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Resumen
Al menos 6,3 millones de hectáreas en América Central están cubiertas por pastizales degradados, y esas áreas
aumentan porque las tasas anuales de renovación son menores que las de degradación. Este estudio es un
esfuerzo por estimar el impacto bioeconómico de la degradación de los pastos en un área de 720 km2, que
representa la zona piloto del proyecto "Degradación de pasturas CATIE/NORUEGA" en Petén, Guatemala. Se
utilizó una combinación de estimados del área de la tierra, realizados mediante la aplicación de métodos de SIG
a imágenes de satélite de alta resolución; mediciones directas de la disponibilidad, la composición botánica y la
calidad del pasto en 41 potreros que presentaban diferentes niveles de degradación de las pasturas; y
predicciones del comportamiento del ganado bovino a través del modelo de simulación LIFE-SIM, para estimar
la reducción de la producción de leche y carne, y su valor económico debido a la degradación de las pasturas.
Los estimados mostraron que el 65% del área estaba cubierta por pasturas y el 70% de estas presentaba
degradación de moderada a muy severa. El rendimiento de leche por vaca disminuyó en 7-34% cuando la
degradación de las pasturas se incrementó de ligera a muy severa, y los valores equivalentes para la producción
de carne fueron 13-43%. Se estima que debido a la degradación de los pastos la zona piloto está perdiendo hasta
3,4 millones de dólares por año en productos animales en sus 41 695 hectáreas de pastos, o alrededor de US$
82,50 por hectárea por año.
Introducción
En América Central hay, al menos, 6 300 000 ha de pasturas degradadas, las cuales tienden a incrementarse tanto
por la diferencia en las tasas anuales de degradación vs. renovación, que se estima son de 12 y 5%/año,
respectivamente (CATIE/NORAD, datos no publicados), como por el desplazamiento de la ganadería hacia
zonas marginales (Szott, Ibrahim y Beer, 2000). Las pasturas mejoradas usualmente se degradan después de
cinco a siete años de establecidas (Holmann, Argel, Rivas, White, Estrada, Burgos, Pérez, Ramírez y Medina,
2004).
En estudios efectuados en el Petén (Guatemala) se han evaluado las percepciones de los productores sobre la
degradación de las pasturas (Hernández, Ibrahim, Detlefsen, Harvey y Prins, 2002; León, 2006), pero no se ha
valorado la magnitud del impacto bioeconómico de la degradación. Ese tipo de valoraciones se ha hecho para
diferentes regiones de Honduras (Holmann et al., 2004), pero a partir de estimados teóricos basados en la
experiencia de técnicos y productores.
En este trabajo se evaluó el impacto biológico y económico de la degradación de las pasturas en los sistemas de
doble propósito a través de mediciones directas en el campo, estimaciones de área basadas en sistemas de
información geográfica (SIG) y aplicación de modelos que permiten simular la respuesta animal basada en las
variaciones en la disponibilidad y la calidad del forraje durante el año.
Trabajo presentado en el IV Congreso Latinoamericano de agroforestería para la producción pecuaria sostenible. Octubre
2006. Centro de Convenciones Plaza América. Varadero, Cuba
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Materiales y Métodos
Cobertura, %
Nivel de
n1 Disponibilidad2 Especies Malezas Suelo desnudo Erosión
degradación
palatables
Ninguna 1 Muy alta >80 <5 No hay No hay
Leve 4 Alta 50-80 5-15 Espacios pequeños No hay
Moderada 12 Media 20-50 15-40 Manchas aisladas No hay
Severa 18 Pobre <20 40-60 Manchas aisladas Laminar
Muy severa 6 Muy pobre <20 >60 Manchas con distribución Surcos o
uniforme cárcavas
1 2
Número de potreros evaluados Biomasa forrajera herbácea
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cada nivel de degradación (2,0 UA/ha en las pasturas no degradadas, que puede llegar hasta 0,6 UA/ha en las
pasturas severamente degradadas); y la valoración de la reducción en el ingreso por animal, debido a una menor
producción de carne y de leche cuando los animales pastorean pasturas degradadas. Esto último se calculó
considerando los niveles de producción animal estimados por el modelo LIFE-SIM y el precio de mercado en la
zona por kilogramo de ganado en pie (US $1,03) o por litro de leche (US $0,14 y 0,22/kg durante los períodos de
lluvia y seca, respectivamente).
Resultados y Discusión
Las pasturas son la forma de uso de la tierra más frecuente en la zona piloto, pues cubren el 65% del área (41
695 ha). De éstas, el 90% han sido sembradas al menos una vez, y el resto corresponde a pasturas cubiertas por
especies de gramíneas (p.e. Paspalum, Imperata) y leguminosas (p.e. Desmodium) nativas de aparición
espontánea. Además, hay 4 575 ha (6,4%) en vegetación de sabana arbolada, la cual no ha sido considerada para
las estimaciones del impacto de la degradación de las pasturas. Más del 70% del área de pastos mostró niveles
moderados a muy severos de degradación (tabla 2).
Tabla 3. Disponibilidad y composición botánica en las pasturas con diferente nivel de degradación.
Table 3. Availability and botanical composition in the pastures with different degradation rate.
Adicionalmente a esto, el reemplazo de las especies palatables por invasoras y, en alguna medida, la mayor
presencia de material senescente en las pasturas con un mayor nivel de degradación, resulta en una menor
calidad nutritiva de la biomasa comestible. La estimación del potencial de producción animal, basado en la
disponibilidad de biomasa y la calidad nutritiva, y expresado como producción de leche por vaca lactante o
ganancia de peso en novillos, mostró que esta disminuía linealmente a medida que se incrementaba el nivel de
degradación (tabla 4). Cuando dicho nivel se expresó en una escala de 1 a 5 (donde 1 es no degradación y 5
degradación muy severa), se estimó que por cada unidad de cambio en degradación, la producción de leche por
vaca disminuía en 80,2 L/vaca/año o en 34,6 kg de ganancia/novillo/año.
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Tabla 4. Impacto potencial de la degradación de las pasturas en la producción de leche y
la ganancia de peso por animal.
Table 4. Potential impact of pasture degradation on milk production and weight gain per
animal.
Por otra parte, la degradación de las pasturas conlleva una disminución en la capacidad de soporte (Szott et al.,
2000; Días-Filho 2005), por lo que se consideró que en las condiciones de la zona piloto de El Chal, la carga
promedio en pasturas no degradadas era de 2,0 UA/ha y que ésta podía disminuir hasta 0,5 UA/ha cuando la
pastura presentaba niveles muy severos de degradación. Basado en la carga animal, en la valoración de la
reducción en el ingreso por vaca lactante o novillo de engorde (debido al cambio en el nivel de degradación de
las pasturas) y en el área cubierta por las pasturas en la zona piloto, se estimó que si los productores estuvieran
dedicados exclusivamente a la producción de leche o al engorde de novillos, la reducción en los ingresos anuales
atribuibles a la degradación de las pasturas sería de más de 3,4 millones de dólares para las 41 695 hectáreas en
pastos (tabla 5), lo cual equivale a US $82,74 y 82,25/ha si la actividad fuera de ordeño o engorde,
respectivamente. Estos valores son menores que los estimados por Holmann et al. (2004) en Honduras (US
$131,40 y 94,40/ha para leche y carne, respectivamente), utilizando la información dada por los extensionistas y
los productores como informantes clave.
Agradecimientos
Este trabajo es parte de las actividades del Proyecto “Desarrollo participativo de alternativas de uso sostenible de
la tierra en áreas de pasturas degradadas en América Central” (CAM-2242), que se desarrolla con el apoyo
financiero del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores (MFA) del Gobierno de Noruega.
Referencias bibliográficas
Bateman, J. 1970. Nutrición animal: Manual de métodos analíticos. Herrero Hnos., México D.F. 468 p.
Días-Filho, M.B. 2005. Degradação de pastagens: Processos, causas e estratégias de recuperação. 2da. ed.
EMBRAPA Amazõnia Oriental. Belem, Brasil. 173 p.
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Hargreaves, J.N. & Kerr, J.D. 1992. BOTANAL-A comprehensive sampling and computing procedure for
estimating pasture yield and composition. 2. Computational package. Tropical Agronomy Technical
Memorandum No. 79. CSIRO, Canberra, Australia. 83 p.
Hernández, K.J.; Ibrahim, M.; Detlefsen, G.; Harvey, Celia & Prins, K. 2002. Cuantificación y calificación de
pasturas degradadas incorporando conocimiento local de ganaderos de la Calzada Mopán, Dolores, Petén,
Guatemala. Agroforestería en las Américas. 9 (35-36):62
Holmann, F.; Argel, P.; Rivas, L.; White, D.; Estrada, R.D.; Burgos, C.; Pérez, E.; Ramírez, G. & Medina, A.
2004. ¿Vale la pena recuperar pasturas degradadas? Una evaluación de los beneficios y costos desde la
perspectiva de los productores y extensionistas pecuarios en Honduras. CIAT-DICTA-ILRI. Cali, Colombia.
(Documento de Trabajo No. 196). 34 p.
León, J.A. 2006. Conocimiento local y razonamiento agroecológico para toma de decisiones en pasturas
degradadas en El Petén, Guatemala. Tesis Mg. Sc. CATIE. Turrialba, Costa Rica. 114 p.
León-Velarde, C.; Quiroz, R.A.; Cañas, R.; Osorio, J.; Guerrero, J. & Pezo, D. 2006. LIFE-SIM: Livestock
feeding strategies simulation models. CIP-Natural Resources Management Division. Working Paper No.
2006-1. Lima, Perú. 37 p.
Szott, L.; Ibrahim, M. & Beer, J. 2000. The hamburger connection hangover: cattle, pasture land degradation and
alternative land use in Central America. CATIE. Turrialba, Costa Rica. (Serie técnica /Informe Técnico no.
313). 133 p.
Tilley, J. & Terry, R. 1963. A two stage technique for the in vitro digestion of forage crops. Journal of the
British Grassland Society. 18:104
Recibido el 10 de julio del 2006
Aceptado el 15 de noviembre del 2006
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Bioeconomic impact of pasture degradation in double purpose farms in El Chal,
Petén, Guatemala
Abstract
At least 6.3 million ha in Central America are covered by degraded pasture lands, and those areas are increasing
because annual rates for renovation are less than for degradation. This study is an effort to estimate the bio-
economical impact of pasture degradation in an area of 720 km2, representing the pilot zone of the
CATIE/NORWAY Pasture Degradation project in Petén, Guatemala. A combination of land area estimates made
applying GIS methods to high resolution satellite images, direct measurements of pasture availability, botanical
composition and quality in 41 paddocks representing different levels of pasture degradation, and predictions of
cattle performance estimated through the LIFE-SIM simulation model were used to predict the reduction on milk
and beef production and its economic value due to pasture degradation. Estimates showed that 65% of the area
is covered by pastures, and 70% of those showed from moderate to very severe pasture degradation. It was
estimated that milk yield per cow decreased from 7 to 34%, when pasture degradation increased from slight to
very severe conditions, and the equivalent values for beef production were 13 to 43%. It is estimated that due to
pasture degradation the pilot zone is loosing up to 3.4 million dollars per year in animal products in its 41,695 ha
in pastures, or about US$ 82.50 per hectare per year.
Introduction
In Central America are, at least, 6 300 000 ha of degraded pastures, which tend to increase due to the difference
in the annual rates of degradation vs renovation, which are estimated to be 12 and 5%/year, respectively
(CATIE/NORAD, unpublished data), as well as for the movement of livestock rearing towards marginal areas
(Szott, Ibrahim and Beer, 2000). Improved pastures are usually degraded after five to seven years of
establishment (Holmann, Argel, Rivas, White, Estrada, Burgos, Pérez, Ramírez and Medina, 2004).
In studies carried out in Petén (Guatemala) the perceptions of producers on pasture degradation have been
evaluated (Hernández, Ibrahim, Detlefsen, Harvey and Prins, 2002; León, 2006), but the magnitude of the
bioeconomic impact of degradation has not been evaluated. This type of appraisal has been done for different
regions of Honduras (Holmann et al., 2004), but from theoretical estimates based on the experience of
technicians and producers.
In this work the biological and economic impact of the pasture degradation in double purpose systems was
evaluated through direct measurements in the field, area estimations based on geographical information systems
(GIS) and application of models that allow to simulate the animal response based on variations in forage
availability and quality throughout the year.
The study was carried out in the zone of influence of the CATIE/NORWAY-Degraded Pastures project in the
department of Petén (Guatemala), which covers an area of approximately 720 km2, in the Santa Ana and Dolores
municipalities, between the parallels 16º35’ and 16º46’ of latitude north and 89º30’ and 89º45’ of longitude
west. The evaluations of the degradation rate of the pastures were done by means of field trips in 353 paddocks
of 53 farms representative of the different landscape conditions present in the pilot zone. The main indicators
used for the classification of the paddocks according to the degradation rate, were the cover of sown species and
weeds. The perimeters and the area of each paddock were determined with GPS and ArcView 3.3 using a
Quickbird high resolution (pixel of 0,36 m2) satellite image, respectively.
In the evaluation of the degradation rate of pastures the scale presented in table 1 was used. From the 53 farms
with detailed mappings of land use and pasture conditions, eight farms and 41 paddocks were selected. In most
of them the improved species of reference was Brachiaria brizantha.
For the determination of the availability and botanical composition of the pastures the BOTANAL method
(Hargreaves and Kerr, 1992) was used, applied to each paddock in the three days preceding the entrance of the
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animals. Because the paddocks were large (6,41 ± 5,30 ha), a one hectare area was randomly selected per
paddock, in which 60 observations were made for the determinations with BOTANAL. As in the dry season
there was little variability within each paddock, the application of the comparative yield method was not
justified, for which in that period the estimation of availability was carried out by systematic destructive
sampling, with five samples taken at a 50 m interval in randomly selected transept within a hectare of each
paddock. Amid the rainy season and the dry season, in paddocks representative of each degradation rate, pasture
samples of 500-1000 g were taken simulating grazing. These samples were used for the estimation of the pasture
quality, expressed by the content of crude protein determined through the Kjeldhal method (Bateman, 1970) and
the in vitro dry matter digestibility (Tilley and Terry, 1963).
With the availability and quality data of the pastures collected in February-April (dry season) and May-July
(rainy season), and the estimations of the availability for the rest of the year (using as estimator the monthly
rainfall mean), the milk production and weight gain in steers was simulated, using the lactating cows and beef
cattle options of the LIFE-SIM model (León-Velarde, Quiroz, Cañas, Osorio, Guerrero and Pezo, 2006),
respectively, as there is not yet a version for double purpose cattle. The models were run independently, using
the available data for each rate of pasture degradation, so that the loss in production and income due to
degradation could be estimated. A constant animal stocking rate was assumed (the average stocking rate to
which the pastures were subject), but it is acknowledged that the stocking capacity of the pastures decreases as
their degradation increases (Días-Filho, 2005).
For the estimation of the impact in the pilot zone El Chal, the information about the area in pastures, estimated
from the analysis of Quickbird satellite images; an average stocking rate estimated for each degradation rate (2,0
animals/ha in non degraded pastures, which may reach 0,6 animals/ha in the highly degraded pastures); and the
evaluation of the reduction of the income per animal, due to a lower milk and beef production when the animals
graze degraded pastures, were combined. The latter was calculated considering the levels of animal production
estimated through the LIFE-SIM model and the market price in the area per kilogram of standing cattle (US $
1,03) or per milk liter (US $ 0,14 and 0,22/kg during the rainy and dry season, respectively).
Pastures are the most frequent land use in the pilot zone, because they cover 65% of the area (41 695 ha). From
them, 90% has been sown at least once, and the rest corresponds to pastures covered by native grass (e.g.
Paspalum, Imperata) and legume species (e.g. Desmodium) of spontaneous appearance. In addition, there are 4
575 ha (6,4%) with vegetation of savanna with trees, which have not been considered for the estimations of the
impact of pasture degradation. More than 70% of the pasture area showed moderate to highly severe rates of
degradation (table 2).
The pasture degradation was shown not only in a decrease of the availability of forage biomass and of palatable
species, with the subsequent increase of weeds and senescent material, but also in a higher proportion of spaces
of naked soil (table 3). All this coincides with the simplified theoretical model proposed by Días-Filho (2005) for
describing the process of pasture degradation.
Additionally, the replacement of the palatable species by invading ones and, to some extent, the higher presence
of senescent material in the pastures with higher degradation rate, results in a lower nutritive quality of the edible
biomass. The estimation of the animal production potential, based on the biomass availability and nutritive
quality, and expressed as milk production per lactating cow or weight gain in steers, showed that it decreased
linearly as the degradation rate increased (table 4). When the degradation rate was expressed in a scale from 1 to
5 (where 1 is no degradation and 5 highly severe degradation), it was estimated that for each unit of change in
degradation, production of milk per cow decreased in 80,2 L/cow/year or in 34,6 kg of gain/steer/year.
On the other hand, the pasture degradation leads to a decrease in the stocking capacity (Szott et al., 2000; Días-
Filho, 2005), for which it was considered that under the conditions of the pilot zone El Chal, the mean stocking
rate in non degraded pastures was 2,0 animals/ha and that it could decrease to 0,5 animals/ha when the pasture
showed highly severe rates of degradation. Based on the stocking rate, in the evaluation of the reduction in the
income per lactating cow or fattening steer (due to the change in the degradation rate of the pastures) and in the
area covered by pastures in the pilot zone, it was estimated that if the producers were exclusively dedicated to
milk production or steer fattening, the reduction in the annual incomes ascribable to pasture degradation would
be more than 3,4 million dollars for the 41 695 hectares in pastures (table 5), which is equivalent to US $82,74
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and 82,25/ha if the activity were milking or fattening, respectively. These values are lower than the ones
estimated by Holmann et al. (2004) in Honduras (US $131,40 and 94,40/ha for milk and beef, respectively),
using the information provided by extension workers and producers as key informers.
Acknowledgements
This work is part of the activities of the Project “Participatory development of sustainable land use alternatives
in areas of degraded pastures in Central America (CAM-2242), which is developed with the financial support of
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) of the Government of Norway.