C D
1000 600
Cr (ppm) V (ppm) IAT
500 Lebrat MORB Ti/V=20
500 Ti/V=10 Ti/V=50
Reynaud

Reynaud
400 MORB
200 Kerr

100 300 Kerr WPB

VAB
Lebras
OIB
50 200 Alkaline Basalt Ti/V=100

WPB

20 100

Y (ppm) Ti (ppm)/1000
10 0
5 10 20 50 5 10 15 20 25

E
20
Zr/Y

10 Basalt
WPB Basaltic andesite
IAT: island-arc tholeiite
5 MORB: normal mid-ocean ridge basalt
Zr/Y ≈ 3 Continental Arc
OIB: ocean island basalt
Oceanic Arc Reynaud WPB: within-plate basalt
MORB
and VAB: volcanic-arc basalt
2 Kerr Ocean floor basalt
Lebras
IAB: island-arc basalt
IAB

1 Zr (ppm)
10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

Fig. 10  Diagrams for tectonic setting discrimination of basalts.
a Nb/Y vs Ti/Y diagram (Pearce 1982). b Zr/4-2Nb-Y diagram for
basalts (Meschede 1986). c Y vs Cr diagram (Pearce 1982). Data sets:
green circles and blue square, present study; other data after Lebrat
et al. (1985), Reynaud et al. (1999) and Kerr et al. (2002). d Ti vs V
diagram (Shervais1982); data sets as in the previous diagram. e Zr vs
Zr/Y diagram (Pearce and Norry 1979); data sets as in previous dia-
grams. IAB island-arc basalt, VAB volcanic-arc basalt, WPB within-
plate basalt, MORB normal mid-ocean ridge basalt, IAT island-arc
tholeiite, OIB ocean island basalt

13
Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386 379

Fig. 11  Trace element con- 10

2
centrations normalized to the
(Sun and McDonough 1989)
primordial mantle composition OIB
(Sun and Mac Donough 1989).
Ocean island basalt (OIB) and
normal mid-ocean ridge basalt
(N-MORB) average data is from
Rollingson (1993) and refer- BABB

Sample / Primordial Mantle

ences therein. Back-arc basin 1 MORB
basalt (BABB) and island-arc 10
tholeiite (IAT) averages are
from Saunders and Tarney
(1979) and Luff (1982) respec-
tively. Th, U and REE were not
analyzed in the studied basalts IAT
San José Basalt
0
10

IAT: island-arc tholeiite

BABB: back-arc basin basalt
N-MORB: normal mid-ocean ridge basalt
OIB: ocean island basalt

Ba U K Ce Pr P Zr Eu Dy Yb
-1
10
Rb Th Nb La Pb Sr Nd Sm Ti Y

An50
e
nit
mo Qtz-
e
alit

rite

nzo
Ton

dio
no
Gra

Experimental melts from hydrated gabros

CDT Late plagiogranites (Rollingson 2009)

S-2 Early plagiogranites (Rollingson 2009)
Pi-027
IVS2 n ite Crustal plagiogranites TTG (Rollingson 2014)
mite a
Trondhje Gr Oceanic plume-related acid rocks
Ab (Geist et al. 1995) Or

Fig. 12  Feldspar normative An–Or–Ab diagram (after O’Connor hydrated gabbro (Koepke et al. 2004) are felsic melts and plot in the
1965). The two green fields are plagiogranites from Oman (Rolling- orange field. Crustal plagiogranites (pink field) are from Rollingson
son 2009). Troodos plagiogranites from Grimes et al. (2013) also pro- (2014). Oceanic plume related from Geist et al. (1995) are projected
ject on those fields. Experimental compositions from partial melts of in the light blue field

elements were used to define the region of the least element
mobility (Fig. 7b). The results show that in all cases the only
element mobility consists of CaO ± K2O gains and moderate
­Na2O losses in the altered sample. The rest of elements did
not change in a significant way.
In order to investigate the tectonic setting of the stud-
ied rocks with major element relations, we used the
MnO–TiO2–P2O5 discrimination diagram (Mullen 1983).
Based on Fig. 7a, b, we can assert that these elements show
no significant mobility. Our projected data indicates that
the basalt and basaltic andesite samples correspond to the
island-arc tholeite series due to its lower ­TiO2 and ­P2O5 con-
tents compared to those of MORB-basalts (Fig. 8). The geo-
chemical data observed through binary diagrams show poor
correlations and a considerable scatter. Taking MgO, ­TiO2
or ­Fe2O3 as differentiation indexes, there are no well-defined
geochemical trends. This might indicate that the basalts are
formed by many single batches (in study outcrop) that are
relatively independent of each other. Only in few cases, some
apparent correlations can be observed, and those are clus-
tered in two or three groups. In the binary diagram MgO vs
­TiO2 (Fig. 9a), all seven samples plot within or just above

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380 Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386

Fig. 13  Rare earth element 10

(REE) diagram normalized to (Boynton 1984)
chondrite values of Boynton
(1984). The studied San José
plagiorhyolites show low REE Oceanic plume-related acid rocks (Geist et al. 1995)
fractionation and Eu anomalies. Eu* = 0.50-0.68 (La/Yb)n = 4.45-4.57
Data from Oman and Troodos
plagiogranites derived by

Sample / Chondrite
partial melting of mafic crust 10
(Grimes et al. 2013) are shown
for comparison. Oceanic plume
related by fractional crystalliza- Oman plagiogranites
tion of a basaltic melt (Geist Eu* = 0.89-0.93 (La/Yb)n = 0.55-1.07
et al. 1995) are also projected
for comparison
1
10

Troodos plagiogranites
San José Plagiorhyolites
Eu* = 0.79-1.08 (La/Yb)n = 0.53-1.20
Eu* = 0.87-1.07 (La/Yb)n = 0.84-2.43

0
La Pr Pm Eu Tb Ho Tm Lu
10
Ce Nd Sm Gd Dy Er Yb

70 the samples studied are plotted close to the IAT and OIB
Oceanic plume-related fields and away from the N-MORB and BABB fields.
acid rocks
60 Trace elements Regarding the trace elements, it is note-
worthy that the contents of Nb (2–3 ppm) are relatively low
50 compared to either alkaline or tholeiitic OIB. Y contens
l
are intermediate to low (18–22 ppm) but similar to some
La (ppm)

na n
40
a
io tio
c t liza E-MORB or IAT basalts (Wilson 1989). Zr contents are
fr tal
cr
ys moderate to low (40–55 ppm) and Ni contents (70–97 ppm)
30 are intermediate between higher typical MORB and lower
partial melting
IAT values. We represented the data (Table 4) in the Nb/Y
20 vs Ti/Y discrimination diagram for basalts (Pearce 1982;
rocks Oman
San José
plagiorhyolites
Fig. 10a) and the Y–Zr–Nb triangle classification (Meschede
Troodos
10 plagiogranites plagiogranites 1986; Fig. 10b). The projections suggest that these rocks
could have MORB and/or volcanic arc signatures. The com-
paratively low Nb contents together with the relatively low
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 Ti/Y ratios are responsible for this composition. Some trace
SiO (wt.%) elements were projected in different diagrams (Nb, Y, Zr;
Fig. 9c–g). The samples studied plot just above the BABB
Fig. 14  La versus ­SiO2 diagram set by Brophy (2009) to evaluate the and IAT fields and outside of N-MORB and OIB fields. In
petrogenesis of felsic rocks in the oceanic crust. Fractional crystalli-
zation induces REE enrichment with increasing S ­ iO2. Hydrous par- the case of MgO vs Zr/Nb (Fig. 9f), the samples plot out-
tial melting of basaltic rocks with residual amphibole show flat or side of the reference magmatic series. In the comparison of
decreasing REE with increasing ­SiO2. Oman plagiocgranites are from ratios Zr/Y vs. Nb/Yb (Fig. 9g), the samples plot only above
Rollingson (2009) and Troodos plagiogranites from (Gillis and Coo- the N-MORB field. Other tectonic discrimination diagrams,
gan 2002). Oceanic rhyolites are from Geist et al. (1995). An approxi-
mate field of basaltic rock compositions (gray shaded) is from Grimes such as the Y vs Cr (Pearce 1982; Fig. 10c), Ti vs V (Sher-
et  al. (2013). The studied plagiorhyolites show low REE contents vais 1982; Fig. 10d) and the Zr vs Zr/Y diagram (Pearce and
compatible partial melting from basaltic parent rocks Norry 1979; Fig. 10e), indicate that the rocks have island-arc
signature. This suggests a suprasubduction tectonic setting,
in order to explain the Cr, Y, V and Ti geochemistry of the
the BABB and IAT fields and away from the N-MORB and studied basalts. The difference of the Ti/V ratios (10–20)
OIB fields. However, in MgO vs ­Fe2O3 diagram (Fig. 9b), compared to OIB (> 50) is also noticeable. The trace element

13
Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386 381

Fig. 15  P–T pseudo-section 4
calculated for a composition 5% 6

ut
M3 in the NCKFMASHTO

Qz-o
H2O
5 Cpx Pl Amp
system: (M3 mol%: S ­ iO2:

-ou
Opx Ilm L
48.22, ­TiO2: 0.8, ­Al2O3: 7.60,

t
FeOt: 12.03, MgO: 11.08, 4 10%
CaO: 11.29, ­Na2O: 2.20, ­K2O: C D
0.015, ­H2O: 5.0, O: 0.5). The

Liqu
dashed red lines are melt 15%
(L) isopleths showing molar

id
H2O-

-in
percentage values between out
5 and 15%. Star symbols are
3 5% Cp
the P–T points where melt xP
compositions were calculated. 2 lA
mp

Qz-out
Further trace element calcula- Op
Pressure (Kb)
x Il
tions were done with the phase m

x-in
LH
assemblages calculated at these Op 2O
points (A-B-C-D). Numbered 3
fields are 1: Cpx, Amp, Pl, Opx, 1 B 10%
Liquid
Qz, Ilm, ­H2O (variance = 5). -in
2: Cpx, Amp, Pl, Opx, Qz, Ilm in
­H2O, L (v = 4). 3: Cpx, Amp, Qz-
Pl, Qz, Ilm, H­ 2O (v = 6). 4:
Cpx, Amp, Pl, Qz, Ilm ­H2O, L
(v = 5). 5: Cpx, Amp, Pl, Qz,
Ilm, L (v = 6). Mineral abbrevia- 5%
tions are Amp amphibole, Cpx
Cpx Pl Amp Opx Ilm H2O
clinopyroxene, Ilm ilmenite, Ol
olivine, Opx orthopyroxene, Pl
plagioclase, Qz quartz, L liquid
or melt phase
A
NCKFMASHTO (ds.62) n
Ol-i
2
750 800 850
Temperature (ºC)

Fig. 16  Melt compositions An50

calculated with THERMOC-
ALC (Fig. 15) projected on the
e
nit
mo Qtz-
e

Ab–An–Or diagram (O’Connor

alit

rite

nzo

1965)
Ton

dio
no
Gra

P = 2.2 kbar, T = 845ºC, L = 5.1% (Cpx-Opx-Hb-Pl-Ilm-L-H O)

A
P = 3 kbar, T = 800ºC, L = 3.8% (Cpx-Opx-Hb-Pl-Ilm-L-H O)
D B
C P = 3.75 kbar, T = 765ºC, L = 4.4% (Cpx-Pl-Hb-Qz-Ilm-L)
C
B
n ite P = 3.75 kbar, T = 830ºC, L = 14.3% (Cpx-Opx-Pl-Hb-Ilm-L)
mite a D
A
Trondhje Gr
Ab Calculated with Thermocalc (ds.62) Or
Experimental melts from hydrated gabros Early plagiogranites (Rollingson 2009)
Late plagiogranites (Rollingson 2009) Crustal plagiogranites TTG (Rollingson 2014)

Oceanic plume-related acid rocks (Geist et al. 1995)

concentrations normalized to the primordial mantle (Sun the OIB rocks are much more enriched in all the elements
and Mac Donough 1989) show similarities with arc derived considered.
rocks (back-arc and island arc tholeiites) and also some com- Comparison with other studies Different interpretations
mon features with MORB (Fig. 11). Its main differences are have been proposed regarding the tectonic setting of similar
the negative anomalies in K, Ba and P. On the other hand, Ecuadorian coast basalts (Table 1): normal oceanic crust or

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382 Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386

Table 5  Results of the P–T and fractional melting models for the four P–T points selected in Fig. 15 (P–T pseudosection: A–B–C–D)
P–T location A (2.2 kbar-845 °C) B (3.0 kbar-800 °C) C (3.75 kbar-760 °C) D (3.75 kbar-830 °C)

Phases (+ L + Ilm) Amp + Cpx + Pl Amp + Cpx + Pl Amp + Cpx Amp + Cpx

Opx + H2O Opx + H2O Pl + Qz Pl + Opx
F (melt = L) 5.1% 3.8% 4.4% 14.3%
Wt %
SiO2 63.53 71.69 76.46 68.60
Al2O3 14.37 14.37 12.97 14.89
Fe2O3 10.01 3.95 2.09 5.96
MgO 2.44 0.84 0.37 1.25
CaO 1.85 2.01 2.03 2.44
Na2O 7.42 6.72 5.75 6.66
K2O 0.33 0.40 0.30 0.16
Normative
Ab 62.78 56.86 48.65 56.35
An 4.92 7.86 8.69 10.26
Or 1.95 2.36 1.77 0.94

Major element compositions were obtained with the rbi code of THERMOCALC

MORB (i.e. Goossens and Rose 1973; Juteau et al. 1977),

SW Volcanic Arc / Back-Arc Basin NE N/E-MORB + arc (i.e. Lebrat et al. 1987; Jaillard et al. 1995)
and mantle plume influence or OIB signature ± MORB ± arc
(i.e. Reynaud et al. 1999; Kerr et al 2002; Luzieux et al.
IAT(± MORB)
2006; Luzieux 2007; Van Melle et al. 2008; Luzieux et al.
PL PR 2006; Vallejo 2007). For comparative purposes, we pro-
jected the geochemical data from three of these studies
basaltic crust (Lebrat et al. 1985; Reynaud et al. 1999; Kerr et al. 2002) in
the tectonic classification diagrams, together with our own
litospheric
mantle wedge

Melts data (Fig. 10c–e). The geochemistry in terms of immobile

mantle elements Cr, Y, Zr, Ti, and V is very close to our data and
mantle wedge

indicates that these basaltic rocks have intermediate signa-

Fluids + Melts tures between MORB and arc basalts (Fig. 10c–e). On the
other hand, the OIB signature is completely absent in the
astenospheric four data sets, including the ones of Reynaud et al. (1999)
subd mantle and Kerr et al. (2002) at least when considering this specific
uctin
g sla geochemistry.
litospheric b
mantle
4.3.2 Rhyolitic dykes

Fig. 17  Plate-tectonic model and setting (not to scale) proposed for
the studied rocks. Island-arc tholeiites. PL pillow lavas, PR plagi-
ogranite dykes. The setting could be either a volcanic arc or a back-
arc basin where tholeiitic basaltic crust was being generated together
with input of subduction fluids and/or melts. The subduction derived
fluids/melts could have induced the arc imprint to the study basalts.
Furthermore, crystallization of these subduction melts could have
produced fluids responsible for the generation of trondhjemitic pla-
giorhyolites (PR) by hydrous partial melting of the basaltic crust.
The direction of subduction is interpreted to be towards NE because
known arc formations outcrop towards the SW (Cayo Fm.). Neverthe-
less, an opposite sense, as suggested by other authors (Vallejo et  al.
2009; Whattam and Stern 2015) would not influence the petrogenetic
model explained in the text
The felsic dykes that crosscut the basalts (samples 27, S2,
IVS2 and CDT) are plagiorhyolites (Fig. 6a, b) and their
composition is between slightly peraluminous and metalu-
minous (A/CNK = 1.02–0.99). They have very high ­Na2O
contents (5.72–6.54 wt%), relatively high CaO (1.32–1.76
wt%) and very low K ­ 2O (0.05–0.1 wt%) and P ­ 2O5 (0.05–0.06
wt%). The projection on the O´Connor (1965) Or-An-Ab
diagram, shows a strong trondhjemite affinity (see Fig. 12);
therefore, these rocks can be interpreted as plagiogranites or
plagiorhyolites. The rare earth element (REE) contents were
analyzed in three of the four samples (Fig. 13). REE abun-
dances and fractionation are quite low showing flat patterns.

13
Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386 383
The Eu anomaly is negative to slightly positive. A com-
parison with Oman and Troodos ophiolitic plagiogranites,
related to partial melting of mafic rocks (Grimes et al. 2013)
shows important similarities. On the other hand, rhyolites
derived from fractional crystallization of basalts (oceanic
rhyolites of Geist et al. 1995) show differences in contents,
patterns and Eu anomalies.
Possible origin of the felsic-rhyolitic dykes This type of
trondhjemitic granites or plagiorhyolites is related in ori-
gin and petrogenesis to MORB or arc/back-arc basin type
basalts (Jolly and Lidiak 2006; Rollingson 2009; Grimes
et al. 2013). The comparison of the studied samples with
other plagiogranites from the Oman and Troodos ophiolites
(Rollingson 2009, 2014; Grimes et al. 2013) reveals simi-
larities with the “early plagiogranites” type (Fig. 12). On
the other hand, there are important differences between
our samples and the crustal plagiogranites or TTG suites
(Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite) that are linked to sub-
duction or delamination of mafic rocks under the continental
crust. The low Sr/Y ratio of the studied rocks (4.76–8.78)
also proves their different nature compared to TTG suites
and suggests an origin by relatively shallow melting/crys-
tallization. Plagiogranites related to MORB or arc/back-arc
sequences in ophiolites can be generated either by magmatic
differentiation (fractional crystallization) from a basaltic
magma, or, more commonly, by partial melting of hydrated
basalts. Magmatic differentiation in our case is less probable
for different reasons: (1) absence of intermediate rocks such
as basaltic andesites (only one sample), andesites/tonalites
and dacites (Fig. 6). This lack of intermediate compositions
should not be expected if a magmatic differentiation had
operated (crystal fractionation). (2) The comparison with
studied oceanic rhyolites, known to have been derived by
fractional crystallization (Geist et al. 1995), shows important
differences in composition with our studied cases: the oce-
anic rhyolites are between granitic and trondhjemitic in com-
position but far away from the pure trondhjemitic affinity of
the studied dykes. (3) REE patterns and La vs. ­SiO2 trends
are in more agreement with a partial melting origin for the
studied plagiorhyolites (Figs. 13, 14). As indicated by the
modeling study of Brophy (2009), fractional crystallization
from a mafic melt produces a positive correlation between
­SiO2 and La or Yb, whereas partial melting produces flat or
even decreasing REE trends with increasing ­SiO2.
P–T modeling In order to investigate the possible gen-
eration of plagiorhyolites from partial melting of a basal-
tic crust we modeled the P–T–XH2O under which these
basalts could have melted, calculated the composition of
such melts and compared them with the plagiorhyolite sam-
ples. THERMOCALC version 3.45i (Powell et al. 1998)
was used together with the internally consistent data set
of Holland and Powell (2011, update ds62). The modeling
was performed in the NCKFMASHTO system with the
following a–x relations: tonalitic metabasite melt, augite,
hornblende (Green et al. 2016), orthopyroxene (White et al.
2014), olivine (Holland and Powell 2011), plagioclase (Hol-
land and Powell 2003), and ilmenite (White et al. 2000).
Aqueous fluid (­ H2O) was treated as a pure phase. The bulk
rock composition M3 (Table 3) was selected for the input
because is representative of a tholeiitic basalt with arc sig-
nature. Low/moderate oxidation conditions were selected
­(O2 = 0.5 mol%) because of the low/moderate alteration
state observed in the studied basalts. Bulk-rock water was
set ­(H2O = 5 mol%) to reproduce melting of hydrated mafic
rocks, since these conditions are usually assumed in the gen-
eration of plagiogranites.
Under these conditions, a P–T pseudo-section was cal-
culated (Fig. 15) for P = 2–4 kbar to reproduce an oceanic
volcanic arc crust with variable thickness of ≈ 6–12 km.
The selected temperature range was 750–850  °C. Melt
compositions were obtained directly from the rbi code of
THERMOCALC, at selected P–T points, and normative
Or-An-Ab were projected on the O’Connor (1965) diagram
(Fig. 16). The calculated assemblages and their boundaries
(Fig. 15) are shown in colored fields (tone depending on the
variance). Boundary lines represent incoming/outcoming
phases: melt: L (red), H­ 2O (blue), olivine: ol (green), quartz
(black), orthopyroxene (purple). The solidus has a variable
but negative P–T slope due to presence of ­H2O fluid. When
quartz enters and orthopyroxene leaves the assemblage, in
the lower temperature zones of the diagram, the slope of the
solidus and the ­H2O-in curve acquire a very steep negative
slope. Partial melting occurs between ≈ 750–837 °C depend-
ing on pressure: lower melting temperatures are achieved
with higher pressure conditions. Amphibole coexists with
melt in the whole studied P–T range. There is broad field of
melt + free aqueous fluid ­(H2O), together with clinopyrox-
ene (Cpx) + orthopyroxene (Opx) + plagioclase (Pl) + ilmen-
ite (Ilm) + amphibole (Amp). The slopes of the calculated
melt isopleths are near-parallel to the solidus and reach a
maximum between 15 and 20% of melt at 850 °C and 4
kbar. Melt compositions were calculated for relatively low
melting degrees (< 14%) at three different pressures: 2.2,
3.0 and 3.75 kbar (Table 5). The calculated melt compo-
sitions correspond to trachy-dacites, dacites and rhyolites.
The Or–An–Ab proportions are trondhjemitic and very close
to the observed rocks (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16). The pres-
sure difference (2–4 kbar) and its correlative temperature
decrease (750–837 °C) have some effects on the composition
of the calculated melts: F ­ e2O3, MgO, and N ­ a2O decrease,
while ­SiO2 shows an increase. Higher temperature melts
(with higher melt fraction) are in general more mafic (higher
­Fe2O3 + MgO) and trachy-dacitic and dacitic in composition
(Table 5). The trondhjemitic composition of the observed
rocks is best approached by higher pressure (2–3.75 kbar)
and lower temperature (760–800 °C) melting conditions,
13

384
corresponding to points B and C, especially B (Figs. 12, 13,
14, 15, 16). In summary, trondhjemitic liquids, similar to the
plagiorhyolites observed, could be derived by low melting
degrees, in the presence of fluid ­H2O, from basaltic rocks
similar to the studied sample (M3) provided that pressure
conditions were not too low (not too shallow) and tempera-
tures were close to the solidus with melting degrees ≤ 5%
(Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16).
5 Discussion and conclusions
The results obtained from the analysis of the studied rocks
(i.e. massive and pillow basalts and plagiorhyolitic dykes)
(Table 2 and Figs. 4, 5, 6a) prove them to be similar to other
rocks located nearby (Piñón Fm.: Goossens and Rose 1973;
Benitez 1995; Reynaud et al. 1999; Kerr et al. 2002; Luzieux
et al. 2006; Luzieux 2007). The petrographic observations
revealed a series of vein-filling minerals (pyrite, magnet-
ite, quartz, carbonate and apatite) indicating low to mod-
erate sea-floor metamorphism, which was also confirmed
by the results of the AI-CCPI alteration box plot diagram
(Fig. 7a). The geochemical analyses indicate that the studied
basalts have iron rich tholeiitic compositions based on the
­SiO2 content, the FeO/MgO ratio in agreement with pre-
vious studies (Goossens and Rose 1973; Kennerley 1980;
Wallrabe-Adams 1990). Our findings, regarding the island-
arc tholeiite affinity in these rocks, are based on the major
and trace element geochemistry (Cr/Y, V/Ti and Zr/Y). We,
therefore, classify these basalts as iron rich island arc tholei-
ites (Figs. 8, 9, 10). Some works have suggested an exclusive
oceanic plateau origin, with an OIB signature (Jaillard et al.
1995; Reynaud et al. 1999; Kerr et al. 2002; Mamberti et al.
2003; Vallejo 2007; Van Melle et al. 2008), a continuous
tectono-magmatic evolution from plume to arc (Whattam
and Stern 2015) or oceanic crust-MORB origin for similar
rocks (Goossens and Rose 1973; Juteau et al.1977; Lebrat
et al. 1985). Nevertheless, our data support the interpretation
of these rocks as island-arc tholeiites (Figs. 8, 9, 10).
Pure island-arc rocks are usually dominated by
basalts ± basaltic andesites ± andesites. This range of com-
positions reflects in part the higher crustal thickness of these
zones in comparison to their adjacent back-arc basins. On
the other hand, back-arc zones are mainly composed of
basalt compositions similar to MORB (tholeiites) with a
more or less strong arc signature (Wilson 1989). The data
presented in this research suggest that the most probable
tectonic setting for the studied rocks is a back-arc basin
or an arc in transition to a back-arc. Even though the area
study is limited, we consider that our study basalts could
represent part of a volcanic arc or a back-arc basin where
tholeiitic basalts were generated with the imprint of fluids/
melts derived from a nearby subducting slab (arc signature)
13
Journal of Iberian Geology (2021) 47:367–386
(Fig. 17). Our simplified model is similar to that proposed by
Van Thournout et al. (1992) but is also compatible with that
of Vallejo et al. (2019). The subduction sense (either E–NE
or W–SW) does not influence the presented petrogenetic
model (Fig. 17).
The rhyolites are interpreted as plagiohyolite liquids
with trondhjemitic affinity likely generated by low melt-
ing degrees of hydrated basaltic crust (gabbros) at pres-
sure conditions between ≈ 2 and 4 kbar and temperatures
≈ 760–830 °C and low melting degrees. Fluid (­ H2O) input
was necessary for the melting process. Infiltrated fluids from
crystallizing hydrous basaltic liquids at the base of the oce-
anic crust could have produced the partial melting of the
basaltic crust that generated these plagiorhyolites (Fig. 17).
Acknowledgements  The authors would like to thank two reviewers (J.
Escuder and anonymous reviewer) for their constructive comments and
the editorial office (R. Arenas) for the editorial handling. We also thank
A. Moreira for his help in the rock sample collection. The JEOL 6010
PLUS/LA has been partially funded by European Regional Develop-
ment Fund,  (ref. IGME13-4E-1518).
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