MEXTESOL Journal, Vol. 43, No.

3, 2019 1

English Language Teaching in Norway and Iran: English for

Academic Purposes1

Niloufar Shahmirzadi2, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is a growing field which aims to enrich curriculum in order to bridge the gap
between general knowledge of English, and academic or discipline specific use of English. This paper considers past
attempts to develop consistent academic courses as it examines EAP courses in Norway and Iran, where English as a
foreign language has been employed for professional interaction. It considers various aspects of EAP courses including
history of EAP courses, authenticity, and evaluation of course offerings. This paper aims to explain the current status of
EAP in both countries to determine whether the demands of students have been met. It looks how these countries try
to improve academic learners’ English language proficiency. In order to meet academic English needs, it is important to
use authentic materials in order to enrich learners’ academic English proficiency. This cannot be attained without careful
scrutiny of the history of EAP courses in both countries, and authenticity, and evaluation of updated materials. It is
recommended that EAP course designers take into account the development of authentic EAP materials. This would
provide insight for further investigation of EAP materials through understanding what is currently happening

Resumen
El inglés con fines académicos (EAP) es un campo cada vez más importante que apunta a enriquecer el plan de estudios
con el fin de cerrar la brecha entre el conocimiento general del inglés y el uso académico del idioma. Teniendo en cuenta
algunos intentos durante las últimas décadas para desarrollar cursos académicos consistentes, este documento examina
los cursos de EAP en Noruega e Irán, donde se ha empleado el inglés como idioma extranjero para la interacción
profesional. Considera diversos aspectos de los cursos del EAP desde diferentes puntos de vista, incluida la historia de
los cursos de EAP, la autenticidad y la evaluación de las ofertas de cursos. Este documento tiene como objetivo explicar
el estado actual del EAP en ambos países para determinar si se han cumplido las demandas de los estudiantes y
encontrar las tendencias que adoptan estos países para mejorar el dominio del inglés académico de los estudiantes.
Para satisfacer las necesidades académicas de inglés, es importante que se usen materiales auténticos para enriquecer
el dominio académico del inglés de los alumnos. Esto no se puede lograr sin un cuidadoso escrutinio de la historia de
los cursos de EAP en ambos países, la autenticidad y la evaluación de los materiales actualizados. Como resultado, se
recomienda que los diseñadores de cursos EAP consideren el desarrollo de materiales EAP auténticos. Esto sería de
ayuda en la búsqueda de información para una mayor investigación de los materiales de EAP a través de la comprensión
de lo que está sucediendo actualmente

Introduction
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses are designed to help language learners improve their academic
language proficiency and prepare them to communicate in the target language at a professional level. Thus,
students may be expected to participate in seminars, read articles, write theses and dissertations, and listen
to lectures. These and other activities aim to prepare students to take further academic coursework in the
target language and to function properly in professional settings.
Generally, EAP courses aim at empowering students to take academic courses in a second or foreign
language (Stoller, 2001). However, as Flowerdew and Peacock (2001) suggested, “not all ESL methodologies
are appropriate to use for EAP” (p. 177). In line with that, Stoller (2001, as cited in Flowerdew & Peacock,
2001) pointed out that it may be challenging to find a unique pattern for instruction in EAP courses because
of the variability on language learning. As a result, there is a variation in both the quality and types of
instruction in different educational settings where EAP courses are offered. According to Hyland (2006), Lea
and Street (1998, 2000, 2006), skills, socialization, and literacy as three main common grounds in EAP.
These include cognitive and linguistic skills, knowledge of academic genres and discourses, and academic
literacies. Jarvis (2001) also distinguished between two forms of EAP; pre-sessional and in-sessional courses
to be taught in EAP teaching. The former refers to taking English courses prior to continuing academic
discipline, and the latter refers to courses taken while students simultaneously attend subject area. Another

1 Received: 20 August, 2018. Accepted: 22 May, 2019.

2 niloufar_shahmirzadi83@yahoo.com
MEXTESOL Journal, Vol. 43, No. 3, 2019 2

classification distinguishes between subject–specific EAP such as social sciences, and common–core EAP,
such as study skills as a general academic language.
Clapham (2001) suggested that “pupils can take advantage of different academic courses from other sources
including their leisure reading and earlier scholastic studies” (p. 99). By this, it may be argued that students
can lessen their problems in general English, study skills and excessive dependence on teachers which are
some important factors in improving their learning. However, as other researchers point out, because of the
diversity of perspectives on language learning, it would be hard to find a unique course design (Stoller,
2001). Therefore, the choice of EAP teaching materials is limited, and the existing textbooks provide neither
ideas on how to approach a lesson especially in the introduction section (Kirkgöz, 2009), nor content that
is relevant enough for all learners.
However, EAP courses can offer learners some important advantages. Gatehouse (2001) proposed gaining
three related abilities linked to succeeding in an EAP course, namely using the particular jargon characteristic
of that specific occupational context, using a more generalized set of academic skills mainly to understand
a new culture, and using the language of everyday talk to communicate effectively, such as responding to
an email message. These areas are important for EAP students because they involve “critical analysis and
development of language for specific and often localized communicative purposes” (Rilling & Dantas-
Whitney, 2010, p. 1). Learners can also feel that target language, English, “belongs” to them (Hubbard,
1995, p. 20).
When designing and implementing an EAP course, it is vital to consider the aims of learners and engage
them in language learning. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identified the importance of comprehensive
course planning, for example including grammatical and lexical features. Kennedy and Bolitho (1984)
emphasized the awareness of students’ purposes in learning the language. Robinson (1980) examined some
of the available EAP materials, and Robinson (1991) also conducted a survey on the present state of EAP
courses. However, some studies concluded that EAP courses mostly consist of problems in planned and
organized materials aiming to prepare learners for publishing academic papers. Mackay and Mountford
(1978) looked at specific problems of EAP learners in language and study skills and found that, in effect,
learners are not as competent as it was expected.
Despite these overreaching goals, EAP is affected by local perspectives, ranging from academic literacy,
learners’ rights and needs, to feedback and assessment. Hutchinson and Waters (1987), for instance,
emphasized the role of learners’ needs and learning activities in EAP courses. Jordan (1997), on the other
hand, argued the importance of academic subjects in EAP courses in order to enable learners to perceive
how to use language in their academic life, such as attending conferences, giving a speech, and so on. The
types and structure of EAP courses may also vary in different countries and at various institutions. Some
tangible examples are Norway and Iran with different course programs. In Norway, academic writing
courses, oral communication and presentation skills, journal analysis workshops, and article-based
dissertation writing courses are offered, while in Iran, academic writing courses, and academic presentation
courses are provided.
The purpose of the present paper is to compare and contrast EAP courses in Norway and Iran in order to
find overall quality of offered courses in effect since both countries use English as a foreign language for
professional communication with considerable difference in EAP course improvement. In what follows,
history, authenticity of EAP materials, and evaluation of EAP courses will be considered in both countries.
EAP in Norway
Historical overview
In the aftermath of World War II and to modernize the foreign/ second language curriculum based on
students’ needs, teaching and learning English received special attention in Norway. However, adopting
teaching approaches from the Great Britain and the United Stated has affected the curricular reforms since
1950’s (Reynolds, 2001). In language learning, learners engage in “the pragmatic, authentic and functional
use of language for meaningful purposes” (Brown, 2007, p. 241), because a large number of texts are in
English. Although Mæhlum (2002, p.131) expressed a concern that “the dominance of English led to
Norwegian loss”, teaching and learning English have not discarded.” It is of worth noting that reading
comprehension as a basic ground to literacy needs to be practiced further particularly in higher education
in Norway “to master authentic materials and allow the ownership of the curriculum” (Felix, 2005, p. 88) in
MEXTESOL Journal, Vol. 43, No. 3, 2019 3

order to have professional interaction. To enable learners to have international contacts, Gottlieb (2004)
asserted the crucial role of intensive teaching at all levels to all age groups.
Use of authentic materials
Using authentic materials in the class can support language learners to fully perceive and learn authentic
language rather than practice language skills. Authentic materials can also assist language learners with
different proficiency levels and goals. However, reading authentic textbooks specifically for academic
purposes is the manifestation of insufficient number of lessons (Huang, Tindall, Nisbet, 2011). A number of
studies indicated that language learners in Norway needed to improve their reading skills in order to gain
benefits from advancement in different fields when it comes into reading to learn (Fjeldbraaten, 1999).
Returning to the EAP instruction, a closer examination of EFL syllabi shows that providing advanced English
reading comprehension skills to language learners is insufficient (Hellekjær, 2005), as these skills can be
some means of enhancing EAP proficiency in general. For instance, skimming, scanning, or reading for detail
(Faye-Schøll, 2009) are mostly common to practice. Vocabulary-handling strategies, guessing words from
context and strong focus on reading for details (Faye-Schøll, 2009; Urquhart & Weir, 1998) need to be
practiced considerably. Borrowing English vocabulary also entered Norwegian with the trend of
“domesticated” pronunciation. In other words, the wide use of English language and in particular EAP moved
along the spreading of Norwegian language (Awedyk, 2009, p.149) with the goal of having global
communication.
Evaluation of EAP in Norway
EAP programs have been considered in various studies and in different domains of materials development
in higher education. For example, a revised EFL syllabus was introduced in higher education in Norway to
bring about some changes in current practices and to recognize the role of EFL instruction (Faye-Schøll,
2009) mainly in technical and professional programs. In 2006, the Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, and Telemark University College took actions to write a strategy document outline to present
at the Norwegian Forum for EAP (NFEAP) to improve four language skills. An excerpt on their mission is
provided by Gulden (2008) as follows:
Most institutions of Higher Education in Norway have internationalization high on their strategic agenda. Undergraduate
and master’s degrees and modules are offered in English to international and Norwegian students. Bilateral staff
exchanges involve many researchers and academic staff at institutions of higher education in Norway. International
conference participation and increasing pressures to publish are part of the picture nationwide as are the planning and
organization of joint research and teaching projects across national boundaries. (p. 209)
To evaluate EAP in Norway, some universities such as university of Tromsø and the University of Oslo also
offer EAP courses to international students. Before participating in the program, students need to sit for a
placement test that provides a comprehensive overview of their English proficiency level based on Common
European Framework of Reference (CEFR). In this case, students learn to speak and write the Norwegian
language in an intensive program to ensure that they can get a rich foundation for attending a degree
program at a Norwegian university. The University of Oslo, for instance, offers some courses to students at
beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels so that they can participate in written and oral activities.
However, Bråten (2007), Bråten and Olaussen (1997) and Roe (2006) noted the lack of reading strategies
instruction in these courses to enhance the ability to decode the written words in the texts in the first
language, and then work on improving their language in EAP courses.
Another instance of credit to updating EAP in Norway is that researchers actively take part in short or long-
term research activities of the Research Council of Norway, which has membership in international research
organizations in Europe. This work has promising implications for future academic publications in Norway.
In 2004, the Norwegian Association of Higher Education Institutions also published a dossier which included
promotion of research in Norway.
In addition, 1758 academic journals are ranked either at level two or level one. This case manifests that
English as an academic language is being promoted in Norway. Nevertheless, Hellekjær (2005, 2007a,
2007b, 2008), and Lehmann (1999) challenged English language proficiency of learners for academic
purposes. To do so, they compared Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) with Cognitive
Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). Hellekjær (2005) tested academic reading proficiency of students,
and Hellekjær (2009) studied the status of EAP among students in Norway because there was the claim that
academic Norwegian vocabulary deteriorated through not publishing concepts in Norwegian language.
MEXTESOL Journal, Vol. 43, No. 3, 2019 4

EAP in Iran
Historical overview
In the early 1960s, with collaboration between Iranian universities and Western academic centers (Cowan,
1974; Bates, 1978), EAP courses started being offered in Iran mainly with the aim of teaching English to
medical and engineering students. Consequently, many course books were published, and different
programs were implemented through intensive reading courses. The content of the reading passages came
from excerpts from different academic fields in order to teach technical word lists related to students’ fields
of study. However, in practice, these courses were designed on an ad hoc basis and lacked systematic
students’ need analysis, teacher education, and evaluation of programs, resulting in a gap between
theoretical findings and practical implementation. That is to say, recent findings of studies have not been
put into practice to remove or even decrease the pitfalls in EAP courses. Subsequent research revealed an
overly extensive focus on vocabulary and syntax (Fathi, 2008; Amiryousefi, & Ketabi, 2011), weaknesses
in EAP materials design (Tayebipour, 2005), and insufficient focus on communication (Eslami, 2005).
Consequently, the ultimate goal of EAP, which is improving academic English language knowledge, was not
fully met. Materials developed by The Organization for Researching and Composing University Textbooks in
the Humanities, also known as SAMT, are assumed to be thorough enough in case of autonomy enhancement
for proper development of language learning.
Use of authentic materials
EAP material developers in Iran attempted to compile textbooks that would meet the students’ educational
needs. These textbooks provided language input, including basic structure, vocabulary, and reading
comprehension passages. However, currently there are many teachers in Iran that are not competent and
fluent enough in English language (Farhady, 2005), which result in teaching unfamiliar words or structures
in their first language (i.e., Farsi/ Persian). Additionally, most EAP learners lack opportunities to deliver
academic presentations (Atai, 2000), because EAP courses continue to utilize outdated materials, encourage
learner participation in exercises rather than tasks, and lack needs analysis in order to take a more
communicative approach. What seems not to be ignored is that the majority of available EAP textbooks
published by SAMT have not been updated based on recent critical perspectives in English language
teaching. In addition, most available EAP materials include a mass of reading comprehension passages
which can assist learners to become just a good reader rather a proficient communicator. Therefore, the
majority of degree holders have a poor command of English which is unfortunately a routine problem in
academia.
Evaluation of EAP in Iran
As a means of evaluation and quality assurance, EAP courses in Iran have gradually been receiving their
accreditation since the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology established “discipline-based EAP
programs” to gear up students’ motivation and interest (Atai, 2006, p. 28). More specifically, every semester
a large number of students enroll in EAP as a compulsory course. These courses, which are offered in Iranian
higher education system, are meant to improve learners’ reading skills and other language skills. EAP
curriculum consists of one to three EAP courses with the contents of structure, organization, and reading
sections in order to enable students to read and translate academic texts and present at conferences. The
offered course books most importantly published by SAMT, as one of the popular publications, include three
sections that are pre-reading, reading comprehension, and homework. Reading passages are relevant to
learners’ field of study and vocabulary exercises are contextualized. Coursework also includes reading
comprehension passages related to the students’ fields of the study. The offered EAP course is obligatory
for all university students to pass; therefore, no placement test is necessary before enrollment. However,
there is a consensus among EAP practitioners in Iran that developed materials have weaknesses in their
designs (Tayebipour, 2005) because they cannot improve Iranian students’ performance in different Iranian
academic settings. According to Attai (2002), accountability and developmental purposes have also reported
to promote EAP programs in higher education of Iran. However, because of having unsystematic plan, no
constructive improvement has been observed so far. Moreover, developed EAP materials lack enough
authenticity to promote real communication since almost all textbooks include outdated reading passages
or too much attention is paid to vocabulary. Thus, these materials lack enough authenticity to promote a
real communication. Bruce (2011) accentuated that the consequences of challenges in EAP courses may
cause learners to be unable to analyze and make sense of the texts and related discourses properly. Scholars
MEXTESOL Journal, Vol. 43, No. 3, 2019 5

used questionnaires, interviews, and classroom observations to develop profiles in EAP publication, and to
publicly announce any problematized issues in the EAP context. They also published on reading strategies
including skimming, scanning, guessing from the context, and understanding main ideas. Eslami (2005),
Fathi (2008), Amiryousefi and Ketabi (2011), and Tayebipour (2005) critically published on offered EAP
courses, revealed that some inconsistencies still exist in available materials in fulfilling students’ needs. For
example, SAMT, as a popular publication on EAP materials, is responsible for composing, preparing, printing
and affordable marketing for university students. However, practically there seems to be a need to call for
awareness of current theoretical and methodological points along with reconsidering some challenges in
understanding and solving practical problems in EAP publications. The underlying reason is that the clear
current objective of the EAP both on offered courses and materials need to be redefined, because most EAP
teachers and students prefer to use available materials in the class by some international publications like
Oxford rather than domestic published ones.
Conclusion
According to Graves (2000), materials have to be developed based on the authenticity principles so that
learners get familiar with the real-world language. In English language teaching, authenticity is aimed at
providing learners with the use of English in the real world and not specifically for the teaching and learning
process of English. It is also crucial to observe learners’ needs (Varga & Kuna, 2015) to enable leaners to
use real life materials in the classroom. In this way, it is possible to expose learners to “natural language”
(Wong, 2002; Gilmore, 2004). Celce Murcia (2000) believed that including authentic materials in EAP
courses has a focal role. Thus, through exposure to authentic materials, learners can acquire competence
in the target language that allows them to communicate appropriately in real–life situations. They can also
improve their competence to appropriately use the language in the learning process through active
interaction with content. In other words, learners can gradually learn to make a distinction between
authentic and fabricated materials (Hubbard, 1995). That is to say, they reach the underlying threshold level
to perceive “what is worth communicating and how this should be done” (Hyland, 2017, p. 21). On the
contrary, Widdowson (1990) proposed that authenticity is hard to achieve because “the language used by
the native speakers cannot be authentic for the language learner in classroom settings.” (p. 44)
Researchers and practitioners have been calling for an extensive use of authentic materials in EAP courses
to fulfill learners’ needs and maintain their motivation. This has led to an increased use of authentic materials
in the classroom. For example, learners encounter authentic texts rather than textbooks, which enhance
their ability to participate in real communication. Willis (1996) argued that when learners are exposed to
authentic materials, they have “a chance to achieve a particular communicative goal in a real situation” (p.
18). Breen (1985) also emphasized that students can understand varieties of English used at conferences,
seminars, and in dissertations or academic texts (Swales, 1990). As a result, there is an active creation of
meaning in the reader’s knowledge in an interactive process which leads to gradual increase in their
proficiency.
In practice, EAP courses are set up to aid students to learn specific academic skills. Thus, the aim of the
academic writing class, for instance, is to prepare students for academic writing tasks, such as writing theses
and dissertations with specific technical and formal language requirements. For example, students can be
exposed to different samples of accepted ways to write an abstract. Robinson (1988), for instance, indicated
that the process of writing consists of planning, organizing, presenting, re-writing, and proof-reading, which
is commonly utilized in EAP courses (Bloor & St John, 1988). It corresponds closely to the writing process
employed by professional writers, and it may also help learners to develop the ability to think logically,
independently, reflectively, critically, and creatively. Likewise, in an academic listening course, language
learners are exposed to lectures and discussions in English. For academic speaking skills, more interactional
and collaborative activities are required to enable learners to meet the requirements for academic
presentations. Furthermore, reading skills and contextualized vocabulary (Wallace, 1980) are supported in
academic reading courses to perceive the structure of a text for better understanding of the content.
In EAP context, there have been some perspectives on professional teachers’ viewpoints (Ferguson 1997;
Sullivan & Girginer, 2002; Wu & Badger, 2009) on EAP offered courses. That is to say, using professional
experiences is highly concerned (Beijaard, Meijer, Morine-Dershimer, & Tillema, 2005; Beijaard, Verloop, &
Vermunt, 2000) to criticize and improve the quality of instruction; especially, in EAP teachers’
professionalism. This can be justified through their knowledge. For example, this professionalism can be
found by attending an annual general meeting on current issues such as the one annually held in Norway-
MEXTESOL Journal, Vol. 43, No. 3, 2019 6

NFEAP. The effect of dominance of English in Norwegian academia is also suggested as useful forums.
Critically speaking, it is crucial to constantly attempt to raise EAP competency from basic to academic English
in order to promote international research cooperation.
For Iran, revisiting some offered impractical courses is of paramount importance to satisfy the students’
demands. Thus, it is crucial to implement critical need analysis in order to give voices to students for
expressing their needs and enable them to use language in an appropriate context effectively. Materials
developers are expected to reengineer the EAP materials to encourage learners’ motivation to actively
engage in learning.
In sum, the main implication of this review is to call for a change on developing localized and specialized
EAP materials. It is also the case to consider English as a means for International communication.

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express her sincere thanks to Dr. Anna Krulatz from Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) for
her invaluable time to provide constructive comments on this piece of work. Any flaws remain mine alone.

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