Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A010422/ 2022 /
Comparative study of pre-Hispanic and colonial adobes in Mexico. Preliminary
inferences on the effects of the granulometric distribution and used recycled
materials in the state conservation of earth architecture
Estudio comparativo de adobes prehispánicos y coloniales en México. Inferencias preliminares sobre
los efectos de la distribución granulométrica y materiales reciclados en el estado de conservación
de la arquitectura de tierra
María Jesús Puy-Alquiza1,*, Velia Yolanda Ordaz-Zubia2, Omar Cruces-Cervantes3, Antonio Bello-Sandoval3,
Raúl Miranda-Avilés1, Ma. del Carmen Salazar-Hernández4, Gilberto Carreño-Aguilera5, Gabriela A. Zanor6, Yanmei Li1
1
Departamento de Minas, Metalurgia y Geología,
División de Ingenierías, Universidad de Guanajuato,
Campus Guanajuato, 36000, Guanajuato, Mexico.
2
Departamento de Arquitectura, División de Arqui-
tectura, Arte y Diseño, Universidad de Guanajuato,
Campus Guanajuato, 36000, Guanajuato, Mexico.
3
Instituto de Antropología e Historia (INAH), Centro,
36000, Guanajuato, Mexico.
4
UPIGG-IPN, Av. Mineral de Valenciana No. 200,
Col. Fraccionamiento. Industrial Puerto Interior, Si-
lao de la Victoria, 36275, Guanajuato, Mexico.
5
Departamento de Geomática e Hidráulica, División
de Ingenierías, Universidad de Guanajuato, Campus
Guanajuato, 36000, Guanajuato, Mexico.
6
División Ciencias de la vida, Universidad de Guana-
juato, Campus Irapuato, 36824, Guanajuato, Mexico
* Corresponding author: (M. J. Puy-Alquiza)
yosune.puy155@gmail.com
How to cite this article:
Puy-Alquiza, M.J., Ordaz-Zubia, V.Y., Cruces-
Cervantes, O., Bello-Sandoval, A., Miranda-Avilés,
R., Salazar-Hernández, M.C., Carreño-Aguilera, G.,
Zanor, G.A., Li, Y., 2022, Comparative study of pre-
Hispanic and colonial adobes in Mexico. Preliminary
inferences on the effects of the granulometric
distribution and used recycled materials in
the state conservation of earth architecture:
Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana,
74 (3), A010422. http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/
BSGM2022v74n3a010422
Manuscript received: December 7, 2021.
Corrected manuscript received: February 20, 2022.
Manuscript accepted: March 29, 2022.
Peer Reviewing under the responsibility of
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-SA
license(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
1
ABSTRACT
The characterization of the pre-Hispanic and
colonial adobes used in the construction of
buildings in Mexico was carried out to know
the differences between their processes and
manufactures. The eight samples obtained cor-
respond to adobe blocks 0.45 m long x 0.35 m
wide and 0.12 m thick, which were part of the
interiors of houses, the structure of fences, and
hacienda galleys. These samples were investigated
using X-ray Diffraction, X-ray Fluorescence,
and Scanning Electron Microscopy techniques
to determine the morphometry of the material
and its chemical and mineralogical composition.
Likewise, some analyzes were performed to
determine their mechanical properties (simple
compressive strength), physical properties (gran-
ulometry, solid density, cohesion, plasticity index,
porosity, and moisture content), and biological
(organic matter content). The results obtained in
terms of the granulometric distribution indicate
that pre-Hispanic adobe has a higher content of
sand than silt-clay and gravel, while the colonial
adobes present a low or null content of gravel
with a higher content of silt-clays. Regarding the
organic matter content, the colonial adobe pres-
ents the highest percentages compared to those of
the pre-Hispanic adobes. Taking into account the
above the pre-Hispanic adobes have better resis-
tance and durability than colonial adobes due to
their granulometric distribution, low organic mat-
ter content, good cohesion, high plasticity index,
and the use of materials found in their natural
environment, while the colonial used recycled
materials, coming from the economic activity to
which the hacienda was dedicated, for example,
agriculture, mining, livestock, this has given rise to
different manufacturing techniques and construc-
tion styles that reflect the state of conservation of
buildings throughout the pre-Hispanic and colo-
nial times. The granulometric distribution that
pre-Hispanic adobe provides favorable physical
and mechanical qualities for any construction
technique, so it is recommended to use this for-
mula to manufacture resistant and durable adobe.
Keywords: pre-Hispanic period, colonial
period, adobes, manufacture, technical,
conservation.
ABSTRACT
RESUMEN
Se realizó la caracterización de los adobes prehis-
pánicos y coloniales utilizados en la construcción de
edificaciones en México para conocer las diferencias
entre sus procesos y manufacturas. Las ocho muestras
obtenidas corresponden a bloques de adobe de 0.45 m
de largo x 0.35 m de ancho y 0.12 m de espesor, que
formaban parte de los interiores de las casas, estructura
de cercos y galeras de hacienda. Estas muestras se
investigaron utilizando técnicas de difracción de rayos
X, fluorescencia de rayos X y microscopía electrónica de
barrido, para determinar la morfometría del material y
su composición química y mineralógica. Asimismo, se
realizaron algunos análisis para determinar sus propie-
dades mecánicas (resistencia a la compresión simple),
propiedades físicas (granulometría, densidad sólida,
cohesión, índice de plasticidad, porosidad y contenido de
humedad) y biológico (contenido de materia orgánica).
Los resultados obtenidos en cuanto a la distribución
granulométrica indican que el adobe prehispánico tiene
un mayor contenido de arena, limo-arcillas y gravas,
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
mientras que los adobes coloniales presentan un bajo
o nulo contenido de gravas con un mayor contenido
de limo-arcillas. En cuanto al contenido de materia
orgánica, el adobe colonial presenta los porcentajes
más altos en comparación con los de los adobes pre-
hispánicos. Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior los adobes
prehispánicos tienen mejor resistencia y durabilidad que
los adobes coloniales debido a su distribución granu-
lométrica, al bajo contenido de materia orgánica, a la
buena cohesión, al alto índice de plasticidad y al uso
de materiales que se encuentran en su medio natural,
mientras que los adobes coloniales, su materia prima
deriva de materiales reciclados, provenientes de la
actividad económica a la que se dedicaba la hacienda,
por ejemplo agrícola, minera, ganadera, esto ha dado
lugar a diferentes técnicas de manufactura y estilos
constructivos que reflejan el estado de conservación de
las edificaciones a lo largo de la época prehispánica y
colonial. La distribución granulométrica que presenta el
adobe prehispánico brinda cualidades físicas y mecáni-
cas favorables para cualquier técnica constructiva, por
lo que se recomienda utilizar esta fórmula para fabricar
adobes resistentes y duraderos.
Palabras clave: época prehispánica, época
colonial, adobes, manufactura, técnica,
conservación.
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INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
Throughout the history of Mexico, the soil has
been used as the construction material for pub-
lic buildings and foundations by pre-Hispanic
cultures (Chevalier, 1963; Perez et al., 2016). The
Maya of Mexico and Central America developed
adobe bricks before the arrival of the Spanish in
the early XVI century (Punzo-Díaz, 2005; Daneels
and Guerrero, 2012; Daneels, 2015; Mateu et al.,
2022), while the native Americans of the south-
western United States did not use adobe until the
Spanish introduced it in the seventeenth century.
The adobe technique used in pre-Hispanic times
consisted of making a solid block of mud which
was obtained by mixing clay soil, sand, gravel, and
often vegetable matter. The adobe architecture
was associated with alluvial soils, clay-rich soils,
or sandy-clayey soils with a domain of sand com-
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
Figure 1 Location of study area.
2022
position and regular granulometry (Yuste, 2016).
The addition to the mixture of vegetable matter
depended on the type of soil; if it was very clayey,
the plasticity increased, which is why the addition
of vegetable fibers was necessary. The size of the
blocks varied from region to region, so there was
a wide diversity in terms of shape, composition,
color, and texture (Barbeta, 2002; Guillaud et al.,
2008). The Olmeca, Mixteca, Zapotec, Maya,
Teotihuacan, Tolteca, and Mexica-Azteca groups,
to name a few, developed different construction
systems; for example, the larger buildings were
raised on top of solid foundations using structured
fillings, adobe fillings, while the walls were built
with adobes, poured mud (formwork), or blocks
of moist earth (Gama-Castro et al., 2012; Daneels,
2013). As for public buildings, the most used mate-
rial was adobe in walls, columns, and stairways,
before the arrival of the Spanish, at the beginning
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of the 16th century. Whereas, during the Span-
ish colonial period, most of the adobe buildings
erected were used for domestic purposes, combin-
ing mixed technologies such as block technique
(adobe) and formwork technique (Tapia). The
adobe architecture was associated with sandy soils,
adding vegetable matter in most cases. Most of the
buildings raised corresponded to mixed technolo-
gies where stone, adobe, wood, and masonry were
used for development or exploitation purposes, as
is the case of the farms where agriculture, mining,
and livestock were developed (Wolf and Mintz,
1957; Van Young, 1983; Jarquin, 1990; Fourni-
er-García and Mondragón, 2003).
The construction techniques have been chang-
ing during each period modifying manufacturing
processes to give rise to different architectural
elements (Morner, 1973). The construction tech-
niques and the ways of materializing architectural
elements have been subject to different changes
throughout history and this is largely due to the
needs and possibilities of each epoch (Ledesma,
Figure 2 Location of study area.
INTRODUCTION / STUDY AREA
3
2014). Due to cultural change and the loss of
indigenous traditions, much of the manufacturing
knowledge was lost. Based on this, the objective
of this research work was to compare the different
physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological
(organic matter content) properties of two periods
of earthen construction (pre-Hispanic and Colo-
nial), to understand the evolution of construction
systems over time, and to be able to select adequate
strategies for its conservation, contributing at the
same time to the knowledge of manufacturing
techniques.
2. Study area
A set of eight samples of different types of adobe
construction was selected: two belonging to the
pre-Hispanic and Middle Classic period and the
rest from the colonial period (17th and 18th centu-
ries). The pre-Hispanic adobes were collected in the
state of Guanajuato, while the colonial adobes were
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
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collected in the states of Queretaro, Tlaxcala, and
STUDY AREA
Guanajuato. Based on this, two representatives to
the pre-Hispanic adobe from the archaeological
sites of Coporo (municipality of Ocampo), and
La Nopalera (municipality Comonfort), from the
Classic period in the state of Guanajuato, two ado-
bes from an agricultural estate, coming from the
Hacienda de Santiago Tochac in the state of Tlax-
cala and Las Carretas in the state of Querétaro of
the 17th and 18th centuries and finally four miners
adobe, two of the 17th century (Durán and San
Clemente) and two of the 18th century (Dolores de
Barrera and El Patrocinio) of the state of Guana-
juato (Figures 1, and 2). The adobe blocks studied
have dimensions of 0.45 m long x 0.35 m wide x
0.12 m thick, they belong to fences, interiors of
houses, and hacienda galleys.
2.1. GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The states of Queretaro, Tlaxcala, and Guana-
juato are located within the Cenozoic Trans-Mex-
ican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) and the Mesa Central
provinces (Raisz, 1964). The municipalities of
Comonfort and Ocampo are located in the state of
Guanajuato, in the physiographic province of the
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
Mesa Central, on its border with the province of
the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. In these munici-
palities outcrop rocks are of marine origin covered
by volcanic rocks (tuff, ignimbrite), domes of rhy-
olitic to rhyodacitic composition, with intercalated
andesite. As for the types of soils, Phaeozems type
soils predominate, they are porous, dark soils rich
in organic matter, they are used for agriculture.
The Phaeozems are distributed in lacustrine and
fluvial-alluvial plains or on volcanoclastic. and
alluvial-colluvial deposits in temperate and humid
zones (Garrido-Pérez et al., 2006). The state of
Querétaro is among the physiographic provinces
of the Mesa Central, Sierra Madre Oriental, and
the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The rocks that
outcrop in the state are metamorphic, igneous,
and sedimentary, predominantly Leptosol-type
soils. These soils are characterized by a dark color
since they contain a good percentage of organic
matter (more than 1%), and a content of Ca, Mg,
2022
Na, and K (FAO, 1998). The state of Tlaxcala is
included within the physiographic province of the
Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, dominated by out-
crops of volcanic rocks such as andesites, rhyolites,
basalts, tuffs, and volcanic breccias, characterized by
Cambisol-type soils, which have little clay content,
organic matter, aluminum, and iron compounds.
They mostly come from colluvial, alluvial, and aeo-
lian deposits. Their use is mainly agricultural (FAO,
1998).
2.2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRE-HISPANIC BUILDINGS
(CLASSIC AND MIDDLE CLASSIC PERIODS)
2.2.1. THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL ZONE OF COPORO
The archaeological zone of Coporo is in the
municipality of Ocampo, northwest of the state of
Guanajuato, on the foothills of the Sierra de Santa
Barbara and next to the community of San Jose del
Torreon. The predominant type of climate is tem-
perate semi-dry, with maximum temperatures of up
to 40°C, with minimum temperatures of 8°C. The
average annual temperature is 17 °C. The rainfall
is 433 millimeters on average per year. Coporo is
a ceremonial center with housing units. Its archi-
tecture is mixed of earth and stone, highlighting
the stone and adobe walls, the latter being the most
abundant. Its extension is great, conserving hun-
dreds of houses with the religious civic part at the
base of the hill and the religious part at the top of
the hill. The occupation in this archeological zone
was during the classic Mesoamerican period (400
to 600 dc). It is an ancient city made up of three
neighborhoods: Coporo neighborhood (at the top
of the hill), Gotas neighborhood (lower part of the
northwest slope), and Montes neighborhood (lower
and southwest part of the hill). The Coporo can be
considered as a civic and ceremonial site. The lower
part was occupied by individuals associated with
administrative activities as indicated by the differ-
ent housing units, while the Coporo neighborhood
located on the top/summit of the hill can be a cer-
emonial space due to its proximity to divine beings
(Castañeda-Lopez et al., 2007). Remains of ancient
housing units are located between the northwest
slope and the valley, from which adobe samples were
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obtained. The adobe samples correspond to the 1960), establish the presence of humans in the

floors of the houses. Structural pathologies such
as minor cracks and loss of material are observed.
The adobes are exposed to the environment since
their excavation in 2006, have an orange-brown
color, are rectangular, and do not have any type
of coating. Lichens grew on the adobe bricks, pre-
senting orange and grayish colorations on the sur-
face, in the same way, black scabs are observed. No
mineralogical alterations nor internal degradation
conditions due to bioturbation are observed.
2.2.2. THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL ZONE LA NOPALERA
La Nopalera archaeological site is located at the
foot of the Orduña hill in the municipality of
Comonfort Guanajuato, near the community of
La Nopalera. The climate is temperate, with a
maximum temperature of 38.0ºC and a minimum
of 10ºC. The average annual precipitation is 776.8
mm. The first data of population settlements in
that area, according to data from Kirchhoff (1946,
STUDY AREA
valleys of the Lerma, Laja, Turbio, and Guana-
juato rivers, since times as remote as 350 years
before Christ. A study by Howell (2002), proposes
that there was a gradual depopulation between
the years 900 and 1150, possibly due to two rea-
sons environmental problems, which led to food
shortages since other tribal groups attacked the
settlements and stole their belongings. It is difficult
to specify when the first Pames tribes arrived in
this region, what is already known is that they have
already found a territory populated by primitive
agricultural, gatherer, and hunter tribes, a region
rich in natural resources and a climate pleasant
enough to live. The Nopalera archaeological site
corresponds to small sites with a marked presence
of mounds as main elements, there are refer-
ences to burials in flat areas. It is represented by
stone walls, earth fills, and adobe foundations.
The adobe sample corresponds to the walls of a
basement. They have a brown color. Structural

Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution

Figure 3 Description of the pre-Hispanic buildings (Classical and medium classical period). The archaeological zone of Coporo.
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pathologies such as vertical cracks, inclined walls, Tochac, San José Piedras Negras, and the Concep-
STUDY AREA

minor cracks, detachment, or loss of material
are not observed. The adobe block is exposed to
environmental factors since 2019, covered with
vegetation roots being observed on the surface. No
mineralogical alterations or internal conditions of
degradation due to bioturbation are observed.
2.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD:
AGRICULTURAL HACIENDA (17TH AND 18TH
CENTURIES)
2.3.1. SANTIAGO TOCHAC HACIENDA
The Santiago Tochac hacienda located in the
municipality of Xaloztoc, Tlaxcala, was founded
in December 1533 and it is unknown who its first
owners were. The climate is temperate sub-hu-
mid. the maximum temperature is 25.1°C, the
minimum being 4.0°C. The average annual pre-
cipitation is 758.5 mm. The peasants dedicated
themselves to working the lands that belonged
to the town, which initially formed a whole; then
they were divided into three parts called Santiago
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
ción Zacazontetla. In later years, due to abuses,
the lands came into the power of the caciques
without income, donations, or any form of legal
alienation, and the peasants, therefore, became
part of their labor force, in the cultivation of wheat
and maguey, to extract pulque. In January 1869,
the Santiago Tochac hacienda, located in the
Huamantla was put up for sale, the property was
put in the auction and announced to the public so
that people who wanted to make a posture would
attend the Fifth court Civil to receive instructions
(Santibañez-Tijerina, 2010). The adobe block was
obtained from the wall of the main house corre-
sponding to the room, built-in 1800. The color of
the adobe is dark brown. The wall is covered with
lime mortar. It is not exposed to environmental
factors or humidity. Structural pathologies such as
minor cracks or loss of material are not observed.
2.3.2. CARRETAS HACIENDA
The Carretas hacienda corresponds to the historic
center of the city of Queretaro, located next to

Figure 4 Description of the pre-Hispanic buildings (Classical and medium classical period). The archaeological zone La Nopalera.
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Los Arcos. The climate is dry to semi-dry. The donkeys, and cows, among others (Garcia-Ugarte,

maximum temperature is 35°C and the minimum
5°C. The average annual precipitation is 600 to
700 mm. By 1531 the place where the Carretas
hacienda exists today was a lagoon. Before the
property was considered as Heritage, it func-
tioned as intermediate whereabouts established by
Blessed Sebastian de Aparicio in the year 1547, for
his oxcart carts in which he transported the silver
of Zacatecas minerals to be melted and minted
in Mexico. Later in the year 1562, Don Diego de
Saldívar built accommodation for travelers with
dumps, pens, and everything necessary to service
the carts. Later in that place and with nearby lands
the “Hacienda de Carretas” was founded. The
Carretas hacienda estate is in front of the Arches,
at a height with Avenida Bernardo Quintana.
Approximately by the years 1588 and 1604 the
owner of carts (García Urbano) was dedicated to
moving large volumes of wool, from Querétaro to
the cities of Mexico and Texcoco. This indicates
that the Carretas hacienda was dedicated to cat-
tle-raising the raising of sheep, sheep, rams, mares,
STUDY AREA
2015). The adobe block was obtained from the
main facade of the house, built in 1860. The color
of the adobe is dark brown. The wall is covered
with lime mortar. It is not exposed to environ-
mental factors or humidity. Structural pathologies
such as minor cracks or loss of material are not
observed.
2.4. DESCRIPTION OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD:
MINER´S HACIENDA (17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES)
The miner’s haciendas are localized in the center
and south of the city of Guanajuato. The climate
of the city of Guanajuato is dry to semi-dry. The
maximum temperature is 30°C, and the minimum
is 5.2°C. The average annual precipitation is 650
mm. The discovery in the sixteenth century of the
silver vein in the Mineral de la Luz initiates the
exploitation of the mineral wealth in the Mining
District of Guanajuato (Antúnez, 1964). This
discovery led to the formation of haciendas built
for the sole purpose of mining, smelting, or amal-

Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution

Figure 5 Description of the Colonial period: agricultural hacienda (seventeenth and eighteenth century). Santiago Tochac hacienda.
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gamation of silver. These haciendas were in fact
the first buildings in various parts of New Spain.
In Guanajuato, the morphology of the settlement
was determined by the route that followed both
the main river and other currents that in times
of rain became important. The haciendas then
emerged in the sixteenth century, promoting the
development of local mining by means of silver
amalgamation. The haciendas in their beginnings
occupied what nowadays is the center of the city;
by the eighteenth century, they had moved them
outside of the city being located on the banks of
the main river. The Bourbon reforms (1765-1808)
caused the proliferation of haciendas throughout
the mining district of Guanajuato, concentrat-
ing mainly in an industrial corridor that began
towards the north of the city and continuing
towards the east with the hacienda of Duran,
Dolores de Barrera, El Patrocinio, and San Clem-
ente (Puy-Alquiza et al., 2019). The adobe blocks
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
were obtained from fences, workmen’s galleys,
and hacienda facades. The color of the adobe is
gray. The adobe blocks were covered with lime
mortar. There was no moisture or degradation in
the material. The adobe blocks were covered with
lime mortar.
3. Methodology
To carry out this investigation, the following activ-
ities were carried out: physics characterization,
physics, (granulometry, cohesion, solid density,
porosity, moisture content, plasticity index); bio-
logical characterization (organic matter content,),
and mechanical characterization (resistance to
simple compression) of the sampled materials.
Subsequently, the chemical characterization and
morphological analysis were carried out using the
techniques of X-ray Diffraction (XRD), X-ray

Figure 6 Description of the Colonial period: agricultural hacienda (seventeenth and eighteenth century). Carretas hacienda.
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Fluorescence (XRF), and Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM-EDS). Macroscopically, the
degree of conservation of the adobes was deter-
mined highlighting structural pathologies such
as vertical cracks, inclined walls, minor fissures,
detachment or loss of material, and alteration of
the form.
4. Laboratory tests
4.1. MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL
CHARACTERIZATION
LABORATORY TESTS
out according to ASTM D2487-11. The samples
were classified considering the Unified Soil Clas-
sification System (USCS). Another of the param-
eters studied was the cohesion tests where it was
applied the European Standard Norm UNE-EN
13880-10:2004. Solid density test was carried
out, applying the ISO 17828:2015. Porosity test
was carried out on eight specimens, applying the
European Standard Norm UNE-EN 1936:2006.
Total porosity was calculated using the relation-
ship between the volume of the pores (open and
closed) and the apparent volume of the specimen
(Equation 1).

4.1.1. PHYSICAL TEST p= (1 – pb / pr) X 100 (Equation 1)

The physical tests consisted of determining the
granulometry, cohesion, solid density, porosity,
moisture content and plasticity index. The gran-
ulometry consisted in the determination of the
distribution of the size of the particles applying
the sieving method. Sieve analysis was carried
Where (pb) is apparent density and (pr) real den-
sity. To determine the moisture content, a piece
of adobe was cut and weighed. Subsequently, the
cut piece was placed into the oven at a constant
temperature of 105 ± 5°C for 24 hours. After

Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution

Figure 7 Description of the Colonial period: miner’s hacienda (seventeenth and eighteenth century). a) Duran Hacienda; b) Dolores de
Barrera Hacienda; c) El Parocinio Hacienda; d) San Clemente Hacienda.
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LABORATORY TESTS
this time, the sample was removed from the oven,
allowed to cool, and weighed. The moisture con-
tent was calculated considering the relative weight
change between the initial weight and the dry
weight of the sample. The plasticity index test was
carried out on eight species, applying the Atterberg
method. This method determines the humidity
range in which a clay mass is moldable, defining
a plasticity index, IP, as the difference of humidity
between the liquid limit, LL, or humidity above of
which a mass does not have enough consistency to
be moldable, and the plastic limit, LP, or minimum
percentage of water to make a dough moldable.
4.2. TOTAL ORGANIC MATTER
The total organic matter content was carried
out applying the Mexican Standard Norm
NMX-AA-21-1985, which makes a relationship
between the volume of potassium dichromate, the
ferrous sulfate, and the sample weight (Equation
2).
Organic matter (%) = (V1. N1- VNF) K /P
(Equation 2)
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
Where V1 = Volume of potassium dichromate
solution used in the sample cm3. N1 = Normality
of the solution of potassium dichromate. V =
volume of ferrous sulfate solution used in the titra-
tion of the sample in cm3. N = Normality of the
solution of ferrous sulfate. P = weight of sample.
K= 0.003.
4.3. MECHANICAL TEST
Simple compressive strength (UCS) tests were
carried out on eight specimens, applying the
European Standard Norm UNE-EN1926:2006.
The cubic samples (8 cm x 8 cm x 8 cm) were
parallelly and perpendicularly cut to the sediment
bedding in order to obtain information about
mechanical isotropy. The testing device (Universal
Press Forney apparatus) allowed a maximum axial
load of 1471 kN. The axial load was increased
continuously at a rate within the limits of rupture
2022
(1367 kN). Load and strain were continuously
registered; sampling time interval was between 2
and 6 min.
4.4. CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND
MORPHOLOGY ANALYSIS
The samples studied were analyzed using XRD
model Rigaku, ULTIMA IV diffractometer at
mineral research and characterization laboratory
(LICAMM), laboratory of the Guanajuato Uni-
versity, with CuKα radiation. A first fraction of
eight powder samples of 0.0625 mm was obtained
by sieving, which allowed the partial removal
of the quartz. Subsequently, a fine fraction of
0.044 mm (Wentworth-Udden particle scale) was
obtained, as described above. Both fractions were
investigated by X-ray diffraction between 3° and
90° 2θ, with a step width of 0.02 and 2 s data
collection per step. To determine the composition
chemical, the samples studied were analyzed using
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometer Rigaku
NEX CG, using energy dispersion (EDXRF). The
spectrometer has a Pd anode X-ray tube, maxi-
mum power of 50W with maximum voltage of
50KV-2mA, and in He atmosphere. The samples
studied were ground using an agate mortar and
then passed through a 230-mesh screen to have
a homogeneous particle size. The morphological
aspects of the adobe bricks were investigated by
SEM observation without any metal coating. The
SEM instrument (JEOL, JSM- 6010 PLUS/LA)
was operated at 15 kV in a low vacuum, while the
energy dispersion scanner spectrometer (EDS),
attached to the SEM, was used for semi-quanti-
tative chemical analysis. The SEM-EDS analyses
were carried out in the laboratory LICAMM of
the Guanajuato University.
5. Results
5.1. PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF PRE-
HISPANIC AND COLONIAL ADOBES
The granulometry (grain size) is an essential aspect
to be considered when characterizing adobe since
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it provides insight into the type of raw material
originally used to make the adobes. The pre-His-
panic produced adobe contains 9 to 13 wt% grav-
el-size grains, 21 to 73 wt% sand-size grains, and
16 to 65wt% silt-clay size grains. For the adobes
agricultural hacienda there are no gravel-size
grains (0 wt%), but 18 to 40 wt% sand-size grains
and 59 to 81wt% silt-clay size grains. While the
miner’s adobe contains 0.20 to 2 wt% gravel-size
grains, 5 to 17 wt% sand-size grains, and 81 to
94 wt% silt-clay size grains. Table 1 shows the
size distribution of the particles that make up the
adobe’s matrix studied. According to the USCS,
the adobes studied correspond to the three types
of soil: Pre-Hispanic adobe (SM: poorly graded,
sands and gravelly sands, little or no fines, and
ML: Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock flour,
silty or clayey fine sands or clayey silts with slight
plasticity); agricultural adobe (ML: Inorganic
silts and very fine sands, rock flour, silty or clayey
fine sands or clayey silts with slight plasticity),
and miner adobe (CL: Inorganic clays of low to
medium plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty
clays, lean clays), (Table 1).
The cohesion soils according to Mitchell and
Soga (2005), are fine-grained, low-strength, and
easily deformable soils that have a tendency for
particles to adhere. The soil is classified as cohesive
if the number of fines (silt and clay-sized material)
exceeds 50% by weight. Considering the above,
the pre-Hispanic adobe El Coporo presents a
better cohesion followed by La Nopalera, later the
agricultural adobe Las Carretas, Santiago Tochac,
and finally the adobe miners (Table 2).
Regarding the density and porosity data of the
solids, these are shown in Table 2. The pre-His-
panic adobe samples showed similar density and
porosity values in terms of bulk density, the range
of values shown by the bricks studied is 2.2 g/cm3
to 2.7 g/cm3. Porosity is an important parameter
due to its influence on properties, such as chemical
reactivity, mechanical strength, durability, and the
overall quality of the brick. The porosity of the
pre-Hispanic adobe bricks studied varies from
31% to 40%. The same is not the case with agri-
cultural adobes where the solid density varies from
2.6 g/cm3 to 2.8 g/cm3 and the porosity is 47% to
48%. The miner’s adobe has a density that varies
from 2.5 g/cm3 to 2.7 g/cm3 and the porosity var-
RESULTS
ies from 49% to 62%. The moisture and organic
matter content are shown in Table 2. Of all the
adobes studied the moisture content varies (0.97%
to 10.61%) as well as the organic matter content
(0% to 8.90%). Considering the plasticity index,
the Coporo pre-Hispanic adobe presents higher
plasticity index (34.42) than that of La Nopalera
(11.33), while the Carretas agricultural adobe
shows the highest plasticity index (39.38) with
respect to the adobe of Santiago Tochac (5.51).
The mining adobes show a plasticity index that
varies from 12.66 to 17.23, (Table 2).
5.2. TOTAL ORGANIC MATTER CONTAINED IN
ADOBES
The highest percentage of organic matter is pre-
sented in agricultural and miners adobes, which
vary from 4.09% to 8.90%, (Table 2).
5.3. MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF ADOBES
The results of the mechanical tests are given in
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
Table 2. These tests were conducted on specimens
using perpendicular orientations. The results
showed that the eight bricks samples exhibited
different behavior. Pre-Hispanic adobes: Coporo
(66.05kg/cm2) and La Nopalera (4.73kg/cm2).
Agricultural adobes: Santiago Tochac (3.28kg/
cm2) and Carretas (6.09 kg/cm2). Miners adobes:
Dolores de Barrera (1.18 kg/cm2), El Patrocinio
(1.1 kg/cm2), Duran (5.48 kg/cm2) and San Cle-
mente (7.11 kg/cm2). Where the pre-Hispanic
adobe the Coporo presents greater resistance to
uniaxial compression.
5.4. MINERALOGICAL AND CHEMICAL
CHARACTERIZATION
The analyzed samples contain different types of
crystalline minerals (Table 3). Pre-Hispanic adobes
present the following mineral phases which have
been grouped into silicates (quartz, albite, anor-
thite, sanidine, microcline, lazurite), phyllosilicates
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Table 1. Granulometry of adobe bricks samples.

Granulometry
Adobe bricks samples Gravel (wt%) Sand (wt%) Silt-Clay (wt%) Classification (USCS)
RESULTS

CLASSICAL Coporo 9.54 73.76 16.70 SM: poorly graded, sands and
Pre-Hispanic PERIOD gravelly sands, little or no fines
MIDDLE La 13.33 21.49 65.19 ML: Inorganic silts and very fine
CLASSIC Nopalera sands, rock flour, silty or clayey
PERIOD fine sands or clayey silts with slight
plasticity.
XVII Santiago 0.00 40.33 59.67 ML: Inorganic silts and very fine
century Tochac sands, rock flour, silty or clayey
Agricultural fine sands or clayey silts with slight
plasticity.
XVIII Carretas 0.00 18.21 81.79 ML: Inorganic silts and very fine
century sands, rock flour, silty or clayey
fine sands or clayey silts with slight
plasticity.
XVIII Dolores de 1.41 12.02 86.56 CL: Inorganic clays of low to
Century Barrera medium plasticity, gravelly clays,
sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays.

Miners El 0.20 5.73 94.07 Cl: Inorganic clays of low to

Patrocinio medium plasticity, gravelly clays,
sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays.
XVII Durán 0.25 17.87 81.87 Cl: Inorganic clays of low to
century medium plasticity, gravelly clays,
sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays.
San 2.05 10.01 87.94 CL: Inorganic clays of low to
Clemente medium plasticity, gravelly clays,
sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays.

(halloysite and montmorillonite), zeolites (gismon- 5.5. SEM-EDS ANALYSIS

dine), and secondary minerals (calcite). Agricul-
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution

tural adobes present silicates (quartz, albite, anor-
thite, obertiite, kyanite, magnesium-hornblende,
cristobalite), phyllosilicates (montmorillonite),
and zeolites (epistilbite). Miner’s adobes present
silicates (quartz, anorthite, albite), phyllosilicates
(montmorillonite, vermiculite, volkonskoite),
chlorite group (clinochlore- chromian), mercury
sulfate (schuetteite), sulfides (fizelyite, zinkenite),
phosphates (brushite), zeolites (erionite, faujasite),
and sulfates (parnauite, gypsum).
The pre-Hispanic adobes as well as the Colonial
agricultural ones present high concentrations of Si,
Al, Na, K, Ba, Ca, and Fe, observing absence in ele-
ments such as P, As, Se, Sb, Hg, and Ag. While min-
ing adobes show high concentrations in Pb, As, Se,
Ag, Sb, and Hg, (Table 4). As for the oxides present
in pre-Hispanic and agricultural adobes, we can
mention that SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, Fe2O3, and
CaO present high concentrations in percentages,
unlike P205, which is common in mining adobes
apart from those already mentioned (Table 5).
In pre-Hispanic, agricultural, and miners’ adobes,
the SEM examination revealed silicon/aluminum
(Si/Al)-rich particles (silicates), clay minerals
(phyllosilicates), and zeolites in all adobe bricks.
Phosphates, mercury sulfates, and sulfides are
only observed in mining adobes. The presences of
spores, dry grass, and vegetal fibers are common in
agricultural, and mining adobes. As for the metals,
it can be observed that most of the adobes of the
miner’s haciendas studied have Fe, Cu, As, Hg, Pb,
Sn, Zn, S, and Se (Figure 8).
6. Discussion
6.1. PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL, AND ORGANIC
MATTER CONTENT CHARACTERIZATION OF PRE-
HISPANIC AND COLONIAL ADOBES
Adobe bricks are one of the oldest and most com-
monly used materials in construction. The use of
 Table 2. Simple compressive Strength, Cohesion, Solid density, Porosity Moisture content, Plastic index, and Organic material content of adobe bricks samples.

Mechanical Properties Physical Properties Samples

Adobe bricks samples Simple compressive Cohesion Solid Porosity Moisture Plasticity Organic material
Strength (kg/cm2) Density (%) content index content
(Kg/cm2) g/cm3 (%) (%)
CLASSICAL Coporo 66.05 33.02 2.7 40 1.73 34.42 0.00
PERIOD
Pre-Hispanic

MIDDLE La 4.73 2.37 2.2 31 10.61 11.33 2.18

CLASSIC Nopalera
PERIOD

XVII Santiago 3.28 1.38 2.6 47 1.59 5.51 4.09

Agricultural century Tochac

XVIII century Carretas 6.09 2.19 2.8 48 4.55 39.38 8.90

Dolores de 1.18 0.60 2.5 60 1.73 15.01 7.26

XVIII century Barrera
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Miner

El 1.1 0.55 2.6 62 0.97 12.66 2.27

Patrocinio

Durán 5.48 0.75 2.5 49 1.9 17.23 5.21

XVII
century

San 7.11 0.65 2.7 54 2.18 14.86 7.18

Clemente
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Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution RESULTS

Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution RESULTS

Table 3. Mineralogical phases (XRD) of adobe samples.

Adobe Tectosilicates Phyllosilicates Aluminosilicates Inosilicates Carbonates Chlorite Sulfates Sulfides Phosphates XRD-DIFFRACTOGRAM
samples
6000
CLASSICAL Coporo Quartz Halloysite
5000
PERIOD Anorthite ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
4000
Pre- Albite Montmorillonite
Hispanic 3000

2000

1000

0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Two-Theta (deg)
Two-Theta (deg)
MIDDLE La Quartz
CLASSIC Nopalera
750
PERIOD Sanidine Montmorillonite Microcline ---- Calcite ---- ---- ---- ----
500

Gismondine 250

0
Lazurite 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Two-Theta (deg)

XVII Santiago 1250

Agricultural century Tochac Albite Anorthite Obertiite 1000

---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 750
Kyanite Magnesio- 500
hornblend-, 250
Cristobalite ferroan 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Two-Theta (deg)

XVIII Carretas Quartz Montmorillonite Anorthite 4000

century ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

3000
Cristobalite Epistilbite
2000

Epistilbite
1000

0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Two-Theta (deg)

2500
Dolores Quartz Volkonskoite
2000
XVIII de Barrera Anorthite Calcite Clinochlore Parnauite -
century Albite Montmorillonite ---- chromian ---- ---- 1500

Miner 1000

Vermiculite 500
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Two-Theta (deg)

El Quartz 2500

Patrocinio Anorthite Calcite 2000

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Albite ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1500

1000
Sanidine-
500
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2022

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Two-Theta (deg)

Durán Quartz,
2500
XVII Faujasite- Dickite Gypsum Fizelyite Brushite
2000
century K, Faujasite- ---- ---- ---- ----
1500
Na, Schuetteite
1000
Erionite-K
500
0
10 20 30 40 50
Two-Theta (deg)
San Quartz 3000
2500
Clemente ---- ---- ---- Calcite ---- Gypsum Zinkenite ----
2000
Faujasite-
1500
Na Schuetteite 1000
500
0
10 20 30 40 50 60

Two-Theta (deg)
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Table 4. Chemical compositions (FRX) of adobe samples.

DISCUSSION
CHEMICAL PRE-HISPANIC ADOBES AGRICULTURAL ADOBES MINER´S ADOBES
ELEMENTS
(ppm)
Classical Middle XVII XVIII XVIII XVIII XVII XVII
period Classic period century century century century century century
COPORO LA HACIENDA CARRETAS DOLORES EL DURAN SAN
NOPALERA SANTIAGO DE PATROCINIO CLEMENTE
TOCHAC BARRERA
Si 294000 224000 265000 24400 215000 267000 251000 231000
Al 80400 67400 72400 71500 34600 23700 22200 59400
Ba 109 548 353 531 170 178 128 206
Na 6820 3390 15700 7020 ---- 9880 ---- 8180
P ---- ---- ---- ---- 1200 ---- 162 ----
Mg ---- 5380 3760 4260 12500 8800 12600 5220
S 149 469 436 715 6690 10300 10600 528
Cl 69.4 80.7 245 268 2570 296 1450 216
K 24900 17400 9660 16900 18500 13100 13200 16400
Ca 3840 19900 19100 16100 36700 33400 33300 15100
Mn 517 592 829 599 1120 1030 1180 352
Cr 16.2 33.5 67.6 40.7 36.8 17 25.5 34.2
Fe 17000 25700 28500 25000 21000 16300 13600 20500
Ni ---- 16.6 33.7 12.7 19.6 12.4 ---- ----
Cu 11.5 15.4 21.4 17.2 1190 2420 1450 32
Zn 68.7 71.3 63.9 58.4 317 714 635 82.6
As ---- ---- ---- ---- 36.3 28 47.6 4.19
Sn 17.9 22.7 17.4 16.3 ---- 18.1 ---- 7.12
Pb 21.9 19.4 25.7 13.3 231 557 406 25.9
Sr 36.5 147 317 210 71 47.1 34.2 186
Se ---- ---- ---- ---- 35.1 65.8 34 ----
Ag ---- ---- ---- ---- 56.2 98.6 90.4 ----
Sb ---- ---- ---- ---- 23.8 52.5 22.8 ----
Hg ---- ---- ---- ---- 819 1460 1000 17
Ti 2060 3350 3550 4210 1660 899 ---- 4200

Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution

V 31.4 82.4 96.1 66.9 74.1 42.5 ---- 65.2

adobe is very common in Latin America, Africa,
the Indian subcontinent and other parts of Asia,
the Middle East, and Southern Europe (Sharma
et al., 2015; Rincon et al., 2019; Vega et al., 2011;
Costa et al., 2021; Mauricio et al., 2021). The results
of this study indicate that pre-Hispanic adobe has
a better granulometric distribution than colonial
adobes since it contains low gravel-sand content,
and high clay-silt content, which makes it more
resistant to the passage of time. The percentage
of clay-silt and its plasticity index indicate that the
manufacture of the adobe could be exposed to the
environment (Morales, 2007). The lack of addition
of vegetable matter indicates that the material and
manufacturing technique of pre-Hispanic adobe
provided solid physical and mechanical qualities.
According to Jiménez Delgado and Caña Guer-
rero (2007), a good adobe soil must have a very
low percentage of gravel-sand and a high content
of silt-clay. With this relationship, the adobe does
not need to be stabilized with any binder or ele-
ment such as gravel, sand, or vegetable matter due
to its natural cohesion. Taking into account the
climatic conditions of the place, the pre-Hispanic
areas studied have a temperate to semi-dry climate,
which favors the resistance to erosion of the earthen
walls since they have been protected by remaining
buried under a collapse layer for a long time. The
pre-Hispanic adobes have different mechanical
properties in terms of resistance, this is due to the
different manufacturing techniques used, derived
from the different periods of occupation in said
archaeological zones (Liberotti and Daneels, 2012).
On the other hand, the agricultural adobe of the
17th and 18th centuries buildings in Guanajuato
city present physical, mechanical, and organic
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Table 5. Oxides compositions (FRX) of adobe samples.

DISCUSSION

OXIDES PRE-HISPANIC ADOBES AGRICULTURAL ADOBES MINER´S ADOBES

(%)
Classical Middle XVII XVIII XVIII XVIII XVII XVII
period Classic period century century century century century century
COPORO LA SANTIAGO CARRETAS DOLORES EL DURAN SAN
NOPALERA TOCHAC DE PATROCINIO CLEMENTE
BARRERA
SiO2 72.3 67.9 69.6 68.7 71.7 78 77.1 70
Al2O3 15.4 14.4 13 16 9.85 7.21 5.78 6.29
MnO 0.0655 0.0797 0.105 0.0799 0.166 0.159 0.273 0.369
Na2O 5.04 4.83 6.97 3.77 ---- ---- ---- 3.45
MgO ---- 1.98 0.923 1.56 3.1 2.15 3.04 3.19
K2 O 3.65 2.52 1.28 2.35 2.77 1.98 1.88 1.99
CaO 0.576 3.36 2.96 2.61 6.35 4.78 5.6 3.51
P2O5 0.0664 0.0325 0.128 0.0872 0.417 0.144 0.133 0.082
SO3 0.0365 0.0601 0.102 0.145 2.35 2.53 3.43 3.74
Fe2O3 2.52 4.07 4.29 3.86 3.55 2.85 2.6 3.38
TiO2 0.385 0.73 0.687 0.873 0.342 0.186 0.206 0.2

material content properties similar, indicating that
manufacturing techniques did not change much
between the 17th and 18th centuries. The analysis
of particle size indicates that sizes, silt, and clay
are the predominant component in the matrix of
the adobes studied, the percentages of silt-clay
are high, exceeding 59.67%, sand (40.33%), and
have no gravel. Have a higher content of vegetable
matter compared to pre-Hispanic adobes (Tables
1 and 2). The addition of vegetable matter in this
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
18th centuries have greater particle size diversity,
and according to the USCS, they correspond to
CL types of soil (Table 1). The different values of
compression are explained by the different per-
centage content in clays and silts (Table 2).
All samples contain a greater amount of
aluminum and silicon, have a higher content of
silty- clays. Porosity results are related to the use of
vegetable fibers as a supplement in the mixture of
soil and water. Organic matter plays an important

type of adobes was to achieve the stabilization
of the adobe and increase its resistance (Sharma
et al., 2015) since based on the data obtained,
agricultural adobes have very slight plasticity, low
cohesion, and low resistance to compression. They
are adobes that show a greater deterioration over
time. For the case of mining adobes, the particle
size analysis indicates that the sizes, silt, and clay
are the predominant components in the matrix
of said adobes, the silt-clay percentages are high,
exceeding 81.87% (Table 1); the fact that fine, very
fine and silty sand fractions predominate, with a
moderate amount of organic matter (Table 2),
which gives these materials a high erodibility and a
potential risk of being eroded by water, especially
in the rainier areas. The similarity of these mate-
rials in their distribution and particle size, suggests
that there was a careful selection of raw materials
to produce adobes and control in production. Sim-
ilarly, we can see that the buildings of the 17th and
role in the above variables (porosity and density);
as in a sample with high content of organic matter,
it increases the porosity and aeration capacity of
clayey soils, better tolerating the mechanical effects
caused by time (Sharma et al., 2015). Based on this,
the adobes of 17th and 18th centuries haciendas
(Dolores de Barrera and San Clemente) have a
higher content of organic matter, which explains
its percentage of porosity and resistance to uniax-
ial compression. Mixing dry grass with clay allows
proper agglutination, great weather ability and
prevents the blocks once solidified from cracking.
The presence of these elements provides insight
into the construction history of the building.
6.2. XRD, XRF, AND SEM-EDS ANALYSIS
The morphological observation by SEM-EDS
and results obtained from the X-ray diffraction
in pre-Hispanic adobe show the presence of eight
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major minerals grouped in silicates (quartz, albite, val et al., 2004; Avrami et al., 2008). Differences

anorthite, sanidine microcline), phyllosilicates
(halloysite, montmorillonite), and zeolites (gis-
mondine). From a geological point of view, these
groups of minerals derive mainly from existing
volcanic rocks in the area. X-ray fluorescence
analysis shows that the elemental composition
of pre-Hispanic adobes is different from that of
colonial adobes, with variations in the percentage
of element content (Si, Al, P, Fe, Pb, As), and in
the concentrations mainly related to iron oxide
(Fe203) and phosphorus (P205). These variations
may explain the dissimilarity in color, ranging
from orange-brown, brown, dark brown, and gray,
especially in the colonial period (Acevedo-Sando-
DISCUSSION
are observed with the colonial period in terms of
the type of phyllosilicates and zeolites present.
Pre-Hispanic adobes present phyllosilicates of the
montmorillonite and halloysite type, while in the
colonial period the phyllosilicates are of various
types between montmorillonite, volkonskoite, ver-
miculite, and dickite. The presence of phyllosili-
cates marks a secondary origin, which derives from
the alteration of primary minerals or other silicates
from volcanic rocks. From the point of view of the
deterioration in buildings, montmorillonite could
cause deterioration in buildings because it allows
water ingress, has high absorption, and high sus-
ceptibility to contraction and expansion. Regard-

Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution

Figure 8 Images obtained with the scanning electron microscope in the samples of the adobes studied. a), b), c), d) presence of spores
and vegetal fibers are common in agricultural and miners adobes; e), f), g) metals observed in miners adobes; h) silicates mineral
observed in all adobes; i) erionite in miners adobes.
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ing the presence of zeolites, pre-Hispanic adobes
DISCUSSION
present gismondine as a mineral, while colonial
adobes present several types among them fauja-
site, erionite, and epistilbite, these are formed by
the transformation of the volcanic glass contained
in the tuffs of intermediate to acid composition,
and ignimbrites, they are also usually the product
of secondary alteration in cavities and vesicles of
igneous rocks. In the case of gismondine, this is
usually the product of hydrothermal alteration.
According to Avrami et al (2008), zeolites indicate
the existence of high silica activity in aqueous
solutions, affecting the crystallization of the sili-
cate. From the point of view of the deterioration
in buildings, zeolites can hydrate and dehydrate,
when dehydrated the crystal develops a porous
structure, forming cavities that can be occupied by
ions and water molecules, allowing ion exchange
and dehydration, thus causing the deterioration of
the building.
Another disparity between pre-Hispanic and
colonial adobe is that in colonial adobe, specifi-
cally in agricultural haciendas, amorphous phases
such as cristobalite associated with volcanic glass
and opal have been observed. According to Pérez
et al (2016), the content of amorphous phases
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
influences the resistance, plasticity, contraction,
and expansion behavior of adobes. Although we
did not quantify the content of amorphous phases
in this study, we could think, according to the
existing geology in the area, the existence of these
in the composition of the soil. Another difference
between pre-Hispanic and colonial adobe is that
pre-Hispanic adobe has a concentration of Si, Al,
Na, K, Ba, Ca, and Fe, which indicates a domain
of silicates and aluminosilicates, these elements
correspond to the essential constituents of the
soils (Perez et al., 2016), this indicates that the
materials used for the manufacture of the pre-His-
panic adobe derive from the soil generated by the
weathering of the volcanic rocks that outcrop in
the surroundings of the archaeological sites stud-
ied, while the colonial adobes present elements
such as Ni, Cu, Co, Zn, Cr, Pb, As, Se, Ag, Sb,
V, and Hg, which indicates that the origin of the
raw materials used for the manufacture of adobe
2022
is local, derived from the type of soil in the area
and the method of benefit applied at the time for
the extraction of gold and silver, derived from the
mining of the time (Orozco, 1921; Antunez, 1964;
Echegoyen-Sánchez et al.,1970; Puy-Alquiza et al.,
2019). An important element within the colonial
adobes is the presence of erionite-K. The erion-
ite-K is a natural fibrous zeolite found in certain
volcanic tuffs (e.g. rhyolite tuff) and a wide range
of geological settings. Erionite-K has been used
as a noble metal-doping catalyst in a hydrocarbon
cracking process and studied for its use in agricul-
tural applications (i.e. in fertilizers and odor control
in livestock production), (IARC, 1987; NTP, 2004).
The characteristics that define these bricks units
are variable. This may be due to the presence of
the materials used; manufacturing processes; and
dominant conditions (Rivera-Torres and Muñoz-
Díaz, 2005).
6.3. CONSTRUCTIVE TYPOLOGIES, AND STRATEGIES
FOR ITS CONSERVATION
The architecture of the pre-Hispanic sites studied
is characterized by its simple aesthetics related
to the environment and the available resources.
Adobe represents the important manufacturing
element at both sites (Coporo, La Nopalera) where
the most common dimensions found are 10 cm x
15 cm x 35 cm and 10 cm x 32 cm x 20 cm. The
reason for this heterogeneity is probably related
to traditions, natural resources, and the type of
soil, influencing the size of the blocks that vary
according to the place, the type of use, and the
historical period of construction (Ferrada and
Segovia, 2007; Baudouin, 2021). On the other
hand, the colonial haciendas represent industrial
complexes whose dimensions were directly related
to their economic activity, the wealth, and the
capital of their owners. The hacienda is made up
of a set of buildings interrelated in their functions
so that generally the layout of the buildings was
related to an architectural patio, with which the
other buildings were built, contemplating the
link that existed with the other spaces. The Haci-
endas housed within their territorial extensions
 http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/BSGM2022v74n3a010422
Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A010422/ 2022 / 19
various architectural elements such as the main
house, where the patron and the administrative
staff lived, the processing patios, the galleys, the
laundries, ovens, stables, sheds, water wells, and
troughs. The most used materials were wood,
stone, brick, adobe inside as well as outside. The
size of the adobes and their composition was a
function of the type of soil, the natural resources,
and the economic activity of the hacienda. Based
on this, the colonial adobes present a great variety
of dimensions: 10 cm x 27 cm x 30 cm, 10 cm
x 30 cm x 37 cm, and 15 cm x 35 cm x 45 cm,
indicating that each owner of the hacienda had
his own technique for the preparation of bricks
and this was subject to the type of soil and the
contribution of organic matter content in the case
of agricultural bricks, and for mining bricks, the
raw material represented the waste product of the
metallurgical process. One of the problems with
the use of adobe in construction is the presence of
pathologies (alteration and degradation) derived
from the abandonment of the construction system
and exposure to the elements (Gomez-Patrocinio et
al., 2020). Various techniques have been proposed
to avoid accelerated degradation of the material
(healing, ochratization, stapling, injection of epoxy
resin, injection with cement pastes and micro-con-
crete, post-tensioning systems, sealing of cracks
or fissures, among others). (Monjo-Carrió and
Maldonado-Ramos, 2001). In recent years, the
use of consolidants has been proposed to prevent
the deterioration of adobe (Salazar-Hernández et
al., 2021).
7. Conclusions
Construction techniques have changed over time
to make better use of existing natural and anthro-
pogenic materials. This has led to changes in
the manufacturing and manufacturing processes
that have characterized each period. The adobes
from the different periods studied showed that the
chosen materials and techniques were determined
by the environmental conditions, the available
resources, and technical and cultural reasons. The
DISCUSSION
geological characteristics of the studied areas rep-
resent an extraordinarily favorable scenario for the
exploitation of raw materials such as clay, for the
manufacture of adobes. Clay is mined close to set-
tlement and/or production sites to reduce the time
and cost of acquisition and transportation. Proof
of this is that the pre-Hispanic adobe presents a
good granulometric distribution between the con-
tent of gravel, sand, silt, and clay, in addition to
this it presents a low or null amount of organic
matter, and high plasticity index, making it one
of the most durable adobes studied. The quality
of the material and the percentages used show a
wide knowledge of the selection of materials and
masonry. During the colonial period, the materials
used linked to soils with little clay content and
sandier caused low plasticity and cohesion, for
which the addition of organic matter was neces-
sary. The clay soils caused too much shrinkage and
fractures, while the sandy soils did not have enough
interaction between the particles, so the adobes
crumble, on the other hand, soils with excessive
content of organic matter had low resistance and
short duration against humidity. It is considered
that an adequate mix of the four granulometric
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
components (gravels, sands, silt, and clay) and the
material origin are the keys for the manufacture
of resistant and durable adobes over time, as is the
case of pre-Hispanic adobes compared to colonial
adobes. Two sources of materials used for the man-
ufacture of adobes can be identified in this study,
one related to the geological materials and the
type of soil which is characteristic of pre-Hispanic
adobes and another material related to the use
of waste materials from the economic activity of
agricultural and mining haciendas. The changes
in manufacturing techniques can be caused by
the presence of new groups with different cultural
and technical backgrounds. Similarly, this change
could also be explained from the perspective of an
exchange of ideas between different communities,
over time.
The biggest problem for the repair, mainte-
nance, and correct execution of adobe buildings
 http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/BSGM2022v74n3a010422
20 / Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A010422/
A010422 /2022
CONTRIBUTIONS OF AUTHORS /
is the loss of an ancient tradition, passed down
from generation to generation, creating a gap in
REFERENCES
the construction culture, losing know-how, and
generating problems that can be fatal., especially
in the case of seismic countries with ancestral
heritage. Knowing the manufacturing techniques
and processes will help to apply more effectively
the conservation and restoration strategies of
buildings from different times.
Acknowledgments
Our thanks to the laboratory LICAMM for its sup-
port in the realization of the analysis of X-ray dif-
fraction, and Scanning Electron Microscopy. Also,
acknowledge Cristina Daniela Moncada Sánchez
and Jesús René Báez Espinoza for their technical
support in this work. The samples from the archae-
ological sites were obtained with the permission of
the director of the archaeological sites, co-author
Omar Cruces, an archaeologist from Centro Gua-
najuato of the National Institute of Anthropology
and History (INAH), who in 2006 was in charge
of the El Cóporo restoration project, and in 2019
of the collection campaign at La Nopalera. The
Comparative study of adobes in Mexico: granulometric distribution
characterization of materials, carried out by the
Department of Geology of the University of Gua-
najuato, was done in collaboration with INAH.
Contributions of authors
(1) conceptualización: MJPA, (2) análisis o
adquisición de datos: MJPA, (3) desarrollo met-
odológico/técnico: MJPA, (4) redacción del manu-
scrito original: MJPA, (5) redacción del manuscrito
corregido y editado: VYOZ, RMA, GAZ, MCSH,
(6) diseño gráfico: GAZ, MCSH, GCA, YL, (7)
trabajo de campo: MJPA, VYOZ; OCC, ABS,
(8) interpretación: MJPA; RMA; GAZ, GCA;
MCSH, YL.
Financing
This research work was carried out without
funding.
2022
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of
interest.
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