DEFECTOS Y DIFUSIÓN

Ciencia de los Materiales II-2022

Departamento de Materiales y Minerales
Facultad de Minas
Tipos de defectos

Tipos de defectos

Puntuales Lineales Interfaciales

Vacancias Dislocaciones Límites de grano

Intersticiales
Defectos puntuales
Vacancias

Ausencia de un átomo en la red en un punto que

normalmente esta ocupado. Se producen en el
proceso de solidificación y aumentan
exponencialmente con la temperatura

Intersticiales

Ubicación de átomos en los espacios intersticiales

de la red. Normalmente no supera el 10% de la
concentración dentro de la red
Impurezas
Materiales puros

Conformados por un elemento

+ = Aleaciones
Otro(s) elemento(s)

Soluto + Disolvente Disolución sólida

y/o una segunda fase
Elemento o compuesto Elemento o compuesto
presente en menor presente en mayor
concentración concentración
 Disoluciones sólidas
Se forma cuando se adiciona átomos de soluto y no se forma ninguna
otra fase y la estructura cristalina principal se mantiene

El átomo de soluto reemplaza o

sustituye un átomo de disolvente

El átomo ocupa espacios

intersticiales dentro de la red del
disolvente
 INTRODUCTION
Many reactions and processes that are important in the treatment of materials rely
on the transfer of mass either within a specific solid (ordinarily on a microscopic level)
or from a liquid, a gas, or another solid phase. This is necessarily accomplished by
sion diffusion, the phenomenon of material transport by atomic motion. This chapter dis-
cusses the atomic mechanisms by which diffusion occurs, the mathematics of diffu-
sion, and the influence of temperature and diffusing species on the rate of diffusion.
The phenomenon of diffusion may be demonstrated with the use of a diffusion
couple, which is formed by joining bars of two different metals together so that
there is intimate contact between the two faces; this is illustrated for copper and
nickel in Figure 5.1, which includes schematic representations of atom positions and

Concentraciones
composition across the interface. This couple is heated for an extended period at
an elevated temperature (but below the melting temperature of both metals), and

Figure 5.1 (a Porcentaje en peso:

) A copper–nickel diffusion couple
before a high-temperature heat treatment.
Cu Ni (b) SchematicEsrepresentations of Cu (redde un elemento
el peso relativo en relación con ele peso total de la
circles) and Ni (blue circles) atom locations within
the diffusion couple. (c) Concentrations of copper
aleación
and nickel as a function of position across the
(a) couple.

Porcentaje atómico:
Es el número de moles de un elemento en relación con el número

(b)
total de moles de los elementos de la aleación
100
Concentration of Ni, Cu

Cu Ni

Concentración en términos de porcentaje atómico:

0
Position
(c)
Defectos de línea
Se conocen como imperfeccciones lineales inducidas en el material en proceso
de solifdificación o cuando se somete el material a una deformación
Movimiento de dislocaciones
Defectos interfaciales
ODUCTION
Many reactions and processes that are important in the treatment of materials rely
on the transfer of mass either within a specific solid (ordinarily on a microscopic level)
or from a liquid, a gas, or another solid phase. This is necessarily accomplished by
diffusion, the phenomenon of material transport by atomic motion. This chapter dis-
cusses the atomic mechanisms by which diffusion occurs, the mathematics of diffu-
sion, and the influence of temperature and diffusing species on the rate of diffusion.
The phenomenon
1496T_c05_109-130 of diffusion
11/14/05 13:07may be111
Page demonstrated with the use of a diffusion
couple, which is formed by joining bars of two different metals together so that REVISED PAGES
there is intimate contact between the two faces; this is illustrated for copper and

Difusión
nickel in Figure 5.1, which includes schematic representations of atom positions and
composition across the interface. This couple is heated for an extended period at
an elevated temperature (but below the melting temperature of both metals), and
5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms • 111
1. Un lugar vecino vació
Figure 5.1 (a ) A copper–nickel diffusion couple
Figure 5.2 (a) A copper–nickel diffusion couple
Diffusion of Cu atoms
2. El átomo necesita la suficiente energía para romper el enlace
before a high-temperature heat treatment.
after a high-temperature heat treatment, showing the
Cu Ni (b) Schematic
Cu representations
Cu-Ni alloy ofNiCu (red
alloyed diffusion
con los zone. (b) Schematic
átomos vecinosrepresentations
circles) and Ni (blue circles) atom locations
of Cu within
(red circles) and Ni (blue circles) atom
Diffusion of Ni atoms
the diffusion couple. (c) Concentrations of copper
locations within the couple. (c) Concentrations of
and nickel as a function of position across coppertheand nickel as a function of position across
(a) couple. (a) MECANISMOS DE DISUSIÓN
the couple.

1. Por vacantes
Interdifusión de átomos de soluto que sustituyen
(b) (b)
átomos de disolvente
100 100
Concentration of Ni, Cu
Concentration of Ni, Cu

Cu Ni

Cu Ni

2. Intersticial

0
Es la interdifusión de átomos pequños que se mueven
0
Position Position

(c) (c) a través de posiciones intersticilaes de la red

cooled to room temperature. Chemical analysis will reveal a condition similar to

that represented in Figure 5.2—namely, pure copper and nickel at the two extrem-
ities of the couple, separated by an alloyed region. Concentrations of both metals
vary with position as shown in Figure 5.2c. This result indicates that copper atoms
have migrated or diffused into the nickel, and that nickel has diffused into copper.
interdiffusion This process, whereby atoms of one metal diffuse into another, is termed interdif-
fusion, or impurity diffusion.
 112 • Chapter 5 / Diffusion

Figure 5.3 Motion of a host or

substitutional atom
Schematic
representations of
(a) vacancy diffusion
109-130 11/14/05 10:12 Page 112 and (b) interstitial REVISED PAGES
diffusion. Vacancy

Mecanismo de difusión
112 • Chapter 5 / Diffusion
Vacancy

Figure 5.3 Motion of a host or (a )

substitutional atom
Schematic Position of interstitial Position of interstitial
representations of atom before diffusion atom after diffusion
(a) vacancy diffusion
and (b) interstitial
diffusion. Vacancy
1496T_c05_109-130 12/20/05 7:52 Page 119
2nd REVISE PAGES

Vacancy

5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion • 119

(b)
Table 5.2 A Tabulation of Diffusion Data
(a )
Diffusing Host Activation Energy Qd Calculated Values
Position of interstitial Position of interstitial VacancySpecies
Diffusion D0(m2/s) 2
1. La magnitud del coeficiente de diffusion
atom before difusión
de es indicativo dediffusion
atom after la velocidad Metal D(m /s)
$ 4
kJ/mol eV/atom T(!C )
$ 21

de difusión atómica. Las sustancias que difunden y los materiales a One mechanism
Fe
involves
!-Fe
(BCC)
the interchange
2.8 % 10
of an
251
atom from
2.60
a normal
500
900
lattice position
3.0 % 10
1.8 % 10 $ 15

to
través de los cuales ocurre la difusion influyen en los coeficientes de an adjacent
Fe vacant
"-Felattice 5.0
site% 10or vacancy,
284 as represented
2.94 schematically
900 1.1 % 10 in Fig-
$ 5 $ 17
$ 16
(FCC)
vacancy diffusion ure 5.3a. This mechanism is aptly termed vacancy diffusion. Of1100 7.8 % 10
course, 2.4
this process
difusión. En el hierro la auto difusión ocurre por el mecanismo de C !-Fe 6.2 % 10 80 0.83 500 $ 7
% 10 $ 12

necessitates the presence of vacancies, and the extent to which 900 vacancy
1.7 % diffusion
10 $ 10

vacantes mientras que la difusión del carbono en el hierro ocurre can occur isC a function
"-Fe of the 2.3
number
% 10 of these
148 defects
1.53 that are900
present;5.9 significant
$ 5
% 10 $ 12
$ 11
mediante el mecanismo intersticial concentrations
Cu of vacancies
Cu may 7.8 exist
% 10 in metals
211 at elevated
1100
2.19 temperatures
500
5.3 % 10
(Section
$ 5
4.2 % 10 4.2). $ 19

Since diffusing
Zn atomsCu and vacancies
2.4 % 10 exchange
189 positions,
1.96 the diffusion
500 of% atoms
4.0 $ 5
10 in $ 18

2. La temperatura ejerce gran influencia en los coeficientes y en one

la direction
$ 4 $ 14
Al Al 2.3 % 10 144 1.49 500 4.2 % 10
Cu
corresponds
Al
to the motion
6.5 % 10
of vacancies
136
in
1.41
the opposite
500
direction.$ 5
4.1 % 10
Both $ 14

velocidad de difusión (b) self-diffusion

Mg and interdiffusion
Al 1.2 % occur
10 by this
131 mechanism;
1.35 for the
500 latter,
1.9 %the
10 impu-
$ 4 $ 13

rity atoms must

Cu substitute
Ni for2.7host
% 10 atoms. 256 2.65 500 $ 5
1.3 % 10 $ 22

Vacancy Diffusion Source: E. A. Brandes and G. B. Brook (Editors), Smithells Metals Reference Book, 7th edition, Butterworth-
Interstitial Diffusion
Heinemann, Oxford, 1992.
One mechanism involves the interchange of an atom from a normal lattice position
to an adjacent vacant lattice site or vacancy, as represented schematicallyThe second type of diffusion
in Fig- involves
the diffusion atoms
coefficients is that migrate from an interstitial posi-
vacancy diffusion tion to
ure 5.3a. This mechanism is aptly termed vacancy diffusion. Of course, this process a neighboring
Dependence of the one that is empty. This mechanism is found for interdiffusion
diffusion coefficient Qd
D ! D0 exp a$ b (5.8)
necessitates the presence of vacancies, and the extent to which vacancy of impurities such as hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
on temperature
diffusion andRToxygen, which have atoms
that are
can occur is a function of the number of these defects that are present; significant small enough to fit
where into the interstitial positions. Host or substitutional im-
purity
concentrations of vacancies may exist in metals at elevated temperatures (Section atoms 4.2).rarely form interstitials and do not
D0 ! a temperature-independent normally diffuse
preexponential 1m2/s2 via this mecha-
activation energy Qd ! the activation energy for diffusion (J/mol or eV/atom)
Since diffusing atoms and vacancies exchange interstitial
positions, diffusion nism.
the diffusion ofThis
atoms phenomenon
in is appropriately termed interstitial diffusion (Figure 5.3b).
R ! the gas constant, 8.31 J/mol-K or 8.62 % 10$ 5 eV/atom-K
In
one direction corresponds to the motion of vacancies in the opposite direction. Bothmost metal alloys, interstitial diffusion occurs much more rapidly than diffu-
T ! absolute temperature (K)
sion by
self-diffusion and interdiffusion occur by this mechanism; for the latter, the impu- the vacancy mode, since
The activation energy may beatoms
the interstitial are
thought of smaller
as that energy and thus
required more mo-
to produce
rity atoms must substitute for host atoms. bile. Furthermore, there are
the more
diffusive empty
motion interstitial
of one positions
mole of atoms. than
A large activation vacancies;
energy results in hence,
a