Curso de Inglés Técnico

No
oviembree 2011‐Febrero 2
2012

CURSO
O DE INGLÉS T
N TÉCNICO
O PARA

PROFESIO
R ONALESS DE LA CONSTTRUCCIÓ
ÓN
| Sand
dra Elenaa San Rom
mán
Unit 1. Outline Plan of Work 1
Unit 2. Construction Agents 12
Unit 3. General Info 23
Unit 4. Keywords 01 31
Unit 7. Structural Systems 80
Unit 8. Footing & Foundation System 103
Unit 9. Foundation Walls 117
Unit 10. Metal & Concrete Structures 136
Unit 11. Construction Systems 164
Unit 12. Floor Systems 176
Unit 13. Wall Systems 203
Unit 14. Roof Systems 235
Unit 15. Window & Door Types 265
Unit 16. Services Systems 297
Unit 17. Renewable Energy 350
Unit 18. Sustainability 380
Unit 19. Materials & Finishes 399
Unit 20. Construction Site 431

Unit 1. Outline Plan of Work

Unit 1 Outline Plan of Work
Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

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1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 2
1.1. ¿QUÉ ES EL RIBA?............................................................................... 2
1.2. ¿TAMBIÉN EN LA COMUNIDAD ECONÓMICA EUROPEA? ....................................... 2
1.3. ¿POR QUÉ SE ESCOGE EL RIBA Y NO OTRA INSTITUCIÓN PARA REALIZAR ESTA TAREA?.. 3
1.4. ¿CÓMO FUNCIONA LA ACREDITACIÓN? ......................................................... 3
2. BASIC INFORMATION .................................................................. 3
3. GUIDE TO THE PART 3 EXAMINATION ............................................ 4
3.1. WHO IS ELIGIBLE TO TAKE THE PART 3 EXAMINATION? ...................................... 4
3.2. WHEN SHOULD I TAKE THE PART 3 EXAMINATION? .......................................... 4
3.3. WHERE CAN I STUDY FOR THE PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE EXAMINATION? .................. 4
3.4. WHAT DOES THE PART 3 EXAMINATION INVOLVE? ........................................... 5
3.5. THE DOCUMENTARY SUBMISSION. .............................................................. 5
3.6. THE ORAL EXAMINATION. ........................................................................ 5
4. TERMINOLOGY ........................................................................... 6
5. OUTLINE PLAN OF WORK ............................................................. 8
5.1. SCHEMES: ......................................................................................... 8
6. KEYWORDS ............................................................................. 10
1. Introduction
1.1.¿Qué es el RIBA?
El RIBA es el (Royal Institute of British Arquitect) Instituto Real de Arquitectos Británicos. Es

el equivalente en nuestro país al Colegio de Arquitectos. Es un instituto que vela por el ejercicio
profesional en Inglaterra, en el Reino Unido y en todo su área de influencia.
1.2.¿También en la Comunidad Económica Europea?
Ahora sí, porque los Institutos o Colegios Profesionales están abordando de manera conjunta el
trabajo en la Unión Europea, entonces hay una sección especial del RIBA que está preocupada

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de ese tema y las personas que estén habilitadas para ejercer en el Reino Unido también están
habilitadas para ejercer en la Unión Europea.
1.3.¿Por qué se escoge el RIBA y no otra institución para realizar esta tarea?
La verdad es que hay varios organismos internacionales que acreditan las escuelas de
arquitectura. Uno es el RIBA que cubre el área Europea y la visión Europea de la enseñanza de
la arquitectura en su versión sajona y según los propios europeos, hoy día la mejor arquitectura
se está desarrollando en el Reino Unido y las mejores escuelas, tanto en el área pública como
privada, también están en Inglaterra. Por otra parte el RIBA al no ser una universidad tiene una
posición más crítica respecto al sistema. Ellos son acreditadores y otorgan el título profesional.
En el Reino Unido las universidades dan la formación pero no habilitan profesionalmente por lo
que después de terminar los estudios universitarios los estudiantes ingleses tienen que trabajar
durante un periodo de un año y medio bajo la tutela de otro arquitecto y luego dar su examen de
habilitación al RIBA.
1.4.¿Cómo funciona la acreditación?
Funciona en tres niveles de examinación. Un primer nivel que corresponde a los estudios de
licenciatura. El segundo nivel que son los estudios equivalentes a nuestro título, que en el Reino
Unido es un diploma y luego la práctica profesional, un tercer examen, después de trabajar y
rendir un examen sobre legislación inglesa que habilita para ejercer profesionalmente.
2. Basic Information
The RIBA Professional Experience and Development Record is a mandatory component of the
RIBA Examination in Professional Practice and Management (Part 3), the final examination of
an architectural student's training, leading to Chartered Membership of the RIBA. A person may
apply to join the UK Register of Architects if they hold Parts 1, 2 and 3 as prescribed by the
Architects Registration Board.
• The PEDR is an electronic record of a student's professional experience, development

and competency in the practice of architecture.
• The purpose of the PEDR is to ensure that students passing Part 3 have gained the
required professional experience in appropriate locations and of sufficient complexity to
demonstrate they have the competency to discharge the duties and responsibilities of a
chartered architect. It is also a tool for students to demonstrate compliance with the
professional experience regulations and to reflect on what they have learnt during their
professional experience.
• The record sheets are completed at 3-monthly intervals by the student; checked and
signed by their Employment Mentor, and sent to their Professional Studies Advisor
(PSA) for signing. (Further information can be found in Professional Experience
Eligibility Criteria)
• To complete the record, graduates must normally be registered with a Professional

Studies Advisor, who will be responsible for monitoring the graduate's progress and for
signing their PEDR record sheets on a quarterly basis. The completed Professional

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Experience and Development Record are submitted by the graduate as part of the
documentary submission requirements for the Examination in Professional Practice and
Management (Part 3).
3. Guide to the part 3 examination

3.1.Who is eligible to take the Part 3 Examination?
Admission to an RIBA validated Part 3 course in the UK is restricted to candidates who hold
UK RIBA validated qualifications at Part 1 and at Part 2, or who have completed the ARB
Prescribed Examination at Part 1 and/or Part 2, or any combination of the above.
Candidates who have completed the appropriate qualification/s listed under Annex V or Annex
VI of the Mutual Recognition of Professional Qualifications Directive (2005/36/EC) may also
be admitted to a Part 3 course.
Candidates for the RIBA Part 3 oral examination stage should have recently completed a
minimum of 24 months' practical experience under the direct supervision of a professional
working in the construction industry, which should include at least 12 months working in the
EEA, Channel Islands or the Isle of Man, under the direct supervision of an architect.
3.2.When should I take the Part 3 Examination?
Make sure you feel ready for the Examination and can give adequate time to preparation.
Candidates will face a series of challenging assessments and examinations, devised to test
professional knowledge, skill and judgement; and understanding of the requirements of
professional conduct.
Preparation for the Part 3 is likely to have begun with your Stage One professional experience
(or 'year out') and have developed during your Part 2 studies into knowledge of how projects are
managed and how practices are run. At least 12 of the 24 months' experience needed for Part 3
should be undertaken in the two years immediately before taking the Part 3 exam; during which
period candidates should focus on developing the applied professional skill, judgement and
understanding that will be tested at the examination stage. There are a variety of Part 3 study
and preparation programmes offered by architecture schools and examination centres, with
different modes of study available.
3.3.Where can I study for the Professional Practice Examination?
You would normally expect to take your Part 3 at the school of architecture where you passed
Part 2. If you want to transfer to another school you will need to give full and serious reasons
for the change - relocation of work, family commitments etc. - and these will need to be agreed
by the Professional Studies Advisors at the schools involved. Think carefully about any move -
each school will have its own arrangements for preparing students for the Examination during
the Part 2 and Part 3 stages and continuity will be important.

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3.4.What does the Part 3 Examination involve?
The Part 3 Examination is concerned with assessing applied knowledge and skill in relation to
professional conduct and competence to practice as an architect. It should consist of two parts:
• a documentary submission to demonstrate professional knowledge, judgement, conduct

and ethics, which includes the practical training record
• an oral examination
Candidates will be expected to express themselves clear, accurate, and concise English in both
parts of the examination.
3.5.The documentary submission.
Candidates will demonstrate they meet the RIBA Professional Criteria for Part 3 through a
documentary submission defined by the provider, and typically consisting of the following:
• a professional curriculum vitae recording the candidate's educational and professional

career, including non-architectural work, and summarising the candidate's experience in
architectural practice
• a career evaluation including a personal appraisal of the candidate's education and

experience of architectural practice within the context of the Part 3 criteria
• a record of professional experience recording the development of competences achieved

through practical training over a minimum period of 24 months. Further information on
this requirement can be found at http://www.pedr.co.uk
• a case study reflecting the candidate's professional experience and examination

requirements, but usually a critical written evaluation of at least one project undertaken
by the candidate during their recorded practical training, supplementing the PEDR and
career evaluation [NB: candidates with experience of multiple projects, where no single
project covers all RIBA work stages, may draw from their experience of different
projects to illustrate their competence to practice as an architect]
• written examinations, assessed course work, scenario-based essays and reports

demonstrating a candidate's knowledge and understanding of professional practice, and
their ability to exercise sound judgement, and make responsible decisions
Part 3 providers have different methods of delivering the Part 3 curriculum; typically, these
include scenario-based assessment and written examinations, but other forms of evaluation can
be expected.
3.6.The oral examination.
The oral examination is the final element in the examination process. It provides an opportunity
for candidates to develop and comment upon their documentary submission through discussion
with the Part 3 Professional Examiners, who may further establish the candidate's judgement
and understanding in relation to the Professional Criteria for Part 3.

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4. Terminology
Experience which consists of activities which would typically be

Practical undertaken by an architect in practice. (The Part 3 Criteria are helpful in
experience setting out in broad terms, some of the activities which are likely to be
required to be undertaken).
Will be an architect registered in the territory where the experience is being
Professional
undertaken or a chartered or similarly qualified member of an appropriate
working in the
professional body. The 'construction industry' will include qualified
construction
professionals typically involved in the procurement, design and
industry
management of the built environment.
ARB The Architects Registration Board.
In the UK an architect is a person who is registered with the Architects
Registration Board, and may be a chartered member of the RIBA. Outside
Architect the UK, an architect is a person who complies with the local regulations (or
competent authority in the EU), concerning the use of the title or function
of an architect.
The student is the individual undertaking professional experience and
development as a part of the RIBA Examination in Professional Practice
and Management (Part 3), the final examination of an architectural student's
Student
training. The status of the student is that of an employee first and foremost,
but they may also be a registered student on an RIBA validated course of
study.
The Employment Mentor is the individual who directly supervises and has
detailed professional knowledge of the work prepared by the student
undertaking professional experience. The Employment Mentor should be
an architect with at least 5 years' experience of the design of buildings and
Employment
the administration of subsequent contracts. In non-architectural work
Mentor
settings, the Employment Mentor should be an experienced professional in
their own field, and if possible, a member of an appropriate professional
organisation. The Employment Mentor may not necessarily directly employ
the student.
The Professional Studies Advisor is a member of staff at an RIBA
Professional recognised school of architecture with responsibility for teaching
Studies Advisor professional studies and for monitoring students during their professional
experience.
The learning objectives of professional experience are specific
Learning competencies expressed as an ability to complete a defined task. Students,
Objectives as part of their Part 3 Examination, are required to demonstrate their
competency in meeting the RIBA Part 3 criteria.
CPD Continuing Professional Development.
The office, or place of work where professional experience is undertaken.
Location of
This is most usually an architect's office, in the United Kingdom or
Experience
overseas, but can be a variety of other settings, for example a Quantity

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Surveyor's office.
The person supervising the student should have responsibility for and
Direct
control over the work being undertaken. Direct supervision does not imply
supervision
that the Employment Mentor necessarily employs the student.
Stage 1
Professional Experience undertaken any time between the start of a Part 1
Professional
course and the start of a Part 2 course.
Experience
Stage 2
Professional Experience undertaken any time from the start of a Part 2
Professional
course up until taking Part 3.
Experience

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5. Outline Plan of Work

5.1.Schemes

8


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6. Keywords
APPRAISAL Evaluación
DESIGN BRIEF Resumen o Informe de diseño
DESIGN CONCEPT Anteproyecto
DESIGN DEVELOPMENT Desarrollo de anteproyecto
TECHNICAL DESIGN Proyecto Básico
PRODUTION INFORMATION Desarrollo del proyecto de ejecución
TENDER DOCUMENTATION Proyecto de Ejecución

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TENDER ACTION Licitación del proyecto

MOBILISATION Comienzo de la construcción.
CONSTRUCTION TO PRACTICAL
Desde la construcción hasta ejecución final.
COMPLETION
POST PRACTICAL COMPLETION Post ejecución final
TO MANAGE Gestionar
DESIGN OF BUILDING PROJECTS Diseño de proyectos de edificios
ADMINISTRATION OF BUILDING
Administración de contratos de edificación
CONTRACTS
WORK STAGES Fases de proyecto o trabajo
KEY TASKS Tareas claves
BUILDING REGULATIONS Normativa de la edificación
BUSINESS JUSTIFICATION Justificación de negocio
Estrategia de adquisición o compra (de las
PROCUREMENT STRATEGY
cosas autorizadas por el proyecto)
CONCEPT DESIGN APPROVAL Aprobación del anteproyecto
TECHNICAL DESIGN APPROVAL Aprobación del proyecto básico
INVESTMENT DECISION Decision de inversion
READINESS FOR SERVICE Facilidad de servicio
BENEFITS EVALUATION Evaluación de beneficios
FEASIBILITY STUDIES Estudios de viabilidad
ASSESSMENT OF OPTIONS Valoración de opciones
PROCUREMENT ROUTE Ruta de adquisición o compra
COST PLAN Plan de costes
PLANING PERMISSION Permiso de construcción
STATUTORY STANDARDS Estandares legales (o establecidos por la ley)
CONSTRUCTION SAFETY Seguridad en la construcción
Paquetes de núcleo estructural y cerramientos
SHELL AND CORE PACKAGES
exteriores.
INCEPTION Principio
BIDS Ofertas
TO AWARD A CONTRACT Otorgar un contrato
COMMISSION Encargo
COMPLIANCE AUDIT Conformidad

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Unit 2. Construction Agents

Unit 2 Construction Agents

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1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 13
2. KEYWORDS ............................................................................. 13
2.1. CLIENT-CLIENTE .............................................................................. 13
2.2. CONSULTANTS-CONSULTORES ............................................................ 15
2.3. CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION - ADMINISTRACIÓN DE CONTRATO. ................. 18
2.4. SUB CONTRACTORS/SUPPLIERS - SUBCONTRATAS Y PROVEEDORES. ............. 19
2.5. LOCAL/STATUTORY AUTHORITIES - AUTORIDADES LOCALES Y OFICIALES ....... 19
2.6. MEETING MINUTES - ACTA DE REUNIÓN................................................. 21
2.7. HEALTH & SAFETY/CDM REGULATIONS - SEGURIDAD Y SALUD ................... 21

2.7.1. PLANNING SUPERVISOR - Supervisor de Planeamiento en Obra - Encargado de
Seguridad y Salud. .............................................................................................21
2.8. PUBLICITY/GRAPHICS - PUBLICIDAD/GRÁFICOS ....................................... 22
2.9. MISCELLANEOUS – VARIOS ............................................................... 22

2.9.1. SCHEDULES OF ACCOMMODATION - Cuadro de viviendas tipo ....................22
2.9.2. SPECIFICATION - Especificaciones ..........................................................22
1. Introduction
JOB FILING REFERENCES - Referencias de archivado de los trabajos.
Las "Job Filing References" se usan a la hora de guardar y clasificar los archivos y planos
enviados por personas, instituciones o compañías involucradas en el proyecto. También se
utilizan a la hora de enviar emails para referenciar a quién va dirigido.
2. Keywords
2.1.CLIENT-Cliente
2.1.1 CLIENT/DEVELOPER - Real estate development, or Cliente/ Promotor

Property Development, is a multifaceted business,
encompassing activities that range from the renovation and re-
lease of existing buildings to the purchase of raw land and the
sale of improved land or parcels to others. Developers are the

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coordinators of the activities, converting ideas on paper into

real property.
2.1.2 PARTYWALL/ADJOINING OWNERS - For instance: Medianeras/
Many Building Owners with neighbours on the other side of Propietarios
their wall are unaware of the Party Wall Act until one day they colindantes
receive a party wall notice. Upon receipt of a party wall notice
from your neighbour you may choose to respond in writing
usually within a maximum time limit of 14 days, alternatively if
you do not respond within 14 days a dispute is deemed to have
arisen between you and your neighbours, and the Act requires
that Surveyors be appointed to resolve the matter
2.1.3 LETTING AGENTS/VALUATION SURVEYOURS - For Agentes
instance: Real estate appraisal, property valuation or land inmobiliarios/
valuation is the process of valuing real property. The value Tasadores
usually sought is the property's Market Value.
2.1.4 LEGAL/SOLICITOR - Solicitors are lawyers who Legal/Abogado
traditionally deal with any legal matter including conducting
proceedings in courts
2.1.5 CLIENT REPRESENTATIVE/PROJECT MANAGER - A Representante del
project manager is the person responsible for accomplishing the Cliente/ Gerente de
stated project objectives. Key project management Proyecto
responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project
objectives, building the project requirements, and managing the
triple constraint for projects, which are cost, time, and quality
(also known as scope).
2.1.6 PREVIOUS CONSULTANTS/DESIGNERS Consultores previos
/Diseñadores
2.1.7 HOTEL BRAND Marca del Hotel
2.1.8 HOUSING ASSOCIATION - Housing associations in the Asociación de
United Kingdom are independent not-for-profit bodies that Viviendas
provide low-cost "social housing" for people in housing need.
Any trading surplus is used to maintain existing homes and to
help finance new ones. They are now the United Kingdom's
major providers of new homes for rent; while many also run
shared ownership schemes to help people who cannot afford to
buy their own homes outright.
2.1.9 BUILDING GUARANTEE/WARRANTY - For instance: Garantías
NHBC (National House-Building Council) is the leading
warranty and insurance provider and standards setter for UK
house-building for new and newly converted homes. As a non-
profit distributing company, it reinvests all income in achieving
its primary purpose; improving quality in housebuilding to
protect homeowners.
2.1.10 MARKETING Publicidad

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2.2.CONSULTANTS-Consultores
2.2.1 QUANTITY SURVEYOR - A quantity surveyor manages all Aparejador

costs relating to building and civil engineering projects, from
the initial calculations to the final figures. Surveyors seek to
minimise the costs of a project and enhance value for money,
while still achieving the required standards and quality. Many
of these are specified by statutory building regulations, which
the surveyor needs to understand and adhere to.
A quantity surveyor may work for either the client or the
contractor, working in an office or on-site. They are involved in
a project from the start, preparing estimates and costs of the
work.
2.2.2 SERVICES ENGINEER - Building services engineers are Ingeniero de
responsible for the design, installation, operation and Instalaciones
monitoring of the mechanical, electrical and public health
systems required for the safe, comfortable and environmentally
friendly operation of modern buildings.
2.2.3 STRUCTURAL ENGINEER - Structural engineers analyze, Ingeniero de
design, plan, and research structural components and structural Estructuras
systems to achieve design goals and ensure the safety and
comfort of users or occupants. Their work takes account mainly
of safety, technical, economic and environmental concerns, but
they may also consider aesthetic and social factors.
2.2.4 SURVEYS Medición,
peritación, sondeo
2.2.5 HIGHWAY ENGINEERS/CAR PARKING Ingenieros de
carreteras y garages
2.2.6 CIVIL ENGINEERS Ingeniero civil
2.2.7 ARCHAEOLOGY Arqueología
2.2.8 RIGHTS OF LIGHT SURVEYOR Perito de
servidumbre de
iluminación
2.2.9 INTERIOR DESIGNER Diseñador interior
2.2.10 FIRE SAFETY ENGINEER/CONSULTANT Ingeniero de
seguridad de
incendio
2.2.11 ACOUSTIC CONSULTANT - Acoustical consultants can Consultor en
provide a wide range of services in several different specialty acustica
areas (Architectural Acoustics , Environmental Noise Control,
Mechanical Noise and Vibration Control, Sound System
Design) Typically a consultant will work with an architect,
designer, builder, contractor, facility owner, attorney, general
public, or municipality.

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2.2.12 PLANNING CONSULTANT - Planning consultants offer a Consultor en

wide range of advice on all matters concerned with planning, planeamiento
development and environmental issues which surround a
building project. They will deliver their expertise so as to make
the planning as cost effective as possible, and to ensure that the
planning and production of the project runs smoothly. Planning
consultants can range from being actively involved with all
stages of the planning, or merely be an outside expert who
helps guide decisions.
A planning consultant can be as involved as you need them to
be, but typically the main areas which they would look after
are:
• The submission of planning applications, and if these
planning applications are then refused they would then
conduct the appeal against this. Therefore, the planning
consultant will often need to have local knowledge as
well as legal expertise.
• If the project is large, then there will often be the need
for a Local Plan Inquiry, or public examinations of the
plan. The planning consultant will be responsible for
organising these, and act as the representative at such
meetings.
• The planning consultant will perform market research
into the feasibility of the development, which will
range from planning applications to investigations into
what land is available for sale.
• The consultant is responsible for creating all
development and design briefs, which will be given to
all contractors and participants in the project. This will
be written with the project designer based on their
ideas.
• The planning consultant has to research and assess
what the impacts of the planned project would be on
the environment. The results of this assessment will
greatly sway whether or not the project will be able to
be completed. The consultant also has to research
policies that are held by the local government which
may hinder the production process.
• If the results of these are suitable and planning
application is granted, then the consultant will start to
draw up master plans of the project which will be used
by the contractors.
• Some consultants will stop here, whereas others will be
involved throughout the building process to ensure that
it is following the plans and that there are no technical
hitches.

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2.2.13 CONTAMINATION/REMEDIATION CONSULTANT Consultor de

contaminación
2.2.14 WIND ENVIRONMENT SURVEYOR Perito de
mediciones
medioambientales
de viento
2.2.15 GEOTECHNICAL REPORT Informe geotécnico
2.2.16 ENVIRONMENTAL/SUSTAINABILITY CONSULTANT Consultor en
- For instance: Arup provides sustainability advice on a wide sostenibilidad
range of environmental, social and economic issues. These
services can be provided either alone or as part of a package,
incorporating the firm's wider planning, design, engineering
and management skills.
The firm offers comprehensive services aimed at developing
and implementing policies, plans, strategies and management
systems, assessing impacts, managing risk, designing
mitigation measures, gaining regulatory approvals, undertaking
audits and reviews, reporting publicly and controlling costs.
2.2.17 ECO HOMES CONSULTANT Consultor en casas
sostenibles
2.2.18 HISTORICAL/LISTED STRUCTURE ADVISOR Consejero en BICs y
patrimonio
2.2.19 AFFORDABLE HOUSING CONSULTANT Consultor en
Viviendas de
Protección Oficial
2.2.20 URBAN DESIGN CONSULTANT - Urban design concerns Consultor en diseño
the arrangement, appearance and functionality of towns and urbano
cities, and in particular the shaping and uses of urban public
space. It has traditionally been regarded as a disciplinary subset
of urban planning, landscape architecture, or architecture and in
more recent times has been linked to emergent disciplines such
as landscape urbanism. However, with its increasing
prominence in the activities of these disciplines, it is better
conceptualised as a design practice that operates at the
intersection of all three, and requires a good understanding of a
range of others besides, such as real estate development, urban
economics, political economy and social theory.
2.2.21 FAÇADE CONSULTANT Consultor de
fachadas
2.2.22 LIGHTING CONSULTANT Consultor en
iluminacion
2.2.23 KITCHEN CONSULTANT Consultor de
cocinas
2.2.24 PUBLIC ART CONSULTANT Consultor de arte

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public
2.2.25 LEISURE/RETAIL CONSULTANT Consultor en locales
comerciales y ocio
2.3.CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION - Administración de contrato.
2.3.1 MAIN CONTRACTOR Constructor

2.3.1.1 DESIGN QUERY NOTE Notas de petición de
diseño
2.3.1.2 DRAWING RETURN RECORD Registro de
devolución de
archivos
2.3.1.3 CONSULTANTS DRAWING ISSUE SHEETS Hoja de envío
oficial de planos de
los consultores
2.3.1.4 DESIGN PROGRESS REPORT Informe de progreso
del diseño
2.3.1.5 CONTRACTORS RFI Documento de
The construction documents (agreement, drawings and petición de
specifications), developed by the Engineer, document the información por
conditions agreed upon between the Owner and the Contractor. parte del constructor
These documents reflect the understanding that each party has
with regard to constructing the Project they represent. If every
set of Construction Documents were clear, unambiguous, and
complete, interpretation would be unnecessary, as the intent and
understanding of the parties would be self-evident.
Unfortunately, this is not always the case. In most Construction
Documents, it is inevitable that the agreement, drawings, and
specifications will not adequately address every single matter.
There may be gaps, conflicts, or subtle ambiguities. The goal of
the Request For Information (RFI) is to act as a partnering tool
to resolve these gaps, conflicts, or subtle ambiguities during the
bidding process or early in the construction process to eliminate
the need for costly corrective measures. Should the response to
the RFI lead to additional work during the construction process
that represents added value, which cannot be reasonably worked
out in the early stages of the performance of the work, than a
formal claim can be made?
Who submits: General Contractor
Who Responds: Engineer/Architect shall respond to all RFI's.
2.3.1.6 PROPOSED VARIATIONS TO EMPLOYERS Variaciones
REQUIREMENTS propuestas a los

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requerimientos del
promotor
2.3.1.7 PROGRAMME Programa
2.3.1.8 RESPONSE TO CONTRACTORS COMPLIANCE Respuesta a la
conformidad del
constructor
2.3.1.9 DRAWING COMMENT SHEETS Hoja de comentarios
a los planos
2.3.2 ARCHITECTS INSTRUCTIONS (AI) - Instructions issued Instrucciones del
by an architect, first verbally and then confirmed in writing to a arquitecto
site agent as work progresses on site and, as inevitably happens,
questions arise over details and specifications.
2.3.3 DRAWING ISSUE SHEETS Hoja en envío
oficial de planos
2.3.4 SITE PHOTOGRAPHS Fotografos de obra
2.4.SUB CONTRACTORS/SUPPLIERS - Subcontratas y Proveedores.
These are numbered in sequence of appointment on a project by project basis.
2.5.LOCAL/STATUTORY AUTHORITIES - Autoridades locales y oficiales
2.5.1 PLANNING Planeamiento

2.5.2 BUILDING CONTROL Cuerpo oficial
Building Regulations set standards for design and construction encargado del
which apply to most new buildings and many alterations to cumplimiento con el
existing buildings. Código Técnico de la
The role is to: Edificación.
• set objective and fair building standards
• publish statutory guidance on ways to meet Building
Regulations
• oversee and improve the functioning of the building
control system and the statutory appeals system, and
• support the building control service and others who use
the system in their efforts to ensure compliance.
2.5.3 ENVIROMENT AGENCY Agencia de
Medioambiente
2.5.4 ELECTRICITY Electricidad
2.5.5 GAS Gas

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2.5.6 LANDLINES Líneas de teléfono

2.5.7 TELECOM Telecomunicaciones
2.5.8 WATER/SEWAGE Agua/Alcantarillado
2.5.9 POST OFFICE Oficina de correos
2.5.10 POLICE/SECURED BY DESIGN Policia/Nombre de la
(http://www.securedbydesign.com/) Normativa de
Secured by Design focuses on crime prevention at the design, seguridad
layout and construction stages of homes and commercial
premises and promotes the use of security standards for a wide
range of applications and products
2.5.11 CONSERVATION OFFICER Funcionario
encargado de
conservación
2.5.12 CABE - Commission for Architecture and Built Environment Organismo
(Comisión de arquitectura y el medioambiente construido) encargado de la
CABE was created to help decision-makers and professionals normativa de
to create great buildings, places and spaces, and inspire public sostenibilidad
demand for good design. (Específico de
Inglaterra)
2.5.13 ENGLISH HERITAGE Patrimonio Inglés
English Heritage exists to protect and promote England's
spectacular historic environment and ensure that its past is
researched and understood
2.5.14 HIGHWAYS Autopistas
2.5.15 REFUSE & RECYCLING Basura y reciclado
2.5.16 LEGAL AGREEMENTS (SECTION 106 OR 52) Acuerdos legales
(http://www.idea.gov.uk/idk/core/page.do?pageId=71631) (Secciones que hacen
Section 106 (S106) of the Town and Country Planning Act referencia a
1990 allows a local planning authority (LPA) to enter into a normativa específica
legally-binding agreement or planning obligation with a según el proyecto)
landowner in association with the granting of planning
permission. The obligation is termed a Section 106 Agreement.
2.5.17 RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE Infraestructura de
railes
2.5.18 GLA - Great London Authority Ayuntamiento de
(http://www.london.gov.uk/) Londres
2.5.19 AIRPORT Aeropuerto


20

2.6.MEETING MINUTES - Acta de Reunión
Después de cada reunión del equipo de diseño el director de esta (normalmente el arquitecto) se
encarga de resumir en el "meeting minutes" todo lo que se ha dicho en esta y quién lo ha dicho.
2.6.1 CLIENT Cliente

2.6.2 CONSULTANT Consultor
2.6.3 CONTRACTOR Constructor
2.6.3.1 DESIGN TEAM MEETING Reunión del equipo
de diseño
2.6.3.2 VALUE ENGINEERING MEETING Reunión para reducir
el coste del proyecto
propuesto
2.6.3.3 DESIGN CO-ORDINATION MEETING Reunión de
coordinación de
diseño
2.7.HEAlTH & SAFETY/CDM REGULATIONS - Seguridad y Salud
CDM Regulations - Construction, Design & Management Regulations
Everyone controlling site work has health and safety responsibilities. Checking that working
conditions are healthy and safe before work begins, and ensuring that the proposed work is not
going to put others at risk, require planning and organisation. This applies whatever the size of
the site.
The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2007 (CDM) can help you to:
• improve health and safety in your industry
• have the right people for the right job at the right time to manage the risks on site
• focus on effective planning and manage the risk - not the paperwork
2.7.1. PLANNING SUPERVISOR - Supervisor de Planeamiento en Obra - Encargado de

Seguridad y Salud.
His principal role is to ensure that everyone else is carrying out their duties under the
regulations, and advise accordingly. He may also actually carry out some of the duties. He must
be competent under the regulations, and have the resources to carry out his duties.
The specified duties are (so far as is reasonably practicable):-
• to ensure the design of the structure has taken due regard of health and safety as
required under Regulation and any necessary information has been made available.
• to ensure that a suitable pre-contract Health and Safety Plan has been prepared.

21

• to ensure co-operation between designers.
• be in a position to advise the Client and contractor on the suitability of appointments of

designers and contractor, and advise the Client on the adequacy of the Health and
Safety plan prior to commencement of work on site.
• To ensure that the Health and Safety File is prepared in accordance with the Regulations
and delivered to the Client on completion of each structure comprising the project.
The information in the Health and Safety File is intended to assist the Client, and anyone in the
future who may have to maintain, modify or demolish the structure. If the structure changes
hands, the File is handed over with the structure, and may be extended as maintenance and
modification work is carried out.
The Planning Supervisor is a statutory appointment - there must be one if the scheme falls
within the requirements of the regulations. The Planning Supervisor may change with time, but
the new appointment must be notified to all concerned, including the HSE.
2.8.PUBLICITY/GRAPHICS - Publicidad/Gráficos
2.8.1 PHOTGRAPHS Fotógrafos

2.8.2 MODEL MAKER Realizador de
maquetas
2.8.3 3D VISUALISATION/ANIMATIONS Visualizaciones en
3D/Animaciones
2.8.4 ARTWORK Obra de arte
2.8.5 REPORTS Informes
2.8.6 BROCHURES Portafolio o folleto
explicativo
2.9.MISCELLANEOUS – Varios
2.9.1. SCHEDULES OF ACCOMMODATION - Cuadro de viviendas tipo

A schedule of accommodation will specify precisely the number and size of rooms that will be
required, the relationships between rooms and groups of rooms, the finishes, equipment,
furniture that will fit the room for its functional purpose and the environmental conditions that
will assist the purpose.
2.9.2. SPECIFICATION - Especificaciones

A specification is an explicit set of requirements to be satisfied by a material, product, or
service. Should a material, product or service fail to meet one or more of the applicable
specifications, it may be referred to as being "out of specification"; the abbreviation OOS may
also be used.

22
Unit 3. General Info

Unit 3 General Info

23

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 24
2. KEYWORDS ............................................................................. 24
2.1. MATERIALS: MATERIALES ................................................................... 24
2.2. STRUCTURE: ESTRUCTURA .................................................................. 27
2.3. CONSTRUCTION: CONSTRUCCIÓN ......................................................... 29
2.4. THE CONSTRUCTION ASSEMBLY: LA CONSTRUCCIÓN ENSAMBLADA ............... 30
2.5. GENERAL FACTORS: FACTORES GENERALES ............................................. 30
1. Introduction
Vocabulario específico ordenado por temáticas.
2. Keywords
2.1.MATERIALS: materiales
• Definition: Article, item, material, or supply consumed or used in a construction project

and incorporated in the constructed building or structure.
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES (see structure Propiedades estructurales

below)
FORM AND DIMENSIONAL Formas y características dimensionales
CHARACTERISTICS
VISUAL PROPERTIES: COLOR, PATTERN, Propiedades visuales: color, patrón, textura
TEXTURE
DURABILITY: RESISTANCE TO: Durabilidad: Resistencia a:
• PHYSICAL ABRASION AND • Abrasion física y desgaste
WEAR • Los elementos: Sol, viento, lluvia
• THE ELEMENTS: SUN, WIND, • Corrosión causada por humedad o
RAIN acción química
• CORROSION CAUSED BY
MOISTURE OR CHEMICAL
ACTION

24

FINISH AND MAINTENANCE Acabado y requerimientos de mantenimiento

REQUIREMENTS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF: Propiedades físicas de:
• WEIGHT AND DENSITY • Peso y densidad
• THERMAL EXPANSION AND • Expansión térmica y conductividad
CONDUCTIVITY • Permeabilidad
• PERMEABILITY • Resistencia al fuego
• FIRE-RESISTANCE • Valor acústico
• ACOUSTICAL VALUE
METHOD OF MANUFACTURE AND Método de fabricación y suministro
SUPPLY

Pay attention to:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Physical Properties Defininition:
Properties that define the behavior of materials in response to physical forces other than
mechanical:
• Components in a product must do more than simply withstand mechanical stresses
• They must conduct electricity (or prevent conduction), allow heat to transfer (or allow
its escape), transmit light (or block transmission), and satisfy many other functions.
• Includes: volumetric, thermal, electrical, and electrochemical properties.
Physical Properties in Manufacturing:
• Important in manufacturing because they often influence process performance
• Examples:
o In machining, thermal properties of the work material determine the cutting

temperature, which affects how long tool can be used before failure.
o In microelectronics, electrical properties of silicon and how these properties can

be altered by chemical and physical processes is the basis of semiconductor
manufacturing.
Volumetric and Melting Properties:
Properties related to the volume of solids and how the properties are affected by temperature
• Includes:
o Density
o Thermal expansion

25

o Melting point
Thermal Properties:
• Thermal expansion, melting, and heat of fusion are thermal properties because
temperature determines the thermal energy level of the atoms, leading to the changes in
materials.
• Additional thermal properties:
• Specific heat.
o Thermal conductivity.
o These properties relate to the storage and flow of heat within a substance.
Mass Diffusion:
Movement of atoms or molecules within a material or across a boundary between two materials
in contact.
• Because of thermal agitation of the atoms in a material (solid, liquid, or gas), atoms are
continuously moving about:
o In liquids and gases, where the level of thermal agitation is high, it is a free-
roaming movement.
o In metals, atomic motion is facilitated by vacancies and other imperfections in

the crystal structure.
Electrical Properties:
• Engineering materials exhibit a great variation in their capability to conduct electricity.
• Flow of electrical current involves movement of charge carriers - infinitesimally small

particles possessing an electrical charge:
o In solids, these charge carriers are electrons
o In a liquid solution, charge carriers are positive and negative ions
• Movement of charge carriers is driven by the presence of electric voltage.
• And resisted by the inherent characteristics of the material, such as atomic structure and
bonding between atoms and molecules.
Electrochemistry:
Field of science concerned with the relationship between electricity and chemical changes, and
with the conversion of electrical and chemical energy:
• In a water solution, molecules of an acid, base, or salt are dissociated into positively and
negatively charged ions.

26

• Ions are the charge carriers in the solution - they allow electric current to be conducted,
playing the same role that electrons play in metallic conduction.
Terms in Electrochemical Processes:
• Electrolyte - the ionized solution.
• Electrodes -where current enters and leaves the solution in electrolytic conduction:
o Anode - positive electrode
o Cathode - negative electrode
• The whole arrangement is called an electrolytic cell.
2.2.STRUCTURE: estructura
• Definition: Construction or framework of identifiable elements (components, entities,

factors, members, parts, steps, etc.) which gives form and stability, and resists stresses
and strains. Structures have defined boundaries within which (1) each element is
physically or functionally connected to the other elements, and (2) the elements
themselves and their interrelationships are taken to be either fixed (permanent) or
changing only occasionally or slowly.
FORM AND GEOMETRY: LINEAR, Forma y geometría: lineal, plana, volumétrica

PLANAR, VOLUMETRIC
FOUNDATION, BEARING AND SUPPORT Cimentación, requerimientos de apoyo y
REQUIREMENTS soporte
FORCES AND STRESSES: Fuerzas y tensiones:
• TYPE: COMPRESSIVE, TENSILE, • Tipo: Compresión, tracción y cortante
SHEAR • Dirección: vertical (hacia abajo o
• DIRECTION: VERTICAL hacia arriba), lateral, en ángulo.
(DOWNWARD OR UPLIFT), • Magnitud: uniformemente distribuidas
LATERAL, ANGLED o concentradas.
• MAGNITUDE: UNIFORMLY • Duración: tipo de carga: permanentes,
DISTRIBUTED OR sobrecarga o concargas, viento,
CONCETRATED impacto, sismo, móvil
• DURATION: TYPE OF LOAD:
DEAD, LIVE, WIND, IMPACT,
EARTHQUAKE, MOVING
MATERIALS USED: Materiales usados:
• STRENGTH • Fuerza
• STIFFNESS OR RIGIDITY • Rigidez
• ELASTICITY • Elasticidad

27

TYPE OF CONNECTIONS REQUIRED: Tipo de conexiones requeridas:

• BUTT, LAP OR INTERLOCKING • A hueso (uno contra otro),
• JOINTS FLUSH superposición o interconectado (con
• JOINTS ARTICULATED (USING algún elemento de enganche).
REVEALS OR OFFSETS) • Juntas a ras (o perfectamente
alineadas, en el mismo plano)
• Juntas articuladas (Usando remates
[reveals hace referencia a cualquier
pieza que da la vuelta (Ej/ Window
reveal - Remate de ventana)] o
superposiciones [Offset hace
referencia a cualquier desfase entre 2
piezas (Ej/ Rainwater pipe offset -
Desfase horizontal del bajante)]
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS FOR Requerimientos estructurales para voladizos,
CANTILEVERS, SUSPENDED construcciones suspendidas (o colgadas) y
CONSTRUCTION AND OPENINGS aberturas (en la estructura).

Pay attention to:
FORCES IN STRUCTURES
• How do forces affect structures?
o There are external stresses that act on a structure from outside the structure.
o Then external forces produce internal stresses in the materials that make up the
structure.
• How do we know there are stresses?
o The forces change the shape or size of a structure.
o This is called deformation.
o It will have to be repaired, or the structure will fail.
• External Force:
o Dead load:
A permanent force, acting on a structure.
Includes the weight of the structure itself.
o Live load:
Is a changing, or non-permanent force acting on a structure.
The force of the wind.
The weight of things that are in or on a structure.
o Impact forces:
Things that collide with the structure.
Is a type of live load.

28

• Internal Forces:
o Tension forces: stretch a material by pulling its ends apart.
o Tensile strength: The amount of tension force a material can with stand before
stretching apart.
o Compression forces: crush a material by squeezing it together.
o Compressive strength: The amount of force a material can stand before being
crushed.
o Torsion forces : twist a material by turning the ends in opposite directions.
o Torsion strength: The amount of torsion force a material can stand before it
twists apart.
o Bending force: is a combination of tension and compression.
o Shear and torsion forces: are also a combination of tension and compression.
2.3.CONSTRUCTION: construcción
• Definition: In general: Clearing, dredging, excavating, and grading of land and other
activityassociated with buildings, structures, or other types of real property such as
bridges, dams, roads.
NUMBER AND SIZE OF THE PIECES TO Número y tamaño de las piezas a ensamblar
BE ASSEMBLED
MODULAR IMPLICATIONS, Implicaciones modulares, conexión y juntas:
CONNECTIONS AND JOINTS: METHOD método de sujeción requeridos:
OF FASTENING REQUIRED: • Mecánica (clavos, tornillos, pernos
• MECHANICAL (NAILS, SCREWS, remaches y clips)
BOLTS, RIVETS, CLIPS) • Soldado
• WELDED • Adhesivos
• ADHESIVES
EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS REQUIRED Equipo y herramientas requeridos
PLACE OF ASSEMBLY: ON-SITE OR AT Lugar de ensamblaje: in situ o en la fábrica.
THE FACTORY
STANDARDIZATION OF PARTS AND Estandarización de partes y prefabricación:
PREFABRICATION: WHERE REQUIRED dónde es necesario y ventajoso.
OR ADVANTAGEOUS
ERECTION PROCESS: WORK Proceso de construcción: trabajo de
COORDINATION, ERECTION TIME, coordinación, plazo de construcción, mano de
WORKMANSHIP REQUIREMENTS obra necesaria.


29

2.4.THE CONSTRUCTION ASSEMBLY: la construcción ensamblada
CONTROL OF THE FLOW OF: Control del flujo de:

• HEAT: • Calor:
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, Conductividad térmica, Resistencia,
RESISTANCE, REFLECTIVITY reflectividad, características de expansión
THERMAL EXPANSION térmica.
CHARACTERISTICS • Aire: infiltraciones y ventilaciones
• AIR: INFLITRATION (Air-leakage) • Agua:
AND VENTILATION Vapor: control de condensaciones
• WATER: Líquida: permeabilidad,
VAPOR: CONDENSATION CONTROL impermeabilización/Anti-humedad
LIQUID: PERMEABILITY Requisitos para protegerse del hielo y la nieve.
WATERPROOFING/DAMPPROOFING
REQUIEREMENTS
ICE AND SNOW PROTECTION
FIRE-RESISTANCE AND ACOUSTICAL Resistencia al fuego y Índice acústico.
RATINGS
FORM AND OVERALL CONSTRUCTION Forma y profundidad (canto) o anchura de la
DEPTH OR WIDTH construcción en general.
ACCOMODATION OF MECHANICAL Alojamiento de los equipos mecánicos,
EQUIPMENT, DISTRIBUTION AND distribución y sistemas de abastecimiento.
SUPPLY SYSTEMS

2.5.GENERAL FACTORS: factores generales
SAFETY, COMFORT, HEALTH AND Requisitos de seguridad, confort, salud y

SANITATION REQUIREMENTS salubridad
SUITABILITY AND COST (initial and Adecuación y coste (inicial y de
maintenance) mantenimiento)
COMPLIANCE WITH APPLICABLE Cumplimiento de los códigos de construcción
BUILDING CODES aplicables.

30
Unit 4. Keywords 01

Unit 4 Keywords 01

31
Unit 4. Keywords 01

Unit 4. Keywords 01
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 32
2. KEYWORDS ............................................................................. 32
2.1. A ................................................................................................. 32
2.2. B ................................................................................................. 33
2.3. C ................................................................................................. 35
2.4. D ................................................................................................. 37
2.5. E.................................................................................................. 38
2.6. F .................................................................................................. 38
2.7. G ................................................................................................. 41
1. Introduction
Vocabulario específico ordenado alfabéticamente para un mejor y rápido uso del mismo.
2. Keywords
Se ordenan en tres columnas de modo que en la primera está la palabra principal del tema, en la
segunda las palabras relacionadas con ese tema y en la última la traducción.
2.1.A
ACOUSTICAL CEILINGS: Techos Acústicos

They are made of acoustic
boards (it is a special kind of
board made of sound
absorbing materials). Its job is
to provide sound insulation.
Between two outer walls
sound absorbing material is
inserted and the wall is
porous. Thus, when sound
passes through an acoustic
board, the intensity of sound
is decreased. The loss of

32
Unit 4. Keywords 01

sound energy is balanced by

producing heat energy.
ACOUSTICS: Acústica
It is the interdisciplinary
science that deals with the
study of all mechanical waves
in gases, liquids, and solids
including vibration, sound,
ultrasound and infrasound.
ADHESIVES Adhesivo
AIR CONDITIONING Sistemas de Aire
SYSTEMS: Acondicionado
Air conditioning is the
removal of heat from indoor
air for thermal comfort.
In another sense, the term can
refer to any form of cooling,
heating, ventilation or
disinfection that modifies the
condition of air.
An air conditioner is an
appliance, system or machine
designed to change the air
temperature and humidity
within an area (used for
cooling as well as heating
depending on the air
properties at a given time),
typically using a refrigeration
cycle but sometimes using
evaporation, commonly for
comfort cooling in buildings.
AIR SUPPLY OUTLETS Salida de suministro de aire
ARCHITECTURAL Planos de arquitectura
DRAWINGS

2.2.B
BALLOON FRAMING Estructura tipo Balloon

BATHROOM FIXTURES: a Aparatos de baño
bathtub, a shower, a toilet, a
sink/hand basin/wash basin

33
Unit 4. Keywords 01

and also a bidet.

LAYOUTS Distribución
SPACE Espacio
BRICK WALL Construcción de muro ladrillo
CONSTRUCTION
ARCHES Arcos
BONDING PATTERNS Patrones de aparejo o unión
de piezas
EXPANSION JOINTS Juntas de dilatación
LINTELS Dinteles
PIERS Pilastras
WALL OPENINGS Aberturas en muros
WALL SECTIONS Secciones de muros
BUILDING LOADS: Cargas del edificio
In a building there are
structural loads or actions are
forces, deformations or
accelerations applied to a
structure or its components.
Loads cause stresses,
deformations and
displacements in structures.
Assessment of their effects is
carried out by the methods of
structural analysis. Excess
load or overloading may cause
structural failure, and hence
such possibility should be
either considered in the design
or strictly controlled.
BUILDING SITING, Solar de la edificación,
LOCATION AND localización y orientación
ORIENTATION
BUILDING SYSTEMS Sistemas del edificio
• Know more about:
BUILDING LOADS
Weight of structure, weight of objects, soft soil, temperature, earthquake, wind and vibration.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/lab/loads.html

34
Unit 4. Keywords 01

2.3.C
CAULKING COMPOUNDS Componentes de sellado

CEILING: It is an overhead Techo
interior surface that covers the
upper limit of a room. It is
generally not a structural
element, but a finished surface
concealing the underside of
the floor or roof structure
above.
ACOUSTICAL Acústicos
GYPSUM BOARD Cartón-yeso
PLASTER Yeso
WOOD Madera
CERAMIC TILE Azulejo cerámico
CLIMATE AND Clima y topografía
TOPOGRAPHY
COLUMN: Pilar
Or pillar. It is a vertical
structural element that
transmits, through
compression, the weight of
the structure above to other
structural elements below. For
the purpose of wind or
earthquake engineering,
columns may be designed to
resist lateral forces. Columns
are frequently used to support
beams or arches on which the
upper parts of walls or
ceilings rest. In architecture,
"column" refers to such a
structural element that also
has certain proportional and
decorative features. A column
might also be a decorative
element not needed for
structural purposes; many
columns are "engaged with",
that is to say form part of a
wall.
METAL Metálicos

35
Unit 4. Keywords 01

STEEL Acero
WOOD Madera
CONCRETE Construcción en hormigón
CONSTRUCTION:
Concrete is one of the most
durable building materials. It
provides superior fire
resistance, compared with
wooden construction and can
gain strength over time.
Structures made of concrete
can have a long service life.
Concrete is the most widely
used construction material in
the world with annual
consumption estimated at
between 21 and 31 billion
tonnes.
FLOOR SYSTEMS Sistemas de suelos
FOUNDATION WALLS Muros de cimentación
GROUND SLABS Forjados de suelo o losa
CONCRETE BLOCK WALL Muros de bloques de
CONSTRUCTION hormigón
BONDING PATTERNS Patrones de aparejo o unión
de piezas
CONTROL JOINTS Juntas de control
FINISHES Acabados
FLOOR SYSTEM Conexiones de sistemas de
CONNECTIONS suelos
MORTAR JOINTS Juntas de mortero
CONDENSATION Control de condensación
CONTROL
CONTROL JOINT Junta de control
COOLING OUTLETS Salida de refrigeración
MATERIALS
Wood, plastic, aluminum, brick, concrete, reinforced concrete, cast iron and steel.

36
Unit 4. Keywords 01

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/lab/materials.html
2.4.D
DAMPPROOFING Barrera antihumedad

DOOR: See more in UNIT 15 Puerta
It is a movable structure used
to open and close off an
entrance, typically consisting
of a panel that swings on
hinges or that slides or rotates
inside of a space.
When open, they admit
ventilation and light. The door
is used to control the physical
atmosphere within a space by
enclosing the air drafts, so that
interiors may be more
effectively heated or cooled.
Doors are significant in
preventing the spread of fire.
They also act as a barrier to
noise.
FOLDING Formas de aberturas de las
puestas
GARAGE Garaje
GLASS ENTRANCE Entrada de vidrio
HARDWARE Accesorios de la puerta o
cerrajería.
HINGES Bisagras
HOLLOW METAL Metal horadado, hueco u
perforado
HOLLOW METAL FRAMES Con estructura de metal
horadado
LOCKSETS Cerrajería
SLIDING Corredera
REVOLVING Giratoria
SLIDING GLASS Vidrio corredero
THRESHOLDS Umbral
TYPES BY OPERATION Tipos de puertas según su
forma de abertura

37
Unit 4. Keywords 01

WOOD Madera
WOOD DOOR FRAMES Marcos de puertas de madera
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS Sistema de desagüe o de
drenaje
2.5.E
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS Sistemas eléctricos

ELEVATOR: Ascensor
Also called a lift. It is a device
for the vertical movement of
goods or people, typically
within a building.
ENVIRONMENTAL Factores de confort
COMFORT FACTORS medioambiental
ESCALATOR: Escalera mecánica
It is a moving staircase - a
conveyor transport device for
carrying people between
floors of a building.
EXPANSION JOINTS Juntas de dilatación
2.6.F
FINISH WORK (see specific Acabados en general

material) (englobando a todos los
acabados)
FINISHES Acabados
FINISHING OF MATERIALS Acabado de los materiales
FIRE PROTECTION Protección contra el fuego
FIREPLACE: Chimenea
It is an architectural structure
to contain a fire for heating
and, especially historically, for
cooking.
CHIMNEY: Chimenea
It is a structure for venting hot

38
Unit 4. Keywords 01

flue gases or smoke from a

boiler, stove, furnace or
fireplace to the outside
atmosphere. Chimneys are
typically vertical, or as near as
possible to vertical, to ensure
that the gases flow smoothly,
drawing air into the
combustion in what is known
as the stack, or chimney effect.
CONSIDERATIONS Consideraciones
FLUES Conducto de evacuación de
humos
REQUIREMENTS Requerimientos
TYPES Tipos
FLASHING Tapajuntas
ROOF Cubierta
PENETRATIONS Penetraciones
WALLS Muros
FLOOR SYSTEMS Sistemas de suelos
COMPARATIVE Comparativa
CONCRETE Hormigón
PRECAST CONCRETE Hormigón prefabricado
STEEL JOIST Vigueta metálica
WOOD JOIST Vigueta de madera
WOOD PLANK-AND-BEAM Sistema de viga y placa de
madera
FLOORING Suelos (en general)
Flooring is the general term for
a permanent covering of a
floor, or for the work of
installing such a floor
covering. Floor covering is a
term to generically describe
any finish material applied
over a floor structure to
provide a walking surface.
Both terms are used
interchangeably but floor
covering refers more to loose-
laid materials.
Materials almost always

39
Unit 4. Keywords 01

classified as floor covering

include carpet, area rugs, and
resilient flooring such as
linoleum or vinyl flooring.
Materials commonly called
flooring include wood
flooring, ceramic tile, stone,
terrazzo, and various seamless
chemical floor coatings
CERAMIC TILE Azulejos cerámicos
RESILIENT Elástico
WOOD Madera
FOUNDATION SYSTEMS http://www.ornl.gov/sci/buildin Sistemas de cimentación
Footings are designed to have gsfoundations/handbook/sectio
an adequate load capacity with n1-0_intro.shtml
limited settlement by a
geotechnical engineer, and the
footing itself is designed
structurally by a structural
engineer.
The primary design concerns
are settlement and bearing
capacity. When considering
settlement, total settlement and
differential settlement is
normally considered.
Differential settlement is when
one part of a foundation settles
more than another part. This
can cause problems to the
structure the foundation is
supporting. It is necessary that
a foundation not be loaded
beyond its bearing capacity or
the foundation will "fail".
CONCRETE Hormigón
CONCRETE BLOCK Bloque de Hormigón
CRAWL SPACES Espacios sanitarios
FLOOR SYSTEM Conexiones de sistemas de
CONNECTIONS suelos
INTERIOR COLUMN Soporte de pilares interiores
SUPPORTS

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Unit 4. Keywords 01

WOOD PIERS Pilotes de madera

FURNITURE DIMENSIONS Medidas de los muebles
2.7.G
GLASS Vidrio
ENTRANCE DOORS Puerta de entrada
FIXED FRAMING Marco fijo
SLIDING DOORS Puerta corredera
WINDOW WALLS Muros compuestos por
ventanas
GUTTERS AND Canalones y bajantes
DOWNSPOUTS
GYPSUM BOARD Paneles de carton-yeso
Drywall, also known as
plasterboard or gypsum board,
is a panel made of gypsum
plaster pressed between two
thick sheets of paper. It is
used to make interior walls
and ceilings.
Pay attention to:
GLASS
Glass is a truly unique material, bringing light and comfort to the home. It is an essential
element to the design and functionality of any building.
Be it thermal insulation, noise reduction, solar control, low-maintenance, security or simply

appearance -there is a glass solution to satisfy every need.
• Save time and money on window cleaning.
• Noise reduction (acoustic insulation).
• Innovative interior design.
• Maintain total comfort all year round.
• Safety and security.
• Control light and privacy.

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Unit 4. Keywords 01

GLASS GLOSSARY
Acid-etched glass:
Satin-like, translucent glass manufactured by acid-etching one surface of the glass.
Annealed glass
See ? Float glass?. During the float glass manufacturing process, the hot glass is gently cooled
in the "annealing lehr", which releases any internal stresses from the glass to enable the cutting
and further processing of the glass post manufacture.
Double glazing
Glazing comprising two panes of glass for acoustic or thermal insulation.
Double-glazed unit
Two panes of glass, separated by a cavity and hermetically sealed in a factory, to provide
thermal insulation.
Emissivity
Emissivity is a surface characteristic of a material. It is the relative ability of a surface to absorb

and emit energy in the form of radiation. Low-emissivity (Low-E) coatings reduce the normally
relatively high surface emissivity of the glass. The coatings are mainly transparent over the
visible wavelengths but reflect long wave infra-red radiation towards the interior of the
building.
Enhanced thermal insulation
Conventional double glazing provides thermal insulation. Double glazing comprising a low-
emissivity glass provides enhanced thermal insulation.
Float glass
High quality, transparent flat glass manufactured by means of the float tank procedure that is
floating molten glass on a "tin-bath" at extremely high temperature.
Lacquered glass
Opaque and coloured glass produced by depositing and baking a highly resistant lacquer onto
one side.
Laminated glass / laminate / laminating
Two or more sheets of annealed or heat treated glass are separated by one or more plastic
interlayers (normally PVB) and subjected to heat and pressure, in order to ensure perfect
adhesion between constituent elements.

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Unit 4. Keywords 01

Light transmittance (LT)
The proportion of the visible light spectrum that is transmitted through the glass.
Patterned glass
Translucent patterned glass, manufactured by rolling heat-softened glass between embossed

cylinders.
Self-cleaning glass
Property of glass with a photocatalytic and hydrophilic coating. The coating harnesses the dual-
action of UV light and rain (or water) to break down organic dirt and reduce the adherence of
mineral material. The glass stays cleaner for longer and is easier to clean.
Silvering or silvered glass
A process used in the manufacture of mirrors, whereby a silver coating is applied to one
surface of the glass.
Solar control glass
Coated glass to reflect and/or absorb solar energy to prevent excessive heat gain.
Thermally insulating glazing
Double-glazed units provide thermal insulation.
Toughened glass
Glass that has been subjected to a controlled heating and cooling process in order to
significantly increase its resistance to mechanical and thermal stress. Through the thermal
toughening process, the glass attains its safe-breakage characteristics.
Window Energy Rating (WER)
A scheme launched in 2004 by the British Fenestration Rating Council (BFRC), to assess the
whole window energy performance of a window including all the components that make up the
window.

43
Unit 5. Keywords 02

Unit 5 Keywords 02

44
Unit 5. Keywords 02

Unit 5. Keywords 02
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 45
2. KEYWORDS ............................................................................. 45
2.1. H ................................................................................................. 45
2.2. I .................................................................................................. 46
2.3. J .................................................................................................. 47
2.4. K ................................................................................................. 48
2.5. L .................................................................................................. 52
2.6. M ................................................................................................. 53
2.7. P .................................................................................................. 53
2.8. R ................................................................................................. 57
2.9. S ................................................................................................. 59
1. Introduction
Vocabulario específico ordenado alfabéticamente para un mejor y rápido uso del mismo.
2. Keywords
Se ordenan en tres columnas de modo que en la primera está la palabra principal del tema, en la
segunda las palabras relacionadas con ese tema y en la última la traducción.
2.1.H
HANDICAPPED, Planeamiento enfocado a

PLANNING FOR THE minusválido
HARDWARE, DOOR: Herrajería

Door furniture (British and
Australian English) or Door
hardware (North American
English) refers to any of the
items that are attached to a
door or a drawer to enhance

45
Unit 5. Keywords 02

its functionality or
appearance.
Design of door furniture is an
issue to disabled persons who
might have difficulty opening
or using some kinds of door,
and to specialists in interior
design as well as those
usability professionals which
often take their didactic
examples from door furniture
design and use.
HEATING OUTLETS Salida de calefacción
HUMAN DIMENSIONS Dimensiones humanas
2.2.I
INSULATION, THERMAL Aislamiento térmico

INSULATING Materiales aislantes
MATERIALS:
There is thermal insulation
used in the construction or
retrofit of buildings. The
materials are used to reduce
heat transfer by conduction,
radiation or convection and
are employed in varying
combinations to achieve the
desired outcome (usually
thermal comfort with reduced
energy consumption).
ROOF, FLOORS, GROUND Cubierta, suelos, losa
SLABS
WALLS Muros
• Pay attention to:
INSULATION MATERIALS
Fiberglass, cellulose and rock wool batts are traditional, efficient and cheap insulation materials.
But rigid foam panels, loose-fill insulation and sprayed insulation are also part of today's offer.

46
Unit 5. Keywords 02

The most suitable type of insulation depends on where you want the insulation (attic? walls?
floor? basement?....) and on the adequate insulation values (R-values: thermal performance) for
such places.
Traditional insulation materials
Traditional and inexpensive insulation materials comprise:
- Cellulose (made from recycled paper).

- Fiberglass (made from molten glass).
- Mineral wool (rockwool and snag woll, made from some molten rocks).
These products come in different forms: rigid batts and rolls, loose-fill and sprayed-on
materials.
Synthetics (Foams)
More recent insulation materials include some highly efficient synthetics, namely rigid
insulators as Extruded Polystyrene Foam (XPS), Expanded Polystyrene Foam (EPS or bead
board), Polyisocyanurate Foam or Polyurethane Foam.
Insulation materials
Insulation materials come in different forms, namely:
• Blankets - flexible Batts or Rolls:

Typically fiberglass, mineral wool and cellulose batts and blankets.
• Loose-Fill (blown-in):
Rock wool, fiberglass, cellulose loose‐fill insulation
• Sprayed fiber and sprayed foam insulation
Fiber insulation (fiberglass, cellulose and rockwool) insulation
Spray foam insulation: polyurethane...
• Rigid Insulators (rigid foam panels):
Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS)
Expanded polystyrene foam (EPS or bead board)
Polyurethane foam
Polyisocyanurate foam
• Reflective Materials:
Foil‐faced paper
Foil‐faced polyethylene bubbles
Foil‐faced plastic film
Foil‐faced cardboard
2.3.J
JOINTS Juntas
CONTROL Control
EXPANSION Expansión

47
Unit 5. Keywords 02

WOOD Madera
JOIST: Correa
It is one of the horizontal
supporting members that run
from wall to wall, wall to
beam, or beam to beam to
support a ceiling, roof, or
floor. It may be made of
wood, steel, or concrete.
Typically, a beam is bigger
than, and is thus distinguished
from, a joist. Joists are often
supported by beams and are
usually repetitive.
LIGHTGAGE Ligeras
OPEN WEB STEEL Acero de alma abierta
STEEL Acero
WOOD Madera
ROOF JOIST
A roof joist is a structural member which provides support for the roof and distributes its weight
so that it is even. Some roof designs lack joists, depending on how they are designed, using
careful manipulation of other structural members to achieve the desired level of strength and
stability. Because the roof joist network is integral to the roof and the rest of a structure, joists
should never be cut, removed, or adjusted without advice from a professional.
A roof joist can be made from wood, metal, concrete, and a variety of other materials, as long as
the material is strong and very sturdy. Joists attach to beams, lying parallel to each other and
being aligned horizontally. Roof supports which are angled are known as rafters. The network
of joists connects to the rafters, distributing the weight of the roof to the beams the roof joists
are attached to, and thus to the walls of the structure, which eventually connect with the
foundation.
2.4.K
KITCHEN: Cocina
It is a room or part of a room
used for cooking and food
preparation.
A modern residential kitchen

48
Unit 5. Keywords 02

is typically equipped with a

stove, a sink with hot and cold
running water, a refrigerator
and kitchen cabinets arranged
according to a modular
design. Many households
have a microwave oven, a
dishwasher and other electric
appliances. The main function
of a kitchen is cooking or
preparing food but it may also
be used for dining and
entertaining.
CABINETS Armarios
DIMENSIONS Dimensiones
LAYOUTS Distribución
SPACE Espacio
THINGS WHICH YOU CAN FIND IN A KITCHEN
blender (blénder) - licuadora

bottle opener (bótl óupener) - destapador de botellas
bowl (bóul) - bol, taza grande
broom (brúm) - escoba
cake mold (kéik móuld) - molde para repostería

can opener (kán óupener) - abrelatas
canister (kánister) - bote, lata
carving knife (kárvin náif) - cuchillo para trinchar
casserole (káserol) - cazuelera

ceramic ware (serámik uéar) - vajilla de cerámica
cheese cutter (chíis káter) - cortador de queso
chopping board (chópin bóord) - tabla para cortar
cleaver (klíiver) - cuchilla para picar

coffee maker (kófi méiker) - cafetera
colander (kólander) - colador de verduras
corkscrew (kork-skrú) - destapador
counter (káunter) - mesada

crokery (króukeri) - loza, vajilla
cup (kap) - taza
cupboard (kábord) - alacena

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Unit 5. Keywords 02

cutlery (kátleri) - cubiertos
dish drainer (dish dréiner) - escurridor de platos

dish towel (dísh táuel) - repasador
dishwasher (dísh uósher) - lavaplatos
drawers (dróoers) - cajones
faucet (fóset) - canilla, grifo

food processor (fúud prosésor) - procesadora de alimentos
forks (forks) - tenedores
freezer (fríisser) - congelador

fridge (frídch) - heladera
frying pan (fráing pan) - sartén
funnel (fánl) - embudo
garbage (gárbidch) - basura

gloves (glóvs) - guantes
grater (gréiter) - rallador
ice tray (áistrei) - cubetera
juicer (dchúser) - juguera
kettle (kétl) - pava

kitchen apron (kítchen éipron) - delantal de cocina
knives (náivs) - cuchillos
ladle (léidl) - cucharón

lighter (láiter) - encendedor
masher (másher) - pisapuré

microwave oven (máikroweiv óven) - horno microondas
mincer (ménser) - picador, picadora

mixer (míkser) - batidora
oven (óven) - horno

oven burner (óven bérner) - quemador del horno
oven mitts (óven mits) - guantes para horno
pans (pans) - ollas, caserolas y sartenes

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Unit 5. Keywords 02

pepper mill (péper mil) - molinillo de pimienta
pot (pot) - olla
pot holder (pot hólder) - agarradera

potato peeler (potéitou pííler) - pelapapas
pressure cooker (présher-kúker) - olla a presión
recipe (résipi) - receta
refrigerator (refridcheréitor) - heladera

roasting pan (róusting pan) - asadera
rolling pin (róulin pin) - palo de amasar
salt shaker (sólt shéiker) - salero
saucepan (sóspan) - cacerola

scouring pad (skáurin pad) - esponja limpiadora
sharpener (shárpener) - afilador de cuchillos
shelves (shélvs) - anaqueles, estantes
sieve (síiv) - tamiz

sink (sínk) - pileta de lavar
soap (sóup) - jabón
spatula (spáchiula) - espátula
spoons (spúuns) - cucharas

squeezer (skuíizer) - exprimidor
steamer (stíimer) - vaporera
stove (stóuv) - cocina (aparato)
stove burners (stóuv bérners) - quemadores de cocina

strainer (stréiner) - colador chico
teapot (tíipot) - tetera

teaspoons (tíispúns) - cucharitas
toaster (tóuster) - tostadora

trash can (tráshkan) - tacho de la basura
washing-up liquid (uóshin-áp líkuid) - detergente

water heater (uóter jíiter) - calefón
whisk (wísk) - batidor de alambre

wok (wók) - sartén china

51
Unit 5. Keywords 02

2.5.L
LADDER: Escalerilla
It is a vertical or inclined set
of rungs or steps. There are
two types: rigid ladders that
can be leaned against a
vertical surface such as a wall,
and rope ladders that are hung
from the top. The vertical
members of a rigid ladder are
called stringers (US) or stiles
(UK).
LAMINATED TIMBER Madera laminada
LAMINATES, PLASTIC Plástico laminado
PLASTER Yeso
LIGHTING SYSTEMS Sistemas de iluminación
LINTELS: Dinteles
Post and lintel, or in
contemporary usage Post and
beam, is a simple construction
method using a lintel, header,
or architrave as the horizontal
member over a building void
supported at its ends by two
vertical columns, pillars or
posts. This architectural
system and building method
has been commonly used for
centuries to support the
weight of the structure located
above the openings created by
windows and doors in a
bearing wall.
BRICK WALL Muro de ladrillo
CONCRETE BLOCK Bloque de hormigón
STEEL Acero
LOADS, BUILDING (see Cargas del edificio
building loads)
LOADS, MINIMUM LIVE Mínima sobrecarga
LOCKSETS, DOOR Cerraduras de la puerta

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Unit 5. Keywords 02

2.6.M
MANSONRY Mamposteria
EXPANSION JOINTS Juntas de expansión
PIERS Pilastras
STRUCTURAL Requerimientos estructurales
REQUIREMENTS
WALL SYSTEMS Sistemas de muros
MATERIALS Materiales
BUILDING Edificios
GRAPHIC SYMBOLS Símbolos gráficos
WEIGHTS Pesos
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS Sistemas mecánicos
METAL DOORS AND Marcos y puertas metálicas
FRAMES
METAL FASTENINGS Agarres metálicos
METAL STUD WALL Sistemas de muro con
SYSTEMS montantes metálicos
METAL ROOFING: Cubierta metálica
It is a roofing system made
from metal pieces or tiles. It is
a component of the building
envelope.
METRIC CONVERSION Factores de conversión
FACTORS métrica
MOISTURE AND Humedad y protección
THERMAL PROTECTION térmica

GRAPHIC SYMBOLS
http://www.tpub.com/ceb/16.htm
2.7.P
PAINT Pintura
CLASSIFICATIONS Clasificación
FINISHES Acabados

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Unit 5. Keywords 02

SYSTEMS Sistemas
PIER FOUNDATIONS Cimentación de pilastras
PLASTER: Yeso
It is a building material used
for coating walls and ceilings.
Plaster starts as a dry powder
similar to mortar or cement
and like those materials it is
mixed with water to form a
paste which liberates heat and
then hardens. Unlike mortar
and cement, plaster remains
quite soft after setting, and
can be easily manipulated
with metal tools or even
sandpaper. These
characteristics make plaster
suitable for a finishing, rather
than a load-bearing material.
ACCESSORIES Accesorios
MASONRY BASES Bases de mamposteria
WOOD FRAMING Estructura de madera
STUCCO Estuco
TYPICAL DETAILS Detalles típicos
PLASTIC LAMINATES Laminados de plástico
PLATFORM Plataforma
PLUMBING FIXTURES: Aparatos de fontanería
It is an exchangeable device
which can be connected to an
existing plumbing system to
deliver and drain away water
but which is also configured
to enable a particular use.
PLYWOOD Laminado de madera
PANELING Panelado
ROOF SHEATING Panel de cubierta
SUBFLOORING Capa debajo del acabo del
suelo
WALL SHEATING Panel de muro
PRECAST CONCRETE Placas prefabricadas de
FLOOR PLANKS hormigón para suelos
PRECAST CONCRETE Sistemas de cubierta de

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Unit 5. Keywords 02

ROOF SYSTEM hormigón prefabricado

PRECIPITATION Precipitación

CHOOSING THE RIGHT INTERIOR PAINT FINISHES
Even after a homeowner has chosen the perfect color for a room, there's another very important
decision to make. With 5 or 6 paint finishes to choose from, you should learn the benefits of
each and determine the right one for your job. Should you use flat or satin and why? Browse
these tips on selecting the perfect paint finishes for your interior home applications.
Matte Finish
Whether called flat finish or wall paint, this type of interior paint has a matte surface. This paint
finish is usually used on interior walls. It's expecially good if you have to camouflage small wall
bumps, cracks, or other imperfections, as this finish does not reflect light. While some flat
paints are advertised as washable today, you may need to touch up scratches or marks by
covering with a bit more paint, so be sure you keep some on hand after you've finished painting.
Flat Enamel
Flat enamel is a paint with a durable flat, matte finish. It's a good choice for powder rooms and
halls, as it holds up to occasional cleaning.
Eggshell Finish
If you can picture the very low sheen of the shell of an egg, you have an idea of how an eggshell
paint finish will appear. With only a slight hint of shine or gloss, it's good for walls and holds up
better with cleaning than a flat finish paint.
Satin Finish
Satin finish paint has a smooth, velvety look with a bit more gloss. It is most often used for
windows, doors, trim, or ceilings, but can also be used as wall paint. This is particularly suitable
for kids' room walls, kitchens, or bathrooms, or in areas which get a lot of traffic. Paint with a
satin finish is formulated to hold up to cleaning and light scrubbing.
Semi-Gloss
Semi-gloss paint is most often used on doors, trim, and cabinets in kitchens and bathrooms. It is
easily cleaned and lays down a nice, subtle shine, without being too glitzy. Take care with pre-
paint preparation work, as poorly prepared surfaces can be a bit distracting when highlighted by
a semi-gloss surface.

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Unit 5. Keywords 02

Glossy
High gloss paints have an almost reflective quality, as their shiny finish mimics the look of
enamel or plastic. Though not widely used in home interiors, it is becoming more popular for a
dramatic look on cabinets, trim, and furniture in very formal and very contemporary settings.
This finish will magnify any surface imperfections, so careful preparation and sanding is
essential before painting with high gloss paints.
There are some particular application specifics that you should consider when selecting an
interior paint finish.
Cleanability and Durability
While most manufacturers have developed all paint finishes with good cleaning qualities, a
general rule is that the shinier the paint finish, the better it will stand up to washing and
cleaning.
Kid-Friendly Finishes
When painting children's rooms, many painters recommend using an eggshell or satin paint on
the walls and semi-gloss for doors and moldings. These finishes are formulated to better
withstand repeated cleanings.
Rustic Looks
In order to give a worn or old look, use flat finish paints for walls or furniture. If cleanability is
an issue, you might select a flat enamel for trim or an eggshell finish for walls.
High Gloss Looks
Rather than choosing a high gloss paint for a whole room, use it sparingly in select locations,
such as doors and trim. The brilliant surface can appear a bit cold and uninviting. Remember to
spend extra time preparing the surfaces to be painted glossy, as this finish tends to really point
out any surface imperfections.
Ceiling Paint
If you're looking for a basic white ceiling, you can buy pre-mixed, matte finish paints off the
shelf at almost any paint or home improvement store. Because cleanabiltiy or coverage is not a
particularly important consideration, some ceiling paints use cheaper formulations. If you need
an exact color match for the color scheme of your room, choose regular tinted flat wall paint.
Ceiling Finishes
Ceilings in most rooms are painted with a flat finish paint. You could also select an eggshell
finish if the surface of the ceiling is flawless. Choose a glossier finish for good light reflection,
but only if the ceiling is newly resurfaced and has no blemishes.

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Unit 5. Keywords 02

Kitchens and Baths
Any room, such as a kitchen or bathroom, that will be exposed to water, splashing, or steam, is
best painted with a semi-gloss paint. A guest bath or powder room which will have less-frequent
use, could be painted with lower-gloss paint, such as satin or eggshell finish.
2.8.R
RADIANT PANEL Sistemas de calefacción de

HEATING SYSTEMS panel radiante
WOOD Madera
TRUSSED WOOD Madera para cerchas
RAMPS Rampas
REINFORCED CONCRETE Muros de bloques de
BLOCK WALLS hormigón reforzado
REINFORCED CONCRETE Construcción de hormigón
CONSTRUCTION reforzado
RESILIENT FLOORING: Suelo acústico
It is made of material that has
some elasticity. It includes
many different manufactured
products including linoleum,
sheet vinyl, vinyl composition
tile (VTC), cork (sheet or
tile), rubber, and others.
Performance surfaces used for
dance or athletics are made of
either wood or resilient
flooring.
RETAINING WALLS Muros de contención
REVOLVING DOORS Puertas giratorias
ROOF FLASHING Remates de cubierta
ROOF SYSTEMS Sistemas de cubierta
COMPARATIVE FORMS Formas comparativas
DESIGN FACTORS Factores de diseño
PRECAST CONCRETE Hormigón prefabricado
STEEL JOISTS Correas de acero
WOOD JOISTS Vigas de madera
WOOD PLANK-AND-BEAM Placas y vigas de madera
WOOD TRUSSED Cerchas de madera
RAFTERS

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Unit 5. Keywords 02

ROOFING: Cubierta
The type of roof construction
that consists of footings and
an outer weatherproof skin, as
found on most domestic
architecture. Such roofs may
take a number of different
shapes and be constructed of
and covered with a variety of
materials.
ASPHALT SHINGLE Teja asfáltica
BUILT-UP Recrecido
CORRUGATED METAL Metal corrugado
SEAM Junta
SLATE Pizarra
THIN MEMBRANE Membrana fina
TILE Baldosa/azulejo
UNDERLAYMENT Capas de debajo
WOOD SHINGLE Teja de madera
ROOF AND CEILING INSULATION
Ceiling (and roof) insulation - typically associated with attics - is an interesting investment,
even if the insulation demands lifting the roof. The benefits can be huge.
Climate & Type of Roof Insulation
In colder climates, the insulation of the top of the building means almost always attic-ceiling
insulation. In hotter climates it is based on reflective insulation (radiant barriers). In other
climates, attic insulation can be combined with reflective insulation.
Types of roofs & Insulation
If your home has a pitched roof and an open attic, you should insulate the attic. Inspect the attic
insulation to determine its insulation needs.
Building codes recommend attic insulation levels of at least R-45 (R-60 is often more
advantageous). If your attic has less than the recommended levels, add enough insulation to get
the recommended amounts. The payback will be short.
If your roof is tall enough, installing extra insulation isn't a big problem. The most common
solution is to blow enough loose-fill insulation (e.g. fiberglass) into attics and roof cavities. But
if you have a flat roof, or a vaulted or cathedral ceiling, than the solution isn't so simple.

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Flat roofs and cathedral - vaulted ceilings
Flat roofs and cathedral and vaulted ceilings have often a small attic cavity. The new insulation
should fill some or all of that cavity, even if it is only one feet deep or so.
Bit this isn't an easy task, and it is better done by an insulation contractor. The small attic cavity
limits the amount of insulation you can install (a high-density insulation material is a way of
overcoming it) and can pose problems of ventilation, hard to solve and, in some cases,
controversial.
Structural approaches in bad designed ceilings and roofs
If you have a flat or vaulted cathedral ceilings, structural approaches should be considered to
overcome their poor designs.
Here are two of such approaches:
1) Building a pitched roof over the top of the flat (or nearly-flat) roof, creating a new
attic in order to get space to install the required insulation;
2) Adding a very high-density foam insulation on the top surface, above the roofing of
the vaulting ceiling.
Insulation Materials and R-values
Ceiling insulation materials and their R-values are those listed for Attic Insulation.
The reflective materials used under the roofs (in hot climates) are a typical layer of RFL sarking
or foil batts. When installing a reflective material, make sure there is a small gap (about 1
inch/2,5cm) between the roof and the RFL. If using sarking, install it between the battens and
the rafters, with the shiny side facing down.
2.9.S
SANITARY DRAINAGE Sistemas de drenaje sanitario

SYSTEMS
SEWAGE DISPOSAL Sistemas de desagüe y
SYSTEMS alcantarillado
SITING FACTORS Factores del emplazamiento
SKYLIGHT: Lucernario
It is any horizontal window,
roof lantern or oculus, placed
in the roof of the building,
often used for daylighting.
White translucent acrylic is a
'Lambertian Diffuser' meaning
transmitted light is perfectly
diffused and distributed

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Unit 5. Keywords 02

evenly over affected areas.

This means, among other
advantages, that light source
quality standards are
measured relative to white
acrylic transmission. White
acrylic domes provide even
light distribution throughout
the day. Skylights admit more
light per unit area than
windows, and distribute it
more evenly over a space.
SLATE: Pizarra
It can be made into roofing
slates, also called roofing
shingles, installed by a slater.
Slate has two lines of
breakability: cleavage and
grain, which make it possible
to split the stone into thin
sheets. When broken, slate
retains a natural appearance
while remaining relatively flat
and easily stackable.
FLOORING Suelos
ROOFING Cubiertas

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Unit 6 Keywords 03

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Unit 6. Keywords 03

Unit 6. Keywords 03
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 62
2. KEYWORDS ............................................................................. 62
2.1. S Æ W .......................................................................................... 62
1. Introduction
Unit 6 is a continuation of the Key words list which provides a useful base for the discussion of
construction in English. These words will appear in future modules.
2. Keywords
2.1.S Æ W
SLIDING DOOR PUERTAS CORREDERAS A door that opens by sliding

instead of swinging.
SOILS (sediment) SUELO (Terreno) Soil is the loose upper layer of
earth. The bearing soil is the
layer of soil on which the
footings are poured. Soil type
or the physical character of
the soil is particularly
important as it may be a
determining factor in the
choice of foundations for use
on a particular site.
SOLAR ENERGY SISTEMAS DE ENERGÍA Radiant heat from the sun
SYSTEMS SOLAR may be harnessed for both
power and space heating. A
solar energy system may
incorporate either Solar
Thermal panels for the
generation of hot water,
photovoltaic panels for power
generation or a combination
of both.

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SOLAR SHADING APARATOS DE SOMBRA The quantity of sunlight

DEVICES admitted into a building must
be controlled. In warm, sunny
climates excess solar gain
may result in high cooling
energy consumption. Solar
shading devices include
louvers, blinds, fins and light
shelves.
SOLAR SHADING DEVICES:
Solarcontrol and shading can be provided by a wide range of building components including:
• Landscape features such as mature trees or hedge rows;
• Exterior elements such as overhangs or vertical fins;
• Horizontal reflecting surfaces called light shelves;
• Low shading coefficient (SC) glass; and,
• Interior glare control devices such as Venetian blinds or adjustable louvers.
Fixed exterior shading devices such as overhangs are generally most practical for small
commercial buildings. The optimal length of an overhang depends on the size of the window
and the relative importance of heating and cooling in the building.
In the summer, peak sun angles occur at the solstice on June 21, but peak temperature and
humidity are more likely to occur in August. To properly design shading devices it is necessary
to understand the position of the sun in the sky throughout the year. The position of the sun is
expressed in terms of altitude and azimuth angles.
• The altitude angle is the angle of the sun above the horizon, achieving its maximum on
a given day at solar noon.
• The azimuth angle, also known as the bearing angle, is the angle of the sun's projection
onto the ground plane relative to south.

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• An easily accessed source of information on sun angles and solar path diagrams is
Architectural Graphic Standards, 11th Edition, available from John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Publishers.
Shading devices can have a dramatic impact on building appearance. This impact can be for the
better or for the worse. The earlier in the design process that shading devices are considered
they more likely they are to be attractive and well-integrated in the overall architecture of a
project
Integrated photovoltaic panels and solar shading device.
SOUND SONIDO Transmitted vibrations that

are audible.
SPACE FRAMES ESTRUCTURAS ESTEREAS A truss-like, lightweight, rigid
structure constructed from
interlocking struts in a
geometric pattern. Space
frames can be used to span
large areas with few interior
supports.
STAIRS ESCALERAS A flight of steps leading from
one storey or level to another.
Often referred to as part of the
circulation system within a
building and must be
considered as a means of
escape in case of fire.
Straight run This describes the shape of
the staircase, a single straight
run from one floor to the next.
Spiral Staircase A circular staircase often used
where there is limited
available space.
Landing Level or flat area at the top of
a flight of stairs.

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Half Landing Landing halfway up a flight of

stairs.
Balustrade The handrail and row of
balusters or posts that support
it.
STEEL CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCCIÓN DE Steel is a hard, strong and
ACERO durable material that is often
used in construction due to its
physical properties.
STEEL JOIST SYSTEM SISTEMA DE VIGUETA A steel joist is a load carrying
METÁLICA component used in floor and
roof systems.
Decking PLATAFORMA The term decking can apply to
the material used to build an
exterior deck or the material
used to build and interior
flooring system. Profile steel
decking is supported by the
floor joists.
Framing ESTRUCTURA (MARCOS) Steel is often used for framed
building structure, particularly
high rise structures. Framing
is the structural skeleton of
the building.
Light-gauge Joists VIGUETAS ALIGERADAS Light Gage Steel Framing
(LGSF) is lightweight
structural framing where the
steel is produced with a
reduced thickness; thus
reducing the building load.
Open Web Joists VIGUETAS DE ALMA An OWSJ or Open Web Steel
ABIERTA Joist is a lightweight steel
truss consisting of parallel
chords and diagonals. They
are used to provide direct
support for the roof or floor
and act to transfer the loads
imposed on the deck to the
structural frame and down to
the footings of the building.
STEEL JOIST ROOF SISTEMA DE CUBIERTA For a roof system, the steel
SYSTEM DE VIGUETA METÁLICA joists are designed and
fabricated according to their
span and applied loading.

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Support Conditions CONDICIONES DE The design of the joist is

SOPORTE dependent on the specific
support conditions.
STEEL STRUCTURES:
Steel is strong in both tension and compression, the strength to weight ratio is good, meaning
that mild steel can sustain heavy loads with relatively small self-weight.
There are many advantages of using steel as a construction material:
• High strength to weight ratio, leading to lower foundation requirements.
• Simple, fast, immediately strong and accurate, giving potential immediate access.
• Standard sections and fine tolerances possible.
• Computerised cutting and welding techniques have extended the range of shapes
possible.
• Manufactured off-site, so low storage problems, valuable for small sites.
• Can go much higher than concrete.
However, there are also a number of disadvantages:
• Can be limited to standard sizes.
• Cost can vary due to international pricing.
• Very reliant on joint technology.
• Fire resistance is very poor (Strength reduces rapidly above 550 oC)
STONE PIEDRA Stone is a traditional

construction material often
used in regions where it is
locally available. It is found in
historic centres, often in
buildings of historical or
cultural significance.
STONE MASONRY MAMPOSTERÍA DE Stone masonry structural
PIEDRA walls resists lateral and
gravity loads. This is a type of
heavyweight construction
providing thermal mass which
will aid the internal comfort of

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the building.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS ELEMENTOS A constituent part of a
ESTRUCTURALES structure or building; also
referred to as a Structural
Member.
STRUCTURAL FORM FORMA ESTRUCTURAL The shape of the structure,
usually determined by the
location and extent of loads to
be transferred.
STUCCO ESTUCO A durable finish for external
walls, usually composed of
cement, sand and lime and
applied while wet. Stucco may
also be used for interior
finishes and is often used to
sculpt decorative features.
SUN SOL The sun and daily sun-path
must be considered when
designing a structure to allow
for the incorporation of
natural light and direct
sunlight in a space.
MASONRY CONSTRUCTION:
Masonry structures are defined by vertical and horizontal elements; the walls and floors. As the
main loads are applied to the floors, forces will be concentrated at each floor level. Floors
should be rigid in their plane to distribute load to the vertical wall elements
In terms of brick masonry walls, there are a number of different types:
• Single Leaf Wall - defined as a wall without a continuous vertical joint or cavity.
• Double Leaf Wall - a wall with two parallel leaves and a joint of mortar with a
maximum width of 25mm between them. The leaves may also be tied together by a
steel wall tie.
• Cavity Wall - a wall constructed of two parallel single leaf walls tied together by steel
wall ties. Where one or both leaves of the wall are load bearing. The cavity between the
leaves can be filled or partially filled with insulation.

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THERMAL INSULATION AISLAMIENTO TÉRMICO A material used to reduce the

rate of heat transfer via
convection, conduction or
radiation. It is used to
maintain comfortable thermal
conditions within a space.
DOOR THRESHOLDS UMBRAL DE LA PUERTA An entrance or doorway
through which you enter or
leave a room or building.
Threshold is also used to
describe a small piece of
wood or stone that forms the
bottom of a doorway.

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TILE AZULEJO, BALDOSA, A thin, flat, hard material laid

TEJA in rows to cover walls, floors
and roofs. Tiles are often used
as a decorative wall or floor
finish.
Ceramic CERÁMICA Often tiles are made from hard
fired clay, these are called
ceramic tiles. They are often
glazed; this means that a
liquid glass is applied to their
surface to ensure a hard, non-
porous finish.
Resilient RESISTENTE AL RUIDO Tiles are resilient this means
DE IMPACTO that they are able to maintain
their original shape and
position when compressed.
TOPOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAFÍA Y FORMA The topography is the surface
BUILDING FORM DEL EDIFICIO features of a place of region.
Often the topography of a site
and surrounding area is
mapped to allow the building
form to relate to the
surrounding area.
TREES AND CLIMATE ÁRBOLES Y CLIMA Trees and climate are also
considered when carrying out
an initial site analysis.
Localised climate has a very
influential effect on building
design and orientation.
TOPOGRAPHY:
Consideration of the local topography allows for the building form to fit seamlessly into the
surrounding landscapes and to utilise the changes in ground level for the creation of spaces
within the building at varying heights. Below are two examples of buildings that are designed
within the parameters of the sitetopography.

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INSULATION:
In home insulation, the R-valueis an indication of how well a material insulates. The flow of
heat can be reduced by addressing one or more of the three mechanisms of heat
transfer(conduction, convection or radiation) and is dependent on the physical propertiesof
the material employed to do this.
Many different materials may be used to form the insulation. They range from the familiar
polystyrene and mineral wool through to alternatives gradually establishing themselves in the
market such as sheep wooland hemp.
VEGETATION VEGETACIÓN The plants of a certain area or

region.
VIEWS VISTAS
WALL SYSTEMS SISTEMAS DE MUROS
Brick LADRILLO Brick may form either exterior
load bearing walls orsimple
internal partitions. There are
many different types of bricks
used in construction such as
hollow clay bricks and
frogged bricks.
Concrete Block BLOQUE DE HORMIGÓN A large rectangular concrete
brick used in construction,
they are made from cast
concrete and may be high or
low density depending upon
their intended use. Blockwork
is commonly used for load-
bearing perimeter walls and
foundations of buildings.
Masonry MAPOSTERÍA Masonry includes; brick,
stone, marble, granite,
limestone, concrete block etc.
It describes a building
structure that is comprised of
individual units bound
together by mortar. It is
generally a highly durable
form of construction, however
the quality of materials and
workmanship has a large
effect on the overall
performance of the system.

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Metal Stud MONTANTE METÁLICO A wall study is vertical

member in a framed
construction such as balloon
or platform framing. Metal
studs provide framework for
internal partitions and are
usually clad with plasterboard.
They are very quick and
simple to construct making
them a very popular choice of
construction method.
Wood Post and Beam Timber framing is a method of
creating structures using sawn
lengths of timber which are
effectively joined to transfer
vertical and lateral loads to the
ground. The post is the
vertical member, whilst the
beam is the repeated
horizontal member in this
system.
Wood Stud MONTANTE DE MADERA A stud wall may also be
constructed using timber
(wood). This system is usually
used for interior partition
walls which again are likely to
be clad in
WALL CONSTRUCTION:
Walls are constructed in different forms and of various materials to serve several functions.
Exterior walls protect the building interior from external environmental effects such as heat
and cold, sunlight, ultraviolet radiation, rain and snow, and sound, while containing desirable
interior environmental conditions. Walls are also designed to provide resistance to passage of
fire for some defined period of time, such as a one-hour wall. Walls often contain doors and
windows, which provide for controlled passage of environmental factors and people through the
wall line.
Walls are designed to be strong enough to safely resist the horizontal and vertical forces
imposed upon them, as defined by building codes. Such loads include wind forces, self-weight,
possible the weights of walls and floor from above, the effects of expansion and contraction as
generated by temperature and humidity variations as well as by certain impacts, and the wear
and tear of interior occupancy.

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WATER SYPPLY SYSTEMS SISTEMAS DE This is the provision of water

SUMINISTRO DE AGUA for a building. Domestic and
commercial water supply
systems require careful design
in order to meet the demands
of the building occupants.
WATERPROOFING IMPERMEABLE This is the protection of
buildings or individual
components from the
damaging action of water. The
ingress of water into buildings
and structural elements can
cause many problems
including structural
deterioration and mould
growth. Waterproofing may
be applied as an extra layer of
construction such as a DPM
(damp proof membrane) or
will be included in the mass of
a material.
WIND VIENTO Wind and wind loads must be
considered when designing
the structure and façade of a
building. Imposed wind
loading can cause damage to
the structure if it is not braced
against the force of the wing.
WINDOWS VENTANAS An opening in a wall or roof
that functions to admit light or
air to an enclosed space. It
also allows for views out of
and into the building and can
ensure a maintained
connection with the natural
surroundings of a building.
Elements ELEMENTOS
Fixed Glass Framing MARCO DE VIDRIO FIJO A fixed window is one that
cannot be opened. Its function
is limited to allowing daylight
to enter the space.
Frames MARCOS This is the framework that
supports the window, usually
constructed in metal or wood
and is shaped to hold the pane

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Unit 6. Keywords 03

or panes of glass in place.

Skylights LUCERNARIOS An overhead window in the
roof allowing for increased
admission of daylight into a
space.
Types by Operation TIPOS POR OPERACIÓN Windows may be categorised
by their type of operation. The
two most common are hinged
and sliding.
WATER SUPPLY:
The purpose of a domestic water supply system is to provide the consumer with enough hot and
cold water. Many different factors must be considered when designing a system to deliver a
water supply including the following:
• Required water pressure.
• Occupant Demand - annual and peak.
• Required water quality.
• Required water storage.
WINDOW TYPES (by operation):
There are many different options for operating window openings, below are a selection of the
more popular options, these are all examples of non-fixed glass framing:

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Unit 6. Keywords 03

WINDOW-WALL ESTRUCTURA DE MUROS This is a framed façade

FRAMING DE VENTANA (SISTEMA system that may be
DIFERENTE A CURTAIN constructed from timber or
WALLING/ MURO metal and allows for windows
CORTINA) to be seamlessly incorporated
into the structure of the
building.
WOOD MADERA Wood or timber is a very
versatile and sustainable
construction material. It is
becoming increasingly
popular due to its
environmental credentials and
the development of advanced
connections and joints which
allow the use of this material
in more demanding structures.
WOOD FLOORING SUELO DE MADERA Wood is a popular material for
use as both floor structure and
finish. Laminate flooring
often uses timber covered in a
protective plastic layer to
improve the durability of this
material as a floor finish.
WOOD JOINTS VIGUETAS DE MADERA The joints and connections in
a timber construction
determine the structural
quality of the frame.
Historically simple timber
joints such as 'tongue and
groove' and wooden pegs
were used to join the lengths
of timber. Today steel
connections are often used to
ensure the efficient transfer of
load and to increase the
strength of the structure.
WOOD JOISTS FLOOR SISTEMA DE SUELO DE A joist is a horizontal
SYSTEM VIGUETAS DE MADERA supporting member that runs
from wall to wall, wall to
beam or beam to beam to
support the floor.
Beam Support Conditions CONDICIONES DE A beams support conditions
SOPORTE DE VIGA are dependent on where the
beam is loaded from and by

74
Unit 6. Keywords 03

what force. For example, a

beam may be centrally loaded,
providing a uniformly
distributed load or may have
load applied to it from a
particular point.
Cantilevers VOLADIZOS This is a beam or structure
anchored at only one end. The
beam carried load to the
support where it is resisted by
moment and shear stress.
Cantilever construction allows
for an overhanging structure
without the need for external
bracing.
Floor Openings ABERTURAS EN EL A floor opening is created to
SUELO allow for access, this may be
access to an under-floor cavity
space, or access between
levels via a staircase.
Foundation System CONEXIONES CON EL Connections or joints within
Connections SISTEMA DE the foundation system must
CIMENTACIÓN allow for ground settlement
and earth movement (seismic
activity).
Partition Connections CONEXIONES DE Partition connections ensure a
TABIQUERÍA rigid partition surface is
provided and that all partitions
are secured in place.
Span Tables TABLA DE LUCES Span tables provide detailed
(DISTANCIA ENTRE figures for the calculation of
SOPORTES) size and strength of structural
elements.
Sub Flooring CAPAS POR DEBAJO DEL This is the rough floor level
ACABADO DEL SUELO over which a finished floor is
provided. The subfloor is
often accessible for
maintenance of services and
pipework housed in this under
floor cavity space.

WOOD JOINTS:
Tradition timber joints or fixings include gluing, dowelling, nailing, screwing, bolting and nail
plating. Joints are very important in any major timber structure. They must have satisfactory

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Unit 6. Keywords 03

strength and stiffness together with reasonable ductility and energy absorption, particularly if
designed for use in seismic areas.
WOOD JOIST ROOF SISTEMA DE CUBIERTA A joist is a horizontal

SYSTEM DE VIGUETAS DE supporting member that runs
MADERA from wall to wall, wall to
beam or beam to beam, in this
case to support the roof.
Rafters CORREAS A rafter is one in a series of
inclined structural members
(beams). The rafters extend
from the ridge or hip to the
eave (downslope perimeter). It
is designed to support the roof

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Unit 6. Keywords 03

deck and its associated loads.

Exposed rafters area feature of
traditional roof styles.
Roof Edge Conditions CONDICIONES DEL When choosing a roofing
BORDE DE LA material, the edge conditions
CUBIERTA must be considered.
Adjustments to the roofing
system may be made to deal
with the edge conditions such
as; Metal drip edges, gutter
edges, tie in at wall or tie in at
shingle roof.
WOOD PLANK-AND- SISTEMA DE SUELO DE This system uses larger timber
BEAM FLOOR SYSTEM VIGA Y PLACA DE planks than a conventional
MADERA timber frame system and has
fewer connections. This
means that the system is easier
and faster to construct thus
saving on labour costs.
Column Connections CONEXIONES DE Beam - Column connections
PILARES are one of the most common
structural connections. There
are many different options
including; Fin plates, end
plates, web or flange cleats
and haunched connections.
Partition Connections CONEXIONES DE Partitions also require systems
TABIQUERÍA for connection. They are often
connected through use of a
special engineered bracket.
Wall and Girder Supports SOPORTE DE MURO Y A girder is used for
VIGA intermediate support when
two or more joists are needed
to cover the span.
Wood Beams VIGAS DE MADERA A timber horizontal support
used in construction.
Wood Planking PLACAS DE MADERA A series of timber panels
applied as a surface -
generally a floor surface.
WOOD PLANK-AND- SISTEMA DE CUBIERTA This system may also be used
BEAM ROOF SYSTEM DE VIGA Y PLACA DE in roof construction.
MADERA
Flat Roof Support Conditions CONDICIONES DE Specific conditions to be
SOPORTE DE CUBIERTA considered in a flat roof

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Unit 6. Keywords 03

PLANA construction - with particular

reference to drainage. A flat
roof must have an angle of
less than 10˚.
Sloping Roof Support CONDICIONES DE These are the specific
Conditions SOPORTE DE CUBIERTA conditions to be considered in
INCLINADA a sloping roof construction.
WOOD POST-AND-BEAM SISTEMA DE MUROS DE

WALL SYSTEM VIGA Y PLACA DE
MADERA
Floor and Roof Connections CONEXIONES DE
SUELO Y CUBIERTA
Foundation Supports SOPORTES DE
CIMENTACIÓN
Posts and Columns POSTES Y PILARES A post of column is a
structural pillar used to
transfer loads vertically.
Wall Articulation ARTICULACIÓN DE
MURO
Wall Finishes ACABADOS DE MURO A wall finish is the final
interior or exterior surface of
the wall. They must provide a
resilient and durable layer to
protect the structure from
damage, but are also chosen
for their aesthetic qualities.
WOOD STAIRS ESCALERAS DE

MADERA
WOOD STUD WALL ESTRUCTURA DE
FRAMING MURO DE
MONTANTES DE
MADERA
Balloon Framing ESTRUCTURA Balloon framing uses long, continuous
BALLON framing member that run from the sill
plate to the top plate.
Door and Window APERTURAS DE These are breaks in the building
Openings PUERTAS Y envelope for access, light and views.
VENTANAS
Partition Assemblies ENSAMBLAJE DE A partition is an interior separator that is
PARTICIONES used to create internal spaces, these are

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Unit 6. Keywords 03

not structural members.

Platform Framing ESTRUCTURA DE This is the conventional method of
PLATAFORMA timber framing; the frame is formed by
nailing the horizontal framing member
to the top of the wall studs.
Wall Sections SECCIONES DE
MUROS
WOOD TRUSSED CORREAS - CERCHAS Truss rafters are engineered structures
RAFTERS DE MADERA for carrying roof loads and materials.
WOOD WINDOWS VENTANAS DE Timber is often used for the construction
MADERA of window frames and sills due it is
aesthetic and environmental qualities.

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Unit 7. Structural Systems

Unit 7 Structural Systems

80

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 81
1.1. WHAT IS A STRUCTURE? .................................................................... 82
2. STRUCTURES AND FORCES ........................................................ 84
2.1. TYPES OF STRUCTURES ........................................................................ 84
2.2. DESCRIBING STRUCTURES ..................................................................... 85
2.3. MASS AND FORCES ............................................................................. 86
2.4. FORCES, LOADS AND STRESSES .............................................................. 86
2.5. HOW STRUCTURES FAIL ........................................................................ 88
2.6. DESIGNING WITH FORCES ..................................................................... 88
2.7. STABLE STRUCTURES .......................................................................... 89
3. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS ............................................................. 90
3.1. FRAMED STRUCTURE ........................................................................... 90

3.1.1. BEAMS AND COLUMNS .........................................................................90
3.1.2. FRAMED CONSTRUCTION ......................................................................92
3.1.3. STEEL FRAMED CONSTRUCTION ............................................................94
3.1.4. TIMBER FRAMED CONSTRUCTION ..........................................................97
3.1.5. LONG SPAN TIMBER FRAMED CONSTRUCTION ....................................... 100
3.1.6. TIMBER GRID-SHELL STRUCTURE ........................................................ 101
3. Introduction
There are two issues that will be emphasized throughout this course that are crucial to the
understanding of structural concepts:
• Strength
the capacity of the individual elements, which together make up a structural system, to
withstand the load that is applied to them.
• Stability
the capability of a structural system to transmit various loadings safely to the ground.
These two critical issues are experienced daily from the moment that an individual is born. A
newborn baby cannot even hold its own head upright. The large mass of the head requires a
support system that has sufficient strength to enable the head to maintain its stability. This

81

steadily increases as the bones, muscles and tendons of the skeletal and muscular systems
increase in strength. Eventually the extra support provided by the arm or hand is no longer
needed. The first challenge posed by gravity is overcome.
Crawling on four points of support proves to be a very stabile situation for quite a long time.
The "leap" to the unstable two point stance is the next development in our understanding of the
influence of gravity. Again, the structural system must develop to the point that the individual
elements of the system have acquired sufficient strength. The first steps are made: an action of
supreme coordination of hundreds of elements that becomes second nature to homo sapiens.
The list can be extrapolated to touch on many aspects of the human experience; riding tricycles
and bicycles, jumping on trampolines, exercising on parallel bars, sliding on ice skates, sailing
in a heavy wind, rocking a small boat, . . . . the list is endless. These are part of the human
experience and each and every one rely on an inherent understanding of strength and stability.
How many times has a parent scolded a child to "put four on the floor!!!"? What the parent
really means to say is, "if you do not put all of the legs of your chair on the ground, you are
going to tip over!" Both strength and stability issues are addressed in this simple exclamation.
Under normal conditions, the elements which make up the chair (its legs, bracing and seat) can
easily resist vertical loads. The strength of the individual elements of the chair has been
designed to be sufficient for this type of static load. The seat (as a horizontal load-bearing
element) must transfer its load through a connection to the legs (vertical load-bearing elements).
Granted, some chairs will withstand a greater load than others, but they all resist the pull of
gravity on the person sitting on them. If the legs cannot support the applied load they will
fracture or break. These are examples of strength failure.
The stability of the system of elements depends upon the orientation of the chair in space.
When it stands upright, on all four legs, it is a stable system. If it is on its side, the chair might
not be able to resist the loads for which it was designed. As it is tilted onto the back two legs,
the structural system loses its equilibrium. At a certain point the chair as a system becomes
unstable, fails and gravity pulls the supported load to the ground. This is a stability failure. In
this type of failure, the individual elements retain their strength even as the system fails. The
chair (system) could also have failed if the two supporting legs had experienced a strength
failure (broken).
In each of these situations the chair, as a structural system, has reached the limit of its strength.
As the saying goes, a chain (structural system) is only as strong as the weakest link (element)!
Any structural system can be studied in light of these two issues. For example, the column of
the Greek temple is an element that can experience a strength (crushing) failure, or a system
(buckling) failure. It is/was part of a larger structural system.
3.1.What is a STRUCTURE?
One of the greatest problems of designing today is the fact that engineers can solve ANY
problem. Anything can be built. Structural "realities" are perceived as no longer imposing
limitations upon the design architect. Form does not have to be dictated by structure or even
follow a function. Many of the seemingly undeniable "truths" of architectural design have been

82

rendered meaningless. Yet, gravity persists despite this incredible freedom of choice. Buildings
must stand up at the end of a real or virtual working day.
Architectural design cannot be based solely upon one of the many aspects that make up the
profession. It surely should never be based on architectonics alone. Yet, structure is the very raw
material of building. To use structure without understanding its implications is irresponsible and
results in meaningless formalism. An architect is supposed to be a specialist in building, not just
a creator of arbitrary form. The word structure can be used alone or in conjunction with many
other descriptive words. Dictionaries can be consulted to find the following definitions:
manner of construction
the arrangement of particles or parts in a substance or body
arrangement or interrelation of parts as dominated by the general character of the whole
the aggregate of elements of an entity in their relationships to each other
the composition of conscious experience with its elements and their combinations
something that is constructed
something that is arranged in a definite pattern of organization
the action of building
There are multitudes of different scales at which one should perceive structures. Each scale
reveals beauty and provides an amazing amount of information at the same time. Seeing the
information at each level of perception is critical. Learning to see the structure of the world
around us is an important part of life and of this course. It is critical to the success of an
architect that she/he be able to see beyond the skin of a building; beyond the surfaces of a space
and into the load-bearing structure. This is the fabric from which space is molded.
Understanding the nature of the fabric enables one to create the seams between spaces.
Understanding the load-bearing structure of a building is to understand the space that is being
created.
There is a fundamental rightness in a structurally correct concept. It leads to an economy of

means that can be understood by all. Designs which are inherently structurally correct are often
perceived as objects of great beauty, even if only truly comprehended by few. One can find
structure in everything. Look at landscapes, cities, roofs, walls, and at the veins in a leaf from
both afar and as close as you can. Record what you see. What are the similarities? What is
unique about each? Look at the:
• external expression of internal structure
• relationship between natural and built forms
• relationship between size and internal forces
• articulation and supporting structure of vertical surfaces
• articulation and supporting structure of horizontal surfaces

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• nature of scale in relation to the elements of a system
• nature of scale in relation to a system
• openings in a wall
• relationship between loading and structural form
4. STRUCTURES AND FORCES

4.1.Types of Structures
Concepts:
• Structures can be classified.
• Many manufactures structures are similar in form and function to natural structures.
• Structures withstand forces in different ways.
Definitions:
• Structures: an object that has a definite size and shape and serves a purpose or function
e.g bridge, bike, bee hive, cobweb.
• Function: the main purpose of a structure or object.
• Force: a stress (push or pull) that causes an object to change shape or direction of
movement.
• Load: the weight carried or supported by an object e.g. a bridge must support the load of
traffic over it.
• Weight: the amount of force that is exerted on an object by gravity.
• Mass: the amount of matter in an object. Mass is usually measured in grams and
kilograms. An object's mass remains the same whether the object is on Earth or in
space.
• Natural structures: structures that are not made by man e.g spiders web, sand dune,
feathers.
• Manufactured structures: structures that are built by people, e.g. buildings, bridges,
bikes.

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• Mass structure: a natural or manufactured structure that is made up by the piling up of
materials e.g. brick, pyramid, snow fort.
• Frame structure: a type of structure in which a skeleton of materials supports the weight
of the other parts e.g. human body, bike, building.
• Shell structure: a type of structure that obtains its strength from a thin, carefully shaped
outer layer of material and that requires no internal frame, e.g. igloo, egg.
4.2.Describing Structures
Concepts:
• Identify characteristics of structures such as function, aesthetics, safety, materials and

joints.
• Investigate the use of materials.
Definitions:
• Function: the main purpose of a structure or object.
• Aesthetics: the properties of an object that make it pleasing to the senses.
• Symmetry: exactly the same on either side of a central dividing line.
• Bilateral symmetry: Symmetrical arrangement, as of an organism or a body part, along

a central axis, so that the body is divided into equivalent right and left halves by only
one plane.
• Radial symmetry: Symmetrical arrangement of constituents, especially of radiating

parts, about a central point.
• Properties of materials: unique characteristics that help to define what that material is.
• Composite material: a material that is made up of several different materials that have
different properties that together fulfil a specific purpose.
• Lamination: a process in which a layer of material is pressed or glued onto other layers.
• Joint: a fastening that holds parts of structures together.
• Rigid joint: a joint that prevents movement.
• Mobile joint: a joint that allows movement.

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4.3.Mass and forces
Concepts:
• Investigate the concepts of mass and weight and the differences between them.
• Measure mass and forces.
• Identify the units of mass and forces.
• Evaluate the ability of structures to support a mass or weight
Definitions:
• Mass: the measure of the amount of matter in an object. Mass never changes on earth or
in space.
• Kilogram (kg): the standard measure of mass.
o 1 kg = 1000 g (grams)
o 1 mg (milligram) = 0.001 g
• Triple Beam balance: an instrument to measure mass.
• Force: a pushing or pulling stress.
• Newton (N): the standard measure of force.
• Force meter (spring scale) an instrument to measure force.
• Gravity: is the force of attraction all celestial bodies have upon objects at their surface.
• Gravitational Force (weight): depends on the masses and the distance between them.
The gravitational force is stronger when the objects are further apart.
4.4.Forces, Loads and Stresses
Concepts:
• Understand force as a push or pull that acts in a particular direction with a particular
strength.
• Identify and classify external loads.
• Identify and classify internal forces.
Definitions:
• External forces: forces or stresses that act on a structure from outside of it e.g. planes on
the twin towers.

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• Internal forces: forces or stresses that act on a structure from inside. Internal forces are
produced by external forces.
• Deformation: the change of shape that occurs after an external or internal force has been
applied to a structure. Deformation can lead to permanent damage or failure of a
structure.
• Dead load (static): is a permanent force acting on a structure e.g. gravity.
• Live load (dynamic): is a changing or non-permanent force that acts on a structure e.g.
mass of snow on a roof, wind that blows down trees.
• Tension: the force produced by pulling a material.
• Tensile strength: is the largest measure of tension force that a material can stand before
it breaks.
• Shear force: a force that bends or tears a material by pushing parts of it in different
directions.
• Shear strength: measures the largest shear force that a material can stand before ripping
apart.
• Compression forces: crush a material be squeezing it together.
• Compressive strength: measures the largest compression force that a material can stand
before it loses shape or breaks.
• Torsion forces twist a material by turning the ends in opposite directions.
• Torsion strength: a measure of the largest torsion force that a material can stand and still
spring back into its original shape.
• Bending forces: a combination of tension and compression forces.

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4.5.How structures fail
Concepts:
• Identify modes of structure failure.
• Identify forces within a structure and describe how these forces cause a structure to fail.
Definitions:
• Lever: is a device that can change the amount of force needed to move an object e.g
crowbar.
• Fulcrum: the pivot or point on which a level rests.
• Internal forces: forces caused by external forces that cause failure. Solid materials have
microscopic cracks that are weakened by external forces.
• Shear: slipage along cracks e.g earthquake movement on land.
• Bend or Buckle: caused by compression forces.
• Torsion: twisting forces cause failure in brittle, hard materials but deform softer
materials such are rubber.
• Metal fatique: metal weakens over time when it is bent and twisted again and again
because the particles are re-arranged into a weaker state.
4.6.Designing with forces
Concepts:
• Interpret variations in structural design and evaluate their effectiveness.
• Identify forces within a structure.

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Definitions:
• Arch: rounded structures that are supported by the keystone (wedge) that presses against
the two sides of the arch.
• Brace: a solid beam that supports rectangular structures.
• Cantilever: a horizontal board or span that is supported by a very strong column at one
end. Double cantilever bridges are very strong structures that support heavy vehicles.
• Beam: a metal structure that forms a column. To save on metal and to make them less
heavy, beams com in cylindrical, I-beam, L-beam, T-beam and box beam shapes.
• Corrugations: wave like shapes of material add strength to a structure, e.g. wavy paper
inside cardboard.
• Flying Buttress - an external column that helps to support large buildings e.g. Notre
Dame Cathedral in Paris. Large tree roots perform the same function.
4.7.Stable Structures
Concepts:
• Investigate factors affecting stability of a structure and techniques used to increase

stability.
• Learn that lowering a structure's centre of gravity and distributing a structure's mass
over a large area both result in higher levels of stability.
Definitions:
• Stable structure: one that is not likely to tip or fail.
• Centre of Gravity: the point at which all of the gravitational force of an object may be
considered to act. Movement away from the centre of gravity causes a structure to fall.
• Pilings - large, metal, concrete or wood cylinders that are pushed deep into loose soil
until they rest on bedrock. They are used to add support to structures that are built on
soft foundations.
• Footings: concrete foundations beneath walls which are wider than the walls
themselves. Footings spread the load of the structure, reducing the stress.

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5. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
There are many structural systems and issues related to: FOUNDATIONS, CONCRETE SLAB
CONSTRUCTION, METAL FLOOR DECKING or MANSORY WALLS among other.
In this Unit we will study:
• FRAMED STRUCTURE
• BEAMS and COLUMNS
• FRAMED CONSTRUCTION
o STEEL
o TIMBER
o LONG SPAN TIMBER
o TIMBER GRID-SHELL STRUCTURE
5.1.Framed Structure
5.1.1. BEAMS AND COLUMNS

A beam is a structural member subjected to transverse loading.
The internal forces acting on the beam are the bending moment and shear forces.
Stresses are both tensile and compressive.
Beams deflect when loaded and this deflection must be limited to avoid damage. This is done
by increasing the stiffness of the beam.
Columns transfer load from beams down to the footings of the structure.
Columns are reinforced with steel rods and stirrups.

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The type of structural frame and material used is dependant on:
• Span
• Loading
• Cross sectional area of beam or column
• Environmental factors
Framed structures resist the loads applied due to their geometry.
Keywords:
Beam Viga
Transverse Transversal
Bending moment Momento flector
Stress Esfuerzo
Strain Desplazamiento
Deflection Flecha
Stiffness Rigidez
Column Pilar
Stirrup Cerco
Span Luz

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Cross-section Seccion
Geometry Geometria
Steel Acero
Rod Barra (Corrugada)
5.1.2. FRAMED CONSTRUCTION

As the span of a beam increases it becomes uneconomical to use a solid beam. A framework
composed of straight members connected at their ends to form a rigid structure is used, this is
a Truss.
This is a parallel chord truss and is often used for floor or roof structures.
The pitched truss is characterised by its triangular shape, it is used for roof structures.
Keywords:
Rigid Structure Estructura Rigida

Truss Cercha
Node Nodo
Member Elemento estructural
Chord Cordon estructural
Parallel Chord truss Cercha de cordones paralelos
Pitched Truss Cercha a dos aguas
Economical Economico

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Composed Compuesto
Roof Tejado
A space frame is a three dimensional truss, it is a lightweight rigid structure which allows for
large areas to be spanned with few internal supports - large clear spans.
The space frame is a horizontal plane of constant depth and therefore are non-directional
structural systems.
Case Study: Sainsbury Centre, Norman Foster:
Here the space frame is a series of triangular girders paired to two lattice beams. The roof and
walls utilise the same structure and same building envelope.
Keywords:
Space Frame Estructura espacial

Three-dimensional Tres Dimensiones
Lightweight Ligero

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Rigid Rigido
Clear span Luz libre
Plane Plano
Case-study Caso practico
Girders Diagonal de refuerzo
Lattice Celosia
Utilise Utilizar
Envelope Envolvente
Integrate Integrar
5.1.3. STEEL FRAMED CONSTRUCTION

Steel is used as a linear structural system, a skeletal frame.
The primary structure transfers load directly to the ground whilst secondary structure spans
between these elements.
Steel beams rest upon walls or columns and due to its high tensile strength it is suitable for
application in high rise buildings.
Structural steel is a profile formed with a specific form or cross-section such as 'I' Beams.
The structural frame must also resist lateral forces such as wind loads. Cross bracing provides
Increased connection of beams and columns to stiffen the structure.

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Structural steel must be covered with a protective coating to provide fire resistance.
Keywords:
Frame Estructura/Portico
Linear Lineal
Primary Structure Estructura Primaria
Secondary Structure Estructura Secundaria
Tensile Strength Fuerza De Traccion
Profile/Cross section Seccion
Protective Coating Film (pelicula) de Proteccion
Fire Resistance Resistencia Al Fuego
Lateral Lateral
Wind load Carga de Viento
Cross bracing Arriostramiento
Connection Conexion
Flange Ala
Web Alma
Castellated Beams are cut lengthwise in a toothed pattern, separated, offset and then re-joined
into one cohesive piece.
Castellation is a technique used to expand a standard section steel beam without adding any
weight or wastage, thus increasing the efficiency of the beam.
Cellular Beams are constructed in the same way, but provide a circular opening which allows
service access such as ventilation ducts and pipework.

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Keywords:
Castellated Con Aberturas

Cellular Celular
Service Access Registro de Instalaciones
Expand Expandir
Efficient Eficiente
Pipework Tuberias
Ventilation Ducts Conducto de Ventilacion
Cohesive Cohesivo
Configuration Configuracion

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5.1.4. TIMBER FRAMED CONSTRUCTION
Timber framing is a traditional structural system which is becoming increasingly popular due to
the environmental advantages of using sustainable timber.
Benefits of timber framed construction:
• Aesthetic
• Rapidly erected
• Environmental credentials
Issues with timber frames:
• Limited strength and span
• Susceptible to rot and insect infestation
• Requires fire protection
• Only as strong as the quality of connections
The moisture content of the wood also determines the quality of the structure, and
timber frames are susceptible to:
• Shrinkage (drying)
• Swell (absorption of moisture)
Keywords:
Environmental Medioambiental
Sustainable Sostenible
Aesthetic Estetico
Erected Erecto
Credentials Credenciales

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Span Luz
Connections Conexiones
Shrink Encoger
Swell Expandir
Moisture Gauge Medidor de Humedad
Timber Madera
5.1.4.1. Post and beam

Also known as post and lintel this is the most basic form of timber framed construction where a
horizontal element rests on two vertical elements, usually columns or supporting walls.
A joist is a secondary beam, usually a repetitive element.
5.1.4.2. JJI Joist

A common UK practice is to use engineered timber products designed to permit increased clear
spans in floors and roofs.
These have increased stability, strength and straightness when compared to solid timber
beams.

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5.1.4.3. Connections
Timber frames rely on the quality of connections at each junction. Connections must be
robust.
Screw and Pin
Metal Plate
Keywords:
Post and Beam Pilar y Viga

Lintel Dintel
Horizontal Horizontal
Joist Vigueta
Stability Estabilidad
Strength Fuerza
Straightness Linealidad

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Junction Union
Robust Robusto
Screw Tornillo
Pin Perno
Metal plate Placa metalica
5.1.5. LONG SPAN TIMBER FRAMED CONSTRUCTION

It is possible to make timber a more versatile and useful structural material through the
composition of several layers known as 'Glulam' (Glued laminated timber).
Glulam allows timber to span large distances and can be used for curved structural elements.
Case Study: Mossbourne Academy, Richard Rogers
Repeated structural bays allow for the single module to be designed to a high level and
simplifies construction due to repeated connections. Ground connections are formed in steel and
concrete to prevent absorption of moisture in structural elements via capillary action.

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Keywords:
Capillary Action Accion Capilar

Glued Laminated timber Madera Laminada
Structural Bay Vano Estructural
Absorption Absorcion
Module Modulo
5.1.6. TIMBER GRID-SHELL STRUCTURE

A gridshell structure derives its strength from its double curvature. It is a timber frame
constructed in a grid or lattice form.
The grid can be constructed from any material, but most commonly this method is used for
timber structures.
Construction Process:
• The lattice is created as a flat surface.
• It is anchored into place and pushed upward from the ground.
• The timber becomes deformed into the desired curved form.

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Keywords:
Gridshell Estructura Esterea

Double curvature Doble Curvatura
Grid Reticula
Lattice Celosia/Entramado
Anchored Anclada
Deformed Deformada
Construction Process Proceso de Construccion

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Unit 8. Footing and Foundations Systems

Footing and
Unit 8
Foundations Systems

103

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 104
1.1. TYPES OF FOOTINGS ...........................................................................104
1.2. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS ......................................................................106
2. SHALLOW FOUNDATION SYSTEMS ............................................ 112
3. DEEP FOUNDATION SYSTEMS ................................................... 115
1. Introduction
A firm foundation, including properly installed footings of adequate size to support the structure
and prevent excessive settlement, is essential to the satisfactory performance of buildings
including raised floor systems.
Foundation systems are often classified as shallow or deep foundations, depending on the depth
of the load-transfer member below the super-structure and the type of transfer load mechanism.
The required foundation system depends on the strength and compressibility of the site soils, the
proposed loading conditions, and the project performance criteria (i.e. total settlement and
differential settlement limitations).
Foundation designs are based on the assumed bearing capacity of the soil at the building site. In
construction sites where settlement is not a problem, shallow foundations provide the most
economical foundation systems. Shallow foundation construction is typically utilized for most
residential and light commercial raised floor building sites.
Where poor soil conditions are found, deep foundations may be needed to provide the required
bearing capacity and to limit settlement. Additionally, structures in coastal high-hazard areas are
required to be elevated above the base flood elevation (BFE), commonly on piles. Examples of
deep foundation systems include driven piles (e.g. pressure-treated timber piles, concrete, or
steel), drilled shafts, or micropiles.
1.1.Types of footings
Footing requirements are generally covered in the building code and sized in accordance with
the bearing capacity of the soil and the weight of the building. In areas subject to seasonal frost,
the bottom of the footing must be placed below the frost line to prevent damage to the footing
and structure due to frost heave. Typical footing types include:

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• Spot Footings
• Continuous Spread Footing
• Grade Beam Footing

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Spot Footings
A spot or pad footing is used to support a single point of contact, such as under a pier or post. A
spot footing is typically a 2' by 2' square pad, 10" to 12" thick, and made with reinforced
concrete rated to 3,000 to 5,000 pounds per square inch (psi) in compression.
Continuous Spread Footing
A continuous spread footing is commonly used to provide a stable base around the entire
perimeter of a structure. Buildings with spread footings often include interior spot footings. A
spread footing supports the weight (load) from the exterior or foundation walls. The footing
thickness provides the strength needed to support the weight. The wider width of the footing
base creates a large area to transfer this weight to the ground and to prevent settlement.
The dimensions of a continuous spread footing vary according to the soil conditions under the
building, the load placed on the footing, and the construction style of the structure being
supported. It is common practice to make the footing thickness equal to the thickness of the
foundation wall, and to provide a footing projection on each side of the foundation wall equal to
one-half the foundation wall thickness. Spread footings are frequently 16" to 24" wide, 6" to 16"
thick, and made with reinforced concrete rated to 2,000 to 5,000 psi in compression.
Grade Beam Footing
A grade beam footing is a continuous reinforced-concrete member used to support loads with
minimal bending. Grade beams are capable of spanning across non-load bearing areas, and are
commonly supported by soil or pilings. A continuous grade beam is frequently constructed by
digging a trench at least 8" wide to the depth needed to span the distance between supports.
Grade beam footings differ from continuous spread footings in how they distribute loads. The
depth of a grade beam footing is designed to distribute loads to bearing points, while the width
of a continuous spread footing is designed to transfer loads to the ground.
1.2.Types of foundations
The two most commonly used foundations with raised floor systems are pier-and-beam and
stem wall foundations. Regardless of the foundation system used, the foundation and the
footings must be of adequate size and strength to support the design loads.
Typical foundation types include:
• Pier-and-Beam
• Continuous Wall (Stem Wall)
• Pile Foundations
• Permanent Wood Foundations

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107

Continuous Foundation Walls (Stem Wall Foundations)
Continuous (stem wall) foundations are frequently constructed of reinforced masonry or poured
concrete, supported by a continuous, reinforced-concrete spread footing.
Stem wall foundations may include interior spot piers for support of the raised floor system.
Moisture control of the crawlspace created by the stem wall foundation is an important issue.
Refer to moisture control, site and building drainage, and crawlspace design and construction.

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109

Pile Foundations
Where poor soil conditions are found, foundations may need to be constructed on preservative-
treated timber piles capped with wood or concrete sills. In such buildings, support may be
provided by the end-bearing capacities of the piles or by friction between the pile and soil. In
pile-supported structures where the building support relies upon friction between the pile and
soil, two important soil parameters must be known or determined:
• angle of internal friction (for cohesionless soils).
• cohesion value in pounds per square foot (for cohesive soils).
Friction piles may also be required to support standard foundations in unstable soil.
In buildings supported by pile foundations, the layout of the horizontal girders and beams
should consider that the final plan locations of the tops of the piles may not be precise.
Irregularities in the piles and the soil often prevent the piles from being driven perfectly plumb.
The use of thick shims or over-notching for alignment at bolted pile-girder connections will
adversely affect connection capacity. A rule of thumb regarding notching is to notch no more
than 50% of the pile's cross-sectional area. Notching more than 50% will require reinforcing the
pile with a steel plate or other suitable material.
Pile foundations are also used in coastal areas where the foundation may be subject to
inundation and possible wave action. Elevated wood pile foundations enable buildings to be
constructed above the base flood elevation (BFE) as required by the National Flood Insurance
Program.
For more information on pile foundations, refer to the Timber Piling Council publication
Timber Pile Design and Construction Manual, at www.timberpilingcouncil.org.
Permanent Wood Foundations
Permanent Wood Foundations (PWFs) are fully engineered systems accepted by all the major
building codes, as well as by federal agencies and lending, home warranty, and fire insurance
institutions. Stem wall foundations constructed in accordance with the system are an
increasingly popular option for houses and other wood-frame buildings. Foundation walls are
typically load-bearing, lumber-framed walls sheathed with structural plywood panels. All
lumber and plywood components in a PWF are pressure treated with a relatively high
concentration of a waterborne preservative to withstand decay from moisture and insect
damage.
The PWF system can be utilized for both basement and crawlspace (raised floor) foundation
systems. Foundation walls are designed to withstand both backfill (lateral) and vertical (axial)
loads, and are typically supported by foundation footings of crushed stone. The next figure
shows a typical PWF wall for crawlspace (raised floor) construction.

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Keywords:
FOOTING Zapata
FOUNDATION Cimentación
SETTLEMENT Asiento
SOIL BEARING Terreno resistente
WATER TABLE Nivel freático
BUILDING LOADS Cargas del edificio
BEARING CAPACITY Capacidad resistente
DEAD LOADS Cargas permanentes (concarga)
LIVE LOADS Carga temporal (sobrecarga)
CRACKS Grietas
STRUCTURAL FAILURE Fallo estructural
LATERAL DISPLACEMENT Desplazamiento lateral
GRANULAR SOILS Suelos granulares
EXCAVATION Excavación
CONCRETE BED Hormigón de limpieza
CAPILLARITY ACTION Acción capilar
TRANSMIT Transmitir

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NEGLIGIBLE Despreciable
CONSOLIDATED Consolidado
STABILIZED Estabilizado
2. Shallow Foundation Systems

Suitable for use where the soil is sufficiently stable to support the imposed loads. All shallow
foundations sit less the 3 meters below finished ground level.
1. Pad Foundations
Formed in concrete, they are used to support individual point loads, for example; beneath a
structural column. A square or rectangular footing distributes the load over a large ground area.
2. Strip Foundations
They are used to support a line of loads either beneath a load bearing wall, or a continuation of
columns. This is often a continuous footing beneath the perimeter of the building.
Keywords:
Shallow Superficial (poco profundo)

Stable Estable
Support Soporte
Ground Level nivel de planta baja
Pad Foundations Cimentaciones - zapatas
Column Pilar

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Concrete Hormigón
Strip Foundations Cimentación corrida
Continuous Continua
Perimeter Perimetro
Distribute distribuir
3. Slab Foundations
A slab foundation is used to spread the load over an even greater area. It is a continuous, two
directional foundation and consists of a concrete slab that extends over the entire loaded area.
A slab foundation helps to reduce the effect of differential settlement.
4. Reinforcement
A metal rebar can be introduced into the slab to maximise its performance and allow for a
reduced depth of concrete.
A steel mesh is used to increase the strength and stability of the slab thus reducing the effect of
shear stresses.
Another example of slab reinforcement is Post-tensioning cables which is an 'active rebar

system'.
Keywords:
Slab Foundation Losa de Cimentación

Loaded Area Área cargada
Differential Settlement Asiento Diferencial
Mesh Malla
Waffle Reticular

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Post-Tensioning Post-tensado
Rebar Barra Corrugada
Reinforcement Refuerzo
Active Activa
Inactive Inactiva
Cable Cable
Two directional Dos direcciones
Metal Metal
Performance Rendimiento
Shear Stresses Esfuerzo Cortante
Post tensioning cables - Example
Also used for upper floor slab construction:
• Concrete withstands pressure under compression so the columns are effective.
• In a slab form, the concrete will deflect under imposed weight and therefore requires
reinforcement/tensioning.
Post tensioning is strengthened after the concrete is poured.
Keywords:
Pressure Presion
Compression Compresion
Tensioning Tensionar
Formwork Encofrado
Embedded Embebido
Anchored Anclado
Plastic Sheathing Revestimiento de Plastico
Bonded Unido
Hydraulic Jack Gato Hidraulico
Storey Planta
High-rise Edificio En Altura
Bearing Pressure Presion de Resistencia
Deflect Flectar
Strengthen Reforzar

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3. Deep Foundation Systems

Deeper foundations are used where the surface soil is unsuitable.
They carry the load of the structure to deep below the surface where bearing capacity is not
affected by surface conditions.
Pile Foundations
These are long, slender members used to transfer load to a depth where the strata is of a higher
bearing capacity.
Piles are driven into the ground in-situ, they are drilled into a large concrete block called a pile-
head.
Pile depth is determined by the bearing quality of the soil.

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Keywords:
Deep Profunda
Pile Foundation Cimentacion por Pilotes
In-situ In-situ
Pile cap Encepado
Poor/good bearing Buena/Mala Capacidad Portante
Soil Suelo
Strata Estratos
Drill Taladrar
Shaft Hueco/Pozo
Water table Nivel Freatico
Infill Relleno

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Unit 9. Foundation Walls

Unit 9 Foundation Walls

117

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 118
2. RETAINING WALLS ................................................................. 119
2.1. GRAVITY RETAINING WALL ...................................................................120
2.2. CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL ...............................................................121
2.3. CRIB WALL .....................................................................................122
2.4. TIE-BACKS ETC. ...............................................................................123
2.5. BULKHEAD/DIAPHRAGM .......................................................................124
2.6. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................125
3. BASEMENTS .......................................................................... 126
3.1. SECANT/TANGENT PILE WALLS ..............................................................127
3.2. WATERPROOFING ..............................................................................128
3.3. TANKING ........................................................................................129
3.4. PROPRIETARY SYSTEMS .......................................................................130
3.5. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................131
4. FOUNDATION WALLS .............................................................. 132
4.1. INTERLOCKING STEEL SHEET PILES .........................................................132
4.2. BEAM AND LAGGING ...........................................................................133
4.3. HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS .........................................................................134
4.4. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................135
4. Introduction
Unit 9 is a summary of the many different types of foundation and retaining walls; it also
includes information on underground construction and safety during construction.
Contents:
1. Introduction

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2. Retaining Walls
2.1 Gravity
2.2 Cantilever
2.3 Crib Walls
2.4 Tiebacks (anchors)
2.5 Bulkhead/Diaphragm
2.6 KEYWORDS
3. Basements
3.1 Secant/Tangent Pile Walls
3.2 Waterproofing
3.3 Tanking
3.4 Proprietary Systems
3.5 KEYWORDS
4. Foundation Walls
4.1 Interlocking Steel Sheet Piles
4.2 Beam and Lagging
4.3 Hydraulic Systems
4.4 KEYWORDS
5. Retaining Walls
A retaining wall provides lateral support to vertical slopes of soil. They retain soil which
would otherwise collapse into a more natural shape. The retained soil is sometimes referred to
as backfill.
Retaining walls can be constructed from many different materials and with a variety of building
techniques.
Retaining wall design and wall type selection is driven by several factors:
• Required wall height
• Cost

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• Ease and speed of construction
• Ground water conditions and soil characteristics.
Other factors can include skilled labour and material availability, building codes, site
accessibility, aesthetics and local building practice.
All retaining walls serve to hold back (retain) a vertical or near vertical face of soil that
would, without adequate retention, cave, slump or side.
Designing a retaining wall requires knowledge of lateral earth pressure as it is this force that
constitutes a large part of the load that the wall must carry.
5.1.Gravity Retaining Wall
These are commonly used for walls up to 1.8m in height and simply use the mass of the wall to
counteract lateral pressure from the surrounding soil.
The application of this system ranges from a simple garden wall to a much larger scale as a part
of the building footings.
They are usually constructed in concrete or stone and are sufficiently massive to resist lateral
forces without reinforcement. These monolithic cast walls are generally formed on site.
Semi-gravity retaining walls use some tension reinforcing steel - this allows the thickness of the
wall to be reduced without the addition of extensive reinforcements.

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Gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks) may also be used to form gravity walls
and are becoming increasingly popular as they are a more sustainable option and can make use
of recycled materials.
5.2.Cantilever Retaining Wall
These walls act as vertical cantilevers and use reinforced concrete to counteract the high tensile
forces involved. The walls consist of a relatively thin stem and a base slab. The base is divided
into two parts, the heel and toe. The heel is the part of the base under the backfill; the toe is the
other part of the base.
• These use much less concrete than the monolithic gravity walls, but require more design
and careful construction.
• These are an economical solution up to a height of 7.5m.
• They can be pre-cast in a factory or formed on site (cast in-situ).
These walls act to cantilever loads (like a beam) to a large, structural footing; converting
horizontal pressures from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below.
These walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth.
Sometimes cantilever walls are buttressed on the front. Buttresses are short, wing walls at right
angles to the main trend of the wall. These provide additional lateral support.
Various shapes are possible and can be designed, relating to the site constraints:
1. Where it is not possible to excavate behind the wall.
2. Uses some of the excavated earth as a counterbalance. The most economic design is to
have the heel twice the length of the toe.
3. This is the most stable option, but requires an increase in excavation cost
d/e) 'Counterforts' these are used when the height of the wall exceeds 7.5m.

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Rib stiffeners are used instead of thickening the base.
5.3.Crib Wall
These are a form of gravity retaining walls ---
• Wooden Cribs - A mass gravity retaining wall system of treated, interlocking timber
header and stretcher units which form a cribwork structure which is then filled with
granular durable stone.
• Concrete Cribs - Constructed from inter-locking pre-cast concrete components. They

are filled with free draining material and earth backfill to eliminate the hazard of
hydrostatic pressure building up behind the wall. High quality precast concrete
components provide for long-term durability and will not rot or warp.
Benefits of the crib wall system:
• These are a low cost form of construction that can be quickly and inexpensively erected.
• They do not require skilled labour for construction and components can be easily
handled.
• The drainage within the wall reduces the risk of structural failure - Increasing the
safety and durability of the wall.
• The spaces within the face of the wall can be planted with vegetation to improve the
aesthetic appearance.
• This is a very adaptable system and can be used on curves and undulating terrain.

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5.4. Tie-backs etc.
Tie-backs or anchors are generally the most efficient system for deep excavations. They can be
used with soldier piles or sheet piling. The pre-stressed ties are installed to help carry the load.
This is the preferred method for a typical basement excavation on at least two levels.

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Soil Nailing is another form of anchoring. Here steel tendons are drilled and grouted into the
soil to create a composite mass similar to a gravity wall. Shotcrete is often used. This is concrete
that is applied through a hose - projected at a high velocity onto a surface.
Ground anchors are used to provide stability and also to overcome uplift due to floatation of
relatively light structures.
5.5.Bulkhead/Diaphragm
Diaphragm walls are commonly used in congested areas for retention systems and permanent
foundation walls. They can be installed in close proximity to existing structures with minimal
loss of support to existing foundations.
• In addition, construction dewatering is not required so there is no associated subsidence.
• Diaphragm walls have also been used as deep groundwater barriers through, and under,
dams.
• In some applications, they are constructed from non-reinforced plastic concrete.

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One method is:
In particularly wet soils a section of trench up to 6.0 metres long is excavated with a hydraulic
grab and then filled with a reinforcement cage and a bentonite mud slurry which supports the
sides of the trench.
Concrete is then pumped into the base of the trench displacing the slurry upwards.
The slurry can then be used again.
This method can produce walls of 450mm to 1.0m thick and 30 to 45 m deep.
Diaphragm walls must be deeper than the lowest basement floor to achieve adequate passive
resistance. Alternatively floor structures can provide support as excavation proceeds.
5.6.Keywords
1 Retaining Wall Muro de Contencion 26 Pre-cast Prefabricado

2 Lateral Support Soporte Lateral 27 Cast In-situ Vertido in situ
3 Slope Pendiente 28 Rigid Rigido
Profundidad de
4 Soil Suelo 29 Frost Depth
Congelacion
5 Collapse Colapso 30 Buttress Contrafuerte
Limitaciones del
6 Backfill Relleno 31 Site Constraints
Solar
Tecnicas de
7 Building Techniques 32 Excavate Excavar
Edificacion
Codigos de la
8 Building Codes 33 Counterbalance Contrapeso
Edificacion
9 Aesthetics Estetica 34 Stability Estabilidad
10 Cave in Derrumbarse 35 Rib Costilla
11 Slump Desplomarse 36 Base Base

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12 Lateral Pressure Presion Lateral 37 Granular Granular

13 Counteract Contra actuar 38 Inter-lock Trabar
14 Footings Zapatas 39 Components Componentes
Resistencia Pasiva
15 Passive Earth Resistance 40 Hydrostatic Hidroestatico
del Terreno
16 Friction Friccion 41 Warp Alabear
17 Stone Piedra 42 Structural Failure Fallo Estructural
18 Resist Resistir 43 Safety Seguridad
19 Reinforcement Refuerzo 44 Adaptable Adaptable
Undulating Terrano
20 Monolithic Monolitico 45
Terrain Ondulado
21 Gabions Gabiones 46 Pre-stressed Pretensado
Materiales
22 Recycled Materials 47 Drill Taladrar
Reciclados
23 Cantilever Voladizo 48 Grout Lechada
24 Tensile Forces Fuerzas de Traccion 49 Floatation Flotacion
Talon y Agarre (in
25 Heel and Toe
retaining walls)
6. Basements
A basement is a floor that is either partially or completely underground. Basements are
typically used as a utility space for a building.
For houses, the word basement is used to describe an underground space that is habitable, whilst
'cellar' is used to describe the underground storage area.
Basement design can be subjected to the following criteria;
• It must remain completely waterproof throughout its life,
• It must attempt to retain the adjacent ground conditions in their original state,
• It must not interfere with neighbouring land,
• The cost of post construction improvements will far outweigh the initial outlays.
When designing a basement, it is good practice to commission a geotechnical survey - a

basement can be achieved in most circumstances (apart from rock), but obviously the
complexities and cost will have a more significant bearing in areas of:
• Permanently high water table;

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• A high probability of a fluctuating water table;
• Site may be in a flood risk area;
• Soil contaminants;
• Ground gasses (Radon)
Also it is important to determine the ground bearing capabilities of the soil beneath the
basement and the nature of the soil to be retained.
6.1.Secant/Tangent Pile Walls
Secant or tangent pile walls are used to form an impervious wall for basement construction.
They are constructed by driving concrete piles with spacing slightly less than the diameter of
the pile. Another pile is then driven into the space which effectively cuts into the piles on either
side and forms a contiguous wall of piles.
These are often in the form of intersecting, reinforced concrete piles. The piles are reinforced
with either steel rebar or with steel beams and are constructed by drilling under mud, using an
auger (drilling device). Primary piles (female) are installed first with secondary piles (male)
constructed in between primary piles once the latter gain sufficient strength. Pile overlap is
typically about 75mm.
A tieback system may be installed along the top of the wall to prevent deflection away from the
existing foundation or movement into the excavation.
Advantages
• Increased wall stiffness compared to sheet piles.
• Can be installed in difficult ground.
• Less noisy construction.
Disadvantages
• Total waterproofing is very difficult to obtain in joints.
• Increased cost compared to sheet pile walls.

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In a tangent pile wall, there is no pile overlap as the piles are constructed flush to each other
making them easier and quicker to construct.
6.2.Waterproofing
Waterproofing basements is usually required as water pressure can be quite substantial when
the basement is below the water table. Waterproofing is usually achieved by the formation of an
impermeable membrane around the structure as though the structure were placed in a specially
constructed 'tank'.
It is possible to eliminate the need for waterproofing if the building is...
• raised (building elevated),
• Surrounded by good draining ground,
• or, has a high level of ventilation.
High grade concrete sometimes with an integral water-proofer can be used. In this case
construction joints are of particular importance and waterstops are used to protect joints.

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6.3.Tanking

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Bituminous membranes are generally easier to use than asphalt. Supplied in 1 metre
wide rolls, the membrane is supplied as a sheet of polythene or polyester bonded to a
self-adhesive bitumen compound. Vertical surfaces must first be primed and water-
stops are also a good idea. Reinforcing strips are used at angles.
6.4.Proprietary Systems
There are quite a number of systems on the market, and most will offer alternatives for new-
build and remedial Applications (and all based on some form of 'sandwich system').
Externally-Applied Basement Waterproofing (Dual Layer)

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6.5.Keywords
1 Basement Sotano 16 Joints Juntas

2 Underground Bajotierra 17 Flush Nivelado
Espacio
3 Utility Space 18 Waterproofing Impermeable
Auxiliar
Membrana
4 Cellar Bodega 19 Impermeable Membrane
Impermeable
Estudio
5 Geotechnical Survey 20 Elevated Elevado
Geotecnico
6 Water Table Nivel Freatico 21 Ventilation Ventilacion
7 Fluctuate Fluctuar 22 Water-stops Sellante
Area de Riesgo
8 Flood Risk Area 23 Substructure Subestructural
de Inundacion
Contaminantes
9 Soil Contaminants 24 Asphalt Asfalto
del Suelo
10 Ground Gases Gases del suelo 25 Remedial work Trabajo de

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Reparacion
Muro no Membrana
11 Impervious wall 26 Bituminous Membrane
permeable Bituminosa
Pilote de Imprimir
12 Concrete Pile 27 Prime
Hormigon (Primera Capa)
Refuerzo de
13 Steel Rebar
Acero
14 Auger Taladro
15 Overlap Superponer

7. FOUNDATION WALLS
7.1.Interlocking Steel Sheet Piles
This is a type of deep foundation used in construction work. Sheet piles are long interlocking
structural sections. With a vertical interlocking system, sheet piles create continuous walls for
construction projects. They create an extended barrier from soil or water for either temporary
or permanent use. The steel sheet resists the lateral bending forces, strengthening the overall
foundation structure.
They are used on a temporary basis to create a safe working environment for construction sites
and prevent the excavated earth from slumping into confined work sites.
The advantages of using sheet piles are:
• Manufactured under strict control

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• Known performance standards
• Wide range of sizes
• Can be protected against chemical attack
• Easy to cut and weld
• Can control ground water
• Can be recycled
The disadvantages are:
• Temporary (May also be sacrificial)
• Noisy driving system
• Large plant required for driving and transport
7.2.Beam and Lagging
Beam and Lagging walls are commonly used to support open excavations and restrict lateral
movements. To ensure a safe working environment, a system like this must be used for
excavations greater than 2.5m, in soil or unstable rock.
This system also provides an increased factor of safety to nearby structures and utilities against
excessive deformations and loss of bearing capacity in surrounding ground.
Temporary beam and lagging anchored walls typically consist of H-beams driven or drilled into
the ground with wood lagging installed between the flanges of the beams to retain the soil. With
the use of tieback anchors as bracing, they can provide an unobstructed area for construction.
Permanent beam and lagging anchored walls require the H-beams to be concreted in a drilled
hole to better maintain alignment. Pre-cast lagging is typically used instead of wood for a
longer service life.
• Corrosion protection is added to the anchors.

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7.3.Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic trench shields
These are steel or aluminium structures used for protecting utility workers, all four sides of
the trench can be protected. One common shield type is the trench box. Trench boxes are often
assembled outside the trench and lowered into place. Many boxes come in standard sizes,
typically ranging from 2.4m to 7.3 m.
Spacers placed between shields hold the barriers in place. Barrier width is often adjusted by
removing spacers that are too long or too short, and replacing them with dividers of correct size.
Hydraulics are not typically used with trench boxes.
Slide rail systems, another shielding used to prevent trench collapse, may be more effective in
certain types of excavation. Slide rail systems usually include metal walls lowered into a trench.
Braces with attached rollers are used to hold barriers in place. The rollers allow for easy
assembly and removal of retaining walls. Slide rails can be moved as trenches deepen, with
additional panels easily added to increase length and height.
Contractors and construction workers commonly undergo training on trench collapse before
beginning work on an excavation site. Education about the dangers associated with trench
building may decrease the number of job-related injuries.
Trench Shoring:
Shoring trench walls involves placing metal plates on either side of the trench. Walls can be
kept in place with spacers that are cut to match trench width, or by use of a hydraulic system.
Hydraulics provide constant, even pressure on walls to prevent collapse.
Pressure may be adjusted to match wall width. For instance, if trench walls narrow, hydraulic
pressure can be released to narrow shoring plates. The opposite is also true. Even pressure is
placed on walls to prevent trench collapse. Shoring usually only supports two sides of the
trench.

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7.4.Keywords
Capacidad de
1 Barrier Barrera 14 Bearing Capacity
Soporte
Alas (In metal
2 Temporary Temporal 15 Flanges
Beams/columns)
3 Permanent Permanente 16 Brace Abrazadera
4 Slumping Desplomandose 17 Unobstructed No Obstruido
5 Confined Confinado 18 Alignment Alineacion
Revestimiento
(in Beam and
6 Manufactured Manufacturado 19 Lagging
Lagging
System)
Estandares de Proteccion a la
7 Performance Standards 20 Corrosion Protection
Rendimiento corrosion
8 Chemical Attack Ataque Quimico 21 Hydraulic Hidraulico
9 Weld Soldar 22 Aluminum Aluminio
10 Recycled Reciclado 23 Trench Zanja
11 Noisy Ruidoso
12 Plant (Machinery) Maquinaria
13 Deformation Deformacion


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Unit 10. Metal & Concrete Structures

Unit Metal & Concrete

10 Structures

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1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 138
2. STEEL FRAME ........................................................................ 139
2.1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.........................................................139
2.2. PROPERTIES OF STEEL ........................................................................140
2.3. BASIC ELEMENTS ..............................................................................142
2.4. STANCHIONS ...................................................................................143
2.5. ENGINEERED ELEMENTS ......................................................................144
2.6. CONNECTIONS .................................................................................146
2.7. FIRE PROTECTION .............................................................................147
2.8. CASE STUDY BUILDING .......................................................................148
2.9. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................149
3. IN-SITU CONCRETE FRAME ...................................................... 151
3.2. WHAT IS CONCRETE? .........................................................................153
3.3. REINFORCEMENT ...............................................................................154
3.4. PRE-STRESSING ...............................................................................156
3.5. CASE STUDY BUILDING .......................................................................157
3.6. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................158
4. PRE-CAST CONCRETE FRAME ................................................... 158
4.2. COLUMNS AND BEAMS ........................................................................159
4.3. FOUNDATION CONNECTION ...................................................................159
4.4. CASE STUDY BUILDINGS......................................................................160
4.5. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................162

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8. Introduction
Unit 10 compares steel and concrete structures and uses case study buildings to demonstrate the
application of these materials, their qualities and limitations.
1. Introduction
2. Steel
2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
2.2 Properties of Steel
2.3 Basic Elements
2.4 Stanchions
2.5 Engineered Elements
2.6 Connections
2.7 Fire Protection
2.8 Case Study Building
2.9 Keywords
3. In Situ Concrete Frames
3.2 What is Concrete?
3.3 Reinforcement
3.4 Pre-Stressing
3.5 Case Study Building
3.6 Keywords
4. Pre-cast Concrete Frames
4.2 Columns and Beams
4.3 Foundation Connection
4.4 Case Study Building (BREEAM HQ)
4.5 Keywords

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9. Steel Frame
Steel is a common building material used throughout the construction industry. Its primary
purpose is to form a skeleton for the building or structure or essentially the part of the structure
that holds everything up and together. Steel has many advantages when compared to other
structural building materials such as concrete, timber, plastics and the newer composite
materials. Unlike wood, steel does not warp or twist and does not substantially expand and
contract with the weather. Unlike concrete, steel does not need time to cure and is immediately
at full strength.
9.1.Advantages and Disadvantages
For (in favour of) the use of steel:
• Steel has a high strength to weight ratio, leading to lower foundation requirements.
• It is simple, fast, immediately strong and accurate, giving potential immediate access.
• Standard sections and fine tolerances are possible.
• Computerised cutting and welding techniques have extended the range of shapes
possible.
• Steel elements are manufactured off-site, reducing the need for on-site storage during
construction, valuable for small sites.
• Can but used for much taller structures than concrete.
• The use of steel allows for larger clear spans, increasing the flexibility of the space.
Against the use of steel:
• Steel beams, columns and structural elements are generally limited to standard sizes.
• The cost of steel can vary due to international pricing.
• The quality of the structure is very reliant on joint technology.
• This material has a very poor fire resistance (its strength reduces rapidly above 550oC).
• In some cases steel columns cannot provide the necessary strength because of buckling
whilst reinforced concrete columns have the necessary mass to overcome this problem.
• Steel structures are susceptible to corrosion when exposed to air, water and humidity;
therefore they must be protected - often painted periodically.
• The strength of a structural steel member can be reduced if this member is subjected to
cyclic loading.

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9.2.Properties of Steel
Steel is an alloy that consists of mostly iron and some carbon. As the carbon content rises, steel
has the ability to become harder and stronger through heat treating, but this also makes it less
ductile, and regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability.
Mild Steel -
This is the most common form of steel, also known as carbon steel. It contains 0.1-0.2%C. It is
a cheap and strong material, used for construction, transport and packaging.
In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point and causes the material to
rust easily. Therefore this material must be protected by painting, galvanising or other
coatings.
Steel Alloys -
Alloyed steel is that which contains a variety of elements, added to improve its mechanical
properties.
They are classified into low alloy and high alloy, depending on the amount of additional
alloying elements. Heat-treated high alloy steels give very high strengths, but are more
expensive.
Alloy carbon steels also rust easily, and must be protected by painting or other coatings.
Strength
• Steel is strong in both tension and compression.
• The strength to weight ratio is good, meaning that mild steel can sustain heavy loads
with relatively small self-weight.

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Elasticity
• Steel has a high modulus of elasticity (200kN/mm2) making it a comparatively stiff

material.
Ductility
• Mild steel is a ductile material, which means it is not brittle and will tend to bend
beyond its elastic limit.
• It is also a malleable material and can be rolled into thin sheets, rods, bars or beams.
Conductivity
• It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Durability
• It is a long lasting material that is resistant to wear.
Corrosion
• Mild steel will corrode in certain atmospheres so protection may be required.
Aesthetic Appearance
• It is a shiny metal with a very attractive finish.
Steel rolling is one method of producing steel products - it produces flat steel sheets of a
specific thickness and the process is classified according to the temperature at which the steel is
rolled.
Hot Rolled Steel (HRS) This process removes any induced stresses and grain deformation due
to the elevated working temperature. Hot rolling is used mainly to produce products like sheet
metal or simple cross-sections, such as rail tracks and I-beams.
Cold Rolled Steel (CRS) This process is carried out at room temperature (approx. 23oC) it
hardens and strengthens the material, thus improving its mechanical properties. It also improves
the surface finish. However this steel is less malleable than hot rolled steel which means that the
thickness cannot be reduced to the same extent.
Cold Drawn Steel (CDS) This process is again carried out at room temperature, but instead of
producing a flat product, it forms the steel into a wire. The steel is pulled through a die to re-
form the material into a thinner shape whilst maintaining the same volume.

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9.3.Basic Elements
Structural steel is a profile formed with a specific shape or cross-section. There is a list of
standard sections and standards. Many sections are made by hot or cold rolling or by welding
together flat or bent plates.
• A multi-storey steel frame consists of beams and stanchions taken from a standardised
selection of hot-rolled mild steel shapes.
• There are beam, channel, angle and 'T' sections, with the beam section forming both
beams and stanchions.

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• A range of rectangular hollow sections are available, these act well in compression.
• There is a limited number of standard and non-standard members which permits

accurate sizing of members.
• The lowest weight structure is not always the cheapest as using only a small variety of
sections can simplify joint details and ordering.
9.4.Stanchions
A stanchion is an upright bar or post that provides support.
• The most commonly used stanchion is the universal column. Most stanchions fail due to
buckling in the direction of the least dimension, so positioning is particularly important.
• The load bearing capacity reduces dramatically as the unsupported height increases.

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• Circular and rectangular hollow stanchions can resist buckling far more effectively than
universal stanchions. These are useful for long slender but lightly loaded stanchions.
However, connections to hollow stanchions can be more difficult.
9.5.Engineered Elements
• Beams can be cut and re-welded forming 'castellated' and 'cellular' beams. This
increases the bending strength without an increase in weight, while also providing a
service space through the void of the beam.

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Access for services through cellular beam
• Where an even greater depth is required trussed or lattice girders are used, as they are
full storey height. They achieve their depth by removing the unwanted steel from the
web with remaining steel following lines of stress and shear in the girder.

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• A further adaptation of the trussed girder is the Vierendeel girder; this allows the spaces
within the girder to be used for openings. The diagonal ties of the trussed girder are
removed with the shear forces being dealt with by the stiffness of chords and vertical
members.
9.6.Connections
A connection is a joint or node of structural elements used to transfer forced between structural
elements or members. A steel frame is reliant upon well designed connections to ensure that the
structure functions effectively.
In steel structures, most failures occur at a point of connection, if a connecting plate or joint is
not designed effectively it is easily the weakest part of the structure.
Connections between steel members are either welded or bolted with cleats and plates. Welded
joints can make substantial weight savings, resulting in cost savings of up 20 or 25%.
-- This document contains annotated diagrams for more examples of common steel
connections and joints.--

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Bolted Connections
High strength friction grip bolts (HSFG) are made from high strength steel which allows them
to be tightened to far higher stress levels than ordinary bolts.
By tightening these bolts and their washers to specified torque settings, an accurate indication
of the joint strength is possible by combining the bolt strength and the friction between the steel
plates.
Connections to hollow sections can be difficult, particularly thin cold rolled sections. Long bolts
and welding are options but modern innovations such as 'flowdrill' jointing has made a wider
range of joints possible.
9.7.Fire Protection
Steel is non-combustible and therefore makes no contribution to the spread of fire. However
steel does lose most of its strength above 550oC and therefore must be fire protected.
The thicker the steel, the longer it will take to heat up and thinner protection can be specified.

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Fire resistance
• Protection is required to provide;
• Resistance to structural collapse
• Resistance to fire penetration
• Resistance to heat transfer
550oC is generally accepted as the critical temperature for steel (this temperature is reached in
the early stages of a fire).
Generally methods of fire protection include:
• Sprayed coatings
• Board casings
• Preformed casings
• Plaster and lath
• Concrete, brick or block casings
• Other methods include filling hollow sections with concrete or water and an
intumescent coating
9.8.Case Study Building
Toronto International Airport, Moshe Safdie Architects.
The Lester B. Pearson airport in Toronto is Canada's largest and the world's fourth busiest
international airport. In 2000, the Greater Toronto Airports Authority undertook a major
redevelopment of its facilities. A significant aspect of this redevelopment was the construction
of a new passenger terminal facility to replace existing Terminals 1 and 2. One of the main
architectural features of this new facility was the departures hall roof structure.
Due to schedule and program availability constraints, the best construction method was a 'top-
down' approach. In this approach, the departures hall roof structure was built ahead of the floor

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structure. The structural design of the departures hall roof required 43 pairs of 31-meter high
reinforced concrete-filled steel columns (700 mm in diameter). These columns were erected full
height (approximately 31 meters), and the upper 24 meters remained architecturally exposed in
the completed building. As the columns were part of the architectural design, the exposed
concrete needed to be unblemished, requiring innovation in column grouting technology. A
single lift, on site grouting operation was chosen as it had minimal aesthetic impact on the
exposed columns. This was the lowest cost option and was well suited to the top-down
construction approach.
Steel Structures - CCTV Building, OMA - 30 St Mary Axe, Fosters - Seattle Central
Library, Rem Koolhaas.
9.9.Keywords
1 Steel Acero 36 Galvanised Galvanisado

Revestimiento
2 Skeleton Esqueleto 37 Coating (Proteccion -
film)
3 Concrete Hormigon 38 Elements Elementos
Mechanical Propiedades
4 Timber Madera 39
Properties Mecanicas
5 Plastic Plastico 40 Elasticity Elasticidad
Materiales
6 Composite Materials 41 Stiff Rigido
Compuestos

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7 Warp Alabear 42 Brittle Fragil

8 Twist Torcer 43 Malleable Maleable
9 Expand Expandir 44 Conductor Conductor
Terminar (tb.
10 Contract Contrato 45 Finish
acabado)
11 Cure curar 46 Deformation Deformacion
Relacion Resistencia
12 Strength to weight ratio 47 Wire Alambre
- peso
13 Immediate Access Acceso Inmediato 48 Profile Perfil
Seccion
14 Standard Sections Secciones Estandares 49 Cross-section
Transversal
de plantas
multiples
15 Computerised Cutting Corte informatizado 50 Multi-storey
(edificio en
altura)
hueco de
16 Welding Soldar 51 lift shaft
ascensor
Fabricado fuera de Secciones
17 Manufactured Off-Site 52 Hollow Sections
obra huecas
detalles de
18 Clear Span Luz Libre 53 Joint Details
uniones
viga aligerada
19 Beams Vigas 54 Cellular Beam (con huecos en
el alma)
Espacio para
20 Columns Pilares 55 Service Space
instalaciones
21 Technology Tecnologia 56 Void hueco, Vacio
22 Fire Resistance Resistente al Fuego 57 Truss cercha
Entramado,
23 Buckling Torcerse 58 Lattice
celosia
24 Corrosion Corrosion 59 Girder Viga (de Metal)
25 Humidity Humedad 60 Web alma
26 Cyclic Loading Carga Ciclica 61 Stress esfuerzo
fuerzas a
27 Recycle reciclar 62 Shear Forces
cortante
28 Life Cycle Ciclo de Vida 63 Chord cordon
29 Reuse reutilizar 64 Node Nodo
30 Energy Consumption Consumo de energia 65 Plate placa
31 Carbon Emission Emision de carbono 66 Bolt Tornillo

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32 Alloy Aleacion 67 Washer Arandela

33 Ductile Ductil 68 Friction Friccion
propagacion del
34 Melting Point Punto de fusion 69 Spread of Fire
fuego
Intumescent proteccion
35 Rusty oxidado 70
Coating intumescente

10. In-Situ Concrete Frame

In-situ concrete is a very popular construction material. It is primarily used in foundations and
for forming the structural base of buildings.
Cast in-situ structures are built on the building site - they involve the placing of formwork in
the final position on site and pouring concrete into the forms to produce a monolithic
structure.
• Full continuity throughout columns, beams and floor slabs is achieved.
Formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic or steel. On commercial
building sites today, plastic and steel are more common as they save labour. 'Total system
formwork' is designed and manufactured from lightweight aluminium panels, which can be used
over 250 times, resulting in excellent cost efficiency. The high strength to weight ratio of the
system's components also avoids the need for use of cranes during installation as each
component can be erected, dismantled and moved by hand. This type of formwork can be used
for columns, beams, walls and slabs and creates a high quality finish.
In some cases formwork is not necessary, for instance - a ground slab surrounded by brick or
block foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and hardcore acts as the base.
Case Study - Aesthetic Quality of Formwork
Peter Zumthor, Bruder Klaus Chapel

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The most interesting aspects of this church come from the methods of construction. The interior
was formed from a wigwam made of 112 tree trunks, this frame was then covered with layers of
concrete which were poured and rammed onto the surface, each layer approximately 50cm
thick. When all 24 layers of concrete had set, the wooden frame was set on fire, leaving behind
a hollowed, blackened cavity with charred walls. The interior space is open to the elements, and
it's changing and unique internal atmosphere makes this space one of the most striking places of
religious architecture to date.
10.1. Advantages and Disadvantages
For (in favour of) the use of in-situ concrete -
• monolithic construction (not reliant on joints and connections).
• Almost any desired shape is possible for economic, structural or aesthetic reasons.
• Integral fire resistance.
• Cranes are not required for construction.
• Concrete is very low maintenance
Against the use of in-situ concrete -
• Monolithic structure makes it more susceptible to differential movements of all types.
• Erection of formwork is time-consuming and therefore it is expensive to construct.
• Reliant on concrete batching, i.e. lowest strength assumed. (Quality control is

difficult).
• Site storage and assembly of formwork and reinforcement required.
• Once concrete is cast it is difficult to make modifications.

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• Weather conditions can create problems when the concrete is curing (drying) in-situ.
Environmental Factors
• The production of cement is very polluting, with every ton of cement produced, almost
a ton of CO2 is emitted.
Concrete is manufactured from aggregates (rock and sand), hydraulic cement and water. It
usually contains a small amount of some chemical admixture. A typical concrete formulation
contains a large amount of course and fine aggregate, a moderate amount of cement and water
and a small amount of admixture. Most of these constituents are themselves manufactured
products, by-products, or materials extracted by mining. In order to assess the environmental
impact of concrete manufacture, it is necessary to consider the impact of each separate
constituent.
The aggregates are usually obtained by mining, with the coarse and fine aggregates mined
separately. Occasionally aggregate is obtained as a by-product of some other process. The
mining, processing and transport of huge quantities of aggregate, in addition to billions of tons
of raw materials needed for the cement manufacture, consume considerable energy and produce
a high quantity of pollution.
Concrete is the most common construction material. The 11.5 billion tonnes-a-year concrete
industry is the largest user of natural resources in the world. The demand for concrete is
expected to grow to approximately 18 billion tonnes a year by 2050. This huge increase in
demand and the unsustainable nature of this material is forcing us to look to alternative methods
of production and use of recycled materials in place of the mined aggregate.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) is now used as a key ingredient in a more
sustainable concrete mix. GGBS is a by-product from the blast furnace used to make iron/steel.
GGBS replaces a substantial portion of the normal Portland cement content (usually between 50
and 70%) The higher the proportion, the greater the durability, however early-age strength
development is slower.
10.2. What is Concrete?
Concrete is a mix of particles of hard material, the aggregate, bound together with a paste of
cement and water with at least three quarters of the volume of concrete being occupied by
aggregate.
The initial set of Portland cement takes place from half an hour to one hour after it is mixed
with water.
Because of this placing and compacting has to be achieved speedily. Concrete then cures
gradually after the initial set.

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Laying a Concrete Slab
1. Preparation of the site
The site must be prepared by stripping all vegetation and topsoil to a usable level. In most cases
the concrete may be laid directly on well compacted ground, but a sub-base of crushed stone or
gravel is needed on clay soils or where the surface of the concrete will be under high loading.
Formwork is constructed around the edge of the slab area and the area must be compacted.
2. Formwork/Boxing
Formwork can be made from rough sawn boxing timber. The depth of these should match the
depth of the slab and there should be an adequate cross-fall to assist the run-off of rainwater. A
fall of at least 1 in 40 (25mm/m) is recommended. Check using a level. Fix the boxing with
pegs spaced close enough together to minimise flexing when filled with the weight of the
concrete.
3. Joints
The area to be concreted should be divided into sections with control joints. This will avoid
cracking due to shrinkage. The maximum length of section should be no greater than 1.5 times
the width, or 4 metres, whichever is the lesser.
4. Weather
Ensure that it is not forecast to rain as a rain-damaged slab is difficult to repair. However the
ground should be dampened where concrete is to be placed.
5. Spreading Concrete
The concrete should be spread evenly between the formwork and smoothed to a level about 15 -
25mm higher than the finished surface. The concrete must reach right into the corners; tapping
the side of the formwork is a good method of driving out air and compacting the concrete.
6. Surface and protection
The surface should then be properly levelled and smoothed, followed by the addition of a
protective layer.
10.3. Reinforcement
Concrete is strong in resisting compressive stress but comparatively weak in resisting tensile
stress.
Its tensile strength is between 1/10 and 1/20 of its compressive strength. Steel having higher
tensile strength is therefore used to allow for this weakness.

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In most cases in situ concrete is reinforced to enhance its physical properties. This is done by
using steel reinforcement which is laid within the form work creating an inner structural frame.
Reinforcement Layout
The advantage of reinforcement is that it can be placed and sized according to the job it is
designed for, so shear stress, tension lines and buckling can all be catered for.

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10.4. Pre-Stressing
Because concrete has poor tensile strength, a large part of ordinary reinforced concrete plays
little part in the strength of a beam under load.
The idea of pre-stressing uses the principle of imparting a compressive load to an area of a
structure in order to counteract a tensile load being applied, with the resultant being nearly
neutral.
Reinforced concrete beam design uses steel rods in the lower tensile area. Pre-stressed concrete
also uses steel rods or cables in this area but they are stretched first so that when the concrete
has cured, and the cables released, they compress the beam. This results in far smaller beams for
similar loads.
This placing of tension in a concrete structure can be done before or after construction. Normal
pre-stressing is called pre-tensioning and there is also post-tensioning where the cables are
tightened after curing. This is also referred to as an active rebar system.
Tensioning cables may be bonded or un-bonded;

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• Bonded: concrete is cast around plastic/aluminium curved ducts through which the
tensioning cables are fed through
• Un-bonded: individual cables are able to move independent from the concrete. To
achieve this each is coated with grease and covered with a plastic sheathing.
10.5. Case Study Building
Zaha Hadid, Vitra Fire Station
The whole building is constructed of exposed, reinforced in-situ concrete. Special attention was
given to the sharpness of all edges; any attachments like roof edgings or claddings were avoided
as they distract from the simplicity of the prismatic form and the abstract quality of the
architectural concept. This same absence of detail informed the frameless glazing, the large
sliding planes enclosing the garage, and the treatment of the interior spaces including the
lighting scheme. The lines of light direct the necessarily precise and fast movement through the
building.
David Chipperfield, Hepworth Gallery (Wakefield)

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10.6. Keywords
verter (precast
1 Cast 9 Cement Cemento
- prefabricado)
Esfuerzo de
2 In-situ in situ 10 Compressive Stress
compresion
Esfuerzo a
3 Formwork Encofrado 11 Tensile Stress
traccion
4 Pouring Verter 12 Rods/Cables Barras/cables
Estructura
5 Monolithic Structure 13 Tension Tension
monolitica
Resistencia al
6 Integral fire Resistance 14 Pre-tensioning Pre-Tension
fuego integral
Dosificacion
7 Concrete Batching 15 Post-Tensioning Post-tension
de Hormigon
8 Aggregate Agregado 16 Bonded unido
11. Pre-Cast Concrete Frame

Precast concrete is a component cast away from its final position, usually in ideal factory
conditions.
• These components can include; columns, beams, floor slabs and roof slabs.
11.1. Advantages and Disadvantages
The development of structural precast concrete frames has come about in an attempt to combine
the economy of concrete with advantages of steel frames.
Precast frames can be fabricated in various ways;
• individual columns and beams
• beams and columns in a single unit
• precast units forming shuttering for composite structure
For (in favour of) the use of pre-cast concrete -
• Good flexibility in planning and design
• Rigid form of construction i.e. monolithic if required.
• Almost any desired shape is possible, economic, structural or aesthetic.

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• Integral fire resistance
• Simple, fast, and accurate, giving potential immediate access.
• Manufactured off-site, so low storage problems, valuable for small sites
• Fine tolerances possible.
Against the use of pre-cast concrete -
• Monolithic structure may make it more susceptible to differential movements of all

types.
• Very reliant on joint technology.
• Transport problems and damage can be major factor.
• Similar in price to a steel frame prior to fire proofing.
11.2. Columns and Beams
Beams and columns precast under factory conditions need to be connected on site by leaving
sufficient of the reinforcement exposed to allow a joint to be made before grouting with in situ
concrete.
11.3. Foundation Connection
One of the primary difficulties with using precast concrete footings is the ability to properly seat
the footing on the subgrade. Inadequate seating will result in rocking of the footings and
settlement of the foundation.

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11.4. Case Study Buildings
MGP Architecture, Argos Electrical Self-generation Plant.
This textural facade for an electrical plant in Colombia is made up of a series of

lightweightprefab concrete shells, the building skin generates a visual effect similar to the
texture of organic fabrics and woven bamboo fencing. The undulating vertical panels on the
facade, punctured by a series of slits, generate a play of light and shadow, and raising the skin
above ground gives the building a certain lightness and fragility in contrast to the weight of the
concrete. The facade assembly consists of concrete shells anchored to the structure through
bolts and steel plates.

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Feilden Clegg Bradley, BRE Environmental Office (Watford).
The brief called for a landmark building, providing 1,350m² of office space plus seminar
facilities, combining high architectural standards with innovations in energy efficient
environmental design. The project received BREEAM (Building Research Establishment
Environmental Assessment Method) 'Excellent' rating, achieving the highest score recorded at
the time. The building was seen as an experimental structure designed to use approximately
30% less energy than current best practice. It incorporated a wide range of innovative
environmental features including thermal mass, borehole ground water cooling and natural
ventilation.
96% of the material from demolition of the redundant workshops on site was recycled, and this
was the first UK use of recycled aggregate for concrete superstructure.

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The use of pre-cast concrete is seen in the internal space, here there is a wave form concrete
floor slab in which the high points of the wave correspond to high level windows and at the low
points large ducts are formed within the overall floor depth, by bridging across the tops of the
wave with precast concrete planks. Fire separation between storeys is at plank level so the ducts
form part of the lower floor. The wave form floor structure is interrupted by the circulation
zone which has a thin slab at the level of the planks over the floor ducts. Floor surfaces at each
level are divided into 1.5m strips of raised access floor, for flexible servicing, alternating with
screeded areas which incorporate pipework that can be used for heating in winter and cooling
in summer.
11.5. Keywords
Condiciones de
1 Factory Conditions 16 Texture Textura
fabrica
2 Fabricated Fabricado 17 Lightweight Ligero
3 Shuttering Molde/Encofrado 18 Prefab prefabricado
4 Tolerance Tolerancia 19 Shell carcasa
5 Susceptible Susceptible 20 Undulating Ondulado
Movimiento
6 Differential Movement 21 Punctured Perforado
Diferencial
ranuras,
7 Reliant on que confia en 22 Slots
Aberturas
8 Fire proofing Proteccion contra 23 Fragility Fragilidad

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el fuego
9 Grouting Lechada 24 Anchored Anclado
placas
10 Subgrade Bajorasante 25 Steel Plates (plancha) de
acero
11 Settlement Asentamiento 26 Redundant Redundante
12 Abutment encuentro 27 Superstructure Superestructura
forjado
13 One-way slab 28 Plank placa
unidireccional
zona de
14 Projected Proyectado 29 Circulation Zone
circulacion
tuberias (en
15 stirrup cerco 30 Pipework
general)


163
Unit 11. Construction Systems

Unit 11 Construction Systems

164

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 165
1.1. HEAVY AND LIGHTWEIGHT SYSTEMS ........................................................166
1.2. SELECTING CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS .......................................................167
2. CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS ....................................................... 169
2.1. COMPARATIVE FLOOR SYSTEMS ......................................................169

2.1.1. WOOD SYSTEMS: .............................................................................. 169
2.1.2. STEEL SYSTEMS: ............................................................................... 170
2.1.3. CONCRETE SYSTEMS:......................................................................... 170
2.2. COMPARATIVE WALL SYSTEMS ...............................................................172
2.3. COMPARATIVE ROOF FORMS AND SLOPES ..................................................174
1. Introduction
The combinations of materials used to build the main elements of our homes: roof, walls and
floor are referred to as construction systems. They are many and varied and each has advantages
and disadvantages depending on climate, distance from source of supply, budget and desired
style and appearance.
Now we are going to analyse the merits of some common construction systems and explain the
process of choosing or developing the best combination for your needs in your climate and
geographic location.
The majority of new housing stock is built to a common formula that varies only slightly
between states and cities. The formula prevails regardless of the enormous range of climates,
geographic locations and occupant lifestyles.
The formula has developed for a variety of reasons including: availability of skills and
materials; ease and speed of construction; market perception and familiarity with the final
product and individual and community values.
This approach rarely delivers the most appropriate or even the least expensive solutions for
housing needs. It contributes to the environmental and economic cost of our homes whilst
adding little in the way of improved comfort and lifestyle.

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1.1. Heavy and Lightweight Systems
A useful point of differentiation between construction systems is their mass content.
Heavyweight construction systems are usually masonry and include brick, concrete, concrete
block, tiles, rammed earth and mud brick.
Lightweight construction uses timber or light gauge steel framing as the structural support
system for non-structural cladding and linings (eg. fibre cement, plywood and colourbond steel).
Heavyweight and lightweight materials have differing thermal performance and environmental
impact depending on:
• Where they are used (internally or externally).
• How they interact with or moderate the climate.
• How far they need to be transported.
• Specific site requirements (eg. slope, thermal performance, noise control and fire
resistance)
• Exposure to destructive forces of nature (fire, termites, rain, UV and humidity).
The source of the materials and the way they are processed will determine their environmental
impact.
Similar materials can have vastly different environmental impacts depending on where and how
they are sourced (eg. A timber frame can be sourced from a sustainably managed forest or an
unsustainable managed forest).
There is no single best solution. Any combination of materials should be assessed in light of the
above factors to arrive at the most appropriate compromise.
Heavyweight construction:
• Generally has higher embodied energy.
• Improves thermal comfort and reduces operational (heating and cooling) energy use,
when used in conjunction with passive design and good insulation.
• Is most appropriate in climates with high diurnal (day-night) temperature ranges and
significant heating and cooling requirements.
• Requires more substantial footing systems and causes greater site impact and
disturbance.
• Should be avoided on remote sites where there is a high transport component.
• Is often quarried or processed with high impact.
Lightweight construction:
• Generally has lower embodied energy.

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• Can yield lower total life cycle energy use, particularly where the diurnal range is low.
• Responds rapidly to temperature changes and can provide significant benefits in warmer
climates by cooling rapidly at night.
• Is preferred on remote sites with high materials transportation component.
• Usually requires more heating and cooling energy in cold to warm climates (where solar
access is achievable) when compared to heavyweight construction with similar levels of
insulation and passive design.
• Can have low production impact (eg. sustainably sourced timber) or high impact
(unsustainably sourced timber or metal frame).
1.2.Selecting Construction Systems
Important factors influencing selection of residential construction system/s are:
• Durability compared to intended life span.
• Life cycle cost effectiveness.
• Lifecycle energy consumption.
• Source and environmental impact of all component materials and processes.
• Availability of skills and materials.
• Maintenance requirements.
• Adaptability and/or end use/recycling potential.
• Distances required for transportation of components.
NOTE TO GUIDELINES
The following 'rules of thumb' are a guide only. Every application is unique and should be
individually evaluated. Exceptions are the norm - particularly in innovative design solutions.
• Combine high and low mass construction within a building to maximise the benefits of
each.
• Use heavyweight systems internally and lightweight systems externally for lowest
lifetime energy use.
• Higher embodied energy content in heavyweight construction can outweigh operational

energy savings (particularly in climates where heating and cooling energy requirements
are low).

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• Where solar access is unachievable or undesirable (eg. steep south facing or
overshadowed sites, tropical locations) insulated lightweight construction is often more
efficient as it responds quickly to mechanical heating or cooling.
MAINTENANCE
• Unpainted external brick cladding (brick veneer) has minimal maintenance

requirements when compared to many alternative painted claddings.
• Well maintained lightweight systems have durability equivalent to heavyweight

systems.
• Poor maintenance can reduce life span by up to 50 per cent, negating embodied energy
savings and doubling materials consumption.
• Reliability of maintenance regimes for whole of life span is a critical consideration

when selecting external cladding systems.
SOURCE AND USE OF MATERIALS
• High renewable or recycled content systems are preferable where their durability and
performance is appropriate for lifecycle (eg. fibre cement cladding and sustainably
managed forest timber frames).
• Design for de-construction, recycling and re-use to amortise the impact of materials
high in embodied energy or non-renewable resources where these materials are the best
option.
• Structurally efficient systems minimise overall materials use, transport and processing.
• Specify materials with similar and appropriate life spans (eg. use fixings, flashings or
sealants with a similar life span to the material being fixed).
• Use construction systems with known low wastage rates and environmentally sound
production processes.
TRANSPORTATION
• Avoid systems with a high on-site labour component in remote projects to reduce
travelling.
• Use locally made products where possible to reduce transportation.

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2. CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS
There are many kinds of construction systems. They describe floor, wall, and roof systems that
range from the familiar (lightweight timber) to the relatively new and unfamiliar (green roofs
and walls). Now we are going to study the comparative between the more typical systems.
2.1.Comparative Floor Systems
2.1.1. Wood Systems

169

2.1.2. Steel Systems
2.1.3. Concrete Systems

170

Keywords
WOOD JOIST SYSTEM Sistema de travesaños de madera

JOIST MEMBERS Travesaños
WOOD PLANK & BEAM Viga y placa de madera
DECKING Tarima
STRINGER Larguero
BATTEN Listón
GROOVE Ranura
UNDERLAYMENT / SUBFLOORING Capas entre el forjado y el acabado del suelo
CEILING Techo
CONCEALED SERVICES Instalaciones ocultas
SOUND TRANSMITION Transmisión del sonido
CONCENTRATED LOADS Cargas concentradas
FLOOR OPENINGS Aberturas en el suelo
FRAMING Marco - estructura
STEEL JOIST SYSTEM Sistemas de viguetas de acero
OPEN-WEB JOIST / LIGHTAGE JOIST Viguetas de alma abierta / Viguetas
aligeradas
GIRDER Viga
STEEL BEAM Viga metálica
PRECAST Prefabricado
CAST-IN-PLACE Vertido in situ
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS Sistemas estructurales
BAY SIZE Tamaño del vano
SLAB THICKNESS Espesor del forjado


171

2.2.Comparative Wall Systems

172

Keywords
WALL SYSTEMS Sistemas de muros

WOOD STUD WALLS Muro de montantes de madera
WALL SHEATHING Funda (protección) del muro
FINISHES Acabados
INSULATION Aislamiento
STUD THICKNESS Espesor del montante
OFF-SITE Fuera de la obra
FABRICATED Fabricado
WALL ASSEMBLY Ensamblaje del muro
WORKABILITY Trabajabilidad
PIECES Piezas
TO FASTEN Atar, ajustar
METAL STUD Montante metálico
SCREWED / BOLTED Atornillado
POST AND BEAM FRAMING Estructura de poste y viga
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS Detalles constructivos
NON-BEARING INFILL Relleno no estructural
ROCKWOOL Lana de roca
GLASS Vidrio
GLAZING Acristalamiento
TO CARRY LARGER LOADS Soportar mayores cargas
MASONRY WALLS Muro de mampostería
HEIGHT Altura

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WIDTH Ancho
SILL Alfeizar
SASH Ventana de guillotina
SHIM Calce

2.3.Comparative Roof Forms and Slopes

174

Keywords
SLOPE Pendiente
DRAINS Sumideros
GUTTER Canalón
TAPERED SLAB Forjado con reducción gradual de espesor
ROOF AREA Área de cubierta
FLAT TRUSSES Cerchas planas
RUNOFF SURFACE Superficie de desagüe
SNOW Nieve
COLLAR BEAM Viga collar (o zuncho)
ASPHALT SHINGLE Tablillas asfálticas
RAFTERS Correas
EAVE Alero
FIN Aleta
OUTWARD THRUST Empuje hacia fuera
ROLL MEMBRANE Membrana enrollada
STRUCTURAL TIE Tensor
RIDGE Cumbrera
PITCH Inclinación de la cubierta
GABLE Techo inclinado
GABLE END Muro lateral de cierre en techo inclinado
FLAT ROOF Cubierta plana
DIVERT Desviar
SEAM Costura / Junta

175
Unit 12. Floor Systems

Unit 12 Floor Systems

176

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 177
1.1. GROUND FLOORS ..............................................................................178
1.2. UPPER FLOORS .................................................................................178
2. TIMER FLOORS ...................................................................... 180
2.1. WOOD JOIST SYSTEM .........................................................................180
2.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................187
3. STEEL FLOORS ....................................................................... 188
3.1. STEEL JOIST....................................................................................188
3.2. BEAM AND DECKING...........................................................................189
3.3. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................189
4. CONCRETE FLOORS ................................................................ 189
4.1. HOLLOW CORE FLOORS .......................................................................195
4.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................196
5. COMPOSITE FLOOR SYSTEMS ................................................... 197
5.1. RAISED ACCESS FLOOR .......................................................................197
5.2. FLOATING/SPRUNG FLOOR ....................................................................198
5.3. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................199
6. ENVIRONMENTAL ................................................................... 200
6.1. TERMODECK ....................................................................................200
1. Introduction
• The choice of a correct floor system is an important economic decision in a tall
building.
• In residential buildings, shorter spans are possible because smaller apartment units
permit the placement of closer spaced columns and walls.

177

• In contrast to residential buildings, modern office buildings require large open spaces,
sometimes entire areas must be devoid of structural elements.
• The ease and speed of construction also plays a role in the selection of the floor system.
Some contractors may only be familiar with certain types of systems, or may have
invested in expensive formwork for a particular type.
• The floor system may be required to assist in carrying horizontal loads, in which case a
floor slab may have to be replaced by a floor plate.
1.1.Ground Floors
The function of a ground floor is to provide a level, smooth and dry surface which will safely
support the loads of both the people and furniture which rest upon it. To do this successfully it
must have:
• Strength and stability
• Resistance to damp penetration
• Good thermal insulation
• Durability.
Good design and construction should ensure that the floor can satisfactorily fulfil its function
throughout the proposed life of the building.
1.2.Upper Floors
The function of an upper floor is to support the loads of furniture and people imposed upon it,
and in order to fulfil this function in a safe and satisfactory manner there are a number of
technical requirements:
• The floor must be structurally stable and must not suffer excessive deflection when a
load is imposed on it.
• The floor should provide restraint for the external walls
• The floor should provide suitable fire protection to delay the spread of fire. The level of
fire protection will depend on the number of storeys and the nature of the building, i.e.
Flats or houses.
• The floor, particularly if part of a block of flats, should provide good sound insulation.

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Contents:
1. Introduction Floor Systems
1.1 Ground Floors
1.2 Upper Floors
2. Timber
2.1 Wood Joist
2.2 Plank and Beam
2.4 KEYWORDS
3. Steel
3.1 Steel Joist
3.2 Beam and Decking
3.3 KEYWORDS
4. Concrete
4.1 Slab - precast/in-situ
- Reinforced
- One Way slabs on beams/walls
- Two Way
- Waffle slabs
4.3 Hollow Core Floors
4.4 KEYWORDS
5. Floor Systems (Composite)
5.1 Raised Access Floor
5.2 Floating/sprung Floor
5.4 KEYWORDS
6. Environmental
6.1 Termodeck
6.2 Useful Links

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2. TIMER FLOORS
Timber is frequently used for floor construction at a small, residential scale as it is...
• Readily available
• Relatively cheap
• Easy to cut and shape
• Fixings are simplistic (nails and screws)
• Timber is relatively easy to repair and alter
The majority of houses building from the latter part of the 19th century until the mid-20th
century in the UK have ground floors constructed from timber. Exceptions to this would be
rooms below ground level where damp could damage the timer, rooms which were likely to be
wet due to their function e.g. Kitchens and sculleries, and some working class terraced housing
built with clay block floors or stone flags.
2.1.Wood Joist System
The floor often referred to as a raised timber floor consists of a series of joist supported by the
loadbearing walls and covered with floorboards. The size of a joist depends largely on its
span; as its length or span increases, so must its depth to safely support the load imposed upon
it. Deep joists are expensive and to reduce joist size there are usually intermediate supports
known as sleeper walls. These are small walls in rough stone or brickwork built directly on the
ground or on small foundations. In practice, ground-floor joists are often half the depth of those
used in upper floors where of course, such intermediate support is not possible.
The ground floor layout of a typical house in the UK, has joists running from side to side which
are supported on sleeper walls. The joists are supported by the party walls, the sleeper wall and
the internal loadbearing wall. The joists are usually at 350-400mm centres as this generally
offers the most economic arrangement of the timbers.

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In practice such floors often give rise to expensive maintenance problems due to poor design
and varying standards of workmanship.
• It was common to build the joists into the external wall to provide end support. There is
obviously the danger that, in this situation, moisture from rising or penetrating damp
will penetrate the end of the joists, causing rot. Some properties have slightly thicker
walls below floor level and this gives improved protection against penetrating damp.
• Until the early part of this century damp proof courses were rare in the majority of
houses. This means that rising damp can not only attack the joist ends, but also the
middle of the joists where they sit on the intermediate sleeper walls.
• The level of the earth or rubble infill under the floor was often below external ground
level and in wet conditions, or areas with high water tables, the underfloor space was
often permanently damp.
• It is important to provide ventilation to these floors in order to try and keep the
underfloor space dry. In the past this was usually achieved by a series of cast iron or
terracotta vents positioned just below floor level. Over the years the vents can become
blocked, either through changes in external ground level or just general accumulation of

181

debris. The reduced ventilation can lead to excessive levels of damp which ultimately
can cause outbreaks of rot.
* In a honeycomb sleeper wall there are a series of gaps to allow cross-ventilation.*
The sleeper walls also impeded ventilation through the floor, although in the better forms of
construction these walls are fitted with vents or built as honeycomb walls.
Due to the limitations of woodworking machinery, square-edged boards were common. Once in
position the boards would shrink slightly as their moisture content stabilised, resulting in small
gaps appearing between the boards and uncomfortable draughts in the downstairs rooms.
As timber joist flooring systems have improved the majority of these defects no longer occur.
• The entire floor is separated from the substructure by the DPCs
• The bare earth is covered with a concrete slab (often referred to as 'oversite') which is
at, or above, external ground level to prevent the build-up of water. The slab also
prevents growth of vegetation.

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• The floor joists are usually supported by honeycombed sleeper walls, through which are
can pass easily, and the joists do not touch the external wall.
• Vents are provided, well clear of ground level, and sleeved to prevent cold air entering
the cavity.
In modern construction timber floors are not particularly common but there is no reason why
they should not be provided *although in some areas protection from Radon gas may be
difficult.
Important building requirements:
1. The ground surface should be covered with at least 100mm of concrete laid on an inert
base of hard-core. Alternatively, the ground should be covered with 50mm of concrete
laid over a polythene membrane, itself on a protective bed of sand or stone dust (to
prevent punctures) and laid to a fall with a discharge above ground level.
2. There should be a gap of at least 75mm between the top of the concrete and the bottom
of the wall plate.
3. Ventilation should be provided; a minimum acceptable level would be approximately

225x150mm air bricks at 1.5m centres.
In modern floors the joist ends (in the external wall) are usually supported by joist hangers
rather than sleeper walls for reasons of economy and to ensure air tightness and better sound
insulation.
Upper floor Joists
The size of joists depends on the expected building loading, the spacing between joists and the
required span. The 2004 UK Regulations refer the reader to tables produced by the Timber
Research and Development Association.

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As the length of the joist increases so must its depth, if it is safely to support the loads imposed
on it. So, for example, under average loading a joist 50mm wide by 150mm deep will span just
over 3m whereas a joist 50mm wide by 200mm deep will span a distance of nearly 4.5m.
A correctly sized beam will suffer minimal deflection when loaded.
The width of a joist only marginally affects its permitted span, but it does affect its resistance to
twisting and warping. Joists less than 38mm wide readily warp, and also provide insufficient
area on which to nail and join floorboards.
In recent years 'I' beam and metal web joists have become more common. These can span
greater spans than timber joists, often precluding the need for internal load bearing walls.
Strutting
To stop joists from twisting or warping (and possible damaging the ceiling finish) it is usual to
find a line of strutting fixed at right angles to the joists. Strutting also helps to 'tighten up' a
floor, thus reducing 'bounce'. The struts can form a herringbone pattern or can be 'off-cuts' or
timber; usually staggered so that they can be easily nailed to the joists.
• Staggered strutting using 'off-cuts' from joists. The struts are staggered so that they can
be nailed.
• Strutting 'tightens up' floor thus reducing 'bounce'. It also reduced twisting of the joists
which could damage the ceiling finish.
It is normal to find one set of struts for an average-sized room or two sets if the room width
exceeds 4.5m. However, if the joist width is less than 50mm extra struts may be required to
prevent the timbers from twisting.
Spacing
Traditionally in the UK joists were fixed at 400mm centres. This is probably the most economic
arrangement of the timbers. Joists further apart require deeper sections because they are carrying
extra load, and the floorboards also need to be deeper in section due to their increased span.
Joists closer together use excessive timber; even allowing for their smaller cross-sectional area.
*If the joists are 50mm wide and they are fixed at 400mm centres they will be 350mm apart.
This is considered a standard in modern construction. Modern floor coverings and ceiling
boards are often made in multiples of 400mm to minimise waste.

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Wood Joist Floor System
• Relatively small joist members closely spaced.
• Joists supported by either beams or walls.
• Relatively short spans for subflooring, underlayment and applied ceiling.
• Generally thicker construction depth than plank and beam system.
• Flexible in form and shape.
Wood Plank and Beam System
• Larger beams space further apart spanned with structural planking and decking.
• Beams supported by girders, columns or walls.
• If underside of plank and beam system is left exposed as the finish ceiling, it is more
difficult to run concealed mechanical and electrical lines and the system is less resistant
to sound transmission.
• Concentrated loads and floor openings may require additional framing.

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Floor Finish
As previously mentioned, older houses have square-edged floorboards. They can ben in various
sizes but are generally 150-175mm wide and about 18-25mm thick. The boards were fixed with
special nails called brads which helped prevent them from working loose with age and the
boards were usually laid with staggered joints.
Development of machinery allowed for the production of tongued and grooved boards and
these have distinct advantages over their square-edged counterparts.
• Point loads from heavy furniture are spread across other boards, thereby allowing
reduced board size.
• There is less chance of the boards warping and the close-fitting joints form a reasonably
smooth surface on which to lay a variety of sheet finishes. Perhaps a minor
disadvantage is that the boards are difficult to lift for access to the services.
• They provide better smoke and fire resistance.
Both types of board are made from fast-growing coniferous tress (known as softwoods)
although hardwoods such as mahogany and oak may be found in more prestigious houses and
buildings such as libraries and museums.
In modern construction both tongued and grooved floorboards, and square-edged boards have
largely been superseded by chipboard. Chipboard consists of small wood chips bonded with
synthetic resin and then compressed to form large sheets. The boards are typically
2400x600x18mm thick and are available with tongues and grooved edges. A sheet of
chipboard is therefore about four to five times the width of a typical floorboard. They have
good wear resistance and should be maintenance free as long as they do not remain wet for long
periods. Their popularity, of course, lies in their cost advantage of timber strip flooring.
Moisture resistant cannot withstand long term water saturation.

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Insulation
Although timber floor is perceived as being warm it does permit considerable heat loss due to
the flow or air underneath the joists. Since the mid-1990s it has been a requirement that all new
ground floors contain insulation. One simple method is shown in the diagram below.
2.2.KEYWORDS
1 Fixing Fijacion 24 Radon Gas Gas Radon

2 Nail Clavo 23 concrete slab forjado de
hormigon
3 Screw Tornillo 25 Inert Base Base Inerte
4 Alter Alterar 26 Hardcore De nucleo
duro
5 Stone Flag 27 Polythene Membrane Membrana de
polietileno
6 Joist 28 Sand Arena
7 Loadbearing Wall Muro de Carga 29 Discharge Descargar
8 Floorboard Tablero de 30 Joist Hangers Viguetas
suelo (suspendidas,
colgadas)
9 Span Luz 31` Air Tightness Hermetico al
aire
10 Party Wall Medianera 32 Sound Insulation Aislamiento
al sonido
11 Maintenance Mantenimiento 33 Deflection Flecha (del
forjado)
12 Workmanship Trabajo (de 34 Twisting Torsion

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manualidad)
13 Damp Humedad 35 Warping Pandeo
(patologica) (alabear)
14 Penetrating Damp Humedad 36 Ceiling Finish Acabado del
penetrante techo
15 Rot Podrido 37 Cross-sectional Area Area de la
seccion (de
un perfil)
16 Damp Proof Course Hilera anti 38 Sub-flooring base del suelo
humedad
17 Rubble Infill Relleno de 39 Staggered Joints juntas
goma escalonadas
18 Ventilation ventilacion 40 Tongue and Groove machi-
hembrado
19 Vent conducto (de 41 Softwood madera
ventilacion) blanda
20 Cross Ventilation Ventilacion 42 Hardwood madera dura
cruzada
21 Shrink Encoger 43 Chipboard aglomerado
(madera
prensada)
22 Draught Corriente de 44 Bracket anclaje
aire
3. STEEL FLOORS
3.1. Steel Joist
• Lightgage or open-web joists closely spaced.
• Joists supported by either beams or walls.
• Relatively short spans for decking.
• Underside of structure remains exposed or ceiling may be applied
• Limited cantilever potential

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3.2.Beam and Decking
• Heavier steel beams spaced further apart spanned with structural decking or planks.
• Beams supported by girders, columns or walls.
• Most typical as part of a steel skeletal frame structure.
• Concentrated loads and floor openings may require additional framing.
3.3.KEYWORDS
1 Lightgage ligero (o 4 Decking plataforma

aligerado)
2 Open-web de alma abierta 5 Girders viga
(brochal)
3 Cantilever voladizo 6 Skeletal Frame marco
(estructura)
principal
4. CONCRETE FLOORS
There are many different types of concrete floors:
• Precast or cast in place
• Planar slab system

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• Structural systems are classified according to the type of span and form:
o one-way and two way slabs
o one-way joist slab
o two-waywaffle slab
o two-way flat slab
o two-way flat plate
• Factors in system choice include the type and magnitude of loading conditions, desired
floor depth, and the desired bay size and proportions.
Reinforced concrete floor systems are grouped into two categories:
• One-way slabs, in which the slab spans in one direction between supporting beams or
walls.
• Two-way slabs, in which the slab spans in orthogonal directions.
Both systems take advantage of continuity over interior supports by providing negative moment
reinforcement in the slab.

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One-way slabs span continuously over walls or beams up to 24 feet apart. These slabs are 7 to 8
inches thick, and require simple formwork, with simple reinforcement. They are suitable for
flying formwork to speed up construction. This system is heavy and inefficient, but is
appropriate for use in cross-wall residential high-rises when used with post-tensioning.
The one-way pan joists and beam system is a thin, welded wire mesh (wwm) reinforced slab
that sits upon closely spaced cast-in-place joists spanning between major beams. Slabs may be
as thin as 2.5 inches (6 cm) and the joists 6 to 20 inches (15 - 51 cm) in depth and spaced 20 to
30 inches (76 cm) on center. Their composite action, like closely spaced T-beams, permit 40
foot spans (12.3 m). The joists are formed between reusable fiberglass or steel pans.
A one-way slab spanned over closely spaced beams and supported by girders, permits the use of
a thin slab thickness, from 3 to 6 in (7.6 to 15 cm) and larger spans of up to 46 feet (14 m).
Besides having longer span capabilities, the system is compatible with a two-way lateral load
resisting rigid-frame structure.

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A two-way flat plate is directly supported by columns or short walls. It can span 26 feet (8 m)
with conventional reinforcing, and 36 ft (11 m) when post-tensioned. It is the most economical
system in terms of formwork and reinforcement. It also provides freedom to locate columns and
provides a clear soffit, thereby resulting in minimum story heights.
Experiments are conducted to see how a flat plate behave at extreme loading conditions. This
flat plate shows the pattern of failure of both shear an flexural stresses.
A two-way flat slab requires capitals or drop panels at the columns to increase their shear and
negative moment capacities at the supports. This system is suited for heavier loads and longer
spans, and when the bays are roughly square.
Flat-Plate and Flat-Slab Structures
This is the simplest of all structural floor forms. It consists of uniform slabs 5 to 8 inches thick,
rigidly connected to columns. This flat-plate has drop panels. It provides a minimum floor
depth, and behaves like a rigid frame under lateral loads. Flat-plates are economical up to

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spans of 25 feet whereas flat-slabs are economical up to spans of 38 ft. These systems are
economical up to about 25 stories.
Waffle flat slab system
This is supported by a square grid of closely spaced joists with filler panels over the columns.
The slab and joists are poured integrally over square and domed plastic or steel forms up to 30
inches square (76 cm) and 20 inches deep (50 cm). An advantage is that the ceiling is usually
left exposed.
The two-way slab and beam system spans two ways between orthogonal sets of beams that
transfer the load to the columns or walls. This permits thinner slabs, and is economical in
reinforced concrete systems. It is also compatible with a lateral load resisting rigid-frame
structures. The maximum effective length/width ratio is 2.
Steel framed structures also use reinforced concrete slabs placed upon the steel framing in
various ways. A common method is the one-way reinforced concrete slab, either a cast-in-place,
typically 4 in thick (10 cm) or cast concrete on a metal deck (as shown above) requiring only
2.5 in (6 cm) of concrete thickness.
An alternative to the cast-in-place slab is the use of precast concrete panels laid directly upon
the steel beams (shown below) and finished with a thin concrete topping, such as coreslab.
The one-way beam system consists of a rectangular grid of steel columns and steel beams
running in the long direction, whilst using the reinforced concrete slab to span the shorter

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direction (transversely). In cross-frame structures, the beams at partition lines may be deepened
to participate in lateral load resisting rigid frames or braced bents.
The two-way steel beam system is used in buildings where the columns are required to be
farther apart in both directions. A system of beams, supported by girders is used as shown
above. The reinforced concrete slab spans transversely to the longitudinal axis. In order to
minimize the depth of the floor frame, the heavily loaded girders are aligned with the shorter
span and the relatively lightly loaded secondary beams are aligned with the longer span.
The three-way steel beam system is used in buildings where there is a need to have a large
column-free areas. A deep lattice girder may form the primary component with beams or open
web joists forming the secondary and tertiary systems. The reinforced concrete slab is set to
span transversely to the tertiary steel beams.

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When the steel frame support system is tied to the concrete slab via shear connectors, the slab
becomes the compression flange of the new composite system. The steel decking composite
slab has the convenience of using the steel deck for very rapid erection of the slab system, and
permits the perforated and indented steel deck to serve as the shear connection.
When the reinforced concrete slab is tied directly to the supporting steel beam, the composite
action comes from welded steel studs on the top flange of the beam. Other connectors are steel
spirals, or short pieces of angles welded to the beam. This system is typically called the
composite frame.
A combination of these is called the composite frame and steel decking system; this combines
the quickly erected steel deck with the steel studs welded through to the supporting beam or
truss.
4.1.Hollow Core Floors
This Detail shows a hollow precast floor system, which is used in comparison to solid slabs or
planks for the reduction of weight, ease of erection and the ability to introduce service cables or
ducts.
Slab construction allows for simpler assembly and also has many options; either side could be
exposed on a higher floor whilst it can be used with most types of supporting structure.
• A DPM or 'Damp Proof Membrane' is used in construction to resist moisture at the joint
level of floors or foundations.

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4.2.KEYWORDS
1 Planar Slab Forjado plano 15 Longitudinal Longitudinal

2 One-way Slab Forjado 16 Aligned Alineado
unidireccional
3 Two-way Slab Forjado 17 Lattice Girder Viga en
bidireccional celosia
4 Waffle hueco del 18 Flange Alas (en una
Caseton viga)
5 Depth Profundidad 19 Perforated Perforado
6 Post-tensioning Post-tensado 20` Indented Hendido
7 Wire Welded Mesh Maya de 21 Welded Soldado
alambre soldado
8 Fibreglass Fibra de Vidrio 22 Angle Angulo

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(perfil en "l")
9 Soffit Techo 23 Composite Compuesto
(material
composite)
10 Failure Fallo 24 Truss Cercha
11 Shear COrtante 25 Service Cables Cables de
instalaciones
12 Rigid Frame Marco Rigido 26 Ducts Conductos
13 Lateral Loads Cargas laterales 27 Assembly Montaje
14 Transverse Transverso 28 Cavity Infill Relleno de la
camara
5. COMPOSITE FLOOR SYSTEMS

5.1.Raised Access Floor
This system provides an elevated structural floor, creating a hidden void for the housing and
distribution of mechanical and electrical services.
The floor consists of load bearing floor panels laid in a horizontal grid supported by adjustable
vertical pedestals. The vertical adjustment of the pedestals allows for the raised floor to be level
where there are undulations in the sub-floor.
The Pedestal Head connects to the panel, and a Steel Stringer (horizontal component) connects
pedestals together and is used to provide additional lateral support, thus increasing the structural
performance of the system.
The system may be loose lay or screw down, in both systems the floor panels are readily
removable to allow quick access to the under floor services whilst raised floors may also be
used to provide an air plenum and aid the Natural ventilation of a space.

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Removable floor panels provide access to services.
5.2.Floating/sprung Floor
This floor system does not need to be nailed or glued into place, the term floating floor refers to
the construction method, in general this type of floor construction is used to reduce noise or
vibration.
Reducing Noise
Acoustic transmission must be controlled within a building, particularly one of shared use.
The Lafarge Cormet Acoustic Floor:
This offers protection against airborne and impact sound transmission. The system uses a metal
angle to separate the floor decking from the structure, uses a resilient bar to further prevent the
transmission of sound and has increased insulation and floor mass.
Reducing Vibration
A sprung floor is used to absorb shocks often used for dancing halls and sports centers, and is
also known as an impact resilient floor.

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5.3.KEYWORDS
1 Elevated Elevado 10 Natural Ventilation Ventilacion

Natural
2 Distribution Distribucion 11 Floating Flotante
3 Adjustable Ajustable 12 Acoustic Transmission Transmision
Acustica

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4 Pedestals Pedestales 13 Airborne Aero-

transportado
5 Level Nivel 14 Impact Impacto
6 Undulations Ondulacion 15 Resilient Resistente (al
ruido de
impacto)
7 Stringer Larguero 16 Vibration Vibracion
8 Performance Rendimiento 17 Shock ABSORBER Absorbente al
impacto
9 Removable Desmontable
6. ENVIRONMENTAL
6.1.Termodeck
The TermoDeck system is different from conventional technologies because it is integrated with
the heavy structure of a building. The last part of the ductwork system for the supply air consists
of hollow core concrete slabs instead of traditional steel ducts.
TermoDeck uses the thermal storage capacity of the building´s structural mass to regulate the
internal temperatures. The effectiveness of the building's thermal mass is enhanced by passing
supply air through the slab before it enters the room. The slabs work as heat exchangers
between the supply air and the rooms.
The supply air passes through the hollow cores before entering the room as in the picture to the
right.
The floor/ceiling slabs serve many purposes: Besides from being the structural floor it conveys
fresh air into the building and it serves also as an energy store.
The picture shows how the slabs are incorporated into the building and how the main supply
duct would normally be situated in the corridor. No ducts and therefore no false ceilings are
required in individual rooms. This allows total freedom for the interior designer to locate, or re-
locate in the future, the internal wall partitions.
Installation
Hollow core slabs are quick and easy to install using mobile cranes or typical on-site tower
cranes.
The erection time for a pre-fabricated building compared to a conventional cast in situ concrete
building can be reduced by up to 30%. Factory produced hollow core slabs enable installation to
take place during all weather conditions.
TermoDeck can be combined with all types of air-conditioning (AC) units. From the AC-unit,
generally placed on the roof, supply air ducts run in vertical shafts down to each floor inside the

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building and then to horizontal ducts placed in central corridors usually within false ceilings.
Small branch ducts feed air into each slab and the air then enters a room via diffusers fixed to
the soffit of the slab. Diffusers are normally located close to external walls. The exhaust air is
normally removed into the central corridor plenum and is returned to the AC-unit in the
conventional way.
The main distribution ductwork in the corridor is similar in construction to that found in
conventional systems. The main difference with TermoDeck is that every individual structural
hollow core slab is supplied with a small quantity of air from the main supply duct; in other
words a small 'feed' duct every 1200mm along the length of the corridor.
The Basic TermoDeck System
The picture below illustrates TermoDeck with a central AHU feeding supply air into individual
hollow core slabs.

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USEFUL LINKS
Eco Span
http://www.ecospan-usa.com/index.htm
Eco Slab
http://eco-slab.com/

202
Unit 13. Wall Systems

Unit 13 Wall Systems

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1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 205
1.1. EXTERNAL WALLS..............................................................................205
1.2. INTERNAL WALLS ..............................................................................205
1.3. PARTY WALLS ..................................................................................206
2. MASONRY ............................................................................. 208
2.1. BRICK WALL SYSTEMS ........................................................................208
2.2. BRICK AND BLOCK .............................................................................211
2.3. STONE ..........................................................................................213
2.4. REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCK..............................................................214
2.5. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................215
3. FRAMED ................................................................................ 216
3.1. TIMBER STUD ..................................................................................216
3.2. TIMBER POST AND BEAM ......................................................................218
3.3. METAL STUD ...................................................................................219
3.4. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................220
4. CLADDING SYSTEMS ............................................................... 221
4.1. TIMBER .........................................................................................221
4.2. BRICK CLADDING SYSTEMS ..................................................................223
4.3. TRESPA AND COMPOSITE CLADDING SYSTEMS ..............................................224
4.4. RAIN-SCREEN CLADDING .....................................................................226
4.5. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................227
5. GLASS .................................................................................. 227
5.1. CURTAIN WALLING ............................................................................227
5.2. OTHER GLASS WALL SYSTEMS ................................................................229
5.3. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................230
6. INTERNAL FINISH ................................................................... 230
6.1. PLASTER ........................................................................................230

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6.2. GYPSUM BOARD ...............................................................................231
6.3. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................231
7. ENVIRONMENTAL ................................................................... 232
7.1. OKALUX .........................................................................................232
7.2. LIVING WALL SYSTEM .........................................................................233
7.3. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................233
1. Introduction
1.1.External Walls
The external wall has two basic functions:
• To support the loads of suspended floors and roof
• environmental protection
In order to satisfactorily fulfil these functions there are a number of requirements for an external
loadbearing wall, these are:
• Strength and stability
• Weather protection
• Good thermal insulation
• Fire protection
• Durability
1.2.Internal Walls
Internal walls are a mix of load-bearing and non load-bearing. Plasterboard (stud) or lathe and
plaster walls will be non load-bearing, whilst a solid wall which runs through the middle of the
house, parallel to the floorboard is likely to be load-bearing. Non load-bearing walls are also
known as partition walls.
Patition walls are almost always constructed as a frame covered by plasterboard and plaster.

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1.3.Party Walls
Is a dividing partition between two adjoining buildings. Key considerations include sound
transmission and the spread of fire.
The Gyprock Intertenancy Wall System comprises a double frame wall with a 25mm fire
barrier between the frames. The acoustic control is via the double wall framing which provides
impact isolation and cavity insulation on both sides. The system is suitable for application in
both steel and timber framed structures.
Contents:
1. Introduction
1.1 External Walls
1.2 Internal Walls
1.3 Party Walls
2. Masonry
2.1 Single Leaf Brick
2.2 Brick and Block
2.3 Stone
2.4 Reinforced Concrete Block
2.5 Brick and Block Bonding Patterns
2.6 KEYWORDS

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3. Framed
3.1 Timber Stud
3.2 Timber post and beam
3.3 Metal Stud
3.4 KEYWORDS
4. Cladding Systems
4.1 Timber
4.2 Brick Cladding Systems
4.3 Trespa and composite cladding systems
4.4 Rainscreen Cladding
4.5 KEYWORDS
5. Glass
5.1 Curtain Walling
5.2 Other glass wall systems
5.3 KEYWORDS
6. Internal Finish
6.1 Plaster
-Over wood
-Over Masonry
6.2 Gypsum Board
6.3 Plywood Panelling
6.3 Ceramic Tile
6.4 KEYWORDS
7. Environmental
7.1 Okalux
7.2 Living Wall System
7.3 KEYWORDS

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2. MASONRY
Masonry Units:
• Fired clay units
• Fired clay lightweight units
• Calcium silicate units
• Concrete block units
• Lightweight concrete block units
• Autoclaved aerated concrete units
• Dimensioned natural stone units
Masonry units are classified into the following types: solid, perforated unit, hollow unit, cellular
unit and horizontally perforated unit- see Figure 1.
Brick masonry structures are defined by vertical and horizontal elements, respectively walls and
floors. Since the main service loads are applied on the floors the seismic forces will be mainly
concentrated at each floor level. Floors should be rigid in their plane to distribute the seismic
load among the vertical wall elements in proportion to their stiffness. Such floors are referred to
as horizontal diaphragms. However diaphragms alone will be inadequate unless good
connection between them and the supporting walls exists.
When constructing reinforced concrete (RC) slabs; the casting of bond-beams just below floor
level is an economic and efficient solution. Good floor to wall connection can also be achieved
by designing steel ties between timber floor joists and supporting wall.
2.1.Brick Wall Systems
A single leaf wall is defined as a wall without continuous vertical joint or cavity.

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Double-leaf wall- defined as a wall constituted from two parallel leaves and a joint between
them max 25 mm, filled with mortar. The leaves can be tied together with steel wall ties to
achieve solid wall cross section.
Cavity wall is defined as a wall constructed of two parallel single-leaf walls, tied together with
wall ties or bed joint reinforcement. One or both leaves can be load-bearing. The cavity between
the leaves can be filled, or partially-filled, with non-load bearing insulation material.
Grouted cavity wall- defined as a wall like the cavity wall but the two leaves are spaced min 50
mm apart and are tied securely in place with steel wall ties and bed joint reinforcement, and
with a cavity filled with concrete.
Unreinforced - Plain clay brick masonry
Unreinforced clay brick masonry is a traditional form for construction of low-rise houses that
has been extensively practiced in almost every part of the world. With the increased popularity
and availability of reinforced concrete, improved masonry forms of construction, like confined
and reinforced masonry became more common for low-rise houses. However traditional houses
with load-bearing system of unreinforced burnt clay brick walls are still being constructed in
many areas of Asia, Indian Subcontinent and Latin America. This type of housing can be
vulnerable to the earthquake shaking unless all rules and recommendations in this guide are
followed.
Brick masonry should be constructed following simple instructions for quality workmanship:
• In dry and hot climate, masonry units should be soaked in water before the construction
in order to prevent quick drying and shrinkage of cement based mortars
• Masonry units should be assembled together in overlapped fashion so that the vertical
joints are staggered from course to course. To ensure adequate bonding the units should
overlap by a length equal to 0.4 times the height of unit or 40 mm, whichever is the
greater. At the corners and wall intersections the overlap should be min the width of
the units.
The Diagrams below show 'Flemish Bond' for one brick thick walls:

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The Diagrams below show 'English Bond' for one brick thick walls:
• The same type of masonry units and mortar should be used for structural walls in the
same storey
• Bracing walls should be constructed in the same time as the load-bearing walls
• The thickness of individual walls is kept constant from storey to storey

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• In cases where general purpose mortar is going to be used, the mortar joints thickness
should be between 8 and 15 mm.
In seismic zones, it is recommended that the minimum thickness of load-bearing walls is 240
mm.
To ensure stability of walls, the ratio of the effective wall height to wall thickness should be
max 15.
Openings in plain masonry walls should be limited to ensure load bearing capacity. Therefore
the length of a structural wall should be at least 1/2 of the greater clear height of the openings
adjacent to the wall
Masonry walls resisting in-plane loads usually exhibit the following three modes of failure:
1. Sliding shear- a wall with poor shear strength, loaded predominantly with horizontal
forces can exhibit this failure mechanism. Aspect ratio for such walls is usually 1:1 or
less (1:1.5)
2. Shear- a wall loaded with significant vertical load as well as horizontal forces can fail in
shear. This is the most common mode of failure. Aspect ratio for such walls is usually
about 1:1. Shear failure can also occur for panels with bigger aspect ratio ie. 2:1, in
cases of big vertical load.
3. Bending- this type of failure can occur if walls are with improved shear resistance. For
bigger aspect ratios ie. 2:1 bending failure can occur due to small vertical loads, rather
than high shear resistance. In this mode of failure the masonry panel can rock like a
rigid body (in cases of low vertical loads).
2.2.Brick and Block
A masonry cavity wall consists of two skins separated by a hollow space a 'cavity'. The skins
are commonly masonry - brick and concrete block. Masonry is an absorbentmaterial, and
therefore will slowly draw rainwater or even humidity into the wall. The cavity serves as a way
to drain this water back out through weep holes at the base of the wall system or above
windows.

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A cavity wall is often flipped with a "half brick" thick outer skin and a dense concrete
blockwork inner skin (100 mm). The "half brick" in bricklaying parlance actually refers to wall
made with bricks laid end to end which just as a normal single-skinned brick wall would be -
the "half" in reference to normal thickness which usually equates to "half the length" of the
brick. For example, a brick might be 203 mm (8.0 in) long and 92 mm (3.6 in) wide which
results in a single-skinned wall as thick as the brick is wide (92 mm in this example) and a
double-skinned (no cavity) wall as wide as the brick is long (203 mm). The single-skinned wall
is therefore roughly half the thickness of the double-skinned wall, but only because most bricks
are roughly twice as long as they are wide.
It is common for external brickwork to be exposed in order to create a visually appealing

facade, and for the inner skin (often constructed of cheaper "plaster bricks" or cement blocks) to
be plastered over, leaving no visible blockwork. Blockwork can also be used on both sides, and
the external skin is either rendered or clad in another material.
The cavity may be partially or completely filled with thermal insulation from the damp-proof
course upwards. The two leaves are connected by wall ties to spread lateral loads. Cavity sizes
have to adhere to a certain minimum to prevent water penetration and typically are at least 50
mm to 100 mm. Sizes are increasing rapidly to accommodate super-insulating wall
specifications, but the larger the cavity the more interior floor area is sacrificed.

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2.3.Stone
Thin stone wall systems used for exterior building envelopes typically consist of stone panels
ranging in thickness from 3/4 inches to 2 inches. Most panels are fabricated from granite, while
marble; limestone, travertine, and sandstone are also used to a lesser extent. A common panel
thickness is 1-3/16 inch (3 cm). Overall panel dimensions can vary significantly for different
buildings, depending on the strength of the stone used and architectural affect desired. However,
maximum panel dimensions are usually approximately 3 to 4 feet and usually not more than
approximately 6 feet. Typically each panel is independently supported to the building structure
or back up system using an assemblage of metal components and anchors. Joints at the
perimeter of each panel are usually 3/8 inch in width and are filled with sealant. A drainage
cavity is typically located behind the stone panels to collect and divert to the exterior water that
penetrates through the joints.
For certain applications, such as at building entrances and near grade level installations of
limited extent, the stone system may not incorporate a drainage cavity but instead be a barrier
system. In this type of system, the stone is applied directly against and attached to solid
masonry backup such as concrete masonry units (CMU) or concrete. In these localized
applications, several panels may be stacked.
There are two primary types of stone installation. The first is the "hand-set" method, in which
each stone is individually attached to the building's primary structural frame or onto a secondary
wall framing system. The second is the panelized installation method, in which the stone panel
or multiple panels are preinstalled onto a frame or attached to a precast concrete panel. The
frames or panels are transported to the building, where the entire assembly is attached to the
building's structural frame or secondary structural members or framing system.
In either installation system, anchors must be used to attach and support the stone panels to the
building's primary or secondary framing system, or to the panelized system frame or element.
Anchors that are in direct contact with stone are usually constructed of non-corroding metals
such as Type 304 stainless steel or aluminum.
Hand-Set Systems
There are numerous types and styles of anchors used to support and anchor individual stone
panels. Commonly used anchor types include:
• Kerf supported stone with stainless steel or aluminum angles
• Side supports, dowels, straps, and disks
• Undercut anchor
• Embedded Adhesive Pin Anchor
Panelized Systems
• Precast Systems
• Steel Truss Systems

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Stone wall systems are traditionally constructed as a curtain wall or veneer, in which no
building loads are transferred to the stone panels. Most typically, the stone wall system must
resist lateral loads directly imparted on it, such as from wind and earthquake, as well as vertical
loads resulting from the weight of the stone wall system. These loads must be transmitted
through the stone wall system and secondary structural elements to the building's structure.
Other loads related to impact, construction, and transportation must also be taken into account
in the design.
2.4.Reinforced Concrete Block
Building walls using hollow concrete block is an economical means to creating a structure.
However, hollow concrete block walls are not structurally very strong and will not resist the
flexural stress that a wall is subjected to, causing them to collapse easily. Flexural stress comes
from the pressure of the load the walls bear (from the upper floors or roof of a house), or from
storms or seismic activity. You can reinforce a hollow concrete block wall to give it the
resistance needed to withstand flexural stress.
1. Lay your first four courses of concrete block wall. On the fourth course, trowel a skim
(very thin) coat of mortar on the block.
2. Lay a run of masonry lathe down the entire course of the wall. (Masonry lathe is a kind
of metal mesh (with large openings) that acts as a horizontal reinforcement to the wall.
Horizontal reinforcement helps to evenly distribute the weight the wall bears from the
upper story or roof.
3. Drop rebar rods into every other cell of the hollow block. (Hollow blocks have two
openings, referred to as cells; each block should have one bar dropped into it.) The bar
should extend up into the air to reach what will be the next four courses of concrete
blocks. Double-check your construction drawings--some buildings specify that more or
less rebar be dropped in vertically than this typical placement. The plans will also
specify how long each piece of masonry rebar must be.

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4. Drop an extra vertical bar in the cell of the hollow blocks located next to any door or
window opening. (These areas of the wall are subject to greater stress during storms or
seismic activity and require extra reinforcement.)
5. Fill each cell with fill mortar. (Fill mortar is a specific mix of Portland cement designed
for vertical pours in block walls.) Pull the vertical masonry rebar into the very center of
the concrete block after the mortar has been poured. This way you will not have to bend
the bars that were knocked out of place during the pour when you go to lay the next
course.
2.5.KEYWORDS
1 Seismic Forces Fuerzas 15 Seismic Zones Zona

Sismicas Sismica
2 Reinforced Concrete Hormigon 16 Openings Aberturas
Armado
3 Steel Ties Conectores de 17 (Sliding) Shear Cortantes
Acero (deslizantes)
4 Single Leaf Wall Muro de una 18 Bending Flector
hoja
5 Vertical Joint Junta Vertical 19 Absorbent Material Material
Absorbente
6 Cavity Camara (de 20 Humidity Humedad
Aire)
7 Double Leaf Wall Muro de 2 hojas 21 Weep holes Ranuras de
Ventilacion
8 Mortar Mortero 22 Façade Fachada
9 Steel Wall Ties Conectores de 23 lintel Dintel
muro de acero
10 Cross-section seccion 24 Stone Panel Panel de
transversal Piedra
11 Grout Enlechar 25 Secondary Framing Estructura
Secundaria
12 Unreinforced Sin refuerzo 26 Non-corroding Metal Metal no
corrosivo
13 Overlap Superponer 27 Veneer Barniz
14 Wall intersection Interseccion de 28 plasterboard Carton-Yeso
muro


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3. FRAMED
3.1.Timber Stud
Top and sole plates
The first step in the construction of a timber stud wall is to mark the line of the sole plate - there
will probably be two lengths, with a gap for the doorway. The gap for the doorway should allow
for the door frame required and for the two studs between the top plate and the floor. It is often
a good idea to position the doorway such that a full number of cladding sheets will fit between
an end wall and the side of the door; this will reduce the amount of work necessary when the
partition is clad.
Positioning the partition
• If the floor joists run at right angles to the partition, no special requirement is necessary
other than to keep the sole plate on one floor board if possible.
• If the joists run parallel to the partition, position the sole plate over a joist. This will
mean that all the floorboards run under the partition, this may cause problems later if
individual boards need to be lifted in future - it is worthwhile thinking about lifting
some boards before fitting the partition and cutting them so that part boards can be
lifted on either side of the partion.

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• If the partition is being erected on a solid ground floor, it is important to place a layer of
damp-proof course felt or heavy polyethylene between the floor and the timber; this
will eliminate the risk of rising damp.
Before the sole plate is secured, it is important to ensure that the locations of any electric cables,
water and other services under the floor are known.
The sole plate is secured to the floor, and it must be ensured that the separate lengths are in line
- using either a long straightedge across the doorway or by running a string line between the
extreme ends. On a timber floor, the sole plate should be nailed through into the joists (not just
the floor boards) at about 1 metre spacing.
Fixing the vertical studs:
The distance between the top and sole plates at each end is measured, and end studs are cut
slightly longer than this to ensure a tight fit. The back of the end studs may need to be cut away
at the bottom so that they clear any existing skirting board and fit flat against the existing wall.
The end studs are fixed to the existing walls using screws and plugs if they are masonry, and fix
to the plates by skew-nailing - drive nails through the upright at an angle so that they penetrate
the plates.
The spacing of the intermediate studs should be such that the sides of each plasterboard sheet
(or other cladding) ends in the middle of a stud - for a 1220mm sheet, 1 or 2 intermediate studs
should be fitted. The length of each intermediate stud should be individually measured to allow
for any irregularities in the floor or ceiling, and again cut slightly longer than the dead size.
• Wall studs are normally 2x4 or 2x6, but are larger for thicker construction or unusually
large loads.
• Studs carry vertical loads while wall sheathing and applied finishes help to resists
lateral forces.
• Studs are spaced at 400-600mm centres. This spacing is based on accommodating wall
sheathing and finish materials rather than the support of vertical loads.
• Insulation, vapour barriers, and relatively small mechanical and electrical lines may
be accommodated within stud thickness.
• Interior and exterior wall finishes are applied over wall sheathing, although some
finishes may be applied directly to the face of studs.
• Fire-rating of the wall assembly is dependent on the rating of wall sheathing and/or
finish material.
• These walls may be fabricated on site or panelised off site.
• They are flexible in form due to the easy workability of the relatively small pieces and
the various means of fastening/connection.

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3.2.Timber post and beam
This is a simple construction method using a lintel, header, or architrave as the horizontal
member over a building void supported at its ends by two vertical columns, pillars, or posts.
This architectural system and building method has been commonly used for centuries to support
the weight of the structure located above the openings created by windows and doors in a
bearing wall.
There are two main force vectors acting upon the post and lintel system: weight carrying
compression at the joint between lintel and post, and tension induced by deformation of self-
weight and the load above between the posts. The two posts are under compression from the
weight of the lintel (or beam) above. The lintel will deform by sagging in the middle because
the underside is under tension and the topside is under compression.
Arches
The biggest disadvantage to a post and lintel construction is the limited weight that can be held
up, and the small distances required between the posts. Ancient Roman architecture
development of the arch allowed for much larger structures to be constructed. The arcuated
system, which involves the use of arches, replaced the post and lintel trabeated system in larger
buildings and structures, until the industrial era introduction of steel girder beams.
• These walls are larger but have fewer structural members than in stud framing.
• Rigid joints between posts and beams are required and detailing of connections is
critical for structural and visual reasons.
• The frame may be left exposed
• Non-bearing infill panels enclose the space, they provide lateral support to the frame
and act as weather barriers when on exterior walls.
• The infill panels may be a stud wall, prefabricated sandwich panels or glass.

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• It may be difficult to accommodate mechanical and electrical lines.
• The system is usually used in conjunction with plank and beam floor and roof systems,
resulting in a skeleton frame based on a structural grid.
3.3.Metal Stud
There are various types of Metal Stud Systems that are used to create a framework to which
Plasterboard can be fixed. This is a much quicker method of installation, and thus cheaper
alternative to using timber battens. These Metal Stud Frameworks can be used in either
vertical wall (Partitions/Wall Linings) or horizontal ceiling application. Manufacturers of these
products include the 3 Plasterboard Manufacturers - British Gypsum, Lafarge and Knauf.
Metal Stud Partitions are available in various thicknesses. 50mm, 70mm, 92mm and 146mm
Steel Studs are available which fit into 52mm, 72mm, 94mm or 148mm Tracks respectively.
Then 1 or 2 layers of Plasterboard are fixed to either side of the Studwork. Various types of
Insulation can also be used within the partition void to enhance the sound insulation given by
the Partition.
• this type of wall is analogous to wood stud wall framing.
• The connections between studs may be welded, screwed or bolted.

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3.4.KEYWORDS
1 Timber Stud Montante de 18 Architrave Arquitrabe

madera
2 Application Aplicacion 19 Column Pilar
/Columna
3 Sole Plate Pletina base 20 Pillar/Post Pilar / Poste
4 Parallel Paralelo 21 Void Hueco
5 Joist Vigueta 22 Deform Deformar
6 Floorboards Tablero de suelo 23 tension Tension
7 Damp proof Course Hilera anti 24 Compression Compresion
humedad
8 Services Instalaciones 25 Arch Arco
9 Screw Tornillo 26 Rigid Joists Viguetas
Rigidas
10 Sheathing Tablero 27 Metal Stud Montante
protector Metálico
11 Lateral Forces Fuerzas 28 Framework Armazon
Laterales
12 Vapour Barrier Barrera de 29 Timber Battens Liston de
Vapor Madera
15 Fire Rating Grado de 30 Manufacturers Fabricantes
proteccion al
fuego
16 Workability Trabajabilidad 31 Sound Insulation Aislmiento

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Acustico
17 Lintel/Header Dintel / 32 Valve Valvula
Travesaño

4. CLADDING SYSTEMS
Wall cladding is the weather exposed material of the exterior wall assembly. Cladding does not
necessarily have to provide a water-proof condition but is instead a control element. This
control element may only serve to safely direct water or wind in order to control run-off and
prevent infiltration into the building structure. Cladding applied to windows is often referred to
as window capping and is a very specialized field.
In situations, where a building's external envelope does not need to be fully 'sealed' (train
stations, bus stations, car parks and other similar structures) perforated metal cladding can be
an ideal solution. The benefits of perforated metal cladding are light weight, durability and easy
installation.
4.1.Timber
Increasingly timber cladding is specified as the weathering envelope for walls. Timber is
renewable, reusable, biodegradable and it has minimal embodied energy. This should be
balanced against transport costs, the need to use chemical preservatives for some timbers and a
shorter service life than material such as masonry.
There are many reasons why timber deteriorates, but the main cause of failure is fungal decay
where moisture content within timbers is in excess of 20%.
The heartwood of timbers which are classed as 'durable', and 'moderately durable' do not need
preservative treatment for external wall cladding. Timbers that are classified as 'slightly durable'
do require preservative treatment. All sapwood require treatment.
Design strategies can enhance durability by reducing the risk of wetting and removing moisture
promptly:
• Protect from rainwater with large eaves overhangs
• Terminate the cladding at least 150mm above ground levels, preferably 250mm
• Ensure cladding is not directly in contact with porous materials
• Include a well ventilated and drained cavity behind the cladding. This should be at least
19mm wide
• Moisture content of the timbers should be between 13 - 19% , less for heat-treated
timber

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• Seal end grain
• Allow sufficient gap between cladding sections to prevent capillary paths; 5mm is
recommended
• Use stainless steel fixings
The Timber Research and Development Association and BRE provide detailed good practice
guidance.

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4.2.Brick Cladding Systems
Siding is the outer covering or cladding of a house meant to shed water and protect from the
effects of weather. On a building that uses siding, it may act as a key element in the aesthetic
beauty of the structure and directly influence its property value.
Masonry sidings are varied (brick and stone) and can accommodate a variety of styles-from
formal to rustic. Though masonry can be painted or tinted to match many color palettes, it is
most suited to neutral earth tones. Masonry has excellent durability (over 100 years), and
minimal maintenance is required. The primary drawback to masonry siding is cost. Precipitation
can threaten the structure of buildings, so it is important that the siding will be able to withstand
the weather conditions in the local region. For regions that receive a lot of rain, EIFS (Exterior
Insulation and Finish Systems), have been known to suffer underlying wood rot problems with
excessive moisture exposure.
The environmental impact of masonry depends on the type of material used. In general, concrete
and concrete based materials are intensive energy materials to produce. However, the long
durability and minimal maintenance of masonry sidings mean that less energy is required over
the life of the siding.
Brick Cladding 1 - Ancon
The Ancon system uses a continuous metal angle bracket to support the outer leaf masonry.
The angle is cold formed steel and is capable of supporting up to 8m of brickwork.

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Brick Cladding 2 - Corium
The Corium system is a facing brick finish wall system. It is used for rapid and cost effective
construction. On a galvanised steel backing section the bricks used are frost resistant and the
façade system is designed to last 60 years.
4.3.Trespa and composite cladding systems
Composite cladding panels made from glass fibre reinforced polymer with a smooth acrylic
surface. They are impact, water and weather resistant panels.

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Vinyl or plastic siding has grown in popularity due to the generally low maintenance and low
cost appeal it offers. It is among the easiest forms of siding to install, making it the top choice
for many new home builders today. Since plastic siding is a manufactured product, it may come
in unlimited colour choices. Historically vinyl sidings would fade, crack and buckle over time,
requiring the siding to be replaced. However, newer vinyl options have improved and resist
damage and wear better. Unlike wood, vinyl siding does not provide additional insulation for
the building, unless an insulation material (e.g., foam) has been added to the product. It has also
been criticized by some fire safety experts for its heat sensitivity. This sensitivity makes it
easier for a house fire to jump to neighbouring houses in comparison to materials such as brick
or masonry.
An environmental cost of vinyl siding is that it is difficult to dispose of responsibly. It cannot be

burned (due to toxic dioxin gases that would be released) and currently it is not recycled.
Vinyl siding is also considered one of the more unattractive siding choices by many. Although
some newer styles eliminate this complaint, more widespread varieties often have visible seam
lines between panels and generally do not have the quality appearance of wood, brick, or
masonry.

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4.4.Rain-screen Cladding
This is a form of double wall construction. The outer layer keeps out rain and the inner layer
provides thermal insulation, prevents air leakage and carries wind loading. The outer layer
breathes like a skin whilst the inner layer reduces energy losses.
This type of façade has a sub frame from which the cladding panels are hung and supported.
Between the two layers is a ventilated cavity. Here, evaporation and drainage ensure that any
moisture that has penetrated the cladding at the panel joints does not reach the structure or
insulating layer.
Retro-fit
This system is often applied in the refurbishment of an existing property.

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4.5.KEYWORDS
1 Cladding Revestimiento 15 Metal Angle Perfil

(Acabado Metalico
exterior en
Fachadas)
2 Infiltration Infiltracion 16 Outer-leaf Hoja exterior
3 Perforated Perforado 17 Brickwork Ladrillos (se
refiere al
conjunto)
4 Weathering Envejecimiento 18 Brick ladrillo
5 Reusable Re-usable 19 Galvanized Steel Acero
Galvanizado
6 Biodegradable Biodegradable 20 Frost Resistant Resistente a
las Heladas
7 Embodied Energy Energia 21 Plastic Plastico
Embebida
8 Fungal Decay Descomposicion 22 Heat-Sensitivity Sensitividad
de Hongos al calor
9 Heartwood Madera interior 23 Air Leakage Escapes de
aire (ex-
filtraciones)
10 Eaves Aleros 24 Sub-frame sub-estructura
11 Porous Material Material Poroso 25 Cladding panel panel de
recubrimiento
(o de fachada)
12 Stainless Steel Acero 26 Hung Suspendido /
Inoxidable colgado
13 Siding Revestimiento 27 Refurbishment Rehabilitacion
14 Aesthetic Estetica 28 garbage bin Cubo de la
basura

5. GLASS
5.1.Curtain Walling
Curtain walls are not structural and carry only their own dead load. The wind and gravity
loads of the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure; typically at the floor line.
They are lightweight usually aluminium framed walls (extruded aluminium members) with in-
fills of glass, metal panels or thin stone.

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Glass is often used as this allows for a greater level of day lighting however thermal comfort
must be considered in highly glazed curtain walls.

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Types of Curtain Walling:
Stick systems
The vast majority of curtain walls are installed long pieces (referred to as sticks) between floors
vertically and between vertical members horizontally. Framing members may be fabricated in a
shop, but all installation and glazing is typically performed at the jobsite.
Unitized systems
Unitized curtain walls entail factory fabrication and assembly of panels and may include
factory glazing. These completed units are hung on the building structure to form the building
enclosure. Unitized curtain wall has the advantages of: speed; lower field installation costs; and
quality control within an interior climate controlled environment. The economic benefits are
typically realized on large projects or in areas of high field labour rates.
Rain-screen principle
A common feature in curtain wall technology, the rain-screen principle theorizes that
equilibrium of air pressure between the outside and inside of the "rain-screen" prevents water
penetration into the building itself. For example the glass is captured between an inner and an
outer gasket in a space called the glazing rebate. The glazing rebate is ventilated to the exterior
so that the pressure on the inner and outer sides of the exterior gasket is the same. When the
pressure is equal across this gasket water cannot be drawn through joints or defects in the
gasket.
5.2.Other glass wall systems
Glass Brick
Glass brick, also known as glass block, is an architectural element made from glass. Glass
bricks provide visual obscuration while admitting light. Glass block walls are self-supporting,
but not load bearing.
Glass Partition
Glass partition walls are a series of individual toughened glass panels, which are suspended
from or slide along a robust aluminium ceiling track. The system does not require the use of a
floor guide, which allows easy operation and an uninterrupted threshold.
CASE STUDY - 440 HOUSE, Fougeron Architects, California, USA.
The Construction of this tactile domestic building uses a glass structural system of cast glass
channels. Translucent glass works to soften the light and light passes through the living area
with a light green tone.
The glass has been cast to a standard size and cut on site to match a steel frame designed around
a self-supporting series of 'c' channels in lengths up to five meters high.
A strong waterproof sealant also allows for few metal members or elements.

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5.3.KEYWORDS
1 Curtain Wall Muro Cortina 15 Installation Instalacion (De

instalar)
2 Window Walling Muro formado 16 Unitized Unificado (en
"sólo" por uno)
ventanas
3 Gravity Load Carga de la 17 Assembly Montaje
Gravedad
4 Aluminium Frame Marco de 18 Glass Brick Ladrillo Vitreo
Aluminium
5 Infill Relleno 19 Translucent Translucido
6 Plenum Plenum 20 Waterproof Sealant Sellante
Impermeabilizante
7 Fabricated Fabricado 21 Opaque Glass Vidrio Opaco

6. INTERNAL FINISH
6.1.Plaster
Plaster is a building material used for coating walls and ceilings. Plaster starts as a dry powder
similar to mortar or cement and like those materials it is mixed with water to form a paste
which liberates heat and then hardens. Unlike mortar and cement, plaster remains quite soft

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after setting, and can be easily manipulated with metal tools or even sandpaper. These
characteristics make plaster suitable for a finishing, rather than a load-bearing material.
The term plaster can refer to gypsum plaster (also known as plaster of Paris), lime plaster, or
cement plaster
Veneer plastering covers the entire wall with thin liquid plaster, uses a great deal of water and is
applied very wet. The walls intended to be plastered are hanged with "Blueboard"). This type of
sheet rock is designed to absorb some of the moisture of the plaster and thus allow it to cling to
the plaster better before it sets.
Veneer plastering is a one-shot one-coat application; taping usually requires sanding and then
adding an additional coat; since the compound shrinks as it dries.
A plaster finish is generally applied over wood or masonry interior walls.
6.2.Gypsum Board
A typical quick construction material for the inside, or interior, of a wall is plasterboard. Often
referred to as 'dry walling' this lightweight material is easy to cut and seal plus contains the
composite 'gypsum' which includes water content that can delay heat or fire.
However if moisture passes between the joins in the surface, due to waterproofing being absent
or damaged, the wall will swell and disintegrate. It is for this reason that 'cement board' is used
in areas of high humidity including as a base for tile work in kitchens and bathrooms.
6.3.KEYWORDS
1 Plaster Yeso 6 Veneer Barniz

2 Coating Capa (Film) de 7 Absorb Absorber
Proteccion
3 Cement Cemento 8 Plasterboard Tablero de
Carton-Yeso
4 Paste Pasta 9 Disintegrate Desintegrar
5 Harden Endurecer 10 Thermal properties Propiedades


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7. ENVIRONMENTAL
7.1.Okalux
Okalux insulated panes contain a capillary inlay which ensures that daylight is scattered deep
into the room.
The light transmission level can be adjusted to the special lighting requirements of the building's
situation. The insulated glass provides excellent protection from the sun, glare protection and
excellent heat insulation.
CASE STUDY: Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art
The contemporary addition to this museum is known as the 'Bloch Building'. It is a series of
glazed blocks which greatly contrast and complement the original classical museum building.
Diffused daylight provides necessary illumination of sub terrain exhibition spaces without
exposing works of art to UV radiation which often causes the bleaching of colours.
The material offers a high level of thermal insulation; the capillary tubes act as small air
cushions, preventing convection of gases in the inter-pane cavity, thus reducing heat losses.

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7.2.Living Wall System
A living wall or green wall system is either free-standing or part of a building that is
partially or completely covered with vegetation and, in some cases, soil or an inorganic
growing medium. The concept of the green wall dates back to 600 BC with the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon. More recently, the larger green walls concept has been utilized
with innovative hydroponics technology. The vegetation for a green façade is always
attached on outside walls; with living walls this is also usually the case, although some
living walls can also be green walls for interior use. For living walls there are many
methods including attaching to the air return of the building to help with air filtration.
They are also referred to as living walls, biowalls, vertical gardens or more scientifically
VCWV (Vertical Vegetated Complex Walls).
These walls may be used to aid air infiltration. They are usually constructed from
modular panels, often stainless steel containers and often require a complex irrigation
system. Green walls are often used in urban environments where the plants can act to
reduce localised temperatures.
There are two main categories of green walls: green façades and living walls. Green façades are
made up of climbing plants either growing directly on a wall or, more recently, specially
designed supporting structures. The plant shoot system grows up the side of the building while
being rooted in the ground. With a living wall the modular panels are often made of stainless
steel containers, geotextiles, irrigation systems, a growing medium and vegetation.
7.3.KEYWORDS
1 Insulated Pane Lamina (de 10 UV Radiation Radiacion

vidrio) Aislada Ultravioleta
2 Capillary Inlay Capa (interna) 11 Inter-pane Cavity Camara
Capilar Intermedia (en un
vidrio doble, por
ejemplo)
3 Daylight luz natural 12 Living/green Wall Muro Ajardinado

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4 Scattered Disperso 13 Vegetation Vegetacion

5 Glare Protection Proteccion al 14 Hydroponics Agricultura
deslumbramiento Hidroponica
(absorcion directa
de minerales)
6 Contemporary Contemporaneo 15 Air filtration Filtracion de Aire
7 Diffuse Difuso 16 Modular Panels Paneles
Modulares
8 Illumination iluminacion 17 Irrigation riego
9 Sub-terrain subterraneo 18 Wind Cowl Captador de
Viento


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Unit 14. Roof Systems

Unit 14 Roof Systems

235

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 237
1.1. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................237
2. ROOF STRUCTURE .................................................................. 239
2.1. ROOF FORMS AND SLOPES ....................................................................239
2.2. FRAMED STRUCTURE ..........................................................................241
2.3. COLD ROOF/WARM ROOF ....................................................................244
2.4. ROOF EDGE CONDITIONS .....................................................................249
2.5. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................250
3. ROOF COVERINGS .................................................................. 251
3.1. BUILT-UP ROOFING............................................................................251
3.2. STANDING SEAM/BATTEN ....................................................................254
3.3. CORRUGATED METAL ..........................................................................256
3.4. ROOF FLASHINGS ..............................................................................257
3.5. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................258
4. FLAT ROOFS .......................................................................... 259
4.1. TIMBER .........................................................................................260
4.2. WATERPROOF COVERINGS ....................................................................261
4.3. INSULATION ....................................................................................262
4.4. CONCRETE ......................................................................................262
4.5. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................263
5. CEILING................................................................................ 264
5.1. ACOUSTIC CEILINGS ..........................................................................264
5.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................264

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1. INTRODUCTION
This unit will explain the principles and practice of traditional and modern roof construction.
Roofing is one of the most complicated elements of building construction. The primary function
of a roof is to protect the building below from the weather. I order to satisfactorily fulfil this
function over a period of years, it must be strong, stable and durable. In addition, roofs must
provide good thermal insulation and prevent the spread of fire from adjacent or adjoining
properties.
1.1.Design Considerations
Roof strength must be sufficient to carry
• Dead load: roof structure, roofing, insulation, ceiling and suspended equipment such as
light fixtures.
• Live load: Accumulated rain, snow and ice (and traffic, if any)
• Wind load: lateral and vertical load components, and vertical uplift forces.
Type of roofing required for slope of roof
• Shingles, tile, sheet or membrane types.
Weather protection afforded for control or
• Precipitation
• Water vapour flow
• Heat flow and solar radiation
• Ventilation
Drainage patterns and run-off outlets required
• Roof drains
• Scuppers
• Gutters or downspouts
Flashing Requirements
• Valleys
• Hips and ridges
• Edges: eaves, rakes, intersections with vertical surfaces
• Openings

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Effect of roof structure support pattern on form of interior spaces
• Point or linear supports - columns or bearing walls
• Length of spans - spacing of supports
• Bay sized and proportions
• Form of roof if exposed - flat or sloped
• Type of ceiling finish that may be applied or supported
Effect of roof structure on external building image
• Flat or sloped
• Single or multiple forms
• Roof edge support conditions
• Roof plane may frame into a parapet wall so that it is concealed
• Roof plane may bear on its beam/wall support and be flush with or overhang the wall
plane.
Contents:
1. Introduction
1.1 Design Considerations
2. Roof Structure
2.1 Roof forms and slopes
2.2 Framed Structure
-Wood plank and beam
-Timber trussed rafters
-Steel Joist roof
2.3 Cold Roof
2.4 Warm Roof
2.5 Sandwich Roof
2.6 Roof Edge Conditions
2.7 KEYWORDS

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3. Roof Coverings
3.1 Build-up Roofing
-Underlay
-Asphalt
-Slates and Tiles
3.2 Standing Seam/Batten
3.3 Corrugated Metal
3.4 Roof Flashings
3.5 KEYWORDS
4. Flat Roofs
4.1 Timber
4.2 Waterproof Coverings
-Built-up Felt
-Asphalt
-Solar Protection
4.3 Insulation
4.4 Concrete
4.5 KEYWORDS
5. Ceiling
5.1 Acoustic Ceilings
-Suspended
5.2 KEYWORDS
2. ROOF STRUCTURE
2.1.Roof forms and slopes
The majority of houses in the UK are constructed with pitched roofs. The angle of the pitch
may be dictated by aesthetic of structural factors; it may also be influenced by the nature of the
roof covering. Modern tiles permit very shallow pitches but some of the older traditional

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coverings, such as hand-made clay tiles, require quite steep slopes to ensure that rain does not
penetrate the roof covering. Shallow pitches are generally cheaper to construct, with savings in
both timber and tiling. Flat roofs are covered with very different materials.

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2.2.Framed Structure
Wood Plank and Beam
This system is similar to the wood plank and beam floor system, the beam size and spanning
capability is related to
• roof design load
• beam spacing
• type and spanning
• capability of decking
This system requires less construction depth than a wood rafter roof system and is often used in
conjunction with the post and beam wall system and plank and beam floor system to form a
skeletal frame structural grid.
The structure is often left exposed, with the underside of the decking being the finished ceiling.
Exposed structure requires careful detailing of joints, the use of quality materials and quality
workmanship.
With this type of system, it is difficult to accommodate concealed mechanical or electrical

lines.
The surface deck may be
• Wood plank
• 2.4.1 plywood
• Prefabricated plywood panels
• Cementitious Plank

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Timber Trussed Rafters
A timber trussed rafter is a framework of wood framing members which form a light, strong,
rigid structural unit, capable of relatively large clear spans. Because of these clear spans, wood
trussed rafters permit the use of non-load bearing interior partitions and flexibility in the design
of the building's interior spaces.
Because of its triangulated structural framework, the member of the wood trussed rafters
resist primarily compressive and tensile forces and relatively small bending stresses unlike the
normal roof rafter. Truss members can therefore be relatively small, normally 2x4 or 2x6.
The truss members are connected by
• plywood gusset plates, glued and nailed
• metal gang-nail plates
• metal split-ring connectors (for heavy loads)

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Wood trussed rafters should be engineered and are generally shop-fabricated to ensure
accuracy and quality of workmanship. The trusses can accommodate insulation and mechanical
or electrical lines and equipment within their depth.
Areas of concentrated loads may require additional framing and support. The trusses may be
girder or wall supported. The roof edge conditions are adaptable to parapet wall, flush roof
edge or roof overhang.
Fire-rating of truss construction depends on the applied ceiling finish and finish roofing. A
finish ceiling may be applied to the bottom chords to conceal the trusses or the trusses may be
left exposed in which case the bottom chords would form an implied secondary plane.

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Steel Joist Roof
Steel joist supports must be design to allow for potential uplift forces due to wind:
• Steel roof joists should be firmly anchored to their beam or wall support
• Positive adhesion of roof deck to top chords or steel roof joists through track welds or
mechanical fastenings and adhesion of rigid insulation layer to the roof deck is critical.
• Roof edge is generally the weak spot, this requires careful detailing of fascia, gravel
stop and edge flashing.
2.3.Cold Roof/Warm Roof
The position in which the insulation layer is placed in relation to the other elements of the roof
defines the type of roof - warm or cold. These names refer to the temperature of the roof deck
in relation to the interior of the building. The performance of each type is focussed on attempts

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to deal with the water vapour and temperature gradients within the roof, which can allow
condensation to occur.
In cold roof construction, insulation is placed immediately above the ceiling and between the
joists. The void above the insulation must be ventilated to prevent moisture vapour condensing
on the colder timbers. The ventilated cavity above the insulation also prevents the formation of
condensation where there is a sudden change in temperature at this point. The gap above the
insulation should be about 50mm, increasing to about 60mm with a roof spanning over 5m. A
continuous ventilation gap of about 25mm at the eaves is required, increasing to 30mm for
spans over 5m.
• The waterproof membrane is easily accessible for repair and maintenance.
• As the insulation will not be required to take any loads, there is a wider choice of
material available.
• This approach relies upon ventilation removing the moisture which may enter the roof
space
o however in practice the amount of ventilation which is required in order to

ensure that condensation does not occur, is often difficult to provide. Often it is
not easy to ensure cross ventilation, or the need for a cross flow is not
appreciated, and in sheltered areas there will be less air movement.
• A vapour control layer is necessary on the warm side of the insulation to help combat
condensation. In practice it is often difficult to maintain the integrity of a vapour control
layer in the position required by a cold roof design. This is because of the difficulty in
creating adequately vapour-proof joints in the vapour control layer. Also, because the
position of the vapour control layer, it is likely to be punctured by light fittings or other
services running into the roof void.
• Moisture from outside, in the form of vapour, can enter the roof space through the
ventilation gaps, this can lead to problems of condensation in cold weather.
• The likelihood of thermal movement occurring in the deck is increased because it is

directly exposed to the heat of the sun.

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• If condensation occurs in a roof space it may result in fungal decay of the timbers. If
the decking is made of vulnerable material, such as chipboard, then there may be a
loss of integrity even where fungal attack does not occur. Moisture from condensation
in the roof may also stain the ceiling and the upper part of the walls.
• A Waterproofing layer is below the insulation which increases the risk of condensation
and mould.
• This system can increase the thermal efficiency of the roof and eliminates condensation
by moving the 'dew-point' outside of the structure.
A warm roof has the insulation on the outside which means the roof-decking is effectively on
the inside and therefore is kept warm. Warm roofs can be divided into two types - sandwich and
inverted, in both, the temperature of the deck is kept close to the internal temperature. As there
is less likelihood of condensation occurring in the warm roof space, a ventilated void is not
required - indeed ventilation in these roofs could increase the likelihood of condensation
occurring due to the drop in air temperature. A vapour control layer should be incorporated to
minimise moisture movement. Because there should be less chance of condensation occurring in
these roofs, they should be considered as the standard form of roof construction. Indeed it may
be considered sensible to upgrade existing roofs to a warm roof (especially flat roofs). If such an
upgrading procedure is undertaken then it is usually necessary to remove the existing insulation
in order to reduce the risk of the temperature within the roof space reaching dew point.
Types of insulation include foam, Rockwool and mineral fibre.
Sandwich Roofs:
In this type of roof in the insulation is placed above the deck but below the waterproof covering,
i.e it is 'sandwiched' between the deck and the waterproofing.
• The waterproof membrane is accessible for inspection.
• A vapour control layer is required to prevent condensation occurring between the

insulation and the waterproof membrane.

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• Any water from leaks, or water vapour passing through the vapour control layer, may
be trapped in the insulation between the vapour control layer and the waterproof
covering.
• It is possible that thermal movement in the insulation layer could damage the
waterproof membrane. This can be overcome by careful choice of insulation, or by
placing a material which will act as an isolating layer between the insulation and the
membrane.
• The waterproof membrane is exposed to a greater range of temperature, because the

membrane receives no heat from the building interior in cold weather. Similarly, in hot
weather, solar heat cannot be dissipated to the structure because of the insulation
immediately below.
• The insulation must be able to resist the impact of foot traffic in cases where the roof is
intended for regular access.
Inverted Roof:
In this case the insulation is placed above both the deck and the waterproof membrane, i.e. the
waterproof layer is inverted in comparison to its normal position.
This approach has only recently become common in the UK, it is used as a way of upgrading
the thermal insulation of existing buildings by simply placing the insulation on top of the
existing roof.
The insulation is usually in board form and requires the qualities of being reasonably resistant to
impact and/or pressure damage, as well as being able to resist water absorption, frost and UV
light. Drainage disposal is usually designed to have inlets to the downpipe at positions both
above and below the thermal insulation. Although rain should be collected from the uppermost
surface, some will inevitably run down through the gaps between the insulation boards.
• The waterproof membrane will be protected against degradation caused by the rays of
the sun and problems created by exposure to extremes of temperature. It is also less
likely to suffer from punctures inflicted by food traffic etc.
• A separate vapour control layer is not required as the waterproof layer performs a dual
function.
• As the insulation is on the outside of the roof, the whole structure is protected to some
extent against thermal movement, which may in turn mean that the membrane is less
prone to damage.
• Ballast is required in the form of paving slabs or stones to prevent wind dislodging the
insulation, and this adds extra load to the roof.
• Because a substantial covering protects the waterproof membrane, access for

maintenance can be difficult.
• Rainwater has a tendency to drain more slowly and less effectively from this type of
roof.

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• The type of insulation used is limited to materials which will resist frost attack and
retain thermal integrity in water.
• There is a possibility of condensation occurring through rainwater flowing between the

insulation and the waterproof layer, thereby reducing the temperature of the structure
underneath the insulation to below dew point. Whether the temperature is reduced
sufficiently to produce condensation will be related to the thermal characteristics of the
roof deck and the intensity and duration of the cooling effect of the rain. Some newer
designs include insulation below the waterproof layer to counteract this effect.
• There is a possibility of grit being washed beneath the insulation and then damaging the
waterproof layer through a scouring action. A geo-textile sheeting material can be
placed to help prevent this happening.
Below is a warm roof construction that has a water proof membrane laid on the outside of the
insulation. This type of construction allows for the eave space to be utilised in the design. The
eave will create an overhang on a building so that it protects the facades from the weather.

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2.4.Roof Edge Conditions
Parapet Wall
A parapet is a wall-like barrier at the edge of a roof, terrace, balcony, or other structure. Where
extending above a roof, it may simply be the portion of an exterior wall that continues above the
line of the roof surface, or may be a continuation of a vertical feature beneath the roof such as a
fire wall or party wall. Historically, parapets were originally used to defend buildings from
military attack, but today they are primarily used to prevent the spread of fires.
Flat Roof
Bearing on wall - roof edge normally exposed - roof overhang is possible

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Sloping roof
Bearing on wall - roof overhang is possible
2.5.KEYWORDS
1 Pitch Roof Cubierta a dos 32 Repair Reparar

aguas
2 Angle Perfil (angulo) 33 Punctured Perforado
3 Tile Baldosa 34 Roof Void Huevo de
cubierta
4 Shallow Pitch Poca inclinación 35 Thermal Movement Movimiento
(referente a una Termico (debido
cubierta) al efecto de la tª)
5 Drain Drenaje (desagüe) 36 Fungal Decay Descomposicion
por Hongos
6 Perimeter Gutter Canalon perimetral 37 Vulnerable Material
Material vulnerable
7 Taper Estrecharse 38 Chipboard Aglomerado
8 Rigid Insulation Aislamiento rigido 39 Mould Molde
9 Gable Hastiales 40 Dew-point Punto de Rocio
10 Outward Thrust empuje hacia el 41 Inverted Invertida
exterior
11 Asphalt Shingle Teja asfaltica 42 Vapour control Capa de control
layer de vapor
12 Continuous Membrana continua 43 Mineral Fibre Fibra mineral
Membrane
13 Structural Grid Cuadricula 44 Inspection Inspeccion
estructural
14 Exposed Expuesto 45 Leak Gotera

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15 Underside cara inferior 46 Isolating Layer Capa de

aislamiento
16 Detailing of Joints detalles de juntas 47 Pressure damage Daño debido a la
presion
17 Workmanship trabajo 48 Frost Helada, escarcha
18 Concealed Services intalaciones ocultas 49 UV Light Luz Ultravioleta
19 Clear Span luz libre 50 Inlet Entrada (p.ej/ de
instalaciones)
20 Flexibility flexibilidad 51 Downpipe Bajante
21 Triangulated estructura 52 Gap Hueco, espacio
Structure triangulada
22 Engineered planeado y 53 Degrade Degradar, rebajar
diseñado
cuidadosamente
23 Shop-Fabricated Fabricado en tienda 54 Dual Function Funcion dual
24 Girder Viga 55 Dislodge Desplazar,
desprender
(p.ej/una teja)
25 Uplift Forces FUerzas hacia 56 Overhang Voladizo
arriba
26 Roof Deck Plataforma de 57 Parapet Wall Parapeto
cubierta
27 Water Vapour Vapor de agua 58 Spread of Fire Propagacion del
fuego
28 Temperature Gradiente de
Gradient temperatura
29 Condensation Condensacion
30 Ventilation Ventilacion
31 Accessible Accesible

3. ROOF COVERINGS
3.1.Built-up Roofing
Correctly applied built-up roofing over a structurally sound roof structure and deck acts as a
continuous impervious membrane for flat and low slope roofs. Proper adhesion of the roofing
to its base, correct flashing at roof edges, terminations and penetrations, and control of water
vapour in the roofing substrata are essential to the performance of the built-up roof.

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Vapour barriers are required where condensation might occur under the built-up roof within the
insulation chamber. As a guideline vapour barriers are normally required where the average
outdoor January temperature is lower than 4.4˚C or where high relative humidity (over 50%)
conditions within the building are anticipated. Vapour barriers should provide a continuous seal
across the roof plane, including all roof penetrations and terminations, against the source of the
water vapour.
When a vapour barrier is present and the heat flow cycle is primarily upward or when the built-
up roofing is applied over a moisture-prone deck, the roofing may have to be vented to allow
any moisture-laden air to escape to the outside and not collect under the roofing membrane and
cause it to blister and deteriorate.
Underlay
Underlayment for shingle roofs
• Protects the roof sheathing from moisture absorption until the shingles are applied.
• Provides additional protection against wind-driven rain from penetrating onto the roof
sheathing and into the structure
• Protects asphalt shingles from resinous wood sheathing.
Underlayment should have low water vapour resistance to prevent moisture and water vapour
from accumulating between the underlayment and the roof sheathing. Underlayment is
mechanically fastened to the roof sheathing only to hold it in place until the roof shingles are
applied.
Metal drip edges protect the deck edge and allow water to drip free of the roof edge. They
should be erosion resistant metal, and may be omitted on wood shingle roofs when the shingles
themselves form drips by projecting beyond the roof edge.
Eave flashing is recommended in cold climates where ice might form along the eaves and cause
water to back up under the roofing shingles. For normal slope roofs, eave flashing is formed by
an additional course of underlayment extending inside of the interior wall line.

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Asphalt
Asphalt shingles are made of asphalt impregnated felt coated with a layer of coloured
stone or ceramic granules. Although individual shingle units are available, strip shingle
units are usually used.
• Asphalt shingles are produced with a fire resistant layer
• Wind resistant asphalt shingles are available as they are provided with a factory applied,
self-sealing adhesive or integral locking tabs.
• Asphalt shingles are relatively thing, producing slim shadow lines. Thickened butt
edges, cut out and embossed patterns and colour range aid in giving the roof plane
textural interest.

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Slates and Tiles
Slate is an extremely durable, almost permanent, fireproof, low maintenance roofing shingle
whose application is similar to that of wood shingles.
They require a heavier than normal frame or deck to support the added weight and an
underlayment of asphalt saturated felt is normally required over the roof deck with heavier felt
required for thicker slate. The felt is provided with pre-punched holes to receive copper nails.
The colour of slate ranges from black to various grey, green, purple and red hues.
Tile roofing consists of either burnt clay or concrete units, like slats, these roofing tiles are
durable, fire-proof and require little maintenance.
• Requires heavy framing because of the weight of the tile
• The roofing tiles are applied with copper or other non-corrosive nails to solid sheathing
covered with roofing felt
• Underlayment should be doubled under ridges, hips, valleys and other roof breaks.
• Strong textural pattern created - this depends on the shape of the tile used
• The colour of unglazed tiles ranges from yellow-orange to dark red, polychrome and
bright and solid colours are available with glazed tiles. Concrete tiles produce a more
subdued colour.
3.2.Standing Seam/Batten
Sheet metal roofing may be of aluminium, copper, monel, galvanised and stainless steels and
terne metal. (Other alloys may be used) Factors to consider in their use include:
• Corrosion-resistance
• Low rate of expansion and contraction desirable
• Finish, colour and weathering properties

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• Compatibility with other building materials when in direct contact
• Maintenance characteristics
• Weight, Workability and Cost
A sheet metal roof is characterised by a pattern of strong vertical lines and articulated ridges and
edges created by interlocking seams and cleats.
• Major vertical seams above the recommended slope may be either of the standing or
batten type.
• Horizontal and valley seams are flat and usually soldered.
• A nail-able deck is required for fastening of cleats, if non nail-able deck is used, nailing
strips must be provided.
Standing Seam Roofing
This is a very durable roof cover system, as it is puncture resistant and strong enough to
withstand extreme weather conditions.
It uses a sliding concealed clip system which is a weather-tight seam. The panels are very
lightweight which simplifies the installation and maintenance.
Whilst the metal panels are secured, the clips do allow for some movement - allowing for
expansion and contraction during extreme weather changes.
Kalzip produces aluminium standing seam roofing and cladding systems. The standing seam
systems eliminates the potential for wateringress at joints.

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3.3.Corrugated Metal
Corrugated sheet material may be used as structural, self-supporting roofing spanning between
linear support members.
Corrugated sheeting may be of the following materials...
• Aluminium
• Cement Asbestos
• Fibre Glass
• Galvanised Steel
• Plastic
• Wire glass
The support system may consist of beams, rafters, purlins in wood, steel and aluminium.
Corrugated sheet roofing is normally mechanical fastened to the support frame
• The fastening is always made through the upper portion of the corrugation.
• Washers and gaskets are required
• Mastic or other sealants may also be required at side and end laps
• If insulation is required it must be supported by and integrated with the roof structure
• Expansion joints may be required depending on the material choice
• Appearance and colour depend on the material used, and the profile and depth or
corrugations.

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Membrane Roofing:
• Recently developed materials are capable of forming a virtually continuous, single ply,
flexible membrane roof.
• This requires a smooth, dry substrate support: plywood, wood or concrete decking, or
any of several rigid insulation boards.
• Since any surface irregularity would show through the thing surface roofing, any joints
or depressions in the substrate must be filled and levelled and projections levelled.
• This may be applied to almost any slope from horizontal to vertical.
• It may be applied in sheet form, or as a liquid.
3.4.Roof Flashings
Flashing refers to thin continuous pieces of sheet metal or other impervious material installed to
prevent the passage of water into a structure from an angle or joint. Flashing generally operates
on the principle that, for water to penetrate a joint, it must work itself upward against the force
of gravity or in the case of wind-driven rain, it would have to follow a tortuous path during
which the driving force will be dissipated. Exterior building materials can be configured with a
non-continuous profile to defeat water surface tension.
Flashing may be exposed or concealed. Exposed flashing is usually of a sheet metal, such as
aluminium, copper, painted galvanized steel, stainless steel, zinc alloy, terne metal, lead or lead-
coated copper. Metal flashing should be provided with expansion joints on long runs to prevent
deformation of the metal sheets. The selected metal should not stain or be stained by adjacent
materials or react chemically with them.
Flashing concealed within a construction assembly may be of sheet metal or a water proofing
membrane such as bituminous fabric or plastic sheet material, depending on the climate and
structural requirements. Aluminium and lead react chemically with cement mortar. Some
flashing materials can deteriorate with exposure to sunlight.
Roof flashing is placed around discontinuities or objects which protrude from the roof of a
building (such as pipes and chimneys, or the edges of other roofs) to deflect water away from
seams or joints.

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3.5.KEYWORDS
1 Impervious Membrana 22 Slate Pizarra

membrane impermeable
2 Adhesion Adhesion 23 Copper Nails Clavos de cobre
3 Flashing Remate 24 Tile Baldosa
4 Termination Terminacion 25 Standing Seam Junta prominente (o
saliente)
5 Substrata Substrato 26 Batten Liston
6 Relative Humidity Humedad relativa 27 Glazed Tiles Tejas (baldosas)
vidriadas
7 Deteriorate Deteriorar 28 Subdued Color apagado
Colour
8 Shingle Roof Cubierta de tejas 29 Metal Sheet Lamina metálica
tipo tablas
9 Roof Sheathing tablero (proteccioN, 30 Interlock Entrelazar
revestimiento) de
cubierta
10 Mechanical Fasten Amarre o Atado 31 Soldered Soldado
Mecanico
11 Drip Edge Goteron 32 Concealed Oculto
12 Erosion Resistant Metal resistente a la 33 Seam Junta
Metal erosion
13 Projecting Que sobresale 34 Water Ingress Ingreso de agua
14 Eave Flashing Remate de alero 35 Asbestos Asbestos
15 Asphalt shingles Tejas asfalticas 36 Rafters Correas

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16 Felt Fieltro 37 Purlins Vigueta de cubierta

(va de rafter a rafter)
17 Coloured Stone Piedra coloreada 38 Corrugated Corrugado
18 Granules Granulos 39 Sealant Sellante
19 Embossed En relieve 40 Appearance Apariencia
20 Pattern Patron 41 Expansion Juntas de dilatacion
Joints
21 Texture Textura 42 React Reaccionar

4. FLAT ROOFS
Despite the name, a flat roof is normally laid to a shallow pitch because of the need to shed
rainwater. It is usually considered that a flat roof is one with a pitch of 10 degrees or less. In
practical terms this pitch is translated into a fall or slope of between 1:60 and 1:80, depending
on the nature of the weatherproofing material used. Because there is a danger that the desired
fall may not be realised, in practice flat roofs are often designed with a steeper fall of about 1:40
to take account of possible design and or construction errors. A consequence of such errors
might be ponding caused by water collecting in depressions created by deflections in the roof.
Although flat roofs are generally cheaper to build than pitched roofs they often have a shorter
overall life span. This is, in part, because it is generally easier to 'design out' or avoid potential
defects in a pitched roof. It is also related to the more onerous condition that flat roofs are
subjected to, particularly with regard to wind flow patterns, which can exert strong suction
forces at edges and across the surface of the roof, as well as the perhaps more obvious issue of
the efficient shedding of rainwater.
Although it could be suggested that a pitched roof is the most sensible design in a country of
high rainfall, in reality the poor reputation of flat roofs is derived from mistakes or
misunderstandings related to issues of design, specification or construction, often in
combination. Earlier versions of modern flat roofs often suffered from expansion and
contraction of the structure, or the warping of square edged boards used for the roof decking.
These movements often led to damage in the waterproof covering. Later versions, when
insulation became commonplace, were more likely to also suffer from condensation.
In housing, the flat roof has been an alternative to the pitched roof; its popularity has been
mainly due to cheaper initial cost. In some large buildings, particularly with complicated plan
forms, a flat roof may also be the logical solution. Architectural style has also had some
influence. The most overt example of architecture style are the designs inspired by the modern
movement whose influence, whilst strongest in the 1920s and 30s remained influential until the
60s.

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Flat roofs will generally consist of the following elements:
• A waterproof membrane - this is intended to prevent water penetrating the roof

structure and the interior of the building.
• A roof deck - this provides a base for the waterproof membrane and in some designs
the insulation. The deck is usually supported by the primary structure.
• Thermal insulation - This reduces heat loss through the roof.
• Loadbearing or primary structure - this transmits the weight of the roof and any loads
acting on the roof on to the loadbearing walls. It will often be constructed in timber
although there are some examples of concrete or steel structures.
• A sloped roof would use a gutter (shown left) however a flat roof would incorporate the
drainage inside the parapet.
4.1.Timber
The structure of a flat roof is similar to an upper floor (apart from the slope), although the type
of loads applied will be different. Timber joists from the loadbearing structure and, as with floor
joists, their structural stability is provided by their cross-sectional area related to expected
loading, the spacing between joists and the required span. In respect of the loading on the roof,
the joists can be made smaller if access is limited to those operations necessary for maintenance
and repair, although account will have to be taken of the loads imposed by the roof structure
itself, as well as other factors such as snow. If a roof is overloaded 'ponding' can result. This
means that rainwater will not be disposed of as effectively as it should be. Spacing of the joists
is similar to floor joists and must relate to the thickness of the deck which is supported. For
example, an 18mm thick external-grade plywood deck will span 400mm but the plywood must
be increased to 25mm in order to span 600mm without excessive deflection. As with floors,
strutting may be necessary in order to prevent twisting of the joists.
Fixing joists to the external wall
The wall which supports the roof is likely to be in cavity construction and as with floors; there
are alternatives to the way that the joists are fixed at this point. If the wall is continued up to
form a parapet, or the roof abuts a wall of a house, the joists may be built into the wall.
Alternatively, joist hangers can be used.
Where there is no abutting wall or parapet, the joist can be taken across the head of the cavity
and secured by fixing to a timber wall plate. The joists can then be finished flush with the
external face of the wall or may project further and form an overhang. The latter is the preferred
option as it provides protection to the wall below and also makes it easier to provide ventilation
to the roof space where this is necessary.
It is important that the method of fixing the wall plate or joists is adequate in order to ensure
that the roof is restrained against the danger of wind suction and that it provides adequate
lateral stability for the wall. The wall plate is bedded in mortar on top of the inner skin of the
cavity and the timber joists are fixed to the wall plate by nailing. However, simply bedding the

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wall plate in mortar (or nailing it to the top of the wall) is often insufficient to prevent wind
uplift and therefore galvanised holding-down straps should be used. These straps can be
attached to the wall plate or to the joists themselves. Fascia and eaves boards are then fixed in
place. The cavity should be closed at, or about eaves level to prevent excessive moist air from
entering the roof space. This can be carried out in a number of ways including using brickwork
or blockwork, slate or a suitable board material.
4.2.Waterproof Coverings
In part, the poor reputation of flat roofs has been related to the inadequate performance of the
waterproof covering. This was often related to inherent weakness in the materials used in the
past, combined with problems caused by thermal or moisture movement.
Built-up Felt
This is probably the most common material for domestic flat roofs. The word 'felt' is somewhat
inappropriate for modern materials but is still in common use. It is a sheet material which comes
in rolls and is laid on the roof, usually in two of three layers, depending on the material used and
its situation. The felt usually consists of a reinforcement base impregnated with bitumen,
covered both sides with a further layer of bitumen. The function of the base is to help provide
resistance against weathering and ageing, as well as providing strength. Bitumen provides the
waterproofing.
High performance felts have been developed; these have a polyester base and are much stronger
than traditional felts. The bitumen has been improved as well and has resulted in a material
which is more flexible in cold weather and firmer in hot weather. These high performance felts
should prove more durable than the older types and one would expect to see them specified in
most circumstances.
Asphalt
Asphalt is a better waterproofing material and generally more durable. This is due to some
extent to asphalt's inherent qualities but also to the fact that a seamless covering is produced.
However, as with all materials, the performance of an asphalt roof is affected by the quality of
the workmanship and design. Damage is often caused by movement in the structure below the
asphalt, or by the material becoming brittle. This latter problem sometimes occurs with
sandwich-type warm roofs because the asphalt can drop to low temperatures.
Asphalt is usually laid in two coats of about 10mm thickness each and in bays about 2.5-3m
wide. The width of these bays is governed by the method of application, with the operative
being on their hands and knees, spreading the liquid asphalt with a trowel. Joints between the
bays are staggered and new joints are bonded to the old by applying a hot poultice of asphalt,
which warms and softens the existing bay, allowing the two sections to fuse together.
A separating layer is placed beneath the asphalt in order to reduce the potential for damage
being caused to the waterproof layer through movement in the deck. The separating layer is
often made of felt or perhaps fibreglass. The separating layer has to be omitted at upstands to
provide a good key.

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Solar Protection
Exposure to solar radiation can cause problems for built up felt and asphalt roofs because of the
increase in temperature and /or because of possible changes to the nature, and therefore the
durability of the material. Felt and asphalt roofs therefore require some form of solar
protection. The problem of overheating can be particularly acute when dealing with a warm
sandwich roof. The solar protection should be light in colour because this will both reflect the
sunlight better than a black surface and emit absorbed heat more efficiently.
White stone chippings of about 15mm or so diameter are a commonly specified form of solar
protection. They also act as a heat sink which helps to 'flatten out' the rate of heat gain and heat
loss. Heat loss can be a problem because flat roofs lose heat readily through radiation to the
night sky often reducing their temperature to a point significantly below air temperature.
Chippings may be laid loose or bonded on to the roof covering. However there are problems
with both of these approaches. If chippings are bonded, it is difficult to remove them in order to
trace a leak or carry out repairs. If they are laid loose, there may be a tendency for them to drift
towards the drainage outlet, or be moved by winds. If the chippings move, they can cause
blockages as well as leaving parts of the roof covering exposed to further damage by the sun.
Alternatives to chippings include roofing felts with reflective finishes and solar reflective
paints. The latter avoid the dilemma associated with chippings, but have the drawback of
requiring the surface to be repainted periodically.
4.3.Insulation
The position of the insulating layer in relation to the rest of the elements of the roof is an
important design consideration. A number of materials can be used as insulation for flat roofs.
Factors that must be taken into account are...
• The provision of support for the weatherproofing layer.
• The ability to resists pressure from foot traffic.
• Durability
• Moisture resistance
• The amount of moisture and thermal movement likely in the material.
The thermal insulation value of the material will be reduced if the material absorbs water. Water
may reach the insulation because of leaks or condensation. In the case of an inverted roof the
insulation is directly exposed to the rain and the material must therefore be one that does not
retain water.
4.4.Concrete
A concrete roof can be constructed in situ or using pre-cast concrete units. The concrete
structure performs the combined function of loadbearing structure and roof deck. The fall is

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traditionally created by laying a screed of sand and cement (similar to that on a solid ground
floor) which also forms a smooth base for the insulating or waterproof layer above. The fall can
also be produced by the propriety products of a number of manufacturers, for instance, decking
or insulation materials which are produced ready-cut to fall.
4.5.KEYWORDS
1 Shallow Pitch Baja pendiente 22 Mortar Mortero

2 Fall/Slope Pendiente 23 Fascia Cara
3 Weatherproofing Impermeabilizante 24 Bitumen Bitumen
4 Ponding Charcos 25 Polyester Poliester
5 Depressions Depresiones 26 Firm Firme
6 Deflections deflexion 27 Flexible Flexible
(desviacion)
7 Pitched Roof Cubierta a dos 28 Durable Durable
aguas
8 Life Span Duracion de vida 29 Asphalt Asfalto
9 Deflect Flectar 30 Seamless Sin juntas
10 Suction Force Fuerza de succion 31 Brittle Fragil
11 Roof surface Superficie de 32 Fuse Fusible
cubierta
12 Waterproof Membrane Membrana 33 Fiberglass Fibra de
impermeabilizante Vidrio
13 Roof Deck Plataforma de 34 Solar Protection Proteccion
cubierta solar
14 Loadbearing Portante 35 Emit Emitir
15 Plywood Deck Plataforma de 36 Chippings Gravilla,
contrachapado cascajo
16 Twisting Torsion 37 Loose Suelto, flojo
17 Abut Acometer 38 Bonded Unido
(colindar)
18 Joist Hanger viguete (para 39 Reflective Finish Acabado
suspender), percha reflectante
19 Wall Plate Pletina de muro 40 Reflective Paint Pintura
reflectante
20 Flush Alineado 41 Leak Gotera
21 Lateral Stability Estabilidad lateral


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5. CEILING
5.1.Acoustic Ceilings
Suspended
This is a form of secondary ceiling hung below the main structural ceiling that provides a
void/plenum above the ceiling level for services.
A typical dropped ceiling consists of a grid work of metal channels in the shape of an upside-
down 'T' suspended on wires from the overhead structure. The ceiling tiles are placed into this
grid and can be formed from a variety of different materials; including wood, metal, plastic and
mineral fibers.
Light fixtures and HVAC (Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning) air grilles may also be
integrated with the installation.
This system allows fittings to be hidden above the ceiling whilst providing easy access for
maintenance.
Sound Attenuation Batts (SABs) : a form of insulation added above the suspended ceiling
panels to improve sound absorbance in the construction.
5.2.KEYWORDS
1 Secondary Ceiling Techo Ceiling Tile Placa de

secundario techo
2 Void/Plenum Hueco/Plenum Integrated Integrado
3 Services Instalaciones Sound Absorbance Absorcion de
sonido
4 Suspended Suspendido
5 Overhead Por encima

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Unit 15. Windows, Doors and Stairs

Unit Windows, Doors and

15 Stairs

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1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 267
1.1. OPENINGS IN THE BUILDING ENVELOPE AND STRUCTURE ..................................267
2. WINDOWS............................................................................. 270
2.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................270
2.2. MATERIALS .....................................................................................270
2.3. WINDOW DESIGN .............................................................................272
2.4. WINDOW SILLS ................................................................................274
2.5. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................276
3. GLASS .................................................................................. 276
3.1. GLASS ..........................................................................................276
3.2. INCREASING THE THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF WINDOWS.................................277
3.3. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................282
4. DOORS ................................................................................. 282
4.1. DESIGN .........................................................................................283
4.2. DOOR FRAMES .................................................................................285
4.3. FIRE DOORS....................................................................................286
4.4. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................287
5. STAIRS ................................................................................. 287
5.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................287
5.2. DIMENSIONS OF STAIRS ......................................................................289
5.3. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................290
6. WORKING DRAWINGS ............................................................. 291
7. AIRTIGHT - PASSIVHAUS ......................................................... 294
7.1. REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................294
7.2. CONSTRUCTION COSTS........................................................................295

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.Openings in the building envelope and structure
Glazed openings constitute a thermal discontinuity point in a building's envelope. The openings'
functioning as a burden or as an asset depends on design and the performance of the opening
and its closure. It is recommended that many openings be used on the southern facade and only
those openings be used on the northern facade which are absolutely essential. It is also advisable
to avoid openings on the eastern and western facades. Energy transfer by openings via
conduction and convection is usually a detriment and, therefore, it should be limited. Energy
transfer through radiation could be utilized in the winter for heating by solar radiation.
The openings in a building are a break in its external thermal envelope: inward and outward
transfer of energy is quicker through the openings than through the opaque envelope itself (even
if the latter is not adequately insulated), and occurs via convection, conduction and radiation.
The opening in a building's envelope could be its weak point energetically, if not correctly
designed. However, it could also be beneficial when designed and detailed appropriately. The
following is an energy analysis of glazed openings.
As an energy weak point, the opening could cause:
• In winter-loss of energy from the interior outwards by conduction (through the window
material), convection (through cracks in connecting points between the wall and
window) and radiation (through the glazing). Therefore, the building cools off and it
becomes necessary to invest energy in heating.
• In summer-addition of energy from the outside inwards (with the same methods as in
winter, but in the opposite direction). Therefore, the building heats up and it becomes
necessary to cool it.
The energy benefits to be obtained from the openings:
• In winter-with proper design it is often possible (depending on the climatic conditions)

to achieve a positive energy balance with the window. In other words, in such cases the
quantity of energy the building would lose through the window will be smaller than the
quantity of energy gained from solar radiation. This is particularly true of southern
windows.
• In summer-a window permits natural ventilation at night and cooling of the building in
preparation for the next day.
Building openings fulfil the following functions:
• Introducing daylight
• Infiltration of fresh air ventilation
• Visual contact with the outside
• Passage in and out (in the case of entry doors and other doors with access to private
yards, etc.)

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• Solar heating
Contents:
1. Introduction -
1.1 Openings in the building envelope and structure.
2. Windows
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Materials
-Wood
-Aluminium
-Plastic
2.3 Window Design
-Casement
-Sash
-Pivot
2.4 Window Sills
-sub-sills
2.5 KEYWORDS
3. Glass
3.1 Increased Thermal Performance
-Multiple Glazing
-Spectrally Selective
-Low E Glass
-Gas Filled Cavity
-Secondary Glazing
3.2 Low Iron Glass
3.3 Reflective Coatings and Tinted Glass
3.4 KEYWORDS

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4. Doors
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Door Design
4.3 Door Frames
4.4 Fire Doors
5. Stairs
5.1 Introduction
6. Detailing and Working Drawings
6.1 Working Drawings
-Doors
-Windows
-Sliding Doors
-Stairs
6.2 KEYWORDS
7. Airtight – Passivhaus
7.1 Requirements
7.2 Construction costs

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2. WINDOWS
2.1.Introduction
Windows allow daylight into a house. They are also usually the main controllable source of
natural ventilation. There is, surprisingly, no mention in current Building Regulations
regarding the need for natural light in houses, although it is implicit in other building related
legislation. The Building Regulations do seek to ensure minimum standards of ventilation. In
habitable room such as bedrooms and living rooms this is usually achieved by opening part of
the window. In addition, trickle or slot vents should be provided to ensure 'background'
ventilation. In bathrooms and kitchensmechanical ventilation should be used. Specific details
are contained in the building regulations.
Windows should be...
• reasonably strong and secure
• reasonably waterproof and airtight
• able to provide a resistance to the passage of heat
• durable and maintenance free
• able to provide reasonable sound insulation
It should be noted that the security aspects of windows should not be allowed to compromise
the ability to use them as a means of escape in case of fire. Whether or not a particular window
performs these requirements will depend on its design and construction, as well as the material
from which it is constructed.
2.2.Materials
In modern houses window frames are generally made from wood, aluminium or plastic. In the
past, steel was used. However, these suffered from rust and even the extra protection given by
galvanising processes did little to reverse a decline in popularity.
Wood
This can be considered the traditional material for windows; durability depends on the quality of
the wood and the method of forming joints and many softwood windows have suffered from
wet rot due to deficiencies in these aspects. Advances in paint technology, with the introduction
of micro-porous paints, should improve durability. In theory micro-porous paints allow the
wood to 'breathe' and therefore let moisture out rather than trapping it in the wood. Windows
can also be made of hardwood which is generally more durable than softwood, but also more
expensive.
Although wood requires periodic maintenance it has the advantage of being a good thermal
insulator, particularly when compared to metals. This means that condensation is unlikely to
occur on the inside of the frame due to its relatively high temperature. The vast majority of
wooden windows are 'off the shelf' items available in a wide range of sizes and designs.

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Aluminium
Aluminium windows have been used since the 1930s, although they did not become popular
until the 1960s. Aluminium is a relatively light material and its durability can be increased by
the use of a variety of treatments, such as anodising, which is a protective oxide coating.
Aluminium windows are not very strong and for this reason they are sometimes fitted to a
timber sub-frame.
Aluminium is a very light and malleable material, allowing it to be flexibly shaped. However,
once settled and formed, aluminium becomes very hard and stable over the years. Aluminium
frames maintain their shape, thus, keeping the interior space free from air and water drips from
windows.
The only downside of aluminium windows is their capacity to conduct heat at very high rates,
thus, allowing faster heat loss and condensation. To avoid this, some use coating or anodizing,
preventing electro-galvanic deterioration and corrosion. Placing plastic strips in between the
interior and exterior of the frame can also help as these strips will insulate and help in thermal
resistance. Actually, many find aluminium windows more affordable than the other types of
window frame material. It serves as a low-cost alternative to the vinyl and wood types.
Aluminium frames are very strong, they resist cracking, swelling, splitting, shrinking, and even
rust, thus, protecting it from very strong winds and stormy weather. Another benefit of
aluminium frames is that they increase window space and design flexibility.
Modern aluminium window frames are typically separated by a thermal break made of a
polyamide. This greatly increases thermal resistance, while retaining virtually all of the
structural strength.

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Plastic
Early plastic windows were bulky and had to be reinforced by a metal or timber structure.
Newer ones are much lighter and the smaller sizes do not require reinforcement. Plastic
windows are relatively good thermal insulators. They also have the advantage of being self-
finished and therefore require little maintenance. However, the repair costs of plastic windows
following say, a forced entry failure or failure of the window furniture, can be significant.
Additionally overall predicted life expectancy figures are being challenged. There are also more
general environmental concerns about the use of plastic. The majority of plastic and aluminium
windows are 'made to measure'.
PVC and PVC-U are the most common types of plastic used for window framing. PVC's major
benefit is its compatibility with many different kinds of additives, making it a highly versatile
polymer. PVC can be plasticised to make it flexible for use in flooring and medical products.
Rigid PVC, also known as PVC-U (The U stands for "unplasticised") is used extensively in
building applications such as window frames and cladding.
2.3.Window Design
The basic modern window designs; casement, sash and pivot are shown below. They are
defined by the operation of the opening element of the windows. The choice of window type is
affected by a combination of visual and functional considerations. The choice of size and type
of glazed are and opening lights should take into account the exposure of the window.
Casement
This is the most common type in modern housing because it is generally the simplest and
cheapest. Casements are available in a wide range of patterns. Timber casement windows which
are to be painted are generally built into the opening as work proceeds, using fixing cramps as
shown in the diagram below. Windows which are self-finished or are designed to receive a stain
are usually fixed by plugging and screwing after the brickwork is complete. This is to minimise
damage to the window during the building operation. To ensure the opening is of the right size,
'dummy' frames can be made out of timber and these are discarded when the window is fixed.
The design of casement windows has changed over the last 80 years or so, older versions were
often single rebated, whilst in the newer versions there is an additional rebate to improve

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weather protection. Most manufacturers include 'high performance windows' in their range of
products. These are usually made from better timber and offer improved weather protection and
security.
Traditionally glass was fixed by securing it in position by prigs; small nails without head. Putty
hides the nails and provides improved security and weather protection. In some modern
windows the glass is secured by glazing beads. This is because it has become fashionable to
stain window frames rather than paint them and putty cannot be stained. Whichever way the
glazing is fixed, an allowance must be made for the thermal expansion of glass.

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Sash Window
This is the type most commonly found in Georgian and Victorian houses. Traditionally the two
sashes open and close via a series of sash cords, pulley wheels and weights. In modern sash
windows spring balances carry out this operation. Vertical sliding sashes are traditional
although some modern windows, particularly aluminium, are available with horizontal sashes.
Pivot
These became popular in the 1960s, particularly in high-rise flats. The pivot can be horizontal or
vertical and depending on the particular design, they can provide a good solution to the
continual problem of access for cleaning.
2.4.Window Sills
A sill is necessary at the bottom of the window to ensure that water is removed from the base of
the window. A throating or drip, ensure that the water does not run back under the window sill

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and penetrate the brickwork. The weight of the water accumulating in the drip overcomes its
surface tension and the water falls away from the sill.
Sub Sills
If a window is set back in the window reveal, a sub sill bay be necessary, as a single sill may
not protrude far enough in relation to the wall face. Some windows are manufactured without
any sill and therefore always require some form of sub-sill.

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2.5.Keywords
1 Daylight luz del dia 21 Condensation Condensacion

2 Natural Ventilation Ventilacion natural 22 Corrosion Corrosion
3 Legislation Legislacion 23 Thermal Break Roturatermica
4 Habitable Room Cuarto Habitable 24 Bulky Voluminoso
5 Bedroom Dormitorio 25 Reinforced Reforzado
6 Living Room Salon 26 Thermal Aislamientotermico
Insulation
7 Bathroom Cuarto de Bano 27 Self-Finished Auto-acabado
8 Kitchen Cocina 28 Maintenance Mantenimiento
9 Mechanical Ventilacionmecanica 29 Operation Operacion
Ventilation
10 Secure Seguro 30 Visual Visual
11 Durable Durable 31 Functional Funcional
12 Rust Oxido 32 Exposure Exposicion
13 Galvanised Galvanizado 33 Paint Pintar
14 Aluminium Aluminio 34 Stain Mancha
15 Anodising Anodizado 35 Thermal Expansion termica
Expansion
16 Coating Revestimiento, 36 Sill Alfeizar
proteccion, film
17 Sub-Frame Subestructura 37 Window Reveal La esquina de la
ventana (el retorno)
18 Malleable Maleable
19 Water Drips Goterón
20 Heat Calor
3. GLASS
3.1.Glass
Today, most glass is produced by the float method. This involves floating glass from the
furnace on top of a basin of molten metal. The result is a smooth, flat surface with few
distortions. Glass can be clear or, by adding texture or pattern, it can be made translucent for
use in, for instance, bathroom windows.

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Glass can also be:
• Wired - where a mesh is embedded so that when damaged the glass tends to remain in
position. This glass can be used in fire doors.
• Toughened - where ordinary glass is subjected to a heating and cooling process which
produces a material with a relatively high level of resistance to impact. If broken it wall
fall into small pieces and it cannot therefore be cut to size.
• Laminated - as the name suggest two or more panes of glass are bonded together with a
layer of another material, usually plastic, between them. Laminated glass may be used
as safety glass, generally for specific purposes, for example where bullet resistant glass
is required.
Plastics
A number of plastic materials, such as acetates and polycarbonates, are available. They tend to
be used for glazing in outbuildings such as garages or sheds because they are usually less
translucent than glass; also some of the cheaper plastics discolour and become brittle with age.
3.2.Increasing the Thermal Performance of Windows
The energy performance of windows can be improved by attention to the glazing, and to a
lesser extent, the frame. Increasing the number of panes in a window can increase thermal
performance and reduce sound transmission. Unfortunately, the optimum space between the
panes is different for each of these requirements. For improved thermal insulation the space
between the panes should be about 15-20mm and for improved sound insulation the space
should be about 100mm.
Multiple Glazing
Glass in the thickness used in windows, is a good conductor of heat. Multiple glazing improves
the energy performance of a window by trapping air in the space between the multiple panes of
glass. Multiple layers of glass interrupt the conduction path and the rate of heat flow is reduced.
The gap between the glazing layers must be large enough to prevent conduction occurring
across a narrow air gap but not wide enough for convection current to be set up. If convection
currents are set up then the increased heat loss can offset the decreased losses in conduction. If
the gap is more than about 25mm, transfer of heat by convection can become significant. The
optimum size is generally agreed to be about 16mm. In energy terms it is generally held that
reducing the gap down to 12mm will not adversely affect performance but in the recent past
some 'off the shelf' double glazing units have been available with a 6mm gap. A 6mm space in
double glazing will give a U-value about 10% higher than a 12mm gap.

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Single Glazing:
Single glazed windows have a low internal surface temperature, often below dew point. In
addition air flowing down over the glass creates cold draughts which is why radiators are
normally positioned under windows. This often increases the capital cost of heating installations
and may require special radiators where sill levels are low.

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Double Glazing: (standard)
Further improvements can be made by using a low emissivity coating on the outer face of the
inner pane or by filling the glass cavity with argon gas. A 12mm gap is now common but a
16mm gap will improve energy efficiency (U-value 2.7) and sound insulation.
Triple Glazing:
Most triple glazed systems are manufactured abroad. They provide insulation similar to double
glazing with argon fill and low emissivity coatings.
Multiple glazing can produce both a direct and an indirect thermal benefit. The direct benefit is
the reduction in the amount of heat loss through the window. The indirect benefit is an increase
in thermal comfort. The increase in thermal comfort occurs because the inner surface of the
glass is at a higher temperature than it would be for single glazing. This higher temperature has
two effects:
• There is a reduction in down draughts
• There is less radiation heat loss from the person to the surface of the glazing.
Draughts are caused near windows because the inside face of single glazing is relatively cold
and as warm air hits this surface it is cooled and drops. This movement causes a draught.
Draughts have an effect on a person's 'comfort perception' and therefore on energy demand. In
other words, a draught can cause a perceived lowering of temperature greater that the actual
reduction in air temperature.
An additional benefit of multiple glazing may be derived from the savings in the installation
costs of radiators. Radiators are placed under windows to mitigate the effects of cold down
draughts. This restraint on positioning is often costly because of awkward and extended pipe

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runs and the need to get specially sized radiators to fit below different heights of window sill.
Where downdraughts are reduced because of the higher internal temperature of the window the
radiator can be placed elsewhere. Additionally, heat losses for the room are likely to be reduced
by placing the radiator on, say, an internal wall. In reality factors such as window configuration,
ventilation provision in the window etc. will affect the situation. (It will also be affected by the
curtains; not only their insulative value, but whether they influence the mixing of cold and
warm air by, for example, the way they fall above, behind, or in front of the radiator).
*Multiple glazing improves thermal comfort as the inner surface temperature is higher. There is
less of a downdraught and less radiant heat loss from the body.
*Multiple glazing also reduces heat loss from the room so reducing energy costs and adding to
improvements in thermal comfort. There is also a saving in the capital costs of the heating
installation.
The higher surface temperature should also lead to a reduction in the incidence of condensation
on the glazing. Early double glazed windows were often poorly constructed and many seemed
to increase rather than reduce the incidence of condensation. This was usually for two reasons:
• The spacer between the two sheets of glass was not insulated and therefore formed a
cold bridge
• Where they were replacement windows the new tight fitting windows often replaced
older, ill-fitting ones, therefore reducing 'accidental' ventilation.
Introducing more panes of glass, as with triple or quadruple glazing, produces a larger
insulating buffer between outside and inside and divides the space up to reduce convective
heat losses. The disadvantage of triple glazing is the weight and bulkiness of the window unit.
Multiple glazed units reduce heat loss through conduction. The other routes of heat loss,
radiation and convection can also be reduced by:
• loss emissivity glass
• replacing the air gap with gas
Low Emissivity Glass
Low emissivity refers to a coating treatment to glass which can reflect heat back into the room.
They are sometimes referred to as 'selective coatings' as they allow short wave radiation to
pass through but restrict the passage of long wave radiation. In the case of windows this means
that solar energy can pass from the outside through the glazing and contribute to heating the
room but heat energy from the interior will be reflected back into the room.
The coatings are usually applied to the outer surface of the inner pane of glass in a double
glazing unit. Putting it in this position protects the coating while ensuring that the heat is
reflected back into the room.
Gas
Coatings will reduce radiative heat transfer but performance of the window can also be
increased by introducing a gas which is heavier than air into the gap between the panes of glass.

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These inert gases reduce the amount of convection occurring within the gap so reducing the
transmission of heat from the inner to the outer pane. The most commonly used gas is argon.
A double glazed window with a 'low E' coating and argon will have a slightly better U-value
than triple glazing and the window unit will be lighter and less bulky.
The actual U-value of glazing will vary with exposure but approximate relative values can be
seen from the table below.
Window Type U-value

Single Glazing 4.7
Double Glazing 6mm Gap 3.3
Double Glazing 12mm Gap 3.0
Double Glazing 12mm Gap and Argon 2.9
Double Glazing 12mm Gap and Low-E 2.4
Triple Glazing 2.4
Double Glazing 12mm Gap and Low-E 2.2
and Argon
Secondary Glazing
An alternative to double glazing is to introduce secondary glazing. This is a relatively cheap

option but is less thermally efficient than (well designed) double glazing because the air gap
will usually be greater than the optimum of 15-20mm. However, the wider gap that is usual with
secondary glazing will be more efficient than double glazing as an insulator against sound. The
secondary glazing unit should be draught stripped but the outer window should not. This is
necessary to allow for the ventilation of moist air - otherwise condensation may occur.
Secondary glazing should not be allowed to compromise the window's possible function as a
means of escape in case of fire.
Energy Performance of Window Frame
It is important to consider the window frame, particularly as it can account for up to 30% of the
area of the window opening. The type of material used, its design, the number of openings and
its weather sealing ability will influence the thermal performance of a window frame.
Infiltration losses through a poorly designed window are an important consideration as are
conduction losses through the frame. In the case of conduction losses, timber is a relatively
good performer as are the newer plastic windows (the frames of timber windows have a U-value
of about 2.5, as do some plastic ones). Older plastic windows were constructed around metal
sections which produce a cold bridge, but now they can be produced using more rigid plastic
materials, which eliminate the bridge. Also, the newer, more rigid plastic frames can reduce the
window frame area to about 7%, which again reduces conductive heat loss and allows for
greater solar geat gain. Aluminium windows are good conductors of heat although their thermal
performance has been improved over recent years by the incorporation of thermal breaks. It is
important if using aluminium windows to ensure that a thermal break is incorporated because if

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the spacer is aluminium, rather than an insulating material, thermal transmittance through the
frame will increase significantly.
3.3.Keywords
1 Floating Flotado 20 Outer Face Cara exterior

2 Furnace Caldera, horno 21 Inner Pane Lamina de vidrio
interior
3 Molten Metal Metal fundido 22 Argon Gas Gas argon
4 Distortions Deformacion 23 Triple Glazing Triple acristalamiento
5 Translucent Traslucido 24 Mitigate Mitigar
6 Wired Glass Vidrio con alambre 25 Down Draughts Corrientes haciaabajo
7 Mesh Malla 26 Pipe Runs Tuberias
8 Embed Incrustrar, Enterrar 27 Curtain Cortina
9 Toughened Glass VidrioTemplado 28 Spacer Separador
10 Laminated Glass VidrioLaminado 29 Cold Bridge Puente (Termico) frío
11 Discolour Descolorear 30 Insulating Zona de
Buffer amortiguacion
(aislante)
12 Brittle Quebradizo 31 Reflect Heat Calorreflejado
13 Energy Rendimientode 32 Selective Film selectivo
Performance Energia Coating
14 Pane Lamina de vidrio 33 U-Value Transmitancia
Termica
15 Heat Flow Flujo de calor 34 Moist Air Airehumedo
16 Convection Current Corrienteconvectiva 35 Means of Recorrido de escape
Escape
17 Draught Corriente (de Aire) 36 Infiltration Infiltracion
18 Radiator Radiador
19 Low Emissivity Baja emisividad
4. DOORS
Doors should have some or all of the following characteristics, depending on their function and
position in a building;
• strength and stability

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• weather tight (in the case of external doors)
• security
• privacy
• thermal insulation
• sound insulation
• fire resistance
Materials
The main material for doors in houses is wood, although aluminium and plastic ones are
becoming increasingly popular.
4.1.Design
Panelled
In this type of door the basic structure is exposed and is infilled with panels of timber or glass.
They are, perhaps the most enduring design for both internal and external doors. There are a
number of variations in style, usually arising from the number of panels. These doors are
generally quite expensive particularly if made from hardwood. Cheaper doors of similar pattern
can be made from compressed fibre but these are only suitable for internal use.
Flush
This is a door in which the basic structure is concealed under a flat face. They are available in
various qualities and finishes.

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The core of the door can be...
• Cellular core made form lightweight materials such as fibreboard, expanded cellular
paper on paper coils. These are light and flimsy - suitable for internal doors only.
• Semi-solid made from small timbers occupying 30-60% of door area.
• Solid core made from laminated strips of timber, high density chipboard or compressed
fibre.
Framed, Ledged and Braced
These doors comprise vertical tongued-and-grooved boards fixed to a simple frame, which is
braced to prevent sagging. They are usually found externally and are most commonly used for
outbuildings such as sheds and garages.
Door Linings
Internal doors are supposed on hinges fixed to timber door linings. The lining is fixed to the
partition by nailing or screwing and its width is determined by the thickness of the wall and
wall finish combined. A cover strip known as an architrave is fixed over the joint between the
wall and the lining.

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4.2.Door Frames
These generally support external doors and are usually built into the brickwork as work
proceeds using stainless of galvanised steel cramps similar to those used for windows. Unlike
linings, door frames do not have planted stops. To prevent rain getting under an external door
the bottom of the frame is provided with a specially designed threshold. These are usually
made from hardwood and are an integral part of the frame.
The stop is not 'planted' but formed by rebating the frame itself. This provides better security
and better weather protection. In extreme exposures the frame may be taken back further into
the reveal and may be fixed into a rebate in the wall structure.
Sealants can be used to prevent water penetrating any gap between a door frame and the
surrounding brickwork. These are not generally necessary in cavity construction unless
exposure is severe. If a sealant is used it should be of adequate size to remain intact as the joint
between the brickwork and frame move. The sealant should be capable of adhering to the
brickwork and the frame and should be a well-rounded convex bead at least 10mm wide. If the
gap is more than 5mm wide the sealant should be used in conjunction with a dense foam strip
which controls its depth and ensures that the gunned sealant is forced against the sides of the
joint.

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Cavities are sometimes closed using extruded plastic sections. Here, door detailing is slightly
different.
Wheelchair Access
To ensure that people in wheelchairs have access to houses the Building Regulations normally
require that at least one external door in each dwelling (it could be a patio door) should have a
level threshold. One method of providing this is shown below.
4.3.Fire Doors
Fire doors are used to slow down or limit the spread of fire and the products of combustion in
order to allow escape from a building which is on fire.
Fire Doors must be able to:
• Resist collapse
• Resist penetration of fire or hot gases
• Resist excessive temperatures being transmitted
They are used in flats and also in particular circumstances in individual houses. For example, if
a garage adjoins a house, the connecting door should be a fire door. It should also be self-
closing to ensure it is not accidently left open.

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Fire doors are designated according to the time period they should be able to resist fire, while
maintaining their integrity. Intumescent strips are elements that are usually fitted in grooves
around the door or the door frame. They expand in reaction to the heat of a fire to fill the gap
between door and frame. Combined smoke and intumescent seals are available. Perhaps the
most important point to remember about fire doors is that they are tested and sold in relation to
the precise constructional details of the door, plus the frame, the ironmongery and the
surrounding wall. If any of these are altered the fire integrity of the door may be impaired. Fire
doors are usually flush-faced with specially designed cores.
4.4.Keywords
1 Privacy Privacidad 12 Threshold Umbral

2 Concealed Oculto 13 Rebating Remate
3 Fiberboard Tablero de Fibra 14 Wheelchair Silla de Ruedas
4 Tongue and Machihembrado 15 Level threshold Umbral a nivel
Groove
5 Hinges Bisagras 16 Spread of Fire Expansion del fuego
6 Partition Particion 17 Combustion Combustion
7 Nail Clavo 18 Collapse Derrumbe
8 Screw Atornillar 19 Self-Closing Cerradoautomatico
9 Architrave Arquitrabe 20 Intumescent Bandasintumescentes
strips
10 Brickwork muro de ladrillo
11 Steel Cramps Pletina de acero (para
fijar la ventana al
ladrillo)
5. STAIRS
5.1.Introduction
Good staircase design is very important for the safety of occupants. Modern timber staircases
are usually prefabricated and brought to site for final assembly. A detailed technical
knowledge of their construction is therefore unnecessary, therefore, provided below is a brief
introduction to the staircase components, together with a summary of the relevant Building
Regulations.

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Modern staircases are usually made from softwood and are available in a range of designs. The
simplest is the straight flight. The staircase essentially comprises a series of stair treads
supported by two strings. The staircase is designed to span from floor to floor, usually without
intermediate support.
In common with many other building elements, stairs have their own terminology and the steps
themselves usually comprise a horizontal tread and a vertical riser. The going and rise are not
components but dimensions and the size of these is controlled by the Building Regulations.
The treads and risers are fixed by gluing and wedging them into the strings as shown below.
A simple straight flight is fixed to the floor joists at the top of the flight and to the floor at the
bottom.
The staircase may rise from one floor to the next by more than one flight. To do so requires the
incorporation of landings as shown in the diagrams below. Quarter of half landings can be
supported by adjacent walls or by newel posts extending to the ground floor. Instead of
landings, winders may be used to turn corners. This approach was popular in earlier periods of

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housing, in particular the Georgian period. They are generally not as safe as landings because of
the narrowness of the tread.
5.2.Dimensions of Stairs
Building Regulations and Codes of Practice for the design of stairs attempt to minimise the
hazards of tripping or falling. They also seek to ensure that the stairs are easy to negotiate. This
is done by controlling the dimensions of various parts of the stairs as shown in the diagram
below. In other types of building such as flats, shops and places of assembly (e.g. cinemas) the
rules are more stringent.
The pitch of a private staircase (i.e. a stair that serves one dwelling) is limited to 42degrees and
there also limits on the size of the risers and treads.
To prevent people falling off the staircase it should have a guard rail either side. This can be in
the form of a wall or balustrade.

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If the staircase is less than a metre wide a handrail is needed only on one side. In practice, this
is usually on top of the balustrading except of course where a staircase runs between two walls
and a separate handrail is required. Where the staircase is wider than one metre a handrail is
required on both sides of the stair. The rules for handrails and balustrades only apply to
staircases over 600mm high, i.e. more than three steps.
5.3.Keywords
1 Stair Escalera 9 Intermediate SOporteintermedio

Support
2 Staircase Escalera (el 10 Riser Contrahuella
conjunto)
3 Safety Seguridad 11 Landing Rellano
4 Prefabricated Prefabricado 12 Half Landing Rellanointermedio
5 Assembly Montaje 13 Pitch Grado
6 Flight of Stairs Tramos de 14 Balustrade Barandilla
escaleras
7 Tread Huella 15 Handrail Pasamano
8 Span Luz

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6. WORKING DRAWINGS

291


292

Glass Sliding Door Detail
Typical Timber Door Details


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7. AIRTIGHT - PASSIVHAUS
The term passive house (Passivhaus in German) refers to the rigorous, voluntary, Passivhaus
standard for energy efficiency in a building, reducing its ecological footprint. It results in ultra-
low energy buildings that require little energy for space heating or cooling. The standard is not
confined to residential properties; several office buildings, schools, kindergartens and a
supermarket have also been constructed to the standard. Passive design is not an attachment or
supplement to architectural design, but a design process that is integrated with architectural
design. Although it is mostly applied to new buildings, it has also been used for refurbishments.
Estimates of the number of Passivhaus buildings around the world in late 2008 ranged from
15,000 to 20,000 structures. As of August 2010, there were approximately 25,000 such certified
structures of all types in Europe, while in the United States there were only 13, with a few
dozen more under construction. The vast majority of passive structures have been built in
German-speaking countries and Scandinavia.
While some techniques and technologies were specifically developed for the Passive House
standard, others, such as superinsulation, already existed, and the concept of passive solar
building design dates back to antiquity. There was also other previous experience with low-
energy building standards, notably the German Niedrigenergiehaus (low-energy house)
standard, as well as from buildings constructed to the demanding energy codes of Sweden and
Denmark.
7.1.Requirements
The Passivhaus standard for central Europe requires that the building fulfils the following
requirements:
• The building must be designed to have an annual heating demand as calculated with the
Passivhaus Planning Package of not more than 15 kWh/m² per year (4746 btu/ft² per
year) in heating and 15 kWh/m² per year cooling energy OR to be designed with a peak
heat load of 10W/m²

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• Total primary energy (source energy for electricity and etc.) consumption (primary
energy for heating, hot water and electricity) must not be more than 120 kWh/m² per
year (3.79 × 104 btu/ft² per year)
• The building must not leak more air than 0.6 times the house volume per hour (n50 ≤
0.6 / hour) at 50 Pa (N/m²) as tested by a blower door.
7.2.Construction costs
Design and construction
The Passivhaus uses a combination of low-energy building techniques and

technologies.Achieving the major decrease in heating energy consumption required by the
standard involves a shift in approach to building design and construction. Design is carried out
with the aid of the 'Passivhaus Planning Package' (PHPP) and uses specifically designed
computer simulations.
To achieve the standards, a number of techniques and technologies are used in combination:
Advanced window technology
Typical Passive House windows have to meet the requirements of the Passivhaus standard,
windows are manufactured with exceptionally high R-values (low U-values, typically 0.85 to
0.70 W/(m².K) for the entire window including the frame). These normally combine triple-pane
insulated glazing (with a good solar heat-gain coefficient, low-emissivity coatings, sealed argon
or krypton gas filled inter-pane voids, and 'warm edge' insulating glass spacers) with air-seals
and specially developed thermally broken window frames.
In Central Europe and most of the United States, for unobstructed south-facing Passivhaus
windows, the heat gains from the sun are, on average, greater than the heat losses, even in mid-
winter.
Airtightness
Building envelopes under the Passivhaus standard are required to be extremely airtight
compared to conventional construction. Air barriers, careful sealing of every construction joint
in the building envelope, and sealing of all service penetrations through it are all used to achieve
this.
Airtightness minimizes the amount of warm - or cool - air that can pass through the structure,
enabling the mechanical ventilation system to recover the heat before discharging the air
externally.
Ventilation
Passive methods of natural ventilation by singular or cross ventilation; by a simple opening or

enhanced by the stack effect from smaller ingress - larger egress windows and/or clerestory-
openable skylight use; is obvious when the exterior temperature is acceptable.

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Mechanical heat recovery ventilation systems may also be used,these are employed to maintain
air quality, and to recover sufficient heat to dispense with a conventional central heating system.
Since the building is essentially air-tight, the rate of air change can be optimized and carefully
controlled at about 0.4 air changes per hour. All ventilation ducts are insulated and sealed
against leakage.
Space heating
Passivhaus: In addition to the heat exchanger (centre), a micro-heat pump extracts heat from the
exhaust air (left) and hot water heats the ventilation air (right). The ability to control building
temperature using only the normal volume of ventilation air is fundamental.In addition to using
passive solar gain, Passivhaus buildings make extensive use of their intrinsic heat from internal
sources-such as waste heat from lighting, white goods (major appliances) and other electrical
devices (but not dedicated heaters)-as well as body heat from the people and other animals
inside the building. This is due to the fact that people, on average, emit heat equivalent to 100
watts each of radiated thermal energy.
Instead, Passive houses sometimes have a dual purpose 800 to 1,500 watt heating and/or cooling
element integrated with the supply air duct of the ventilation system, for use during the coldest
days. It is fundamental to the design that all the heat required can be transported by the normal
low air volume required for ventilation. A maximum air temperature of 50 °C (122 °F) is
applied, to prevent any possible smell of scorching from dust that escapes the filters in the
system.
The air-heating element can be heated by a small heat pump, by direct solar thermal energy,
annualized geothermal solar, or simply by a natural gas or oil burner. In some cases a micro-
heat pump is used to extract additional heat from the exhaust ventilation air, using it to heat
either the incoming air or the hot water storage tank. Small wood-burning stoves can also be
used to heat the water tank, although care is required to ensure that the room in which stove is
located does not overheat.

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Unit 16. Service Systems

Unit 16 Service Systems

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298


1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 300
2. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ............................................................... 300
2.1. PLUMBING....................................................................................300
2.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................301
3. WASTEWATER DISPOSAL ......................................................... 305
3.1. DEFINITIONS ................................................................................305
3.2. ORIGIN ........................................................................................305
3.3. SEWAGE DISPOSAL .......................................................................307
3.4. WHY TREAT IT? .............................................................................307
3.5. EFFECTS OF WASTEWATER POLLUTANTS ..........................................307
3.6. WASTEWATER TREATMENT .............................................................308
3.7. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................308
4. ROOF DRAINAGE SYSTEM ........................................................ 308
4.1. DESIGN .......................................................................................308
4.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................310
5. HVAC (HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING) ............ 311
5.1. HEATING......................................................................................311
5.2. VENTILATION ...............................................................................313
5.3. AIR CONDITIONING .......................................................................314
6. ELECTRICAL (LIGHTING AND POWER) ....................................... 316
6.1. DEFINITION .................................................................................316
6.2. ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING DESIGN .................................................316
6.3. LIGHTING CONTROL SYSTEM ..........................................................316
6.4. KEYWORDS (CLICK ON THE WORD AND READ THE DEFINITION OR CHECK IN THE OTHER
DOCUMENT): .............................................................................................318
7. TELECOMMUNICATIONS .......................................................... 321
7.1. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................323

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1. INTRODUCTION
The facilities are all fixed equipment and networks that enable the delivery and operation of
services to help buildings to fulfill the functions for which they were designed.
All buildings have facilities, whether homes, factories, hospitals, etc.., Which in some cases are
specific to the building they serve.
The facilities take, distribute and / or evacuate the building materials, energy or information,
which can serve both the supply and distribution of water or electricity to the distribution of
compressed air, oxygen or forming a telephone network or computer.
TYPES OF FACILITIES
• Hydraulic system (cold and hot water).
• Wastewater disposal (Sanitation or sanitary sewer).
• Roof drainage system.
• HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning).
• Electrical (lighting and power).
• Telecommunications (Networks, Telephones, TV, Audio, Video Surveillance, E tires,

etc.).
2. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
2.1.PLUMBING
It is the system of pipes and drains installed in a building for the distribution of potable drinking
water and the removal of waterborne wastes, and the skilled trade of working with pipes, tubing
and plumbing fixtures in such systems. The plumbing industry is a basic and substantial part of
every developed economy due to the need for clean water, and proper collection and transport of
wastes. The word "plumbing" comes from the Latin plumbum for lead, as pipes were once made
from lead.
Plumbing is usually distinguished from water and sewage systems, in that a plumbing system
serves one building, while water and sewage systems serve a group of buildings or a city.
Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices that can be connected to a building's plumbing
system.
Plumbing was extremely rare until the growth of modern cities in the 19th centuries. At about
the same time public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be
installed. Earlier, the waste disposal system merely consisted of collecting waste and dumping it
on ground or into a river.

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COMPONENTS
In addition to the straight pipe or tubing, many fittings are required in plumbing systems, such
as valves, elbows, tees, and unions. The piping and plumbing fittings and valves articles discuss
these features further.
Plumbing fixtures are designed for the end-users. Some examples of fixtures include water
closets (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks,
drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.
EQUIPMENT
Plumbing equipment, not present in all systems, include, for example, water meters, pumps,
expansion tanks, backflow preventers, filters, UV lights, water softeners, water heaters,
wrenches, heat exchangers, flaring pliers, gauges, and control systems.
Now there is more equipment that is technologically advanced and helps plumbers fix problems
without the usual hassles. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden
leaks or problems, they use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel
cables for trench-less sewer line replacement.
SYSTEMS
The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:
• Potable cold and hot tap water supply
• Plumbing drainage venting
• Septic systems
• Rainwater, surface, and subsurface water drainage
• Fuel gas piping
For their environmental benefit and sizable energy savings hot water heat recycling units are
growing in use throughout the residential building sectors. Further ecological concern has seen
increasing interest in grey-water recovery and treatment systems.
Plumbing may also include hydronics, which involves heating and cooling systems utilizing
water.
2.2.KEYWORDS
Backflow = REFLUJO
A flow of water in the opposite direction to that intended. It includes back siphon age, which is
backflow caused by siphon age.
Building = EDIFICIO

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Any structure (including a floating structure) whether of a permanent character or not, and
whether movable or immovable, connected to the water supplier's mains.
Cavity wall = MURO CON CAMARA DE AIRE
Any wall whether structural or partition that is formed by two up right parts of similar or
dissimilar building materials suitably tied together with a gap formed between them which
maybe(but need not be)filled with insulating material.
Cover = ENVOLTURA
A panel or sheet of rigid material fixed over a chase, duct or access point, of sufficient strength
to withstand surface loadings appropriate to its position.
NOTE
Except where providing access to joints or changes of direction (i.e. at an inspection access
point) a cover may be plastered or screeded over.
Duct = CONDUCTO
An enclosure designed to accommodate water pipes and fitting sand other services, if required,
and constructed so that access to the interior can be obtained either throughout its length or at
specified points by removal of a cover or covers.
Dwelling = VIVIENDA
Premises, buildings or part of a building providing accommodation, including a terraced house,

a semi-detached house, a
detachedhouse,aflatinablockofflats,aunitinablockofmaisonettes,abungalow,a flat within any non-
domestic premises, a maisonette in a block of flats, or any other habitable building and any
caravan, vessel, boat or house boat connected to the water supplier's mains.
Inspection access point = PUNTO ACCESO DE INSPECCIÓN
A position of access to a duct or chase where by the pipe or pipes therein can be inspected by
removing a cover which is fixed by removable fastenings but does not necessitate the removal
of surface plaster, screed or continuous surface decoration.
Removable fastenings = CIERRES DESMONTABLES
Fastenings that can be removed readily and replaced without causing damage including turn
buckles, clips, magnetic or touch latches, coin-operated screws and conventional screws, but do
not include nails, pins or adhesives.
Sleeve = PASAMUROS
An enclosure of tubular or other section of suitable material designed to provide a space through
an obstruction to accommodate a single water pipe and to which access to the interior can be
obtained only from either end of such sleeve.

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Walkway or crawlway = PASADIZO
An enclosure similar to a duct, but of such size

astoprovideaccesstotheinteriorbypersonsthroughdoorsormanholesandwhich will accommodate
water pipes and fittings and other services if required.
Cistern = CISTERNA
Means a fixed container for holding water at atmospheric pressure.
Combined feed and expansion cistern = CISTERNA DE EXPANSIÓN CON

ALIMENTACIÓN COMBINADA
Means a cistern for supplying cold water to a hot water system without a separate expansion
cistern.
Combined temperature and pressure relief valve= VÁLVULA DE ALIVIO DE PRESIÓN

Y TEMPERATURA COMBINADA
Means a valve capable of performing the function of both a temperature relief valve and a
pressure relief valve.
Concealed water fitting = APARATOS DE AGUA OCULTOS
Means a water fitting that:
(a) is installed below ground;
(b) passes through or under any wall, footing or foundation;
(c) is embedded in any wall or solid floor;
(d) is enclosed in any chase or duct;
(e) is in any other position which is inaccessible or renders access difficult.
Contamination = CONTAMINACIÓN
Includes any reduction in chemical or biological quality of water due to raising its temperature
or the introduction of polluting sub-stances.
Distributing pipe = TUBERÍA DE DISTRIBUCIÓN
Means any pipe (other than a warning, overflow or flush pipe) conveying water from a storage
cistern, or from hot water apparatus supplied from a cistern and under pressure from that cistern.
Expansion cistern = CISTERNA DE EXPANSIÓN
Means a cistern connected to a water heating system which accommodates the increase in
volume of that water in the system when the water is heated from cold.
Expansion valve = VÁLVULA DE EXPANSIÓN
Means a pressure-activated valve designed to release expansion water from and unvented water
heating system.

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Overflow pipe = TUBERIA DE DESBORDAMIENTO
Means a pipe from a cistern in which water flows only when the water level in the cistern
exceeds its normal maximum level.
Pressure flushing cistern = CISTERNA DE DESCARGA DE PRESIÓN
Means a WC flushing device that utilizes the pressure of water within the cistern supply pipe to
compress the air and thus increase the pressure of water available for flushing a WC pan.
Pressure relief valve = VÁLVULA DE ALIVIO DE PRESIÓN
Means a pressure-activated valve which opens automatically at a specified pressure to discharge

fluid.
Primary circuit = CIRCUITO PRIMARIO
means an assembly of water fittings in which water circulates between a boiler or other source
of heat and a primary heat exchanger inside a hot water storage vessel.
Secondary circuit = CIRCUITO SECUNDARIO
Means an assembly of water fittings in which water circulates in supply pipes or distributing
pipes to and from a hot water storage vessel.
Secondary system = SISTEMA SECUNDARIO
Means that part of any hot water system comprising the cold feed pipe, any hot water storage
vessel, water heater and flow and return pipe work from which hot water is conveyed to all
points of draw-off.
Servicing valve = VÁLVULA DE SERVICIO
Means a valve for shutting off the flow of water in a pipe connected to a water fitting for the
purpose of maintenance or service.
Spill-over level = NIVEL DE DERRAME
Means the level at which the water in a cistern or sanitary appliance will first spill over if the
inflow of water exceeds the outflow through any outflow pipe and any overflow pipe.
Stop valve = VÁLVULA DE CORTE
Means a valve, other than a servicing valve, for shutting off the flow of water in a pipe.
Supply pipe = TUBERIA DE SUMINISTRO
Means so much of any pipe as is not vested in the water undertaker.
Temperature relief valve = VÁLVULA DE ALIVIO DE TEMPERATURA (PURGADOR)
Means a valve which opens automatically at a specified temperature to discharge water.

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Terminal fitting = TERMINAL DE CONEXIÓN
Means a water discharge point.
Unvented hot water storage vessel = VASO DE ALMANCEN SIN VENTILAR DE AGUA
CALIENTE
Means a hot water storage vessel that is not provided with a vent pipe but is fitted with safety
devices to control primary flow, prevent backflow, control working pressure and accommodate
expansion.
Vent pipe = TUBO DE VENTILACIÓN
Means a pipe open to the atmosphere which exposes the system to atmospheric pressure at its
boundary.
Warning pipe = TUBO DE ALARMA
Means an overflow pipe whose outlet is located in a position where the discharge of water can
be readily seen.
3. WASTEWATER DISPOSAL
3.1.DEFINITIONS
Wastewater is used water. It includes substances such as human waste, food scraps, oils, soaps
and chemicals. In homes, this includes water from sinks, showers, bathtubs, toilets, washing
machines and dishwashers. Businesses and industries also contribute their share of used water
that must be cleaned. It also includes storm runoff. Although some people assume that the rain
that runs down the street during a storm is fairly clean, it isn't. Harmful substances that wash off
roads, parking lots, and rooftops can harm our rivers and lakes.
Sewage is correctly the subset of wastewater that is contaminated with feces or urine, but is
often used to mean any waste water. "Sewage" includes domestic, municipal, or industrial liquid
waste products disposed of, usually via a pipe or sewer or similar structure, sometimes in a
cesspool emptier.
The physical infrastructure, including pipes, pumps, screens, channels etc. used to convey
sewage from its origin to the point of eventual treatment or disposal is termed sewerage.
3.2.ORIGIN
• Wastewater or sewage can come from (text in brackets indicates likely inclusions or
contaminants):
• Human waste (fæces, used toilet paper or wipes, urine, or other bodily fluids), also
known as blackwater, usually from lavatories;

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• Cesspit leakage;
• Septic tank discharge;
• Sewage treatment plant discharge;
• Washing water (personal, clothes, floors, dishes, etc.), also known as greywater or
sullage;
• Rainfall collected on roofs, yards, hard-standings, etc. (generally clean with traces of
oils and fuel);
• Groundwater infiltrated into sewage;
• Surplus manufactured liquids from domestic sources (drinks, cooking oil, pesticides,
lubricating oil, paint, cleaning liquids, etc.);
• Urban rainfall runoff from roads, carparks, roofs, sidewalks, or pavements (contains
oils, animal fæces, litter, fuel or rubber residues, metals from vehicle exhausts, etc.);
• Seawater ingress (high volumes of salt and micro-biota);
• Direct ingress of river water (high volumes of micro-biota);
• Direct ingress of manmade liquids (illegal disposal of pesticides, used oils, etc.);
• Highway drainage (oil, de-icing agents, rubber residues);
• Storm drains (almost anything, including cars, shopping trolleys, trees, cattle, etc.);
• Blackwater (surface water contaminated by sewage);
• Industrial waste
• industrial site drainage (silt, sand, alkali, oil, chemical residues);
o Industrial cooling waters (biocides, heat, slimes, silt);
o Industrial process waters;
o Organic or bio-degradable waste, including waste from abattoirs, creameries,

and ice cream manufacture;
o Organic or non bio-degradable/difficult-to-treat waste (pharmaceutical or

pesticide manufacturing);
o extreme pH waste (from acid/alkali manufacturing, metal plating);
o Toxic waste (metal plating, cyanide production, pesticide manufacturing, etc.);
o Solid and Emulsions (paper manufacturing, foodstuffs, lubricating and

hydraulic oil manufacturing, etc.);
o agricultural drainage, direct and diffuse.

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3.3.SEWAGE DISPOSAL
In some urban areas, sewage is carried separately in sanitary sewers and runoff from streets is
carried in storm drains. Access to either of these is typically through a manhole. During high
precipitation periods a sanitary sewer overflow can occur, forcing untreated sewage to flow
back into the environment. This can pose a serious threat to public health and the surrounding
environment.
Sewage may drain directly into major watersheds with minimal or no treatment. When
untreated, sewage can have serious impacts on the quality of an environment and on the health
of people. Pathogens can cause a variety of illnesses. Some chemicals pose risks even at very
low concentrations and can remain a threat for long periods of time because of bioaccumulation
in animal or human tissue.
3.4.WHY TREAT IT?
We consider wastewater treatment as a water use because it is so interconnected with the other
uses of water. Much of the water used by homes, industries, and businesses must be treated
before it is released back to the environment.
If the term "wastewater treatment" is confusing to you, you might think of it as "sewage
treatment." Nature has an amazing ability to cope with small amounts of water wastes and
pollution, but it would be overwhelmed if we didn't treat the billions of gallons of wastewater
and sewage produced every day before releasing it back to the environment. Treatment plants
reduce pollutants in wastewater to a level nature can handle.
3.5.EFFECTS OF WASTEWATER POLLUTANTS
If wastewater is not properly treated, then the environment and human health can be negatively
impacted. These impacts can include harm to fish and wildlife populations, oxygen depletion,
beach closures and other restrictions on recreational water use, restrictions on fish and shellfish
harvesting and contamination of drinking water. Environment provides some examples of
pollutants that can be found in wastewater and the potentially harmful effects these substances
can have on ecosystems and human health:
• decaying organic matter and debris can use up the dissolved oxygen in a lake so fish
and other aquatic biota cannot survive;
• excessive nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen (including ammonia), can cause
eutrophication, or over-fertilization of receiving waters, which can be toxic to aquatic
organisms, promote excessive plant growth, reduce available oxygen, harm spawning
grounds, alter habitat and lead to a decline in certain species;
• chlorine compounds and inorganic chloramines can be toxic to aquatic invertebrates,

algae and fish;

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• bacteria, viruses and disease-causing pathogens can pollute beaches and contaminate
shellfish populations, leading to restrictions on human recreation, drinking water
consumption and shellfish consumption;
• metals, such as mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium and arsenic can have acute and
chronic toxic effects on species.
• other substances such as some pharmaceutical and personal care products, primarily
entering the environment in wastewater effluents, may also pose threats to human
health, aquatic life and wildlife.
3.6.WASTEWATER TREATMENT
The major aim of wastewater treatment is to remove as much of the suspended solids as
possible before the remaining water, called effluent, is discharged back to the environment. As
solid material decays, it uses up oxygen, which is needed by the plants and animals living in the
water.
"Primary treatment" removes about 60 percent of suspended solids from wastewater. This
treatment also involves aerating (stirring up) the wastewater, to put oxygen back in. Secondary
treatment removes more than 90 percent of suspended solids.
3.7.KEYWORDS
WASTEWATER Aguas residuales

SEWAGE SYSTEM Sistema de alcantarillado
CESSPIT LEAKAGE Pozo negro de fuga
GREY WATER OR SULLAGE Aguas sucias
BLACKWATER Aguas negras
WATERSHEDS Cuencas hidrográficas
4. ROOF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

4.1.DESIGN
Correct design of a roof drainage system is critical to the waterproofing of a building.
Factors which affect proper roof drainage are deck slope, drain size, and placement of drains.
The full flow capacity of a drain is not realized until the water reaches approximately 2.5" above
the inlet in a four-inch drain and 3.5" in a six-inch drain.

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The sizing of roof drains must be large enough to quickly carry away all water entering the roof
drains. Any blockage or restrictions in the system may result in water backing onto or under the
roof membrane. Horizontal pipe capacity must be checked as part of an adequate design.
When placing roof drains, it is good design practice to locate the drains no more than 50 feet
from the roof perimeter, nor more than 100feet apart. It is important to remember that no roof
area should ever have less than two roof drains. Size and placement of rooftop equipment may
necessitate additional roof drains. Consideration should also be given to local codes whish may
require separate overflow drain systems.
The primary considerations in designing a roof drainage system are:
• The amount of rainfall landing on the roof membrane,
• How long it rains, and
• The speed at which the rain collects at the drain.
The Roof Drain Calculator is based on the maximum amount of rainfall in inches per hour of
the hypothetical "worst storm in the past 100 years" and which has a two percent chance of
occurring in any given year. The number of roof drains shown should be verified with local
code requirements. Remember when making your selections that Roof Drains are available in
3", 4", and 6" diameters and Scupper Drains are available in 2", 3", and 4" diameters.

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Examples of roof drain systems:
4.2.KEYWORDS
RAINFALL INTENSITY Intensidad de lluvias

ROOF CATCHMENT AREA Area de captación del tejado
GUTTER SIZE/CAPACITY Tamaño del canalón / Capacidad
GUTTER FALL Caida del canalón
GUTTER OUTLETS Salida del canalón
DOWNPIPE SIZE, QUANTITY AND Tamaño del bajante, cantidad y emplazamiento
PLACEMENT
OVERFLOW Rebosadero
MATERIAL SELECTION Selección de material
JOINTING Juntas


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5. HVAC (HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING)

The invention of the components of HVAC systems went hand-in-hand with the industrial
revolution, and new methods of modernization, higher efficiency, and system control are
constantly introduced by companies and inventors all over the world. The three central
functions of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning are interrelated, especially with the need
to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality within reasonable installation,
operation, and maintenance costs. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air
infiltration, and maintain pressure relationships between spaces. How air is delivered to, and
removed from spaces is known as room air distribution.
The starting point in carrying out a heat estimate both for cooling and heating will depend on
the ambient and inside conditions specified. However before taking up the heat load calculation,
it is necessary to find fresh air requirements for each area in detail, as pressurization is an
important consideration.
In modern buildings the design, installation, and control systems of these functions are
integrated into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings, contractors normally
"size" and select HVAC systems and equipment. For larger buildings, building services
designers and engineers, such as mechanical, architectural, or building services engineers
analyze, design, and specify the HVAC systems, and specialty mechanical contractors build and
commission them. Building permits and code-compliance inspections of the installations are
normally required for all sizes of building.
The HVAC industry is a worldwide enterprise, with roles including operation and maintenance,
system design and construction, equipment manufacturing and sales, and in education and
research. The HVAC industry was historically regulated by the manufacturers of HVAC
equipment, but Regulating and Standards organizations such as HARDI, ASHRAE, SMACNA,
ACCA, Uniform Mechanical Code, International Mechanical Code, and AMCA have been
established to support the industry and encourage high standards and achievement.
5.1.HEATING
There are many different types of heating systems. Central heating is often used in cold climates
to heat private houses and public buildings. Such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat
pump to heat water, steam, or air in a central location such as a furnace room in a home or a
mechanical room in a large building. The use of water as the heat transfer medium is known as
hydronics. These systems also contain either ductwork for forced air systems or piping to
distribute a heated fluid and radiators to transfer this heat to the air. The term radiator in this
context is misleading since most heat transfer from the heat exchanger is by convection, not
radiation. The radiators may be mounted on walls or buried in the floor to give under-floor heat.
All but the simplest boiler-fed or radiant heating systems have a pump to circulate the water and
ensure an equal supply of heat to all the radiators. The heated water can also be fed through
another (secondary) heat exchanger inside a storage cylinder to provide hot running water.
Forced air systems send heated air through ductwork. During warm weather the same ductwork
can be used for air conditioning. The forced air can also be filtered or passed through air
cleaners.

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Heat can also be provided electrically by resistive heating, in which conductive filaments are
heated by the passage of electricity. This is used in baseboard heaters, portable heaters, and as
backup or supplemental heating for heat pump (or reverse heating) systems.
The heat pump is a form of heating that gained popularity in the 1950's. Heat pumps can extract
heat from the air or suck heat from the ground. Heat pumps work well in moderate climates,
where summers are long and winters are mild. However, they tend to be more expensive than
conventional heating systems and although more energy efficient, a ground extraction system is
more costly.
The heating elements (radiators or vents) should be located in the coldest part of the room,
typically next to the windows, to minimize condensation and offset the convective air current
formed in the room due to the air next to the window becoming negatively buoyant due to the
cold glass. Devices that direct vents away from windows to prevent "wasted" heat defeat this
design intent. Cold air drafts can contribute significantly to subjectively feeling colder than the
average room temperature, and for this reason it is important to control air leaks from outside in
addition to properly designing the heating system.
The invention of central heating is often credited to the ancient Romans, who installed systems
of air ducts called hypocausts in the walls and floors of public baths and private villas.
The use of furnaces, space heaters and boilers as means of indoor heating may result in
incomplete combustion and the emission of carbon monoxide, NOx, formaldehyde, VOC's and
other combustion by-products. Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen;
the inputs are fuels containing various contaminants and the outputs are the harmful by-
products, most dangerously carbon monoxide which is a tasteless and odorless gas that has
serious adverse health effects when inhaled.
Without proper ventilation, carbon monoxide can be extremely dangerous and can vary from a
small, limited amount to a lethal amount. Carbon monoxide can be lethal at high concentration,
usually less than 1000 ppmv. However, at several hundred ppmv, carbon monoxide exposure
can induce headaches, fatigue, nausea and vomiting.
KEYWORDS
BOILER Caldera
FURNACE Horno
HEAT PUMP Bomba de calor
CONVECTION Convección
RADIATION Radiación
CONTROL AIR LEAKS Control de fugas de aire


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5.2.VENTILATION
Ventilation is the process of "changing" or replacing air in any space to control temperature or
remove any combination of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria or carbon
dioxide, and to replenish oxygen. Ventilation includes both the exchange of air with the outside
as well as circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for
maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may
be divided into mechanical/forced and natural types.
MECHANICAL OR FORCED VENTILATION
• "Mechanical" or "forced" ventilation is provided by an air handler and used to control

indoor air quality. Excess humidity, odors, and contaminants can often be controlled via
dilution or replacement with outside air. However, in humid climates much energy is
required to remove excess moisture from ventilation air.
• Kitchens and bathrooms typically have mechanical exhausts to control odors and
sometimes humidity. Factors in the design of such systems include the flow rate (which
is a function of the fan speed and exhaust vent size) and noise level. Direct drive fans
are available for many applications, and can reduce maintenance needs.
• Ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate air within a room for the purpose of reducing
the perceived temperature by increasing evaporation of perspiration on the skin of the
occupants. Because hot air rises, ceiling fans may be used to keep a room warmer in the
winter by circulating the warm stratified air from the ceiling to the floor.
NATURAL VENTILATION
• Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without the use of
fans or other mechanical systems. It can be achieved with openable windows or trickle
vents when the spaces to ventilate are small and the architecture permits. In more
complex systems warm air in the building can be allowed to rise and flow out upper
openings to the outside (stack effect) thus forcing cool outside air to be drawn into the
building naturally through openings in the lower areas. These systems use very little
energy but care must be taken to ensure the occupants' comfort. In warm or humid
months in many climates maintaining thermal comfort solely via natural ventilation
may not be possible so conventional air conditioning systems are used as backups. Air-
side economizers perform the same function as natural ventilation, but use mechanical
systems' fans, ducts, dampers, and control systems to introduce and distribute cool
outdoor air when appropriate.
• An important component of natural ventilation is the concept of air changes per hour.
Air changes per hour is a rate used to describe the amount of ventilation moving
through an area with respect to the size of the space. AC/hr is used to determine room
pressure, whether it is positive or negative. Positive pressure occurs when there is more
air being supplied than exhausted and conversely, negative pressure occurs when more
air is being exhausted than supplied. When contaminants are being kept out, positive
pressure is occurring and when things are being kept in, negative pressure is occurring.

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• To establish AC/hr the room volume must be calculated first. Next, identify all supply
and exhaust points in the room, these are where air enters and leaves the space.
Determine the area and cross sectional velocity for each supply or exhaust grill in the
room. Then, calculate the flow rate for each and sum the flows. Finally, use the
calculation: -AC/hr= Q x60/volume
AIRBORNE ILLNESSES
• Natural ventilation is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as
tuberculosis, the common cold, influenza and meningitis. Opening doors, windows and
using ceiling fans are all ways to maximize natural ventilation and reduce the risk of
airborne contagion. Natural requires no maintenance and is not costly.
KEYWORDS
CEILING FANS Ventiladores de techo

TRICKLE VENTS Ventilación fija de ventanas
STACK EFFECT Efecto columna
AIRBORNE ILLNESSES Enfermedades aeroportadas

5.3.AIR CONDITIONING
Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be
removed through radiation, convection, and by heat pump systems through a process called the
refrigeration cycle. Refrigeration conduction media such as water, air, ice, and chemicals are
referred to as refrigerants.
An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling, ventilation, and
humidity control for all or part of a house or building.
The refrigeration cycle uses four essential elements to create a cooling effect. The system
refrigerant starts its cycle in a gaseous state. The compressor pumps the refrigerant gas up to a
high pressure and temperature. From there it enters a heat exchanger (sometimes called a
"condensing coil" or condenser) where it loses energy (heat) to the outside. In the process the
refrigerant condenses into a liquid. The liquid refrigerant is returned indoors to another heat
exchanger ("evaporating coil" or evaporator). A metering device allows the liquid to flow in at a
low pressure at the proper rate. As the liquid refrigerant evaporates it absorbs energy (heat) from
the inside air, returns to the compressor, and repeats the cycle. In the process heat is absorbed
from indoors and transferred outdoors, resulting in cooling of the building.
In variable climates, the system may include a reversing valve that automatically switches from
heating in winter to cooling in summer. By reversing the flow of refrigerant, the heat pump
refrigeration cycle is changed from cooling to heating or vice versa. This allows a residence or
facility to be heated and cooled by a single piece of equipment, by the same means, and with the
same hardware.

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Central, 'all-air' air conditioning systems (or package systems) with a combined outdoor
condenser/evaporator unit are often installed in modern residences, offices, and public
buildings, but are difficult to retrofit (install in a building that was not designed to receive it)
because of the bulky air ducts required to carry the needed air to heat or cool an area. The duct
system must be carefully maintained to prevent the growth of pathogenic bacteria such as
legionella in the ducts.
An alternative to central systems is the use of separate indoor and outdoor coils in split systems.
These systems, although most often seen in residential applications, are gaining popularity in
small commercial buildings. The evaporator coil is connected to a remote condenser unit using
refrigerant piping between an indoor and outdoor unit instead of ducting air directly from the
outdoor unit. Indoor units with directional vents mount onto walls, suspend from ceilings, or fit
into the ceiling. Other indoor units mount inside the ceiling cavity, so that short lengths of duct
handle air from the indoor unit to vents or diffusers around the room or rooms.
Dehumidification in an air conditioning system is provided by the evaporator. Since the

evaporator operates at a temperature below dew point, moisture in the air condenses on the
evaporator coil tubes. This moisture is collected at the bottom of the evaporator in a pan and
removed by piping to a central drain or onto the ground outside. A dehumidifier is an air-
conditioner-like device that controls the humidity of a room or building. It is often employed in
basements which have a higher relative humidity because of their lower temperature (and
propensity for damp floors and walls). In food retailing establishments, large open chiller
cabinets are highly effective at dehumidifying the internal air. Conversely, a humidifier
increases the humidity of a building.
Air-conditioned buildings often have sealed windows, because open windows would work
against an HVAC system intended to maintain constant indoor air conditions.
All modern air conditioning systems, down to small "window" package units, are equipped with
internal air filters. These are generally of a lightweight gauzy material, and must be replaced as
conditions warrant (some models may be washable). For example, a building in a high-dust
environment, or a home with furry pets, will need to have the filters changed more often than
buildings without these dirt loads. Failure to replace these filters as needed will contribute to a
lower heat-exchange rate, resulting in wasted energy, shortened equipment life, and higher
energy bills; low air flow can result in "iced-up" or "iced-over" evaporator coils, which can
completely stop air flow. Additionally, very dirty or plugged filters can cause overheating
during a heating cycle, and can result in damage to the system or even fire.
It is important to keep in mind that because an air conditioner moves heat between the indoor
coil and the outdoor coil, both must be kept just as clean. This means that, in addition to
replacing the air filter at the evaporator coil, it is also necessary to regularly clean the condenser
coil. Failure to keep the condenser clean will eventually result in harm to the compressor,
because the condenser coil is responsible for discharging both the indoor heat (as picked up by
the evaporator) and the heat generated by the electric motor driving the compressor.
Outside, "fresh" air is generally drawn into the system by a vent into the indoor heat exchanger
section, creating positive air pressure. The percentage of return air made up of fresh air can
usually be manipulated by adjusting the opening of this vent.

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KEYWORDS
CONDENSER Condensador
EVAPORATOR Evaporador
DEW POINT Punto de rocío
CHILLER CABINETS Armarios de enfriamiento
LIGHTWEIGHT GAUZY MATERIAL Material ligero tipo gasa

6. ELECTRICAL (LIGHTING AND POWER)

6.1.DEFINITION
Lighting or illumination is the deliberate application of light to achieve some practical or

aesthetic effect. Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources such as lamps and light
fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight. Daylighting (using windows,
skylights, or light shelves) is often used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings.
This can save energy compared with artificial lighting, which represents a major component of
energy consumption in buildings. Without proper design, energy can be wasted by using too
much light, or using out-dated technology. Proper lighting can enhance task performance,
improve the appearance of an area, and have positive psychological effects on occupants. One
of the central dogmas of proper lighting is that a uniform illumination is required in many
applications, such as projection displays, LCD backlights, medical lighting, microscopy, solid-
state lighting, and general lighting.
Indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures, and is a key part of interior design.
Lighting can also be an intrinsic component of landscape projects.
6.2.ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING DESIGN
It is a field within architecture and architectural engineering that concerns itself primarily with
the illumination of buildings. The objective of architectural lighting design is to obtain
sufficient light for the purposes of the building, balancing factors of initial and operating cost,
appearance, and energy efficiency. Lighting designers are often specialists who must understand
the physics of light production and distribution, and the physiology and psychology of light
perception by humans.
Architectural lighting design is generally concerned with the permanent illumination of a

structure. Concert and theatrical lighting have different purposes and practitioners.
6.3.LIGHTING CONTROL SYSTEM
It consists of a device that controls electric lighting and devices, alone or as part of a daylight
harvesting system, for a public, commercial, or residential building or property, or the theater.
Lighting control systems are used for working, aesthetic, and security illumination for interior,

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exterior, and landscape lighting, and theater stage lighting productions. They are often part of
sustainable architecture and lighting design for integrated green building energy conservation
programs.
Lighting control systems, with an embedded processor or industrial computer device, usually
include one or more portable or mounted keypad or touchscreen console interfaces, and can
include mobile phone operation. These control interfaces allow users the ability to remotely
toggle (on-off) power to individual or groups of lights (and ceiling fans and other devices),
operate dimmers, and pre-program space lighting levels.
ADVANTAGES
A major advantage of a lighting control system over conventional individual switching is the
ability to control any light, group of lights, or all lights in a building from a single user interface
device. Any light or device can be controlled from any location. This ability to control multiple
light sources from a user device allows complex "light scenes" to be created. A room may have
multiple scenes available, each one created for different activities in the room. A lighting scene
can create dramatic changes in atmosphere, for a residence or the stage, by a simple button
press. In landscape design, in addition to landscape lighting, fountain pumps, water spa heating,
swimming pool covers, motorized gates, and outdoor fireplace ignition; can be remotely or
automatically controlled.
BENEFITS
Other benefits include reduced energy consumption, and power costs through more efficient
usage, longer bulb life from dimming, and reduced emission carbon footprints. Newer, wireless
lighting control systems provide additional benefits including reduced installation costs and
increased flexibility in where switches and sensors can be placed.
CONTROLLING CATEGORIES
Lighting control systems provide the ability to automatically power a device based on:
• Chronological time (time of day)
• Astronomical time (sunrise/sunset)
• Room or outdoor space occupancy (motion sensors)
• Presence of daylight (lighting costs and energy conservation, and daylight harvesting)
• Events
• Alarm conditions
• Program logic (any combination of events)
Chronological time is a specific time of day as pre-set timers use. Astronomical times includes
sunrise, sunset, a specific day of the week or days in a month or year. Room occupancy might
be determined with motion detectors or RFID tags, and is part of security and energy
conservation programs. Artificial lighting energy use can be reduced by automatically dimming
and/or switching electric lights in response to the level of daylighting, a technology known as

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daylight harvesting. Mobile phone operated controls can turn on a basic group of circulation-
safety fixtures serving exterior-interior locations on approach, or to preheat a "water spa" in
advance of returning. Events might include special fixtures for social occasions and holiday
lighting, or overall brightness for cleaning. Alarm conditions can include doors opening and
motion detected in a protected area, or manual "panic buttons-all lights on" for occupants
sensing a possible intrusion. Program logic can tie all of the above elements together using
constructs such as if-then-else statements and logical operator.
IN PREVIOUS UNITS WE HAVE PROVIDED THE DIRECT TRANSLATION FOR

KEYWORDS, HERE YOUR UNDERSTANDING MUST BE DEVELOPED FURTHER
LOOKING AT THE ENGLISH DEFINITION FOR EACH.
6.4.KEYWORDS (click on the word and read the definition or check in the other
document)
A absorptance
absorption
absorption coefficient
absorption factor
accommodation
adaptation
adaptative color shift
albedo
aliasing
altitude
animation
animation path
antialiasing
aperture
atmospheric transmissivity
B beam angle
beam axis
beam lumens
blinding glare
brightness
bubble
C candela
candela per square foot
candela per square inch
candle
candlepower
chromatic adaptation
clear sky
cloudy sky
color rendering index
color temperature
cone
contrast

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cosine law
cup
cylinder
D dark adaptation
daylight
daylight factor
daylighting
diffuse reflectance
direct glare
direct lighting
direct/indirect lighting
disability glare
discomfort glare
distributed raytracing
E electrical lighting
etendue
exposure
extinction coefficient
F feature animation
field angle
G gamma
gamma correction
general color rendering index
geometry animation
glare
ground light
H hot spot
I illuminance
illumination
image filtering
indirect lighting
intensity see luminous intensity and radiant intensity
inverse square law
irradiance
J jittered sampling
K kelvin
L light
light adaptation
lighting design
lumen
lumen method
luminance
luminance contrast
luminous
luminous emittance
lux
M material
mirror angle
mixture

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modifier
modulation
morphing
N normal vector
O overcast sky
P participating medium
partly cloudy sky
pattern
peak-to-peak contrast
penumbra
perception
photometric brightness
photometry
polar angle
polygon
Q
R radiance
radiometry
radiosity
radiosity method
Rayfront software
raytracing
reflectance
reflected glare
ring
S sensation
sky light
solar altitude
solid angle
specular
sunlight
sunny sky
surface
surface normal
T transient adaptation
transient adaptation factor
transmisison factor
transmissivity
transmittance
tube

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7. TELECOMMUNICATIONS
TELECOMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE IN BUILDINGS
• Standards and Guidelines
• Technical Documentation
• Inquiries
• Associated Documents
An effective telecommunications infrastructure is an essential component of any office building.

It permits a rapid exchange of information between individuals located within the building and
connects them to others anywhere in the world. A typical office building has hundreds of
kilometres of telecommunications cabling that must be correctly installed and properly managed
in order to provide essential communications.
The telecommunications infrastructure in a building consists of two systems:
• Telecommunications Spaces and Pathways (e.g. rooms, cable tray, conduit);
• Telecommunications Cabling Systems linking telecommunications rooms together and

also running from the telecommunications room(s) on each floor (formerly called a
"telecommunication closet") to the work areas or end devices, such as servers.
As the telecommunications spaces and pathways are usually deficient in existing buildings and
are frequently an afterthought in the design of new buildings, specialist expertise should be
involved at the early stages of a project. The design of the telecommunications infrastructure
should follow a holistic approach looking at the building as a single entity and considering
individual departments and agencies as all being part of that single entity.
STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES
Telecommunications standards have been developed by TIA/EIA for these two systems. While
these standards are not required by code, they are to be respected. Treasury Board standard
"TBITS 6.9" makes these standards mandatory for new construction and major renovations.
While the published version of this standard (1997) is out of date, its fundamental principles
remain sound.
TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION
In 2003, Real Property Branch issued three related documents. The first document, "Installation
and Management of Telecommunications Infrastructure - Interim Guidelines" is intended to
provide a consistent approach to the installation and management of telecommunications
infrastructure in Crown-owned and lease-purchase buildings in the custody and control of
PWGSC as well as any leased facility where the leasing agreement permits.
The second document is Real Property Operations Solutions TECHNICAL BULLETIN (2003-
001) "Installation and Management of Telecommunications Infrastructure" provides supporting

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technical information. It supports the need for a holistic approach when designing and
implementing the telecommunications infrastructure in a building. The appendix to this
document contains background information similar to some found in these Web pages.
However, as this document is older, this Web site should be relied upon in case of any
discrepancies.
The third related document is Real Property Operations Solutions TECHNICAL BULLETIN
(2003-002) "Security Implications of the Integrated Telecommunications Infrastructure". It
addresses some issues related to the sharing of the telecommunications infrastructure by
different government departments and agencies as is required if the system is to follow a holistic
approach.
Mechanical Design Guideline MD 15116 - 2006 "Computer Room Air Conditioning Systems"
provides general guidance for the design and operation of mechanical systems for computer
rooms, server rooms, LAN rooms, telecom equipment rooms and data centers. This guideline is
intended for use in new projects as well as for the retrofits of existing buildings.
The new "Fit-up standards" and the Federal Base Building standards (to be published soon)
consider the telecommunications spaces and pathways to be base-building items, and also
require the system of telecommunications spaces and pathways to comply with the above-noted
TIA/EIA standards. Consequently, leasing documents must specify them, at least in buildings
where the Crown has a long-term interest in all the office space.
Asset managers are expected to have undertaken an audit of the telecommunications

infrastructure in buildings for which they are responsible.
MAIN BUILDING TELECOMMUNICATIONS ROOM (MDF/IDF-1/BDF)
The primary function of the main building telecommunications room is to house the necessary
hardware to provide cross connection between the outside plant cables that enter the building
from the campus communication distribution network and the inside backbone cabling. Room
should be sized at a minimum of 100 sf with no dimension less than eight (8) feet; this
minimum space requirement is not negotiable.
The main telecommunications room may also serve as a floor telecommunications room (IDF-
2). If so, then the room should be sized by appropriate UITS Telecommunications personnel on
a case-by-case basis, but with no dimension less than nine (9) feet. If additional equipment, such
as coaxial cable amplifiers and splitters are to be housed in the room, then additional floor and
wall space must be added according to the space requirements of that equipment and associated
cabling and mechanical requirements.
The design must comply with ANSI/TIA/EIA-569 standard regarding the requirements
and recommendations for separation of copper telecommunication cabling from sources
of electromagnetic interference.

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7.1.KEYWORDS
CABLE TRAY Bandeja de cables

CONDUIT Conducto
PATHWAY Camino
LEASE-PURCHASE BUILDING Arrendamiento-compra edificio
RETROFITS Renovar (añadiendo elementos nuevos)
CABLING Cableado
RACKS Bastidores


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Unit 16. Service Systems (KEYWORDS 6.4)

Keywords 6.4

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A absorptance
absorption
absorption coefficient
absorption factor
The dissipation of light (radiation) within a surface or medium, caused by the

conversion of radiant (luminous) energy to a different form of energy, usually heat,
by interaction with matter. The Absorption is the "missing piece", when comparing
the total reflected and transmitted energy with the incident energy.
The ratio of the total absorbed radiant or luminous flux to the incident flux is called
absorptance (formerly also absorption factor).
Standard unit of absorptance is percent (%) or a factor between 0 an 1.
The fraction of light absorbed per unit distance in a participating medium (eg. mist in
the Radiance software) is called absorption coefficient.
Standard unit of the absorption coefficient is fraction per meter (/m)
In the Radiance software, absorptance and absorption coefficient are specified

seperately for red, green and blue.
accommodation
The process by which the eye changes focus from one distance to another.
adaptation
1. The process by which the visual system changes its sensitivity, depending on the
luminances prevailing in the visual field. The system becomes accustomed to
processing higher or lower light levels in its environment than it was exposed to
before. In a quick first step, some change is acheived by increasing or reducing the
iris opening (in photographic terms: the aperture), which directly increases or
reduces the amount of light that can enter the eye. In a second step, the receptive
cells on the retina of the eye change their actual sensitivity. The latter is a slower
process, so that it may take a few minutes until the visual system is fully adjusted to
the new situation.
Since there are several types of receptive cells in the eye, which are sensitive to
different bands in the visible spectrum, the adaptation also manages the "white
balance" of the eye, by chromatic adaptation. If the new lighing situation has a
different color temperature, eg. there is an increased amount of red light light relative
to the total amount of light, then the cells responsible for sensing red light will
reduce their sensitivity relative to the sensitivity of the other cells. As a result, a
white surface will again appear white to the observer after a certain time, allthough it
reflects a proportionally increased amount of red light.
A very obvious example of (quantitative) adaptation can be observed by a person

walking from full sunshine into a building. The environment in the building will

325

appear almost pitch black at first. A few minutes later, the person can again
distinguish details (eg. read text from a piece of paper). But by then, viewing out of
the window will have become uncomfortable, since the proportionally very high
luminance levels outside will cause strong glare.
2. A specific state of eye sensitivity resulting from this process.
adaptative color shift
Adaptive Color Shift is the change in the perceived object color caused by the
change of the state of chromatic adaptation.
albedo
Albedo is another Term for Reflectance.
aliasing
antialiasing
When a line in a digital image runs at an angle, then it will often appear with jagged
edges. This effect is caused by the regular pixel grid in the image, and is called
aliasing.
To avoid this effect, the process of antialiasing paints some nearby pixels in an
intermediate color or brighness. That way, the visuall appearance of the line (or an
edge) is smoothed out.
The problem of aliasing is prevalent in synthetic images created by methods such as

raytracing. Some programs try to circumvent it by sending more than one ray per
pixel (oversampling), and interpolating their result. With the Radiance software, the
same result is reached by rendering an image that is two or three times as big as the
target size with rpict(1), and then filtering this intermediate image down to scale
with pfilt(1). To get even smoother results, the image can also be rendered with
jittered sampling.
altitude
The angle between a vector and the its projected vector onto a plane it intersects.
More general, the angle between the vector and the "horizon" of the plane. This is
the counterpart of the polar angle.
animation
The term animation refers generally to graphical displays that are composed of
synthetical images. A sequence of images with gradual differences results in the
same effect as a photographed movie compared to a static photograph. Computer
generated animations are getting more and more common, replacing hand drawn
images and other special techniques.

326
Unit 16.
1 Service Systems
S (KE
EYWORDS
S 6.4)

animaation path
A scenne from a succcession of different

d view
wpoints
apertture
The reelative size of the lens opening in a camera, expressed

e as an number (with
prepennded "f", eg: f8). The couunterpart to the
t aperture is the shutterr speed, exprressed
in fracctions of a second. If thee numerical product of aperture
a andd shutter speeed are
the saame, then the amount off light entering the lens is the samee. This amo ount is
called the exposure.
B beam
m angle
The Beam
B Angle is
i the angle between
b the two directioons opposed to each other over
the beam axis for which
w the lum
minous inten
nsity is half that
t of the m
maximum lum minous
intensiity.
The luuminous inttensities are measured in i a plane normal

n to thhe nominal beam
centerrline. If the beam
b is not rotationally
r symmetric,
s t
then the beamm angle is usually
u
given in two plannes at 90° of o each otheer, possibly the maximuum and min nimum
angless. Other angles (eg. at 45°°) may also be
b given.
beam
m axis
The direction
d alonng the centeer of the soolid angle (bbeam angle)) within wicch the
luminoous intensityy of a luminnaire is abov
ve a defined threshold (uusually 50% %). For
m axis most often coinciddes with the optical axis..
projecctors with lennses, the beam
beam
m lumens
The Beam
B Lumenns are the tottal luminouss flux that iss emitted within the regiion of
space, where the luminous intensity
i is more than half the maaximum lum minous
intensiity. With moost light souurce, this region can be described
d as a cone shap
ped by
all beaam angles.
Curso de
d Inglés Técn
nico para Prrofesionales d
de la Constru
ucción

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blinding glare
Blinding Glare is glare which is so intense that for an appreciable length of time after
it has been removed, no visual perception is possible.
brightness
The subjective description of luminance.
A perceived characteristics of objects which does not vary directly in a simple

mathematical relationship with their physical or measured brightness, which is
corretly termed their luminance.
The term brightness is often misused to mean luminance. If so, it should be qualified
as "measured" brightness, to distinguish between the absolute attributes ("measured"
brightness) and the perceived attributes ("apparent" of "subjective" brightness) of the
object in question.
bubble
Spheres and bubbles are defined by a center point and a radius. A sphere has the
surface normal to the outside, a bubble to the inside.
C candlepower
The luminous intensity is the luminous flux emitted from a point per unit solid angle
into a particular direction.
The luminous intensity is the official base unit for light. It was defined in 1979 by
the "Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures" (CGPM, the 11th General
Conference on Weights and Measures) as follows:
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 10 hertz and that has a radiant
12
intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
Together with the CIE photometric curve, the luminous intensity provides the
weighting factor needed to convert between radiometric and photometric
measurements.
Standard unit of luminous intensity is Candela (cd),

also expressed as Lumen per Steradian (lm/sr)
There are several older units of luminous intensity:
Candle (deprecated) 1 candle = 1.019 cd

Hefner unit (deprecated) 1 hefner unit = 0.903 candle
Hefner candle (deprecated)
Violle (deprecated) 1 violle = 20.17 cd
(1 violle is the luminous intensity of 1 cm2 of platinum at its
temperature of solidification of 1042 kelvin)

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clear sky
Clear sky has less than 30 % cloud cover, or none. This sky is most likely to be
combined with sun.
cloudy sky
Cloudy sky has more than 70 % cloud cover. This sky normally excludes the sun.
color rendering index
A method for describing the effect of a light source on the color appearance of
objects, compared to a reference source of the same color temperature (CCT). It
serves as a quality distinction between light sources emitting light of the same color
(metamer). The highest CRI attainable is 100. Typical cool white fluorescent lamps
have a CRI of 62. Lamps having rare-earth phosphors are available with a CRI of 80
and above.
In a daylighting context, the color rendering index defines the spectral transmissive
quality of glasses or other transparent materials. In this case, values of 95 or better
are considered acceptable.
color temperature
Color temperature is a simplified way to characterize the spectral properties of a

light source. While in reality the color of light is determined by how much each
point on the spectral curve contributes to its output, the result can still be
summarized on a linear scale.
This value is useful eg. for determining the correct film in photography depending
on the lighting (resp. for determining the white balance in digital photography), and
for specifying the right light source types in architectural lighting design. Note,
however, that light sources of the same color (metamers) can vary widely in the
quality of light emitted. One may have a continuous spectrum, while the other just
emits light in a few narrow bands of the spectrum. A useful way to determine the
quality of a light source is its color rendering index.
Low color temperature implies warmer (more yellow/red) light while high color
temperature implies a colder (more blue) light. Daylight has a rather low color
temperature near dawn, and a higher one during the day. Therefore it can be useful to
install an electrical lighting system that can supply cooler light to supplement
daylight when needed, and fill in with warmer light at night. This also correlates
with human feelings towards the warm colors of light coming from candles or an
open fireplace at night.
Standard unit for color temperature is Kelvin (K).
(The kelvin unit is the basis of all temperature measurement, starting with 0 K (= -

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273.16° C) at the absolute zero temperature. The "size" of one kelvin is the same as
that of one degree Celsius, and is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water, which positions 0° Celsius
at 273.16 K.)
Technically, color temperature refers to the temperature to which one would have to
heat a theoretical "black body" source to produce light of the same visual color.
cone
Cones and cups are megaphone shaped objects, truncated by two planes
perpendicular to their axis. They are defined by two endpoints and a starting and
endigh radius, one of which may be zero. A cone has the surface normal to the
outside, a cup to the inside.
contrast
Contrast (Luminance Contrast) is the relationship between the luminance of a

brighter area of interest and that of an adjacent darker area.
Mathematically, the difference between the two luminances divided by the lower
luminance . This definition is also called Weber Contrast, and is the most
commonly useful one in the context of lighting.
C = (Lmax - Lmin) / Lmin
Simple Contrast values are often used in photography, to specify the difference
between bright and dark parts of the picture. This definition is not useful for real-
world luminances, because of their much higher dynamic range and the logarithmic
response characteristics of the human eye.
Csimple = Lmax / Lmin
cosine law
A lambertian surface is a surface of perfectly matte properties, which means that

it adheres to Lamberts cosine law.
Lamberts cosine law states that the reflected or transmitted luminous intensity
in any direction from an element of a perfectly diffusing surface varies as the cosine
of the angle between that direction and the normal vector of the surface. As a
consequence, the luminance of that surface is the same regardless of the viewing
angle.
cup
Cones and cups are megaphone shaped objects, truncated by two planes
perpendicular to their axis. They are defined by two endpoints and a starting and
endigh radius, one of which may be zero. A cone has the surface normal to the
outside, a cup to the inside.

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cylinder
Cylinders and tubes are similar to cones and cups, but their starting and ending radii
are equal.
D dark adaptation
Dark Adaptation is the special case when the visual system becomes adapted to
luminances of less than about 0.034 cd/m .2
daylight
Daylight encompasses all natural light that is available during the day and
originates from the radiation of the sun in the visible spectrum.
daylight factor
The ratio of interior illuminance at a given point on a given plane (usually the
workplane) to the exterior illuminance (reference) under the same overcast sky
conditions, eg. the CIE overcast sky distribution.
This is one of the key values when analyzing the quantitative aspects of daylighting.
Since the outside illuminance varies a lot with weather conditions (between 8'000
and 25'000 lx), the interior illuminance alone does not provide much useful
information. The acceptability of the amount of daylight reaching an interior space
for a specific task can only be determined in relation to the situation outside.
Very often, lighting designers assume an average outside illuminance of 10'000 lx, in
order to estimate the expected interior illuminance values for comparison with
illuminance from electrical lighting. This conservative assumption is especially
practical for calculation, as every percent of daylight factor will result in 100 lx of
interior illuminance.
There is little use in computing the relation of outside and indide illuminances under
sunny sky conditions.
Unit of daylight factor is percent (%).
daylighting
This means all measures that influence the input and use of natural daylight, be it the
diffuse light off the clear or overcast sky or the directed light of the sun, into built
spaces. Daylighting is influenced by the general structure of a building, the design of
facades, windows and skylights, and can be further extended by the use of special
devices for redirecting or transporting light.
diffuse reflectance
Diffuse reflectance is the ratio of the flux reradiated by diffuse reflection (from a

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lambertian surface).
direct glare
Direct Glare is glare resulting from high luminances in the visual environment that
are directly visible from a viewers position. Examples can be a sunlit surface inside
or outside a building, or an insufficiently shielded luminaire.
direct/indirect lighting
Lighting provided from a source without reflection from other surfaces. In

daylighting, this means that the light has travelled on a straight path from the sky (or
the sun) to the point of interest. In electrical lighting it usually describes an
installation of ceiling mounted or suspended luminaires with mostly downward light
distribution characteristics.
Advantages:
• Very energy effective lighting.
• Plastic display of three dimensional objects, eg. sculptures.
• Well suited for zonal or accent lighting.
• Can create a vivid environment with attractive light and shadow patterns eg.
on wall surfaces.
Disadvantages:
• The ceiling is relatively dark, which can cause a "cave like" environment.
• Luminaires with wide opening angle that are badly positioned can cause
reflected glare on computer screens, dark "executive style" desk surfaces or
glossy paper.
• Harsh shadows can be unflattering when cast on human faces.
• Alternative lighting patterns are indirect lighting and mixed direct/indirect

lighting.
disability glare
Disability Glare is glare which reduces the ability to perceive the visual information
needed for a particular activity. Disability glare is caused by light scattered within
the eye, causing a haze of veiling luminance that decreases contrast and reduces
visibility.
discomfort glare
Discomfort Glare is glare which is distracting or uncomfortable, which interferes

with the perception of visual information required to satisfy biological needs, but

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which does not significantly reduce the ability to see information needed for
activities.
distributed raytracing
Distributed raytracing can simulate scenes of extreme complexity quite effectively,

while for scenes with very high numbers of light sources the radiosity approach
often has some advantages.
E electrical lighting
This is sometimes a misnomer, as it ignores the many cities that are still illuminated
by gas lamps. Generally speaking it covers all measures to illuminate spaces inside
and outside of buildings with the help of technical light sources, either in
combination with or in absence of natural daylight.
etendue
Literally, the french word "etendue" translates to "extent" or "space". In a

radiometric context, it is used to specify the geometric capability of an optical
system to transmit radiation, its throughput.
The numeric value of the etendue is a constant of the system and gets calculated as
the product of the opening size and the solid angle that the system accepts light from.
In most practical situations, it is approximated by integrating over the two factors.
G = ∫∫ dA * Ω
Quite often an engineer will be confronted with the need to optimize the arrangement
of elements within a system in order to maximize the geometric etendue and thus its
throughput.
exposure
The relative amount of light hitting a light sensitive surface, eg. the coating of
photographic film or a digital sensor. This amount is determined by the product of
the aperture and the shutter opening time. In photography, you need to divide by the
f-stop number of the aperture to calculate that product.
The exposure value used for displaying and converting Radiance images is analog
in meaning to the photographic term.
extinction coefficient
The fraction of light lost to scattering and absorbtion per unit distance in a
participating medium. The sum of the absorption coefficient and the scattering
coefficient.
Standard unit of the extinction coefficient is fraction per meter (/m).
The Radiance software treats the extinction coefficient of the red, blue and green
components of the extinction coefficient seperately.

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F feature animation
Feature animation modifies scene attributes (material etc.) dynamically. This can
also be used to let objects in a scene appear or disappear, by manipulating their
transparency. With the Radiance software, this effect can be most easily created by
rendering several variations of a scene, and interpolating the resulting images.
field angle
The Field Angle is the angle between the two directions opposed to each other over
the beam axis for which the luminous intensity is 10% that of the maximum
luminous intensity. Note that in certain fields of applications the field angle was
formerly called beam angle.
G gamma
gamma correction
Most computer and television monitors exhibit a response function that

approximates a simple power law, and the exponent is called the monitor's
gamma (γ). This means that, given a input signal voltage range between 0 and
100% U for a luminance of 0 - 1, if the monitor receives 50% of that voltage for a
specific point, it will display a luminance of L = 0.5*U at that point. Typical
γ
displays have gamma values between 1.5 and 3.0
The correct display of images, whether computer-generated or captured, requires

compensation for the system's gamma response. This gamma correction can be
done by the graphics hardware of by software. Some operating systems allready
apply a partial correction, bringing the effective system gamma eg. to 1.8 or 1.4.
The Radiance software expects the system variable "DISPLAY_GAMMA" to hold

the value of the monitor gamma, so it can apply the appropriate corrections when
displaying images. If no system gamma is given, a value of 2.2 is assumed.
general color rendering index
The general color rendering index Ra is a measure of the average appearance of

eight standardized colors chosen to be of intermediate saturation and spread
throughout the range of hues. If a color rendering index is not qualified as to the
color samples used, Ra is assumed.
geometry animation
Geometry animation is the most complex, and requires changing the geometric
elements of a scene dynamically. This is also what most people generally refer to
when using the term "animation" as it has been demonstrated to wide audiences
throught recent motion pictures like "Terminator", "Jurassic Parc" "Toy Story" and
many others. There is currently no efficient way to create this effect with radiance.

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glare
Glare is an interference with visual perception caused by an uncomfortably bright

light source or reflection; a form of visual noise.
In its simplest form, glare is a consequence of the normally helpful capability of the
human eye to adapt to different light levels. In the case of glare, the eye adapts to
the high level of the glare source, which makes it hard to perceive details in the now
"too dark" work area.
ground light
Ground light is daylight that is reflected by surfaces below the observer

(mathematically: below the plane of the horizon). This term is not very common, and
is only used with this meaning in the context of very accurate lighting simulation
software like Radiance.
H hot spot
An area in an image that has a brightness level much beyond average. This property
is used when filtering images to determine where to simulate lens flare with star
diffraction patterns.
I illuminance
Luminous flux density is photometrically weighted radiant flux density, which

means luminous flux per unit area at a point on a surface where the surface can be
real or imaginary. An imaginary surface can for example be used to measure or
calculate illuminance anywhere in space, maybe to determine the daylight factor on
the workplane.
There are two cases:
• Illuminance (usually 'E' in formulas) is the total amount of visible light

illuminating (incident upon) a point on a surface from all directions above
the surface. This "surface" can be a physical surface or an imaginary plane.
Therefore illuminance is equivalent to irradiance weighted with the
response curve of the human eye.
Standard unit for illuminance is Lux (lx) which is lumens per square meter (lm/m ).
2
There are several older units of illuminance:
footcandle 1 fc = 10.764 lx.

dalx (in canadian 1 dalx = 10.764 lx.
safety regulations)
phot (deprecated) 1 ph = 10'000 lx
Typical illuminance values are:
1 lx full moon

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10 lx street lighting
100-1'000 lx workspace lighting
10'000 lx surgery lighting
100'000 lx plain sunshine
A surface will receive 1 lx of illuminance from a point light source that emits 1 cd of
luminous intensity in its direction from a distance of 1 m.
When using the nonstandard US units, this translates into 1 fc received from a 1 cd
source 1 ft away.
Luminous exitance or is the total amount of visible light leaving a point on a

surface into all directions above the surface. Therefore luminous exitance is
equivalent to radiant exitance weighted with the response curve of the human eye.
Unit for luminous exitance is lumens per square meter (lm/m ). 2
illumination
Illumination is a deprecated term for Illuminance.
image filtering
Digital images can be processed in a variety of ways. The most common one is
called filtering and creates a new image as a result of processing the pixels of an
existing image.
Each pixel in the output image is computed as a function of one or several pixels in
the original image, usually located near the location of the ouput pixel. If the
function used does some kind of interpolation (eg. linear, cubic or gaussian), then the
result will look smoother than the original, but care needs to be taken that the ouput
values are not computed from too many input pixels, or the resulting image may get
blurred. The most common purpose for this interpolation is antialiasing.
In the Radiance software, high quality images are rendered by rpict(1) in higher
resolution than desired, using a certain amount of pixel jitter. The resulting image,
which will look a little rough in some areas, is then filtered to a lower resolution
using gaussian interpolation with the pfilt(1) program. This process has the same
effect as the oversampling used by other software, but offers much more control,
since the filtering parameters can be optimised for the allready rendered image.
There are other filtering methods available, which are used to adjust the dynamic
range of the image as with pcond(1), in order to adapt it to the display capability of
the output medium, eg. hardcopy prints. In this process, the brighntess distribution in
the whole image will influence the value of every pixel, which makes it possible to
optimise the exposure and gamma curve of the image in a way that corresponds to
a persons subjective impression when viewing a scene.
indirect lighting
Lighting provided by reflection usually from wall or celiling surfaces. In daylighting,

this means that the light coming from the sky or the sun is reflected on a surface of

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high reflectivity like a wall, a window sill or a special redirecting device. In

electrical lighting the luminaires are suspended from the ceiling or wall mounted and
distribute light mainly upwards so it gets reflected off the ceiling or the walls.
Advantages:
• Creates a soft, undisturbing environment suitable for concentrated work or

viewing paintings or drawings.
• Reflective glare on computer monitors can be controlled more easily.
• Displays human faces advantageously for social gatherings.
• Can be installed without disturbing the ceiling surface (eg. in historical

buildings or a painted ceiling).
Disadvantages:
• It can be disturbing if the ceiling is the brightest surface in a room.
• Makes it difficult to recognise details on three dimensional objects.
• There is very little contrast in the room which can be boring.
• Not very energy effective.
Alternative lighting patterns are direct lighting and mixed direct/indirect lighting.
luminous intensity
The luminous intensity is the luminous flux emitted from a point per unit solid
angle into a particular direction.
The luminous intensity is the official base unit for light. It was defined in 1979 by
the "Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures" (CGPM, the 11th General
Conference on Weights and Measures) as follows:
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that

emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 10 hertz and that has a
12
radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
Together with the CIE photometric curve, the luminous intensity provides the
weighting factor needed to convert between radiometric and photometric
measurements.
radiant intensity
Radiant intensity is the radiant flux radiated from a point on a light source into a
unit solid angle in a particular direction.
Unit of radiant intensity is Watt per Steradian (W/sr).

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inverse square law
The measured luminous flux density (or radiant flux density) from a point light
source decreases along any line from the source. It falls in inverse proportion to the
square of the relative distance. An illuminance measurement 2 meters from the light
source will be 1/4 of the measurement 1 meter from the source.
The law holds because the energy from the source radiates in all directions, in effect
spreading itself over the surface of a sphere. At a greater distance, the same amount
of energy is spread over a larger surface, and thus any one area of the surface will
receive less. The increase in surface area is proportional to the square of the radius.
This model of propagation is based on a point source, radiating equally in all

directions. Real light sources rarely behave exactly like point sources in this respect,
especially for very short distances relative to the size of the source. With larger
distances, however, the inverse square law gives a sufficiently accurate
approximation for most practical purposes, at least within the bounds of a specified
solid angle.
irradiance
Irradiance (usually Ei in formulas) is the total amount of radiative flux incident

upon a point on a surface from all directions above the surface.
Irradiance weighted with the response curve of the human eye gives Illuminance.
J jittered sampling
A stochastic process in which values are sampled uniformly over a rectilinear

subspace. The exact position of the respective sample in each subrectangle is thereby
varied randomly.
In the Radiance software, this method can be applied in several situations of the
simulation process:
• On the image plane, view rays may be sent through random locations within
the area of a pixel instead of through its center. This feature should be
applied together with image filtering, and helps to eliminate aliasing effects
("staircases") in diagonal edges of the image. Without filtering, pixel
jittering may result in a slightly rough appearance of such edges.
• Specular hightlights can be sampled with rays that deviate from the exact
mirror direction of a surface to a degree controlled by the roughness attribute
of the material. This feature results in correctly displayed highlights on
materials that exhibit a high specular reflection component, but not such a
smooth surface as to visually mirror their environment. If no filtering is
applied to the final image, the boundary areas of specular highlights may
show some speckle.
• In shadow testing for a point in the scene towards a light source, rays can be

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aimed at random points on the source surface. This will result in soft
penumbras, given that the image is filtered to a lower resolution after
rendering. If the image is not reduced, then the stochastic sampling of light
sources may result in speckle in the penumbra.
K kelvin
Standard unit for color temperature is Kelvin (K).
L light
n.1. The natural agent that stimulates the sense of sight.

n.2. Medium or condition of space in which sight is possible.
(noun)
Radiant energy that excites the human visual system. The visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum extends from about 380 to 770 nm.
Also (colloc.), a source of illumination such as the sun, the sky or an electric lamp.
Light is usually measured in terms of luminous flux. For most purposes besides
quantum physics or astronomy, it can be assumed to travel along straight lines.
When it hits a surface boundary, it will either be absorbed, reflected, transmitted or
refracted. Reflectance and transmittance can happen directedly (specular) or they can
distribute the light throughout the hemisphere above or below that surface (diffuse).
Specular reflection (direct transmission) and their diffuse counterparts rarely happen
exclusively, but are combined in specific ways with most real life materials.
(adj.)
With a hight reflectance factor; with reference specifically to color, one with a high
value.
light adaptation
Light Adaptation is the special case when the visual system becomes adapted to
luminances of more than about 3.4 cd/m . 2
lighting design
The art and craft of creating the visual environment by means of illuminating it.
lumen
Standard unit of luminous flux is Lumen (lm).
lumen method
A method to calculate the average maintained horizontal illuminance on a

workplane within a space. Only the direct illumination from the luminaires to the
workplane is taken into account, and the actual layout of the luminaires is ignored.

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If more details are needed, then the point by point method will provide better
results.
luminance
The physical measure of brightness.
Luminous intensity per unit projected area of any surface, as measured from a
specific direction.
Luminance (usually 'L' in formulas) is the amount of visible light leaving a point on
a surface in a given direction. This "surface" can be a physical surface or an
imaginary plane, and the light leaving the surface can be due to reflection,
transmission, and/or emission
Standard unit of luminance is candela per square meter (cd/m²).

(also called Nits in the USA, from latin "nitere" = "to shine").
luminance contrast
Contrast (Luminance Contrast) is the relationship between the luminance of a

brighter area of interest and that of an adjacent darker area.
Mathematically, the difference between the two luminances divided by the lower
luminance . This definition is also called Weber Contrast, and is the most
commonly useful one in the context of lighting.
C = (Lmax - Lmin) / Lmin
luminous
Of an object or a surface: Emitting light, especially, emitting self-generated light (as

opposed to reflected light).
luminous emittance
Luminous emittance is a deprecated term for Luminous Exitance.
lux
Standard unit for illuminance is Lux (lx) which is lumens per square meter (lm/m ). 2
M material
In Radiance, materials define the basic properties of every surface.
There are several classes of materials:
• Plastic like materials are opaque and can have diffuse and specular
reflection properties. Specularly reflected light keeps the color of the light

340

source.
• Metal like materials are similar to plastic, but specularly reflected light takes
material color.
• Transparent materials can have specular and diffuse reflecion as well as

transmission properties.
• Glass and glass like materials specularly transmit and reflect light and also
have refractive properties.
• BRTDs, Bidirectional Reflection and Transmission Descriptions are the

most general "material" type. All reflective and transmissive properties can
be controlled exactly for light entering and exiting in any direction.
• Mist is used to model voluminous participating media like smoke, fog or

"muddy water".
• There are some other specialised material types to model prismatic glazings
for light redirection.
• Most material types exist in varieties that allow for anisotropic definition of
their properties, or that can take be influenced from functions or data files.
• Antimatter is a special "material" type, which subtracts from other

materials. This works best when applied to objects of simple shape and
closed volume, which intersect with other objects.
Radiance allows modifiers to be applied to all materials that can influence the color,
manipulate the normal vector of the surface or blend two materials or modifiers into
each other with a defined function.
mirror angle
In reference to viewer and an observed surface, the angle equal and opposite to the
viewing angle.
In the case of a specular reflecion on a surface, this means that both incident and the
leaving ray have the same absolute (but opposite real) angle to the normal vector of
the surface.
mixture
Mixtures are a special modifier class because they don't directly modify any surface
or material properties, but are used to determine the way two other modifiers or
materials are blended into each other.
modifier
In the radiance software, every basic material can be modified in several ways.

341

Modification can influence color, transparency, surface normals or light emission

etc, depending on the type of modifier and the type of material. Modifiers can be
combined, so that each modifier in the chain influences a specific property of the
material.
Technically speaking, material assignment is also a modification of a surface

definition.
There are several classes of modifiers:
Patterns
Textures
Mixtures
morphing
Image morphing is a special case of image interpolation, where the pixels of two or
more images are moved to different locations in the image, in order to acheive a
smoother transition between images that show different geometry, rather than just
different features of the same geometry model. This requires special software. (This
should not be confused with geometrical morphing, with is a special case of
geometry animation).
N normal vector
An vector perpendicular to a surface. At the same time, the direction of this vector
determines the orientation of the surface. In the case of polygons, this direction is
usually determined by the right hand rule.
In computer graphics, manipulations of the normal vector are often used as a way to
simulate geometrical detail on otherwise planar surfaces. In this case, a function will
determine small aberrations of the true direction of the normal vector on every point
of the surface, in order special create highlight or shadow effects. If eg. the vector is
slightly shifted in accordance to a sinus function, then the surface will appear in a
rendered image, as if it were made of corrugated material (except for the edges).
In the Radiance software, texture modifiers are used for this purpose.
O overcast sky
Overcast sky has a completely closed cloud cover (100 %). Obviously, this sky
can't be combined with sun in a meaningful way. This is the sky condition applied in
daylight factor calculations.
P participating medium
Material of a property that affects the transport of light through its volume.
Examples include glass, water, fog and smoke. Clear air is also a participating

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Unit 16.
1 Service Systems
S (KE
EYWORDS
S 6.4)

mediuum, but one thhat only has a measurablle effect overr great distannces.
A partticipating meedium influeences the traavel of light by its extin

nction coeffiicient,
whichh determines the amount of light that doesn't traveel straight thhrough per am
mount
of disstance, and is the sum of the sca attering coe efficient andd the absorrption
coeffiicient. The ratio betweeen the sca attering coe efficient andd the absorrption
coeffiicient is calleed scattering
g albedo.
In the Radiance software, paarticipating media

m are modelled
m by m
means of thee mist
materiial type.
partlyy cloudy sk
ky
Partly
y cloudy skys has betw
ween 30 % and 70 % cloud
c cover. This sky can
c be
combiined with sunn in some casses.
patterrn
Patternns modify thhe color or ligght emission

n of a materiaal.
peak--to-peak coontrast
Peak-to-Peak Con nstrast (Micchelson Conntrast, Modu ulation) meaasures the reelation
betweeen the spreaad and the suum of the twwo luminancees. This defiinition is typpically
used in
i signal proocessing theoory, to determ
mine the quaality of a siggnal relative to its
h noise couldd be caused by scattered
noise level. In thee context of vision, such d light
introduuced into thhe view pathh by a transllucent elemeent partly obbscuring the scene
behindd it.
Modulation = (Lmaax - Lmin) / (L

Lmax + Lmin)
penum
mbra
The shhadow volum me behind ana object lit by an area light sourcee (in contrasst to a
point light
l source) doesn't havee sharp boun
ndaries. This is caused byy the fact thaat each
point in the bounndary area iss only partiaally shadoweed. The areaa (volume) in i full
shadoww is the umb bra, the bouundary area th
he penumb bra.
(The graphic
g is actually
a mbra doesn'tt have a constant
inacccurate, since the penum
Curso de
d Inglés Técn
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ucción

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Unit 16.
1 Service Systems
S (KE
EYWORDS
S 6.4)

shadow
w density, buut rather a grradient ranging from shaddow to light))
perceeption
A meaaningful imppression obtaained through h the senses and apprehennded by the mind.
Percepption goes beyond
b plainn sensation in that it inncludes the results of further
f
processsing of the sensed
s stimuuli, either con
nceously or innconceouslyy.
photoometric briightness
Photom
metric brighttness is an olld and deprecated term foor luminancee.
photoometry
Photommetry is thee science off measuring visible ligh

ht in units tthat are weiighted
accordding to the seensitivity of the
t human ey
ye.
The seensitivity off the human eye to lightt varies withh wavelengtth. A light source
s
with a a given rad diance of greeen light, forr example, appears
a muchh brighter thaan the
same source
s with the
t same raddiance of red d or blue lighht. To converrt radiometri
ric and
photom
metric units, the eye's ressponse is appproximated byb the CIE wweighting fun nction.
Photommetric theorry does not address how we percceive colors.. The light being
measuured can be monochromat
m tic or a comb
bination or continuum off wavelength
hs.
polarr angle
The anngle betweenn the surfacce normal an nd a vector intersecting

i iits surface. This
T is
the couunterpart to the altitude of the same vector.
polyggon
This iss the most coommon surfaace type. It iss defined by three or morre coplanar points.
p
The suurface normaal is determinned by the rigght hand rulle.
R radiaance
Radiannce is the raadiant inten nsity per uniit projected surface areaa, where projjected
surface area is the real surfacee area multiplied with thee cosinus of tthe angle between
Curso de
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the direction of the radiation and the surface normal.
Standard unit of radiance is watts per steradian and square meter (W/sr m²)
radiometry
the science of quantifying the phenomena of electromagnetic radiation.
In our context, we are interested in light, the limited range of electromagnetic

radiation that is visible to the human eye, sometimes extended to the areas of
infrared and ultraviolet. We also don't care about the quantum mechanical aspects of
radiation. It will be enough to measure the physiologically perceiveable effects. For
that purpose, we will often resort to the related field of photometry.
radiosity
Radiosity is an old term for radiant exitance.
radiosity method
Radiant Flux Transfer Method
A computer graphics method to calculate diffuse light distribution and

reflection in three dimensional environments (the "global illumination
model").
In contrast to raytracing, all variants of the radiosity method have in

common, that they seperate the process of shading surfaces and the visible-
surface determination. They first compute the interaction of light (radiant
flux) with all surfaces in a scene, and then determine visibility of the allready
shaded surfaces from different viewpoints.
Radiosity is very efficient to compute scenes up to a certain complexity with

large numbers of light sources. Its special strength is in providing the
illumination data for many different viewpoints (animation) of a scene.
Computing very large and complex scenes with radiosity methods requires
extreme amounts of memory (RAM). Specular effects like metallic
reflections are very difficult to simulate this way.
Recently, the term radiosity is increasingly used to describe the general

problem class of solving the global illumination model, and especially the
complementary method of distributed raytracing. This misattribution causes a
lot of confusion even among computer graphics specialists.
Rayfront software
Rayfront is a platform independent toolkit that provides a graphical user interface

to the lighting simulation software Radiance. It can be operated as an extension to

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Autocad or Intellicad, together with the 3Dsolar building modeller, or as a

standalone program.
raytracing
A method of computer graphics, normal used to create synthetic images of imaginary

scenes in space.
There are two variants of raytracing:
Forward Raytracing: In this case, the program simulates rays of light (or other
spectra) that emanate from a light source, and determines where they end up when
following a number of reflecion on scene surfaces. This method is normally used in
the design of luminaire reflectors and other optical equipment.
Backwards Raytracing: Here the program starts with scene, and casts rays into
different directions, until they hit a surface in the scene. At this point, it tries to find
out what amount of light is available to illuminate this surface. This can happen with
the help of an ambient term, which represents an (unrealistic) global brightness of
the scene, by determining the distance to one or several light sources, or recursively
by sending more rays into the scene from that point on. A combination of the last
two methods, called distributed raytracing, is the most interesting one for our
purposes.
Distributed Raytracing; Stochastic Raytracing: This is a very powerful approach

for simulating the diffuse light distribution and reflection in three dimensional
environments (a solution to the "global illumination model") and is used in the
Radiance software.
Distributed raytracing can simulate scenes of extreme complexity quite effectively,

while for scenes with very high numbers of light sources the radiosity approach
often has some advantages.
reflectance
Reflectance is the ratio of incident luminous flux upon a surface which is

reradiated in the visual spectrum.
reflected glare
Reflected Glare or Veiling Reflection is a reflection of incident light that partially

or totally obscures the details to be seen on a surface by reducing the contrast.
ring
A ring is a circular planar disk, possibly with a hole in the center. It is defined as a
center point, the surface normal, the inner radius, which may be zero, and the outer
radius.

346
Unit 16.
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EYWORDS
S 6.4)

S sensaation
The immmediate result of the stimulation

s of
o the sense organs; as ddistinguishedd from
perceeption whichh involves the combinatio on of incomiing sensationns with contextual
mation and paast experiencce so that thee objects or events from which the stimuli
inform
a recogniseed and assignned meaning.
arise are
sky liight
Sky light is thee part of thhe daylight that is scatttered and rredirected byb the
atmospphere. It cann be available together with
w sunlighht, or alone ((eg. on clou
udy or
overccast sky condditions).
solar altitude
Solarr altitude is the angular distance of the

t sun to thhe horizon froom the view
w of an
observver. Of coursse, every otheer heavenly body
b also haas its altitude.
solid angle
The anngle that, seeen from the center

c of a sp
phere, includdes a given aarea on the su
urface
of thatt sphere. Thhe value of thhe solid anggle is numeriically equal to the size ofo that
area divided by thee square of thhe radius of the sphere.
Ω = A / r²
Other than the diaggram might suggest,

s the shape of the area doesn'tt matter at alll. Any
shape on the surfaace of the sphhere that hollds the samee area will deefine a solid angle
of the same size.
m only showss the elemen

Also, the diagram nts that definne a solid anngle, not thee solid
Curso de
d Inglés Técn
de la Constru
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347

angle itself. The solid angle is the quantitative aspect of the conical slice of space,
that has the center of the sphere as its peak, the area on the surface of the sphere as
one of its spherical cross sections, and extends to infinity.
The maximum solid angle is ~12.57, corresponding to the full area of the unit
sphere, which is 4*Pi.
Standard unit of a solid angle is the Steradian (sr).
specular
Having the reflective properties of a mirror. This means that any incident light will
be reflected in mirror angle direction.
Most real surfaces are a mix between a specular and lambertian surface.
sunlight
Sunlight is the part of daylight that is radiated directly from the sun to the area of
interest.
sunny sky
Sunny sky is any sky condition where the sun happens to shine (through the
clouds, if there are any). This can be combined with any of the following three
conditions.
surface
Radiance defines all geometry by means of surfaces. There are a number of different
surface types, most of which have a front and a back side.
surface normal
An vector perpendicular to a surface. At the same time, the direction of this vector
determines the orientation of the surface. In the case of polygons, this direction is
usually determined by the right hand rule.
In computer graphics, manipulations of the normal vector are often used as a way to
simulate geometrical detail on otherwise planar surfaces. In this case, a function will
determine small aberrations of the true direction of the normal vector on every point
of the surface, in order special create highlight or shadow effects. If eg. the vector is
slightly shifted in accordance to a sinus function, then the surface will appear in a
rendered image, as if it were made of corrugated material (except for the edges).
In the Radiance software, texture modifiers are used for this purpose.
T transient adaptation
Transient Adaptation is a special case, where the human eye has to adapt from

348

low to high light levels and back in short intervals. This happens when the visual
environment has very high contrasts, eg. a computer monitor (< 200 cd/m ) and a2
sunlit wall outside a window (> 5'000 cd/m ) can be seen next to each other without
2
turning the head. Excessive transient adaptation soon results in eye fatigue.
transient adaptation factor
The Transient Adaptation Factor (TAF) defines the relative amount by which
the equivalent contrast is reduced due to readaptation from one luminous background
to another.
transmisison factor
Transmission factor is an old and deprecated term for transmittance.
transmissivity
The ratio of the directly transmitted light after passing through one unit of a
participating medium (atmosphere, dust, fog) to the amount of light that would have
passed the same distance through a vacuum. It is the amount of light that remains
after the absorption coefficient and the scattering coefficient (together the extinction
coefficient) are accounted for.
In the Radiance software, those units are used in the specification of several material
types:
• The dielectric and interface material types use RGB transmissivity values in
the sense of the above definition.
• The mist material type calculates its RGB transmission coefficients as the
remainders from the specified extinction coefficients.
• With the trans material types, transmissivity is the fraction of penetrating

light that travels all the way through the material (this is the transmittance
minus any specular reflectance).
• The glass material type requires specification of the transmissivity at normal

incidence, which is defined as the fraction of light not absorbed in one
traversal of the material.
transmittance
Transmittance is the ratio of the total radiant or luminous flux transmitted by a

transparent object to the incident flux, usually given for normal incidence.
tube
Cylinders and tubes are similar to cones and cups, but their starting and ending radii
are equal.

349
Unit 17. Renewable Energy
Unit 17 Renewable Energy

350
1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 352
1.1. THE CLIMATE CHANGE ACT (2008) ........................................................352
1.2. CURRENT ELECTRIC SUPPLY AND GENERATION ............................................352
2. MICRO-POWER GENERATION UK ............................................... 354
2.1. UK TARGETS ...................................................................................354
2.2. MERTON RULE .................................................................................355
2.3. CURRENT DRIVERS FOR RENEWABLES .......................................................355
2.4. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................356
3. SOLAR .................................................................................. 357
3.1. PV ...............................................................................................357
3.2. INTEGRATION INTO BUILDING FABRIC ......................................................358
3.3. SOLAR THERMAL (WATER HEATING) ........................................................362
3.4. COGENERATION: PV THERMAL ...............................................................363
3.5. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................363
4. WIND ................................................................................... 364
4.1. AVAILABILITY OF WIND AS A POWER SOURCE IN THE UK (WIND SPEED REQUIREMENT) ....
..................................................................................................364
4.2. TYPES OF WIND TURBINE .....................................................................365
4.3. CASE STUDY BUILDING (BAHRAIN WORLD TRADE CENTRE) .............................366
4.4. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................367
5. BIO ENERGY .......................................................................... 367
5.1. BIOMASS .......................................................................................367
5.2. BIOGAS .........................................................................................370
5.3. ANAEROBIC DIGESTION .......................................................................371
5.4. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................372
6. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER ........................................................ 372
6.1. ADVANTAGES ...................................................................................374

351
6.2. DISADVANTAGES...............................................................................374
6.3. CLASSIFICATION OF WATER TURBINES .....................................................375
6.4. KEYWORDS .....................................................................................376
7. FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY ......................................................... 376
7.1. WHAT IS A FUEL CELL? .......................................................................376
7.2. HOW DO THEY OPERATE? .....................................................................376
8. CHP ..................................................................................... 378
1. INTRODUCTION
Unit 17compares the various types of micro-power generation available for application in
buildings. This unit considers their application in a building system, with particular reference to
their integration in the building fabric and their use in the UK.
1.1.The Climate Change Act (2008)
Our climate is rapidly changing - Global temperatures have risen by 2˚C in the last century.
Climate Scientists predict that if we continue to emit greenhouse gases at today's levels, then
average global temperatures could rise by up to 6˚C by the end of this century.
To avoid the most dangerous impacts of climate change, average global temperatures must rise
by no more than 2˚C. Global emissionsmust start falling, and must fall to at least 50% below
1990 levels by 2050 to mitigate the catastrophic effects of a warming climate.
The Climate Change Act (2008)
This aims to improve carbon management within the UK, enabling a smooth transition towards
a low-carbon economy.
It introduced a legally binding target for the UK to achieve an 80% reduction in greenhouse gas
emission by 2050 and a reduction in emission of at least 34% by 2020 (against the 1990
baseline).
1.2.Current Electric Supply and Generation
To meet the emissions targets the UK must clean up its current methods of energy generation.
Three quarters of UK electricity is currently generated from coal and gas. By 2050 virtually all
electricity will need to come from renewable sources, nuclear power or cleaner fossil
fuelcombustion.

352
The UK Government offers funding and grants for micro-generation technologies through the
Low Carbon Building Programme.
Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs) can help in the payback time by trading with
electricity supply companies and providing exemption from climate change levy.
Contents:
1. Introduction - Energy and Climate Change

1.1 The Climate Change Act (2008)
1.2 Current Electric Supply and Generation
2. Micro Power Generation UK
2.1 UK Targets
2.2 Merton Rule
2.3 Current Drivers for Renewables
2.4 Keywords
3. Solar
3.1 PV
3.2 Integration into Building Fabric
- Roofs
- Solar Shading
- Glazing
- Amorphous
3.3 Solar Thermal (Water Heating)
3.4 Case Study - Crossway Eco-Home
3.5 Cogeneration: PV Thermal
3.6 Keywords

353
4. Wind
4.1 Availability in the UK (min wind speed required)
4.2 Types of wind turbine
- Vertical Axis
4.3 Case Study Building (Bahrain World Trade Centre)
4.4 Keywords
5. Bio Energy
5.1 Biomass
5.2 Biogas
5.3 Anaerobic Digestion
5.4 Keywords
6. Hydro-electric power
6.1 Advantages
6.2 Disadvantages
6.3 Classification of Water Turbines
6.4 Keywords
7. Fuel Cell Technology
7.1 What is a Fuel Cell?
7.2 How do they Operate?
8. CHP
2. MICRO-POWER GENERATION UK
2.1.UK Targets
The Government is committed to increasing the proportion of energy we use from renewable
sources. The UK has been blessed with a wealth of energy resources but the depletion of our
domestic fossil fuels reserves, combined with projected growth in global energy demand, puts
our security of energy supply at risk.
Exploiting our renewable resources will make a strong contribution to our energy needs and
allow us to be less reliant on others.
Our drive to increase the proportion of energy we obtain from renewable sources will not only
increase the security of energy supplies in the UK; it will also provide opportunities for
investment in new industries and new technologies.

354
The Government will help business develop in this area to put the UK at the forefront of new
renewable technologies and skills.
The current energy policy of the United Kingdom is set out in the Energy White Paper of May
2007 and Low Carbon Transition Plan of July 2009, building on previous work including the
2003 Energy White Paper and the Energy Review Report in 2006. It is led by the Department of
Energy and Climate Change.
2.2.Merton Rule
The Merton Rule refers to the London Borough of Merton. It was the first to implement a target
whereby new sites must demonstrate and ability to meet 10% of their energy needs through on
site renewable sources.
These targets are enforced through the planning approval process.
This target is implemented by the majority of local authorities (90) and is prompting other local
authorities to consider raising them to 15% or even 20%.
The Merton rule has however now been superseded by 'The Code for Sustainable Homes', Feed
in Tariffs and the 'Clean Energy Cash-back' scheme Which provide far greater incentives for
developers and home owners to install on-site renewable energy systems.
2.3.Current Drivers for renewables
1. The Code for Sustainable Homes:
The Code measures the sustainability of a new home against nine categories of sustainable
design, rating the 'whole home' as a complete package. The Code uses a one to six star rating
system to communicate the overall sustainability performance of a new home. The Code sets
minimum standards for energy and water use at each level and, within England, replaces the
Eco-Homes scheme, developed by the Building Research Establishment (BRE).
The Code supports the government target that all new homes will be zero carbon from 2016
and the step changes in Building Regulations Part L leading to this. The code is more stringent
than the Merton Rule, so it is likely to supersede it in the residential sector.
2. The Carbon Reduction Commitment:
This is a proposed mandatory cap and trade scheme in the UK that will apply to large non
energy-intensive organisations in the public and private sectors. It is unclear whether it will
actually help reduce carbon emissions from the built environment and there are also still
problems with the scheme e.g. businesses that have already invested in on-site renewables are
not allowed to claim that the energy from these is zero carbon!
3. Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs):
These are required whenever a building is built, sold or rented. The certificate provides 'A' to 'G'
ratings for the building, with 'A' being the most energy efficient and 'G' being the least. The

355
average up to now has been 'D'. This is part of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive,
which all EU member states must adopt.
2.4.Keywords
1 Greenhouse Gases de 11 Payback time Periodo de

Gases EfectoInvernadero recuperación
2 Climate Change CambioClimático 12 Levy Impuesto, gravamen
3 Global EmisionesGlobales 13 Depletion Reduccion
Emissions
4 Mitigate Mitigar 14 Exploit Explotar
5 Legally Binding Legalmentevinculante 15 Target Objetivo
6 Energy Generación de Energía 16 Planning Aprobación de
Generation Approval planeamiento
7 Fossil Fuel Combustible fósil 17 Sustainability Sostenibilidad
8 Combustion Combustion 18 Zero Carbon Zero emisiones de
Emissions carbono
9 Grant Subvención 19 Mandatory Obligatorio
10 Micro- Micro-generación
Generation


356
3. SOLAR
The average value for solar radiation in the UK is approximately 1357W/m².
The amount of solar energy that falls on the earth is immense, 0.01% of it could meet the
worlds energy needs. The totally annual energy available varies from about
1200kWh/m²/Yearin Cornwall down to 900kWh/m²/year in Scotland.
3.1.PV
Photovoltaics are a method of generating electrical power.Solar Photovoltaic cells convert

solar irradiance into electricity.
These PV/Solar cells, take advantage of the photoelectric effect to produce electricity. PV cells
are the building blocks of all PV systems because they are the devices that convert sunlight to
electricity.
The solar cells are made from one or two layers of semi-conducting material (usually silicon).
When sunlight shines on the cell it creates an electric field across the layers - the stronger the
sunshine, the more electricity it is able to produce. The strength of the PV cell is measured in
kilo Watt peak (kWp).
PV cells come in many sizes and shapes, from smaller than a postage stamp to several inches
across. They are often connected together to form PV modules that may be up to several feet
long and a few feet wide.Modules, in turn, can be combined and connected to form PV arrays of
different sizes and power output. The modules of the array make up the major part of a PV
system, which can also include electrical connections, mounting hardware, power-conditioning
equipment, and batteries that store solar energy for use when the sun is not shining.

357
When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through. But only
the absorbed light generates electricity. The energy of the absorbed light is transferred to
electrons in the atoms of the PV cell semiconductor material. With their newfound energy,
these electrons escape from their normal positions in the atoms and become part of the electrical
flow, or current, in an electrical circuit. A special electrical property of the PV cell-what is
called a "built-in electric field"-provides the force, or voltage, needed to drive the current
through an external load, such as a light bulb.
PV cells don't need direct sunlight to work - electricity can still be generated on a cloudy day.
The panels are best to face due South with an inclination angle of between 30-40 degrees.
Domestic installation with output of 2kW would generate 1700kW/year about 60% of the
average demand (this represents 700kg of CO2).
3.2.Integration into Building Fabric
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are photovoltaic materials that are used to replace
conventional building materials in parts of the building envelope such as theroof, skylights, or
facades. They are increasingly being incorporated into the construction of new buildings as a
principal or ancillary source of electrical power, although existing buildings may be retrofitted
with BIPV modules as well.
The advantage of integrated photovoltaics over more common non-integrated systems is that the
initial cost can be offset by reducing the amount spent on building materials and labour that
would normally be used to construct the part of the building that the BIPV modules replace.
These advantages make BIPV one of the fastest growing segments of the photovoltaic industry.

358
Roof
Flat roofs
• The most widely installed to date is a thin film solar cell integrated to a flexible polymer
roofing membrane.
CASE STUDY:
Commercial BIPV Flat Roof - San Fransisco, California.
• A building-integrated photovoltaic solar roofing system based on silicon cells and

single-ply membrane never before installed on a large scale commercial project. The
most technologically advanced solar installation in the country.
• Produces 50,000 kWh annually
• Eliminates 1,000 tons of carbon dioxide impact over the life of the roof.
• This system consists of silicon solar cells built into a single ply membrane roofing
"sheet." Sheets of 60 mil (millimetres) PVC roofing membrane are rolled onto the
roofing surface and sealed with hot air welding to create a waterproof surface; next,
solar cell modules measuring 4' by 8' are heat-weld bonded to the surface, creating a
unified roofing system with built-in solar cells. The roof and solar power system
become one without penetrating the roofing structure.

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Pitched roofs
• Modules shaped like multiple roof tiles.
• Solar shingles are modules designed to look and act like regular shingles, while
incorporating a flexible thin film cell.
• It extends normal roof life by protecting insulation and membranes from ultraviolet rays
and water degradation. It does this by eliminating condensation because the dew point is
kept above the roofing membrane.
Solar Shingles
These are solar cells designed to look like conventional asphalt shingles. All photovoltaic power
is produced in the form of direct current (DC). Homes use alternating current (AC). Therefore
part of the cost of installation of solar shingles is the price of an inverter to make the
conversion.The most inexpensive way to install solar shingles is to use the grid as a backup
source of electricity. Backup storage, in the form of batteries, is expensive, adds complexity to
the installation, and is uneconomic in any large scale. Battery backup units require an array of
additional hardware. This includes batteries, battery enclosures, battery charge controllers, and
separate sub panels for critical load circuits. However, grid power is only useful as a backup
system if it is available when solar power is not.
Solar Shading
PV panels may also be integrated into shading devices such as louvres and canopies. These
greatly increase the cost efficiency of the system as one set of framework is used to support both
the shading and PV devices. These may be angled to effectively cut out excessive solar gains
whilst maximising power production.
Glazing
Transparent solar panels use a tin oxide coating on the inner surface of the glass panes to
conduct current out of the cell. The cell contains titanium oxide that is coated with a
photoelectric dye.
Most conventional solar cells use visible and infrared light to generate electricity. In contrast,
the innovative new solar cell also uses ultraviolet radiation. Used to replace conventional

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window glass, or placed over the glass, the installation surface area could be large, leading to
potential uses that take advantage of the combined functions of power generation, lighting and
temperature control.
Another name for transparent photovoltaics is "translucent photovoltaics" (they transmit half the
light that falls on them).
Amorphous
Amorphous means without structure. These materials are made from material cooled so fast that
no crystals had time to grow. Glass is an example of an amorphous material. If molten glass was
allowed to cool very slowly we would see large quartz crystal forming.
Amorphous panels have a low efficiency and require significantly more space to achieve the
same comparative output as other technologies. This makes them expensive and generally
unsuitable for most buildings. They are flexible so can be used in many more applications.

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3.3.Solar Thermal (Water Heating)
Solar water heating systems collect heat from the sun to heat water within a dedicated solar
store or cylinder. A well specified solar hot water system can provide around 50% of a
household's hot water in the UK. There are two types of solar collector - evacuated tube and flat
plate collectors. Flat plate collectors can be fixed externally or integrated into the roof.
Evacuated tube collectors are generally more efficient than flat plate collectors.
Solar water heating systems work all year round. However a secondary source of water heating
should be provided to ensure sufficient winter supply - and to act as a back-up to ensure that
water is regularly heated to at least 60 degrees centigrade to prevent microbial contamination
such as legionella. In the UK most solar water heating systems don't need planning permission.
However planning may be required if the building is listed or in a conservation area.
There are two types of system;
• In the 'close coupled' system, the water storage tank is located above the panel and does
not require pumping due to the natural rising flow of warmer water.
• The 'pump circulated' system locates the tank at floor level, below the level of the
collector and therefore requires a circulating pump.

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3.4.Cogeneration: PV Thermal
Solar photovoltaic cells become less efficient as they get hotter, a decline that can be substantial
on hot sunny days. Furthermore, solar PV is inefficient and some energy is 'lost' to the
surrounding environment. What solar PV needs is a partner able to complement its strengths and
compensate its deficiencies. Fortunately, such a partner exists - solar thermal.
By placing a solar thermal collector behind a solar photovoltaic (PV) array, the PV cells can be
cooled. At the same time, the solar collector can harvest most of the energy that passes through
the array that would otherwise be lost, recovering it for productive use.
The collector transfers captured energy to a circulating medium, fluid or air that in turn takes it
to somewhere it can be stored or used, such as a hot water tank, a building space, or to the
ground for later retrieval by heat pump. In this happy scenario, the solar PV cells are cooled by
contact with the solar thermal collector to a more optimum operating temperature, ideally about
25°C. In providing both thermal and electrical forms of energy, the marriage results in a solar
co-generation process.
3.5.Keywords
1 Radiation Radiación 15 Electrons Electrones

2 Solar Energy Energía Solar 16 Atoms Atomos
3 Photovoltaic Fotovoltaico 17 Electric Field Campo eléctrico
4 Irradiance Irradiación 18 Voltage Voltaje
5 Device Aparato 19 Current Corriente
6 Semi-conductor Semiconductor 20 External Load Cargaexterna

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7 Silicon Silicio 21 Light Bulb Bombilla de luz

8 PV Cell Celulafotovoltaica 22 Inclination Angle Angulo de inclinación
9 Module Modulo 23 Building Integrado en el edificio
Integrated
10 Array Matriz, formación 24 Building Envoltorio del edificio
Envelope
11 Electrical ConeccionesElectricas 25 Retrofitted Renovado
Connections (añadiendoelementos)
12 Batteries Baterías 26 Cost Offset Compensación del coste
13 Reflected Reflejado
14 Absorbed Absorbido
4. WIND
4.1.Availability of wind as a power source in the UK (wind speed requirement)
The UK is the windiest country in Europe - Wind is set to become the largest UK renewable
generation source.Wind generation currently provides the UK with 5,080.35 MW of energy per
year - a carbon saving of nearly 6 million tonnes.
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind
turbines to make electricity. Wind generation is generally divided into 'on-shore' and 'off
shore' generation.
-Offshore wind capacity totals 5,080 megawatts (MW) and onshore 3,739 MW.-
Every unit of electricity from a windturbine displaces one from a fossilfuel fired power station.

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Cut-in speed.
At very low wind speeds, there is insufficient torque exerted by the wind on the turbine blades
to make them rotate. However, as the speed increases, the wind turbine will begin to rotate and
generate electrical power. The speed at which the turbine first starts to rotate and generate
power is called the cut-in speedand is typically between 3 and 4 meters per second.
Rated output power and rate output wind speed.
As the wind speed rises above the cut-in speed, the level of electrical output power rises rapidly
as shown. However, typically somewhere between 12 and 17 meters per second, the power
output reaches the limit that the electrical generator is capable of. This limit to the generator
output is called therated power outputand the wind speed at which it is reached is called
therated output wind speed.At higher wind speeds, the design of the turbine is arranged to limit
the power to this maximum level and there is no further rise in the output power. How this is
done varies from design to design but typically with large turbines, it is done by adjusting the
blade angles so as to keep the power at the constant level.
Cut-out speed.
As the speed increases above the rate output wind speed, the forces on the turbine structure
continue to rise and, at some point, there is a risk of damage to the rotor. As a result, a braking
system is employed to bring the rotor to a standstill. This is called the cut-out speed and is
usually around 25 meters per second.
UK Wind Power
By mid-2011, the installed capacity of wind power in the United Kingdom was over 5.7
gigawattsand the UK is ranked as the world's eighth largest producer of wind power, wind
power is expected to continue growing in the UK for the foreseeable future.
4.2.Types of wind turbine
Micro - generation turbines are only effective in locations which provide an annual average
wind speed of over 5 m/s.
On-site wind speed data and careful measurements should be taken over a period of time prior
to installation.
Urban environments offer lower electricity yields than rural open spaces.
Wind generation can be intermittent and unpredictable
Power stations whose output can be flexed at short notice will still be needed to ensure that
demand can be met during periods when wind power is producing a lower proportion of energy.

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Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) are a type of wind turbine where the main rotor shaft is
set vertically and the main components are located at the base of the turbine. Among the
advantages of this arrangement are that generators and gearboxes can be placed close to the
ground, which makes these components easier to service and repair, and that VAWTs do not
need to be pointed into the wind
4.3.Case Study Building (Bahrain World Trade Centre)
The new Bahrain World Trade Center is located in the city of Manama. The 50-story complex
contains two identical towers that rise over 240 meters in height. The sail-shaped buildings offer
a visually striking silhouette, appropriately referencing the maritime environment of this small
Middle Eastern island, and boasts one very unique feature - 3 giant wind turbines tying the two
"sails" together.
The Bahrain World Trade Center (BWTC) is a pioneering stride for environmental architecture,
the first building in the world to incorporate large scale integrated wind turbines which
comprehensive ground tests indicate will generate 11-15% of the energy requirements of the
two towers.

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4.4.Keywords
1 Wind Power Potencia del Viento 8 Generator Generador

2 Turbine Turbina 9 Rotor Rotor
3 On-Shore En tierra 10 Installation Instalación
(Relativo a
instalar)
4 Off-Shore En mar 11 Intermittent Intermitente
5 Torque Torsión 12 Unpredictable Impredecible
6 Rotate Rotar 13 Shaft Eje
7 Output Producción, salida
5. BIO ENERGY
Bioenergy comes from a wide range of renewable sources including wood, energy crops and
organic wastes such as sewage and animal waste.Biomass is any organic material which has
stored sunlight in the form of chemical energy.By 2010, there was 35GW of globally installed
bioenergy capacity for electricity generation, of which 7GW was in the United States.
5.1.Biomass
Biomass, as a renewable energy source, is biological material from living, or recently living
organisms. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or converted into other
energy products such as biofuel.
In the first sense, biomass is plant matter used to generate electricity with steam turbines
&gasifiers or produce heat, usually by direct combustion. Examples include forest residues
(such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal
solid waste. In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted
into fibres or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grown
from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow,
sorghum, sugarcane, and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm
oil).
Biomass Sources
Biomass is carbon, hydrogen and oxygen based. Biomass energy is derived from five distinct
energy sources: garbage, wood, waste, landfill gases, and alcohol fuels. Wood energy is derived
both from direct use of harvested wood as a fuel and from wood waste streams. The largest
source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or "black liquor," a waste product from processes
of the pulp, paper and paperboard industry. Waste energy is the second-largest source of
biomass energy. The main contributors of waste energy are municipal solid waste (MSW),

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manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Biomass alcohol fuel, or ethanol, is derived primarily
from sugarcane and corn. It can be used directly as a fuel or as an additive to gasoline.
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation
fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, release
methane gas-also called "landfill gas" or "biogas." Crops like corn and sugar cane can be
fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel,
can be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats.
Conversion to Useful Energy
There are a number of technological options available to make use of a wide variety of biomass
types as a renewable energy source. Conversion technologies may release the energy directly, in
the form of heat or electricity, or may convert it to another form, such as liquid biofuel or
combustible biogas. While for some classes of biomass resource there may be a number of
usage options, for others there may be only one appropriate technology.
• Thermal Conversion
• Chemical conversion
• Biochemical conversion
On a residential scale, biomass is generally used in the form of wood fuelled heating. These
systems burn wood pellets, chips or logs to provide warmth in a single room or to power central
heating and hot water boilers.
• A stove burns logs or pellets to heat a single room - and may be fitted with a back
boiler to provide water heating as well.
• A boiler burns logs, pellets or chips, and is connected to a central heating and hot water
system. A wood-fuelled boiler could save you nearly £600 a year compared to electric
heating.

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Benefits
• Affordable heating fuel: although the price of wood fuel varies considerably, it is often
cheaper than other heating options.
• Financial support: wood fuel boiler systems could benefit from the Renewable Heat
Premium Payment and the Renewable Heat Incentive.
• A low-carbon option: the carbon dioxide emitted when wood is burned is the same
amount that was absorbed over the months and years that the plant was growing. The
process is sustainable as long as new plants continue to grow in place of those used for
fuel. There are some carbon emissions caused by the cultivation, manufacture and
transportation of the fuel, but as long as the fuel is sourced locally, these are much
lower than the emissions from fossil fuels.
Cost
A pellet stove will cost around £4,300 including installation. Installing a new log stove will
usually cost less than half this, including a new flue or chimney lining.
For boilers, an automatically fed pellet boiler for an average home costs around £11,500
including installation, flue, fuel store and VAT at 5%. Manually fed log boiler systems can be
slightly cheaper.
Pellet costs depend mainly on the size and method of delivery. Buying a few bags at a time
makes them expensive. If you have room for a large fuel store that will accept several tonnes of

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pellets at a time, delivered in bulk by tanker, you can keep the cost down to around £190 per
tonne in most parts of the UK.
5.2.Biogas
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen. Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung, and
kitchen waste can be converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas. Biogas originates from
biogenic material and is a type of biofuel.
Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials such

as biomass, manure, sewage, municipal waste, green waste, plant material, and crops.
Generally, biofuels are liquid, gaseous, or solid fuel made from live or recently dead organic
material known as biomass, as opposed to fossil fuels, which are composed of ancient biological
materials. In contrast to fossil fuels, biogas fuel is often heralded by environmentalists for its
relatively small contribution to the carbon concentration in the atmosphere. Though both emit
carbon, fossil fuels release carbon that has been buried for many years and, in effect, removed
from the carbon cycle. Carbon released from biomass, however, has only recently been stored
in the form of organic matter and is still part of the cycle. Therefore it does not cause as much of
an upset in the carbon concentration in the atmosphere.
In addition to carbon output, biogas fuel is often preferred to fossil fuels because it is a low-cost,
renewable source of energy, it uses otherwise wasted materials, and it may be produced in
small-scale sites, making it a viable option for regions in developing nations. Biogas fuel,
however, also has its critics. Some argue that food crops grown for the purposes of fuel
production will create a global food shortage. Biofuels may also cause deforestation, water
pollution, soil erosion, and a negative impact on oil producing nations.
In the UK there are currently around 60 non-sewage biogas plants, most are on-farm, but some
larger facilities exist off-farm, which are taking food and consumer wastes.
On the 5th October 2010, biogas was injected into the UK gas grid for the first time. Sewage
from over 30,000 Oxfordshire homes is sent to Didcot sewage treatment works, where it is

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treated in an anaerobic digester to produce biogas, which is then cleaned to provide gas for
approximately 200 homes.
5.3.Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is the process where plant and animal material ( biomass) is
converted into useful products by micro-organisms in the absence of air. Biomass is put inside
sealed tanks and naturally occurring micro-organisms digest it, releasing methane that can be
used to provide clean renewable energy. This means AD can help reduce fossil fuel use and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The material left over at the end of the process is rich in
nutrients so it can be used as fertiliser.
Almost any biomass can be processed in AD; including food waste, energy crops, crop residues,
slurry and manure. AD can accept waste from our homes, supermarkets, industry and farms,
meaning less waste goes to landfill. However, woody biomass cannot be used in AD because
the micro-organisms can't breakdown the lignin, the compound that gives wood its strength.
The products of AD are referred to as biogas and digestate. Biogas is a mixture of 60%
methane, 40% carbon dioxide and traces of other contaminant gases. Biogas can be combusted
to provide heat, electricity or both. Alternatively, the biogas can be cleaned up and the pure
methane injected into the mains gas grid or used as a road fuel. Digestate is made from left over
indigestible material and dead micro-organisms. It contains valuable plant nutrients like
nitrogen and potassium. It can be used as a fertiliser and soil conditioner.
Case Study - South Shropshire Bio-waste Digester
Greenfinch Ltd designed and installed an AD plant in South Shropshire in partnership with the
South Shropshire District Council. It was constructed under Defra's New Technologies
Demonstrator Programme and can be visited by anyone interested in finding out.
The process starts in an enclosed waste reception hall in which a bio-filter controls emissions.
After shredding, the waste is heated in tanks to 37 degrees centigrade. After it has broken down,

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the material is pasteurised for an hour at 70 degrees so that it complies with the animal by-
products regulations.
The plant has a capacity of 5000 tonnes each year at a cost of between £40 and £50 per tonne.
The biogas is converted into electricity and 800,000 kilowatts per hour is used to heat the plant.
The pasteurised bio-fertiliser is offered to local farmers. The plant could produce around 4,320
tonnes of bio-fertiliser and 880 tonnes of biogas each year. In the future, biogas may be used in
a local district heating system.
The plant began full operation in the first quarter of 2006 and initially processed source-
separated kitchen waste and garden waste collected from households in South Shropshire. It was
found there was too much garden waste in the mix to produce the most biogas possible, so the
plant is now focussing on processing food waste.
5.4.Keywords
1 Energy Crops Cultivoenergético 13 Ferment Fermentar

2 Organic Waste Desechoorgánico 14 Boiler Caldera
3 Sewage Aguas residuals 15 Incentive Incentivo
4 Biomass Biomasa 16 Fuel Store Almacen de
combustible
5 Biological Material Material biológico 17 Pellet Pellet
6 Organisms Organismos 18 Biogas Biogas
7 Biofuel Biocombustible 19 Carbon Cycle Ciclo de carbon
8 Plant Planta 20 Atmosphere Atmosfera
9 Residue Residuo 21 Soil Erosion Erosion del suelo
10 Wood chips Virutas de madera 22 Anaerobic Anaerobico
(pellets)
11 Landfill Vertedero 23 Digest Digerir
12 Fuel Combustible 24 Fertiliser Fertilizante

6. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER
Hydropower is the world's No.1 source of renewable energy - it produces almost 20% of the
world's electricity and over 90% of the world's renewable power. Approximately 40% of the
UK's renewable energy is provided by hydropower. A modern hydro turbine generator can
convert over 90% of the energy in water into electricity. This is more efficient than any other
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Hydro power systems use running water to turn turbines which generate electricity. The faster
the water - and the higher the volume of the flow - the more electricity can be generated. Most
large hydro stations have dams. Micro-hydro systems cause minimal impact on the
environment.
Micro-Hydro
Micro-hydro systems generate electricity from running water - usually rivers or a small stream -
they can produce enough electricity for lighting and small power appliances. It only takes a
small amount of flow (as little as two gallons per minute) or a drop as low as two feet to
generate electricity with micro-hydro. Factors to consider are: distance from the power source to
the location where energy is required, stream size (including flow rate, output and drop). The
ecological impact of small-scale hydro is minimal; however the low-level environmental effects
must be taken into consideration before construction begins. Stream water will be diverted
away from a portion of the stream - so caution must be exercised to ensure there is no negative
impact on the local ecology.

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6.1.Advantages
• Efficient energy source
It only takes a small amount of flow (as little as two gallons per minute) or a drop as low as
two feet to generate electricity with micro hydro. Electricity can be delivered as far as a
mile away to the location where it is being used.
• Reliable electricity source
Hydro produces a continuous supply of electrical energy in comparison to other small-scale

renewable technologies. The peak energy season is during the winter months when large
quantities of electricity are required.
• No reservoir required
Micro-hydro is considered to function as a 'run-of-river' system, meaning that the water

passing through the generator is directed back into the stream with relatively little impact on
the surrounding ecology.
• Cost-effective energy solution
Building a small-scale hydro-power system can cost from $1,000 - $20,000, depending on
site electricity requirements and location. Maintenance fees are relatively small in
comparison to other technologies.
• Power for developing countries
Because of the low-cost versatility and longevity of micro hydro, developing countries can
manufacture and implement the technology to help supply much needed electricity to small
communities and villages.
• Integrate with the local power grid
If your site produces a large amount of excess energy, some power companies will buy back
your electricity overflow. You also have the ability to supplement your level of micro
power with intake from the power grid.
6.2.Disadvantages
• Suitable site characteristics required
In order to take full advantage of the electrical potential of small streams, a suitable site is
needed. Factors to consider are: distance from the power source to the location where
energy is required, stream size (including flow rate, output and drop), and a balance of
system components - inverter, batteries, controller, transmission line and pipelines.
• Energy expansion not possible
The size and flow of small streams may restrict future site expansion as the power demand
increases.

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• Low-power in the summer months
In many locations stream size will fluctuate seasonally. During the summer months there
will likely be less flow and therefore less power output. Advanced planning and research
will be needed to ensure adequate energy requirements are met.
• Environmental impact
The ecological impact of small-scale hydro is minimal; however the low-level

environmental effects must be taken into consideration before construction begins. Stream
water will be diverted away from a portion of the stream, and proper caution must be
exercised to ensure there will be no damaging impact on the local ecology or civil
infrastructure.
6.3.Classification of Water Turbines
Four turbine systems which can be installedat reasonable cost arelisted with appropriatehead
ranges.Other turbine typessuch as Francis andKaplan turbines may besuitable for larger,
lowheadsites, but will oftenbe too expensive forsmall schemes.

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6.4.Keywords
1 Hydropower Aguapropulsado 7 Reliable Fiable

2 Volume Volumen 8 Continuous Continuo
3 Flow Flujo 9 Peak Cima
4 Dam Presa 10 Reservoir Embalse
5 Diverted Desviar 11 Longevity Longevidad
6 Ecology Ecología 12 Infrastructure Infraestructura

7. FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY

7.1.What is a Fuel Cell?
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a
chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Hydrogen is the most common fuel,
but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells
are different from batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but
they can produce electricity continually for as long as these inputs are supplied.
Fuel cell technology generates 50% more electricity than the conventional generation without
burning any fuel.
7.2.How do they operate?
Hydrogen fuel cells operate in a similar way to a battery except that fuel is fed into the cell to
generate electricity and heat by an electro-chemical process producing water as its output
emission.
Like a battery, a fuel cell contains an anode and a cathode insulated by an electrolyte between
them.
Hydrogen is supplied to the anode while oxygen is supplied to the cathode, creating a chemical
reaction.
The hydrogen atom splits into a proton and an electron. The electrons create a current that can
be utilized before they return to the cathode, to be reunited with the hydrogen and oxygen in a
molecule of water.As a result CO2 emissions are significantly reduced and other harmful
emissions are virtually eliminated.

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Various types of fuel cells exist, but the one automakers are primarily focusing on for fuel cell
cars is one that relies on a proton-exchange membrane, or PEM. In the generic PEM fuel cell
pictured above, the membrane lies sandwiched between a positively charged electrode (the
cathode) and a negatively charged electrode (the anode). In the simple reaction that occurs here
rests the hope of engineers, policymakers, and ordinary citizens that someday we'll drive
entirely pollution-free cars.
A single hydrogen fuel cell delivers a low voltage, so manufacturers "stack" fuel cells together
in a series, as in a dry-cell battery. The more layers, the higher the voltage. Electrical current,
meanwhile, has to do with surface area. The greater the surface area of the electrodes, the
greater the current. One of the great challenges automakers face is how to increase electrical
output (voltage times current) to the point where consumers get the power and distance they're
accustomed to while also economizing space in the tight confines of an automobile.
Fuel Cells are beginning to be used in architecture; below is a case study example:
Case Study - The Palestra, London
Based at the Palestra building in Southwark, the UK largest hydrogen fuel cell will generate
cleaner, low-carbon energy on site, saving thousands off energy bills.
They have installed a £2.4m Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plant, including the hydrogen
fuel cell. It is estimated that the fuel cell and power plant will cut carbon emissions by up to 40
per cent and generate £90,000 cost savings per annum.

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To communicate the benefits of hydrogen and the fuel cell to people passing and visiting the
building, a permanent multi-media exhibition display has been created - this will be fuelled by
the energy generated on site.
The state of the art hydrogen fuel cellwill provide electricity, heat and cooling to the building. In
addition, the building's hot water supply will be heated by the fuel cell.
8. CHP
Combined heat and power (cogeneration) involves the use of a heat engine or a power station to
simultaneously generate both electricity and useful heat. All power plants emit heat during
electricity generation. This can be into the natural environment through cooling towers, flue
gasses, or by other means. CHP captures some or all of the by-product heat for heating
purposes, either very close to the plant, or as hot water for district heating - with temperatures
ranging from 80 - 130 °C.

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Case Study - Prior's Croft - Woking
Prior's Croft is the Council's smallest CHP site.It houses 33 one-bedroom flats and bedsits,
common rooms and warden accommodation.It is the first residential area in the UK to receive
hot water, heating and electricity supplied through private wires by an on-site CHP unit.
The small-scale CHP unit produces 22kW of electricity and 50kW of heat, backed up by a 6 x
50kW boiler.
• A weather station allows the heating systemto respond quickly to changes in

temperatureand wind chill factor - keeping each flat at aminimum comfort temperature.
• The site has a 51.7kWp PV array
• Each flat is served by a private meter and electricity supply wire, which is connected to
the national grid, with an import/export facility to provide standby and top-up
electricity.

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Unit 18. Sustainability
Unit 18 Sustainability

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1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 382
2. CERTIFICATION INTRODUCTION ............................................... 383
2.1. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................384
3. SUSTAINABLE SITES ............................................................... 384
3.1. SITE DESIGN ................................................................................384
3.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................385
4. DAY LIGHTING ....................................................................... 386
4.1. DAY LIGHT DESIGN........................................................................386
4.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................386
5. THERMAL DESIGN .................................................................. 387
5.1. THERMAL MASS.............................................................................387

5.1.1. KEYWORDS ....................................................................................... 388
5.2. PASSIVE THERMAL DESIGN .............................................................388

5.2.1. KEYWORDS ....................................................................................... 389
5.3. THERMAL INSULATION ...................................................................389

5.3.1. KEYWORDS ....................................................................................... 390
5.4. SUNSPACES AND THE TROMBE WALL ................................................390

5.4.1. KEYWORDS ....................................................................................... 391
6. VENTILATION ........................................................................ 392
6.1. NATURAL VENTILATION ..................................................................392

6.1.1. KEYWORDS ....................................................................................... 393
6.2. EARTH TUBE VENTILATION .............................................................393

6.2.1. KEYWORDS ....................................................................................... 393
6.3. WIND-CATCHERS AND THE SOLAR CHIMNEY .....................................394

6.3.1. KEYWORDS ....................................................................................... 395
6.4. SOLAR CHIMNEY CASE STUDY .........................................................395

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1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term
maintenance of responsibility, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and
encompasses the concept of stewardship, the responsible management of resource use. In
ecology, sustainability describes how biological systems remain diverse and productive over
time, a necessary precondition for human well-being. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and
forests are examples of sustainable biological systems.
Healthy ecosystems and environments provide vital goods and services. There are two major
ways of managing human impact on ecosystem services. One approach is environmental
management; this approach is based largely on information gained from educated professionals
in earth science, environmental science, and conservation biology. Another approach is
management of consumption of resources, which is based largely on information gained from
educated professionals in economics.
Human sustainability interfaces with economics through the voluntary trade consequences of
economic activity. Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails, among
other factors, international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual
lifestyles and ethical consumerism. Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from
controlling living conditions (e.g., ecovillages, eco-municipalities and sustainable cities), to
reappraising work practices (e.g., using permaculture, green building, sustainable agriculture),
or developing new technologies that reduce the consumption of resources.
DEFINITION
The word sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere (tenere, to hold; sus, up).
Dictionaries provide more than ten meanings for sustain, the main ones being to "maintain",
"support", or "endure". However, since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense
of human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted
definition of sustainability and sustainable development, that of the Brundtland Commission of
the United Nations on March 20, 1987: "sustainable development is development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs."
At the 2005 World Summit it was noted that this requires the reconciliation of environmental,
social and economic demands - the "three pillars" of sustainability. This view has been
expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of
sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing. The three pillars - or
the "triple bottom line" - have served as a common ground for numerous sustainability standards
and certification systems in recent years, in particular in the food industry. Standards which
today explicitly refer to the triple bottom line include Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade, UTZ
Certified, and The Common Code for the Coffee Community. The triple bottom line is also
recognized by the ISEAL Alliance - the global association for social and environmental
standards.
The triple bottom line as defined by the UN is not universally accepted and has undergone
various interpretations. What sustainability is, what its goals should be, and how these goals are
to be achieved are all open to interpretation. For many environmentalists the idea of sustainable
development is an oxymoron as development seems to entail environmental degradation.

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Ecological economist Herman Daly has asked, "what use is a sawmill without a forest?" From
this perspective, the economy is a subsystem of human society, which is itself a subsystem of
the biosphere, and a gain in one sector is a loss from another. This can be illustrated as three
concentric circles.
A universally accepted definition of sustainability remains elusive because it is expected to

achieve many things. On the one hand it needs to be factual and scientific, a clear statement of a
specific "destination". The simple definition "sustainability is improving the quality of human
life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems", though vague,
conveys the idea of sustainability having quantifiable limits. But sustainability is also a call to
action, a task in progress or "journey" and therefore a political process, so some definitions set
out common goals and values. The Earth Charterspeaks of "a sustainable global society founded
on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace."
To add complication, the word sustainability is applied not only to human sustainability on
Earth, but too many situations and contexts over many scales of space and time, from small
local ones to the global balance of production and consumption. It can also refer to a future
intention: "sustainable agriculture" is not necessarily a current situation but a goal for the future,
a prediction. For all these reasons sustainability is perceived, at one extreme, as nothing more
than a feel-good buzzword with little meaning or substance but, at the other, as an important but
unfocused concept like "liberty" or "justice". It has also been described as a "dialogue of values
that defies consensual definition".
Some researchers and institutions have pointed out that these three dimensions are not enough
to reflect the complexity of contemporary society and suggest that culture could be included in
this development model.
2. CERTIFICATION INTRODUCTION
The BRE Environmental Assessment Method or BREEAM was established in the U.K and is a
guidance tool or voluntary measurement rating system for a building. It is a standard that is now
widely regarded as the world's foremost environmental assessment method. The LEED is a
green building certificate alternative in the U.S.A.
• Clients and building managers use a certificate rating to:
o Establish and monitor running costs.
o Measure and improve the efficiency or performance of the building
• Developers or Property Managers.
o Promote the environmental credentials and benefits of their building
The Code for Sustainable Homes (CSH) is a government owned national standard by BREEAM
aimed to encourage continued improvement towards a future of zero carbon new buildings.
Most of the categories are now mandatory.

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NINE CATEGORIES OF SUSTAINABLE DESIGN:
Energy and CO2 emissions (M),
Water (M),
Surface Water Run-off (M),
Materials (M),
Health and Wellbeing (M),
Waste (M),
Pollution,
Management,
Ecology.
2.1.KEYWORDS
Standard Estandar
Monitor Monitorizar
Credential Credencial
Mandatory Obligatorio
Zero-Carbon Cero Emisiones de Carbono
Emissions
3. SUSTAINABLE SITES
3.1.SITE DESIGN
The initial choices on site are of huge benefit to the finished sustainability rating of a project.
Ideally your site analysis will include good use of solar radiation and daylight whilst providing
strong shelter from the wind. Determining the site's sun position throughout the year,
temperature ranges and the prevailing wind direction can help you decide which topographical
features to utilise or optimise on site.

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• Maximising solar gain and the spatial layout is essential; dependant on the climate and
considering the sun paths in summer and winter.
• In certain climates an exposed site needs protection from the wind.
3.2.KEYWORDS
Initial Choices Opciones Iniciales Exposed Expuesto

Site Analysis Analisis del Lugar Dependant Dependiente
Topography Topografia Sun Path Recorrido Solar
Unobstructed Sin Obstaculos Wind Protection Proteccion contra el viento
Maximise Maximizar

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4. DAY LIGHTING
4.1.DAY LIGHT DESIGN
External louvres are synonymous with modern solar shading, allowing sufficient daylight and
airflow into a building whilst keeping the heat gain and solar glare out. horizontal or vertical
slats louvres work to diffuse the light entering a space and the incline is often adjustable.
Adjustment may be manual or automatic.
Solar diffusion can also be included into the physical roof design in the form of overhangs to
reduce summer solar gain but allow for lower level winter sunlight whilst daylight shelves
reflect light in order to enhance the quality of daylight in a room.
Sunpipes totally eliminate solar glare but are generally used only on light restricted sites to filter
daylight into a space.
4.2.KEYWORDS
Shading Devise Aparato/Elemento de Sombra

Louvres Lamas
Mirror Espejo
Diffuse Difuso
Overhang Voladizo

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Filter Filtro
Glare Deslumbramiento
5. THERMAL DESIGN
5.1.THERMAL MASS
This describes a materials ability to absorb, store and release heat
The thermal mass of materials is determined by its:
• Specific Heat Capacity - a materials ability to store heat/Kg.
• Density - mass per unit of volume
• Thermal Conductivity - The ease with which heat can travel through a material
By alternately storing and releasing heat, high thermal mass acts to regulate the admittance of
heat from outside. In hot climates where there is a high level of diurnal variation, the heat is
absorbed through the day and then re-emitted at night.
Thermal mass may also be used to manage waste heat produced within the building such as heat
from computers and human activity and released when the space is not occupied.

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Emission of the stored heat may be either to the outside (flushing out unwanted heat) via natural
ventilation, or may be used to heat the internal space as the outside temperature drops.
5.1.1. KEYWORDS
Thermal Mass Masa Termica
Heat Capacity Capacidad Calorifica
Density Densidad
Thermal Conductivity Conductividad Termica
Diurnal variation Variacion Diurna
5.2.PASSIVE THERMAL DESIGN
Heavyweight construction is particularly useful in buildings with continuous occupancy or

where internal conditions must be constant such as a gallery or archive. The high thermal mass
results in a slow thermal response which acts to reduce thermal variation internally.
For intermittent occupancy such as offices, lightweight construction (reduced thermal mass) is
more appropriate, as the building requires a quick thermal response rate in order to react to
changes in use and occupancy.
The lag Time is the time between peak external temperature and peak internal temperature.
Decrement Delay is f = Ti /Te
F = the decrement factor
Ti = maximum swing from the ambient temperature on the inside
Te = the swing in external temperature

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5.2.1. KEYWORDS
Intermittent Occupancy Ocupacion Intermitente
Thermal Response Rate Tasa de Respuesta Termica
Lag time Lapso (Retraso) de Tiempo
Delay Retraso
5.3.THERMAL INSULATION
Insulation has a great potential for reducing CO2 emissions as the energy conserved through its
use far outweighs the energy used in its manufacture.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) -
This is an appraisal of the materials impact, from the point of raw material extraction, the
manufacturing process and its use within the building and through to its final disposal.
Embodied Energy -usually expressed as energy used per kilogram.
The embodied energy of a material is the sum of energy inputs used in the work to make a
product or material.
The choice of insulation is intrinsic to the choice of construction:
• Sheepswool insulation is suitable for ventilated wall construction but not in

unventilated cavities. Sheepswool has the ability to retain water that helps to moderate
temperatures throughout the year.
• Straw bale construction may combine structure and insulation. The straw bales are
renewable, low cost, easy to construct and offer a high level of insulation.

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5.3.1. KEYWORDS
Life Cycle Ciclo de vida Sheepswool Lana de Oveja
Embodied Energy Energia embebida Straw Bale Balas de Paja
Intrinsic Intrinseco Insulation Aislamiento
5.4.SUNSPACES AND THE TROMBE WALL
This is a sun facing wall, separated from the outdoors by glass and an air space. The wall is used
to absorb solar radiation and release it to the interior at night.
The interior wall has vents at the top and bottom, these allow heated air to flow through the
building interior via convection. The vents have one way flaps which prevent convection at
night and may also be closed in summer when the heat gain is not required.
Due to the rate of thermal diffusion through masonry materials (Lag time of thermal mass) the
stored heat will reach the interior surface by the early evening, when it is needed.
Sunspaces use the same principle; providing an intermediate space for the absorption of solar
radiation from which heat transmission to the interior spaces is naturally controlled by the mass
of the interior wall. This is a form of thermal buffering.

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5.4.1. KEYWORDS
Trombe Wall Muro Trombe Sunspaces Espacio Solar
Solar radiation Radiacion Solar Lean-to Inclinarse sobre (Apoyarse)
Vent Respiradero Embedded Integrado, embebido
Heat gain Ganancia de Calor Conservatory Invernadero
Glazing Acristalamiento Thermal Buffering Espacio termico intermedio

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6. VENTILATION
6.1.NATURAL VENTILATION
The process of supplying and removing air through an interior space by natural means.

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6.1.1. KEYWORDS
Wind Turbulence Turbulencia de aire Ventilation Stack Chimenea de Ventilacion
High Occupancy Alta Ocupacion Chimney Chimenea
Cross Ventilation Ventilacion Cruzada Exhausted Air Aire Extraido
Pressure Difference Diferencia de Presion Atria (Atrium) Atrio
6.2.EARTH TUBE VENTILATION
The earth tube is long metal or plastic underground pipe, it is a low-tech passive ventilation
system. Air is drawn into the pipe and as it is drawn towards the building, its heat is transferred
to surrounding soil thus providing cooler, fresh air. The system may be either open or closed
loop configuration.
Open Loop
The open loop allows for outside air to be drawn into the pipes and transferred directly to the
interior space, providing both cooling and ventilation.
Closed Loop
This system does not exchange air with the outside. Instead this system re-circulates air through
the cooling tubes.
Earth temperatures and, consequently, cooling tube performance vary significantly from sunny
to shady locations. Where possible, the inlets in open loop systems and the cooling tubes
themselves should be placed in shady areas.
The tubes must be laid at a depth of at least 1.8m, but at a greater depth the power of changing
air temperature is reduced.
6.2.1. KEYWORDS
Earth tube Tubo Enterrado
Low-tech Baja Tecnologia
Open-loop Circuito Abierto
Closed-loop Circuito Cerrado

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Exchange intercambio
Re-circulate Recircular
6.3.WIND-CATCHERS AND THE SOLAR CHIMNEY
Wind-catchers
Wind power may be utilised for natural cooling and ventilation. The open side of the tower
faces the prevailing wind, transferring fresh air to the main space, thus cooling the interior.
This system does not act to cool internal air, but instead ensures a maintained air flow through
the interior space and it is the rate of this air flow that provides a cooling effect.
Solar Chimney
The solar chimney or thermal chimney is a vertical shaft that uses solar energy to
enhance the natural stack effect through the building.
During the day solar energy heats the chimney and the air within, warmed air rises,
creating an updraft of air in the chimney. The suction created at the base of the chimney
draws in cooler air which cools and ventilates the interior. Often solar chimneys are
painted black to increase their thermal absorbency.

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Passive downdraft cool tower
In this system water is allowed to evaporate from the top of the tower, either by using
evaporative cooling pads or by spraying water. Evaporation cools the incoming air, thus
producing a downdraft of air that will reduce the interior temperature. It can be used
alongside a solar chimney to enhance the cooling effect.
6.3.1. KEYWORDS
Wind-catcher Captador de Viento
Prevailing Wind Viento Predominate
Stack Effect Efecto columna
Downdraft Corriente Descendente
Suction Succion
6.4.SOLAR CHIMNEY CASE STUDY
The CRE building was designed as a demonstration of the EOF (energy efficiency office of the
future) with a view to reducing energy consumption and CO2 emissions by 30%.
Air conditioning is not used in this building, instead, solar chimneys are used to encourage stack
and cross ventilation. Air is drawn in from the shaded, north side of the building or through the
concrete floor slabs.
The floor slabs act to further cool incoming air as the mass of the concrete absorbs available
heat. Cold water may also be circulated through the slabs which is drawn in from a 70m deep
borehole.

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SECTION 1
1. Stack ventilation - for use in hot and still conditions
2. High level BMS controlled ventilation
3. Night time purge through slab
4. Cross ventilation Bypass over cellular offices
5. Cellular office with single sided ventilation
6. Corridor acts as cross over zone
7. Low level manually operated windows
8. High level motorised windows
9. Motorised external glass shading louvres

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SECTION 2

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Unit 19. Materials and finishes
Unit 19 Materials and finishes

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1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 401
2. METALS ................................................................................ 403
2.1. ...FOR STRUCTURE .............................................................................403

2.1.1. Steel ................................................................................................ 403
2.1.2. Aluminium ........................................................................................ 403
2.2. ...FOR AESTHETIC EFFECT.....................................................................404

2.2.1. Weathering Steel - COR-TEN ............................................................... 404
2.2.2. Stainless Steel................................................................................... 405
2.2.3. Copper ............................................................................................. 406
2.3. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................406
3. MASONRY ............................................................................. 406
3.1. CONCRETE BLOCK .............................................................................406
3.2. BRICK ...........................................................................................411
3.3. RECLAIMED BRICKS ...........................................................................414
3.4. AUTOCLAVED AERATED CONCRETE ..........................................................415
3.5. MUD BRICK.....................................................................................416
3.6. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................417
4. TIMBER................................................................................. 417
4.1. SOFTWOOD .....................................................................................417
4.2. HARDWOOD ....................................................................................418
4.3. GREEN OAK ....................................................................................419
4.4. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................419
5. COMPOSITE MATERIALS .......................................................... 420
5.0. ...FOR SOUND .................................................................................420
5.1. ...FOR LIGHT ...................................................................................422
5.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................426
6. ENVIRONMENTAL MATERIALS ................................................... 426
6.1. ENVIRONMENTAL ALTERNATIVES TO CONCRETE BLOCKS ..................................426

400
6.2. PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS ...................................................................429
1. INTRODUCTION
Material selection in architecture is not only about choosing the strongest, cheapest or most
obvious materials available. Architects also choose warm, formal, functional, or local materials
for buildings. And the material options are not limited by only these considerations. The
material selection process is a complex process that is influenced and determined by numerous
preconditions, decisions and considerations. The current material selection tools, however,
focus mainly on the technical aspects of materials. In order to make well-considered and
justifiable material choices, architects have a need for information on the whole spectrum of
aspects considered during the design and selection process.
Every architecture project has its personal and individual character due to the many variable
facets it is built from; building materials are one of these facets. Numerous architecture projects
(think of work by Kengo Kuma, Herzog and Demeuron, or MVRDV) illustrate that the material
choice does not only determine what can be built, but also determines the character of
thebuilding.
Nowadays, an increasing diversity of materials is available for the buildings that architects
design. To choose among this large number of materials, the architect has to take into account
several design criteria. In general, every material selection process is employed to fulfil a simple
need, identifying the best material for a particular application. In order to identify what a "best"
material can be, it is important to understand what aspects are at play while architects are
choosing materials. Moreover, to facilitate a constructive material selection process, the
architects are in need of the proper information on materials (guiding them in taking decisions).
Focusing on materials, this paper aims to identify the different elements contributing to the
material selection process for buildings, and generate a schematic of basic material selection
considerations for an architectural design project.
Contents:
1. Introduction -
1.1 Design Considerations
2. Metals
2.1 ...for structure
-Steel
-Aluminium
2.2...for aesthetic effect
-Corten
-Stainless Steel

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-Copper
2.3KEYWORDS
3. Masonry
3.1 Concrete Block
3.2 Brick
3.3 Reclaimed Bricks
3.4 Autoclaved Aerated Concrete
3.5 Mud Brick
3.6 KEYWORDS
4. Timber
4.1 Softwood
4.2 Hardwood
4.3 Green Oak
4.4 KEYWORDS
5. Composite Materials
5.0 ...for Sound
-Neoprene
5.1 ...for Light
-ETFE
-Dichromic Film
-Fibre Optic
-Okalux
5.2KEYWORDS
6. New and Environmental Materials
6.1 Environmental alternatives to Concrete Blocks
6.2 Phase change materials

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2. METALS
2.1....for structure
2.1.1. Steel
Steel is today a much appreciated building material all over the world and is used in a vast array
of different types of buildings; from huge sport arenas to homes and garages. Many companies
love steel buildings since pre-fabricated steel structures can be rapidly erected and ready to use
in no time.
High-quality steel has chemical and physical characteristics that make it an ideal building
material. If we want to understand why steel can be both strong and adaptable at the same time,
we need to look into the chemical composition of steel. Steel consists mainly of iron, but will
also have smaller or larger carbon content. The iron atoms form sheet-shaped structures. In pure
iron, these structures will slide past each other and make the material quite soft. In steel, the
carbon atoms will block these sliding movements and thereby make the material much stronger.
A metal alloy formed from iron and carbon is therefor much more durable than iron alone.
Steel manufacturers use this fact to produce different types of steel. When you create the main
frame for a steel structure, you will of course prefer very hard and strong steel. For other parts
of the building, flexible and/or light-weight steel can be a much better choice. By varying the
iron-carbon ratio in the steel, it is possible to create steel that is ideal for a wide range of
different purposes. The carbon content will affect such factors as ductility, elasticity, durability,
yield strength and tensile strength.
2.1.2. Aluminium
The physical properties of aluminium make it an ideal material for construction. It is light,
strong, durable and requires minimal maintenance.
• Light weight means less strain on supporting structures, easier handling and reduced
transport costs.
• High strength means less mass for a specific performance.
• Resistance to corrosion means a longer building life even in aggressive environments.

Common industrial pollutants such as ammonia, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
all have very little effect on aluminium. Aluminium is also excellent to use in coastal
and marine environments because the effect of sodium chloride on the metal is minimal.
• Formability means that architects have an infinite range of design possibilities. It can be
cast, rolled and forged as well as extruded to be formed into an unlimited number of
shapes. Extruded sections are particularly well defined with clean edges and fine
detailing. It can be curved, tapered, welded and cut to the most challenging and
dynamic geometries.
• Durability means that buildings have a long life with reduced maintenance
requirements.
• Non-toxicity means that aluminium is safe for plants, animals and humans.

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• Like most metals, aluminium does not burn and can be used to help provide fire
resistance where appropriate.
2.2....for aesthetic effect
2.2.1. Weathering Steel - COR-TEN

Weathering steel, best-known under the trademark COR-TEN or "Corten steel", is a group of
steel alloys which were developed to eliminate the need for painting, and form a stable rust-like
appearance if exposed to the weather for several years.
"Weathering" means that due to their chemical compositions, these steels exhibit increased
resistance to atmospheric corrosion compared to other steels. This is because the steel forms a
protective layer on its surface under the influence of the weather.
The corrosion-retarding effect of the protective layer is produced by the particular distribution
and concentration of alloying elements in it. The layer protecting the surface develops and
regenerates continuously when subjected to the influence of the weather. In other words, the
steel is allowed to rust in order to form the 'protective' coating.
Weathering steel is popularly used in outdoor sculptures, such as in the large Chicago Picasso
sculpture, and as exterior facades, for its rustic antique appearance. Examples include The
Angel of the North, Gateshead, UK and the Humanities and Arts complex at Leeds
Metropolitan University - Broadcasting Place - Leeds, UK.

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It has also been used in bridge and other large structural applications such as the New River
Gorge Bridge, the newer span of the Newburgh-Beacon Bridge, and the creation of the
Australian Centre for Contemporary Art (ACCA).
Using weathering steel in construction presents several challenges. Ensuring that weld-points
weather at the same rate as the other materials may require special welding techniques or
material. Weathering steel is not rustproof in itself. If water is allowed to accumulate in pockets,
those areas will experience higher corrosion rates, so provision for drainage must be made.
Weathering steel is sensitive to salt-laden air environments. In such environments, it is possible
that the protective patina may not stabilize but instead continue to corrode. Hawaii's Aloha
Stadium, built in 1975, is one example of this. The former Omni Coliseum, built in 1972 in
Atlanta, Georgia, never stopped rusting, and eventually large holes appeared in the structure.
This was a major factor in the decision to demolish it just 25 years after construction.
Weathering steel's normal surface weathering can also lead to rust stains on nearby surfaces.
2.2.2. Stainless Steel

The characteristics of stainless steel, notably its corrosion resistance, aesthetic appearance and
mechanical properties, make it ideally suited for many architectural applications. Optimum
performance is achieved by taking into account these characteristics when designing in stainless
steel.
• Grade
The grade of stainless steel has a major influence on its performance and needs to be
matched to the environment.
• Surface Finish
The influence of grade on the performance of stainless steel is fairly well known.
However, it is not so well known that surface finish has an equally important role in
determining corrosion resistance. Poor quality polished finishes can lead to
disappointing performance of stainless steel.
Stainless steel is being used increasingly as a structural material. It is important that its
distinctive properties as compared to standard carbon and alloy structural steels are
understood and built in to the design of structural components.

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2.2.3. Copper
Copper is a fully supported sheet roofing material which is easily formed mechanically or by
hand, on site or in the factory, to suit virtually any three dimensional shapes - including
complex curves and details.
Pitches from 1° to 90° can be accommodated, as well as negative pitches, such as soffits. The
thin nature of copper sheet and the ability to produce slim joints between sheets - particularly
when using the 'long strip' method to avoid horizontal joints - allow large, geometric shaped
roofs and cladding to be finished with a visually continuous covering of quality.
With copper, the designer has real freedom and almost no limitations on roof form.
Colour
The natural development of a patina, with colours changing from salmon pink to chocolate
brown, and eventually to the distinctive light green seen on older roofs in our towns and cities,
is a unique characteristic of copper. A full understanding of this process is important for
building designers.
2.3.KEYWORDS
1 Steel Acero 11 Geometry Geometría

2 Pre-fabricated Prefabricado 12 Non-Toxic No tóxico
3 Chemical Characteristics CaracteristicasQuímicas 13 Weathering Steel Aceroenvejecido
4 Physical Characteristics CarasteristicasFísicas 14 Rusty Oxidado
5 Adaptable Adaptable 15 Protective Layer Capa de
proteccion
6 Aluminium Aluminio 16 Surface Superficie
7 Durable Durable 17 Drainage Drenaje
8 Extrude Extruir 18 Stainless Steel AceroInoxidable
9 Weld Soldar 19 Copper Cobre
10 Dynamic Dinamico 20 Sheet Lamina
3. MASONRY
3.1.Concrete Block
Though history records the use of concrete blocks by the Romans, Greeks and even Egyptians
(some of the two-tonne blocks that make up the Pyramids are believed to be a primitive form of
concrete), modern-type blocks were first cast, albeit in modest quantities, in around the middle
of the nineteenth century. In 1827, Joseph Aspidin devised the basic mix that we would still

406
recognise today. The mix, cast in wooden moulds, consisted of powdered limestone and clay
mixed with water.
In the early twentieth century block manufacturing became an established industry. The earliest
blocks manufactured in the UK were made using cement mixed with locally available
aggregates - often waste products of industrial processes such as breeze (cinders retrieved from
gasworks and coke ovens - from the French 'braise' meaning 'hot coals') and clinker (blast
furnace slag).
These early lightweight blocks were popular as internal partition walls because of their ease-
of-use and cheapness, but it was only as a result of the development of cavity walls and the
advent of mass housing programmes of the post-war years that the industry dramatically
expanded.
Cavity walling became adopted in the 1920s (led by house-builders Costains) because, although
slightly more expensive to build, the perceived advantage was that the technique successfully
overcame the problem of water penetration that traditionally plagued solid masonry wall
construction. Early cavity walls used brick in both leaves, but as the economics of using a
cheaper substitute became apparent, concrete block largely replaced brick as the inner leaf from
the 1950s onwards.
Today, the immense versatility of concrete blocks is demonstrated in their use throughout a
building from its foundation walls, through cavity walls, monolithic walls, partition walls,
separating walls and as a component of 'beam and block' flooring. Concrete blocks'
advantageous properties are reflected in their myriad of variations of strength, insulating and
sound-reducing properties.
Dense Aggregate Block
In use from the 1940s onwards, dense aggregate blocks are very much the work-horse of the
construction industry. Their distinctive properties of durability and strength make them an ideal
and cost-effect solution for all types of load-bearing walls. Dense aggregate concrete blocks are
manufactured from cement, sand and aggregates.
• Typical thermal conductivity: 0.70 - 1.28 W/mK
Advantages:
• Durable
• Reusable, particularly where lime mortars have been used

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• High thermal mass
• High strength
• Products available with recycled aggregate
Disadvantages:
• Use of virgin aggregates and sand causes land or marine degradation and resource
depletion.
• Non-renewable materials
• Use of cement contributes to global warming.
• Poor insulating properties.
• Larger blocks can inflict strain on block layers' backs and limbs.
Lightweight Aggregate Block
Produced in greater volume, but less strong than dense blocks, lightweight blocks are used in
both internal and external walls where loading is slightly more restricted or as infill blocks in
beam and block flooring. Their main advantage over dense aggregate blocks comes from a
combination of higher insulating properties and a lighter unit weight. The lighter block enables
time and material cost savings through easier handling and larger units.
Lightweight blocks are manufactured from cement together with one of a variety of natural or
man-made expanded aggregates including: granulated / foamed blast-furnace slag, expanded
clay or shale, furnace bottom ash (FBA), pulverised fuel ash (PFA), or the less common pumice
(a volcanic material) and vermiculite. The density of the aggregate is generally proportional to
the strength of the block - so for example 'super-lightweight' aggregates such as pumice and
vermiculite used for their excellent thermal performance, feature a relatively low compressive
strength.

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Advantages:
• Moderate thermal mass
• Makes use of secondary aggregates.
• Good insulating properties
• Durable
• Reusable, particularly where lime mortar has been used
• Good workability
• Products available with recycled aggregate
Disadvantages:
• Range of available strengths
• Use of virgin clay and shale causes land degradation and resource depletion
• High embodied energy involved in the production of some aggregates
• Use of cement contributes to global warming.
Aerated Concrete or 'Aircrete' Block
First produced in Sweden in 1923 and used in the UK since the 1960s (when they were known
as 'cellular' or 'gas' concrete blocks), aerated concrete or 'aircrete' blocks are the lightest of the
family of concrete blocks. Aerated blocks are distinguished by their capacity to perform a dual
structural / insulation function. Though limited to structural applications in low-rise
construction and partitions as well as a component of curtain walling in higher buildings,
aerated blocks can perform a similar range of functions as dense and lightweight blocks. The
blocks are made from cement, lime, sand, pulverised fuel ash (PFA) and water. PFA is mixed

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with sand and water to form a slurry. This is then heated before being mixed with cement, lime
and a small amount of aluminium sulphate powder. The aluminium reacts with the lime to form
bubbles of hydrogen. As the mixture expands into a 'cake' the hydrogen is diffused and replaced
by air. When the mixture is partially set, it is cut to block size and transferred to an autoclave
where it is high pressure steam-cured to develop strength.
Advantages:
• Moderate thermal mass
• Uses industrial waste (PFA) as a prime constituent.
• Very good insulating properties.
• Based on volume, aerated blocks contain around 25% less embodied energy than other
concrete blocks
• Good workability
• Lighter weight saves energy in transportation
• Good sound absorption properties
• Reusable if dismantled carefully, particularly if lime mortar has been used.
Disadvantages:
• Vulnerable to moisture penetration if unprotected
• Prone to impact damage
• Use of aluminium adds embodied energy

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Environmental Impact of Concrete Blocks
The major environmental impact caused in the manufacturing of concrete blocks derives from
the use of cement. The manufacture of cement is responsible for between 5 - 7% (depending on
source) of the world's carbon dioxide emissions. 40% of the total cement emissions are due to
the use of fossil fuels (usually coal) to heat the cement kilns to 1500°C and the remaining 60%
is from the transformation of limestone at high temperatures ('decarbonation').
Most aggregates derive from land-based sources, though approximately 20% of sand and gravel
is dredged from the seabed. The quarrying, processing and transportation of land aggregates
contributes to the depletion of resources, degradation of the landscape and the consumption of
water and energy. Marine extraction continues to provoke debate over the long-term effect of
offshore dredging, particularly on coastal erosion, fisheries and other marine life.
Solutions
• The most effective alternative to cement is ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBS), which can typically replace up to 50% of Portland cement in a concrete mix.
• Pulverised fuel ash (PFA) is now routinely used as a cement substitute - 15% being the
optimum in maintaining the compressive strength of aggregate blocks and 50% in
aerated blocks.
Recycled Aggregates
Products are available on the market that incorporate recycled aggregate to replace virgin
quarried aggregate. Driven in part by the Aggregates Levy, introduced in 2002 to reduce the
environmental impact of quarrying, the concrete industry is looking instead to utilising some of
the 30m tonnes per year of construction and demolition wastes (C&DW) produced in the UK. A
specific type of RA is recycled concrete aggregate (RCA), the performance of which is superior
to recycled aggregates generally and enables replacement of up 20% of virgin aggregates in
concrete.
Secondary aggregates are the by-products of other extraction or industrial operations. Secondary
aggregates, including such like as colliery spoil, china clay waste, foundry sands and blast
furnace slags, when used in concrete, reduce the demand on natural aggregates whilst
simultaneously diverting significant quantities of waste from landfill.
3.2.Brick
The use of bricks in the Modern period stems from a revival of brick making in the late 13th -
early 14th centuries in response to a combination of a shortage of local stone and the influence
of Europe where brick was used extensively. By the middle of the 16th century, brick making
had become a distinct industry competing with stone as a structural material.
As the industry grew, bricks became cheaper - leading to its travelling downwards through the
social spectrum. With the introduction of the railways in the 19th century, significant
consignments of brick could for the first time be transported from the brickfields, such as those

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in Bedfordshire, to the conurbations of London, the Midlands and the industrial North where
they were used to build terraces for housing a rapidly expanding working class.
In the 20th century, mechanisation largely replaced making bricks by hand and this with other
innovations helped fuel the building booms of the inter-war years and again in the 1960s and
70s following the rise in post war population.
Brick is a traditional building material. Heed is still paid to its almost unique quality of
conveying a 'genius locii' upon any building built from local clay. Brick construction itself
continues to be regarded and taught as one of the fundamental construction types of
contemporary building, and the industry itself continues to flourish.
If the last few decades have brought opportunities through technological development, so too
have they brought a new scrutiny in which fired clay bricks are examined against their
environmental impact. Within the current debate concerning sustainable materials, brick is
lined-up against a range of traditional and new materials. The brick industry will be hoping to
match its strong credentials of durability with tradition against alternative forms of construction
offering, particularly, reduced embodied energy.
Clay Facing and Common Bricks
Clay facing and common bricks represent by far the greater output from manufacturers. Clay
bricks can come in a variety of forms, but one notable difference is that between perforated and
solid where the former is both lighter and slightly more resource efficient.
Manufacturing
The manufacturing process can be loosely divided into 4 stages.
1.Extraction (or Clay 'Winning')
Clay is removed from quarries and transported to the factory (though traditionally factories were
usually adjacent to the quarries). Once it has reached the factory the clay is ground down using
rollers into fine powder before being mixed with water.
2. Forming
Bricks can be formed by one of two basic processes:
Extrusion - Clay is forced through an extruder and out through a die into a continuous brick-
shaped column. The column is cut into single bricks ready for the dryers. Extruded bricks are
generally perforated but cannot be frogged.
Soft mud moulding -Clay is 'thrown' into a mould which has been pre-lined with a releasing
agent such as sand, oil or water. The excess clay is removed from the top and the brick released

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from the mould. Prior to mechanisation, this was all undertaken by hand - but the labour-
intensive nature of the process and its consequential expense means that in modern time
'handmade' bricks tend to be reserved for niche applications and 'specials'.
3. Drying
To prevent moisture from causing bricks to explode in the kilns, they are first dried before
being fired. Drying takes place in conditions of between 80-120ºC, lasts for between 18 - 40
hours and can cause shrinkage of up to 10% on each dimension.
4. Firing
The dried clay is fired to fuse clay particles and impurities ('vitrification') to produce the hard
brick in its completed form and livery. Bricks can be fired in either small batches in
'Intermittent' kilns or the more energy - efficient and larger capacity 'Continuous kilns'. On
completion of firing the bricks are selected and packaged - a process that can be either manual
or automated.
Advantages:
• Reusable if used with lime mortar
• Downcyclable into low-grade fill / aggregate
• Durable
• Large reserves
Disadvantages:
• Un-reclaimable if used with Portland cement mortar
• High embodied energy
• High output of CO2
• The firing of bricks can produce a bag of pollutants including fluorides, chlorides and
oxides of nitrogen and sulphur. Strict limits are placed on emissions in the UK.
• Clay extraction has a long-term environmental impact on the landscape
• Transportation can add considerably to the embodied energy
Environmental Impact of Bricks
Fired clay bricks are responsible for the greater of environmental impacts amongst bricks. The
firing of clay consumes large amounts of energy produced largely from fossil fuels - causing
release of CO2. The primary source of air pollution is the firing kiln. Emissions are from the
combustion of fuel and gaseous emissions driven off as the clay is fired, including sulfur
dioxide, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride. Factors that may affect emissions include
raw material composition and moisture content, kilnfuel type, kiln operating parameters, and
plant design.

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The other major impact is the degradation of the landscape resulting from the extraction of raw
materials. Clay pits are a familiar sight in the UK, in some cases appearing to dominate the
landscape and often replete with retired chimneys and decaying infrastructure.
Solutions
The brick industry in the UK has worked hard over the last decade to reduce its environmental
impact. For example, figures supplied by the BDA in 2009 show that energy consumed per
tonne of output fell from 5,100,130 MWh in 2001 to 4,193,104 Mwh in 2007 (though there was
a modest rise in the following year attributed to an economic downcycle). During the same
period plant investment went up from £119M to £167M in 2008 as new more efficient plant was
brought online and economies were made in the use of potable water, landfill gas from
exhausted pits, reduction of waste to landfill and an increased efficiency of road transport.
Effort too goes into rehabilitating many landscapes previously blighted by brick extraction. One
of the most successful techniques is to created water-based nature reserves.
3.3.Reclaimed Bricks
With an estimated 2.5bn bricks1 resulting from demolition each year, it is not surprising that
there is a healthy market in reclaimed bricks. More of a surprise might be in the knowledge that
only 5% of the 2.5bn are actually reclaimed - 50% are crushed and used inhardcore and fill.
The Demolition Protocol states that bricks have a recovery potential of 10% - rising to 100% in
some buildings.
But what restricts the current recovery of usable bricks is complicated, though two factors are
salient: the uncompetitive pricing of reclaimed bricks compared with new units but also the
(diminishing) quantity of bricks available from pre-1940s buildings which include lime rather
than the harder modern cement mortars which are more difficult to remove from the brick.
However, there continues to be high levels of availability, with even large builders' merchants
now listed alongside the traditional specialist suppliers.

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The quality of new bricks is governed by BS EN 771-1 applied to the manufacturing process,
but this, as might be expected, is a standard unavailable to reclaimed bricks. Samples from a
batch of reclaimed bricks can be tested, but the results cannot be extended to establish the
overall quality of the consignment. However, suppliers can go far in providing assurances and
this combined with modest assumptions about the likely performance of the bricks can result in
successful use.
Advantages:
• Reuseable
• Durable
• Negligible embodied energy if sourced locally
• No toxic emissions from a manufacturing process
• Diverts demolition waste from landfill
Disadvantage:
• Issues concerning quality assurance
3.4.Autoclaved Aerated Concrete
This is a lightweight precast building material that simultaneously provides structure,

insulation, fire and mould resistance. The material can be refined to provide a high level
of insulation and can be easily manipulated/modified onsite, making it quick and easy
to install due to its high workability.
This material has low embodied energy and a low environmental impact in all phases of
its life cycle. Its reduced weight also means reduced transport emissions and it is made
entirely from natural raw materials.

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3.5.Mud Brick
Unfired clay is one of civilisation's oldest form of building material with origins located as far
back as 14000 BC around the Lower Nile.
Following in the wake of the widespread use of unfired clay in, particularly, Germany, UK
architects are increasingly attracted to the use of unfired clay in construction because of its
perceived benefits to indoor air quality as well as its very low environmental impact.
Commercially available unfired clay bricks are commonly made of an extruded mixture of clay,
sand and water with sawdust added as a binder, which is then air-dried.
Advantages:
• Reusable and recyclable
• Very low embodied energy
• Very low waste
• Large reserves
• No emissions during manufacture
• Can help to regulate humidity
Disadvantages:
• Generally non load-bearing
• Will degrade with prolonged exposure to water
• Transportation can add considerably to the embodied energy
• Can place restrictions on internal decoration.

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3.6.KEYWORDS
1 Concrete Block Bloque de Hormigon 21 Dredge Dragar

2 Mould Moho 22 Quarry Cantera
3 limestone PiedraCaliza 23 Brick Ladrillo
4 Clay Arcilla 24 Extract Extraer
5 Aggregate Agregado 25 Form Formar
6 Partition Wall Muroparticion 26 Dry Secar
7 Inner leaf Hoja interior 27 Fired Cocido
8 Dense Denso 28 Fossil Fuel Combustible
Fosil
9 Reusable Reusable 29 Air Pollution Polucion del aire
10 Mortar Mortero 30 Combustion Combustion
11 Thermal Mass Masatermica 31 Chimney Chimenea
12 Recycled Aggregate Agregadoreciclado 32 Reclaimed Reciclada
13 Degradation Degradacion 33 Hardcore Nucleoduro
14 Depletion Reduccion, Disminucion 34 Manipulated Manipulado
15 Cement Cemento 35 Modified Modificado
16 Lightweight Ligero 36 Raw Material Materia Prima
17 Embodied Energy Energiaembebida 37 Unfired Sin cocer
18 Aerated Concrete Hormigonaligerado 38 Sawdust Serrin
19 Curtain Walling Murocortina 39 Humidity Humedad
20 Environmental ImpactoMedioambiental 40 Decoration Decoracion
Impact
4. TIMBER
4.1.Softwood
These are produced by the cone bearing trees (conifers). They are generally evergreen and
have easily recognizable needle-like leaves. They grow in cold or cool temperate climates.
These are countries such as Canada, Scandinavia and Northern Russia.
They grow much quicker than hardwoods and are cheaper, softer and easier to work. Their
seeds are held in cones. Common examples are: Pine, Fir, Spruce, Larch, Cedar and the Giant
Redwood.

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Most structural timer used in buildings is softwood. All timber used in structure must be dry
graded. This is a measure of how much moisture the wood contains. Moisture content is
fundamental to the performance of timber.
4.2.Hardwood
Wood from broad-leafed trees that lose their leaves in winter, such as oak, ash, cherry, maple,
walnut and poplar is known as hardwood. Hardwood is generally considered better for furniture
construction than softwood (see below) as it has strength and stability. Conversely, it can
present difficulties in carving or detailing. There are many tropical hardwoods that come from
tropical forests, such as mahogany, teak and ipe.
Hardwood has a higher density and is therefore harder; it does however have a slower growth
rate which reduces its potential to be 100% sustainable.

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4.3.Green Oak
Green Oak is unseasoned oak, which means that it has high moisture content. A green oak
bench will slowly air dry on average an inch per thickness per year depending on ambient
conditions.
As the bench seasons, each piece takes on its own individual character. Small cracks and splits
may develop; however, they will stabilise over time and will not affect the durability or
aesthetic integrity of the work.
As green oak is naturally strong and very resistant to decay it needs no chemical treatments or
preservatives making it maintenance free.
Therefore it is the natural choice for eco-friendly outdoor furniture, where it will naturally
season and age gracefully to a beautiful silver colour.
4.4.KEYWORDS
1 Softwood Madera tierna 11 Air-dry Secado al aire

2 Hardwood Madera noble 12 Ambient CondicionesAmbientes
Conditions
3 Timber Madera 13 Split Dividir
4 Conifer Conifera 14 Aesthetic Estetica
5 Evergreen Perenne 15 Decay Descomponerse
6 Moisture Content Contenido de 16 Chemical Tratamientoquimico
humedad Treatment
7 Density Densidad 17 Preservative Conservante
8 Growth Rate Indice de
crecimiento
9 Green Oak Roble verde
10 season Temporada

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5. COMPOSITE MATERIALS
5.0....for Sound
Good acoustic design takes into account issues such as reverberation time, sound absorption
of the finish materials, echoes and external noise.
All materials have some sound absorbing properties. Incident sound energy which is not
absorbed must be reflected, transmitted or dissipated. A material's sound absorbing properties
can be described as a sound absorption coefficient in a particular frequency range.
There are three basic categories of sound absorbers:
Porous Materials - commonly formed as matted or spun fibres.
Panel (membrane) Absorbers - these have an impervious surface placed over an airspace.
Resonators - these are created by holes or slots connected to an enclosed volume of trapped air.
Acoustic absorption is the property of any material that changes the acoustic energy of sound
waves into another form, often heat, which it to some extent retains, as opposed to sound energy
that material reflects or conducts.
Porous absorbers
Common porous absorbers include carpet, drapes, aerated plaster, fibrous mineral wool and
glass fibre, open-cell foam, and felt porous ceiling tile.
-These materials allow air to flow into a cellular structure where sound energy is converted to
heat. Porous absorbers are the most commonly used sound absorbing materials.
Thickness plays an important role in sound absorption by porous materials. Fabric applied
directly to a hard, massive substrate such as plaster or gypsum board does not make an efficient
sound absorber due to the very thin layer of fibre. Thicker materials generally provide more bass
sound absorption or damping.
Panel Absorbers
Typically, panel absorbers are non-rigid, non-porous materials which are placed over an
airspace that vibrates in response to sound pressure exerted by adjacent air molecules. Common
panel absorbers include thin wood panelling over framing and lightweight impervious ceilings
and floors.

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• Panel absorbers are usually most efficient at absorbing low frequencies.
Neoprene
The Sound House in Sheffield, England is a building for music practice, performance and
recording studios.
The acoustic performance was particularly important; the building is wrapped in a black rubber
called Neoprene which is waterproof and very low maintenance but also highly sound
insulating - preventing noise entering or escaping the building.
Resonators - Resonators typically act to absorb sound in a narrow frequency range.
Resonators include some perforated materials and materials that have openings. The classic
example of a resonator is the Helmholtz resonator, which has the shape as a bottle. The resonant
frequency is governed by the size of the opening, the length of the neck and the volume of air
trapped in the chamber.

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5.1....for Light
ETFE
ETFE is transparent foil often used in place of glazing. It weighs approximately 1% of glass, yet
it is very strong, tear resistant and is self-cleaning.
The Eden Project (Cornwall, England) is an efficient geodesic structurewith ETFE cladding
panels. The panels are made from several layers of thin UV-transparent ETFE film which are
sealed around their perimeter and inflated to create a large cushion. The air between layers
provides the necessary insulation for the creation of a tempered internal climate.
The panels are adjustable, on a cool day they may be further inflated to provide a greater level
of insulation whilst on a warmer day they can be partially deflated to allow for heat loss through
the panels.
ETFE has a very high level of translucency and transmits up to 95% of light and also allows
for UV transmission which is essential for the plants grown beneath.
Dichromic Film
These facades incorporate a multi- coloured foil that depending on the time of day and the angle
of incidence, a variety of different colours are reflected, animating the courtyards.
With this material Un Studio were able to create what they describe as a 'Highly contemporary
form of calmness' in the space around the La Defense Offices and the coloured foils reflect the
larger urban context.

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In their Galleria Department store, also completed in 2004, 4330 glass discs were mounted onto
an existing concrete skin.
The discs each include dichroic film that create a mother of pearl effect during the day but also
incorporate programmable LED lights that allow the building to come to life in a multitude of
ways during the evening.
Fibre Optic
• Translucent Concrete
Also known as light transmitting concrete, this material has embedded webbed fibre optic
cables, making the stone appear transparent. The fibers run parallel to each other, transferring
light between the two surfaces of the concrete. They may also transmit colour.

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• The Seed Cathedral
This is a sculptural structure containing 60,000 acrylic rods that form the building façade. They
draw daylight inside and each contains a light source that illuminates the interior even at night.
The optical cables are allowed to blow in the wind; creating a dynamic lighting effect within the
dark inner chamber

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Okalux
Okalux insulated panes contain a capillary inlay which ensures that daylight is scattered deep
into the room.
The light transmission level can be adjusted to the special lighting requirements of the building's
situation. The insulated glass provides excellent protection from the sun, glare protection and
excellent heat insulation.
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art
The contemporary addition to this museum is known as the 'Bloch Building'. IT is a series of
glazed blocks which greatly contrast and complement the original classical museum building.
Diffused daylight provides necessary illumination of sub terrain exhibition spaces without
exposing works of art to UV radiation which often causes the bleaching of colours.
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas city.
Steven Holl Architects
The material offers a high level of thermal insulation; the capillary tubes act as small air
cushions, preventing convection of gases in the inter-pane cavity, thus reducing heat losses.

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5.2.KEYWORDS
1 Sound Sonido 16 Rigid Rigido

2 Acoustic Acustica 17 Airspace Espacio de aire
3 Reverberation Time Tiempo de 18 Rubber Goma
reverberacion
4 Finish Materials Materiales de 19 Neoprene Neopreno
acabado
5 Echo Eco 20 Geodesic Estructurageodesica
Structure
6 Absorb Absorber 21 Inflated Inflado
7 Incident Sound Energy Energia del 22 Translucent Translucido
sonidoincidente
8 Reflect Reflejar 23 Foil Lamina, film
9 Transmit Transmitir 24 Animate Animar
10 Dissipate Disipar 25 Translucent Hormigontranslucido
Concrete
11 Frequency Frecuencia 26 Acrylic Acrilico
12 Porous Material Material poroso 27 Capillary Capilar
13 Resonator Resonador 28 Scattered Disperso
14 Cellular Structure Estructura cellular 29 Diffused Difuso
15 Dampen Mojar
6. Environmental Materials
6.1.Environmental alternatives to Concrete Blocks
Honeycomb clay block
Honeycomb clay blocks (often known as 'Ziegel') have been a common component of wall
construction in Europe for many years. The blocks can be used both as the inner leaf in cavity
walls or as a single skin for external load-bearing construction. As well as their use in walls,
clay honeycomb blocks can be used in many of the same applications as concrete blocks. The
blocks are formed with a cellular structure of vertical perforations that reduces the material
quantity as well as weight whilst providing an increased thermal performance. Blocks are
assembled through dry vertical interlocking and thin-mortar horizontal jointing.

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• Typical thermal conductivity: 0.10 W/mK
Advantages:
• Moderate - good thermal mass
• Good insulating properties
• Recyclable
• Reusable if dismantled carefully, particularly if lime mortar has been used
• Jointing system reduces thermal bridging
• Lower embodied energy than concrete blocks
• T&G vertical dry jointing reduces the quantity of mortar required
• Enables rapid construction when using experienced block layers
Disadvantages:
• Clay extraction causes land degradation
• Non-renewable material
• Laying method might be unfamiliar to most block layers
• Block dimensions are not UK modular
• Vulnerable to damage from following-on trades
• Doesn't allow for use with standard steel and concrete lintels
• Imported blocks add transportation to the embodied energy
Hemp block
Hemp blocks, although new to the market, are based upon a cast or spray-on technology that has
been available for several years. The blocks are supplied in either load-bearing or non-load-
bearing formats. Hemp blocks are manufactured using hemp blended with a lime and cement

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binder. Because of the bio-composite nature of the material, hemp block's unique environmental
benefit is the carbon sequestration that can be offset against other areas of a building's
construction.
• Thermal conductivity: 0.36 (structural) and 0.11 (thermal) W/mK
Advantages:
• Hemp is a renewable material
• Very good insulating properties
• High thermal mass
• 'Carbon negative' through sequestration of CO2 during plant growth
• Reusable if dismantled carefully
• Recyclable
• Biodegradable
• Hygroscopic - provides a degree of humidity control
• Lightweight
Disadvantages:
• Use of cement contributes to global warming
• Use of aluminium in the binder adds to embodied energy
• Relatively untested
Unfired clay block
Blocks manufactured from unfired clay are still uncommon in modern construction - this is
despite their excellent environmental credentials. Though limited to non-load-bearing

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applications, unfired clay blocks are suitable for internal partitions and infill to framed
construction.
6.2.Phase change materials
The incorporation of thermal mass may require additional structure and uses valuable floor area.
As a contemporary alternative to the use of thermal mass, new materials have been engineered
to contain phase change capsules.
PCMs work by melting and solidifying at a specific temperature. In a solid state the material
absorbs heat and when the material reaches a predetermined temperature it melts, releasing the
stored energy. The PCM will then re-solidify and the process is repeated.
The PCM is encapsulated and these capsules are incorporated within the required construction
material such as drywall plasterboard and glazing.
PCM's are also referred to as Latent heat storage units as they utilise the heat transferred as a
material changes state.

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Unit 20. Construction Site
Unit 20 Construction Site

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1. SITE BASICS ......................................................................... 432
1.1. SITE CONTEXT .................................................................................432
1.2. SITE ANALYSIS ................................................................................434
1.3. SITE PARAMETERS .............................................................................438
1.4. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................439
2. CDM SITE SAFETY .................................................................. 440
2.1. REGULATIONS ..................................................................................440
2.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................444
3. CONSTRUCTION SITE.............................................................. 444
3.1. SITE CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................................444
3.2. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................447
4. SITE DOCUMENTATION ........................................................... 447
4.1. PERMISSION LETTER ..........................................................................447
4.2. KEY DRAWINGS ................................................................................449
5. BODIES ................................................................................ 450
5.1. ARB ARCHITECTS REGISTRATION BOARD ..................................................450
5.2. RIBA ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS ........................................451
5.3. CURRENT RIBA PROJECTS ...................................................................452
5.4. OTHER RELATED ORGANISATIONS ...........................................................453
5.5. KEYWORDS ..................................................................................453
1. SITE BASICS
1.1.Site Context
Occasionally through its location, resources or cultural significance, a site provokes a project
to come into being. Most often, development is triggered simply by availability or the
opportunity for re-use of a site. The demands of the site can transcend those of a client because

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every building, no matter how private, belongs to the public: its users include those who walk
around it every day, whether they are invited to enter or not.
A single building is only a fragment of an urban, rural or suburban composition and will
never be experienced in isolation. Therefore, it cannot be designed in isolation. The physical
composition of a site contributes to making it a distinct place through the particular
arrangement, type, scale and materiality of buildings or topography. Overlaid on its physical
composition is a social, political, economic and cultural context, which influences the way that
people use the site and which gives it its character. The character of a place is what
distinguishes it from other places. This gives meaning to our experience of being there; it can
inspire the users of the place and the architects asked to design there.
Our shared human reaction to a place is created by the dynamic of the physical site and its
cultural context. This dynamic needs to be understood and interrogated by the architect
preparing to design there. The information to be sought is tangible and intangible, objective and
subjective. It ranges from the physical measurements and geology of a site to the atmosphere
of that place at different times of the day or the emotional reaction of its inhabitants, perhaps to
a significant event in the past.
The architect must visit, observe, participate in and record the site.

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1.2.Site Analysis
Site analysis is an inventory completed as a preparatory step to site planning, a form of urban
planning which involves research, analysis, and synthesis. It primarily deals with basic data as it
relates to a specific site. The topic itself branches into the boundaries of architecture, landscape
architecture, engineering, real estate development, economics, and urban planning.
Site analysis is an element in site planning and design. Kevin A. Lynch, an urban planner
developed an eight cycle step process of site design, in which the second step is site analysis,
the focus of this section.
The site design process is divided up into three sections; research phase, analysis phase, and
synthesis phase. These three phases are divided into the eight chronological steps in the design
process.
• Research phase: The first step is defining the problem and its definition. This is part of
the research phase. The site design and site planning process begins with the initial
problem to be solved. This is started by a client contracting a planner to work with a
particular site.
Analysis phase: The next step involves programming the site as well as site and user analysis.
There are numerous site elements related to the analysis during this phase. This is part of the
analysis phase in site planning.
Synthesis phase: From the analysis, a program is developed, which is part of the synthesis
phase. The third step deals with schematic design of a site plan as well as a preliminary cost
estimate for the site. Step four involves more developed designs and a detailed cost estimate.
Step five is the construction documents for the plan. Bidding and contracting for the project
follows as step six. Construction then will take place as step seven. The final step, step eight, in
the site design process is occupation and management of the site.

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Elements
Numerous elements go into a given site analysis. These elements include location,
neighbourhood context, site and zoning, legal elements, natural physical features, man-made
features, circulation, utilities, sensory, human and cultural, and climate components. The
following elements typically are considered in most sites:
• Location: The site should be related to major streets or landmarks previously existing.
Aerial photographs help in this assessment stage. There should be documentation of
distances and time from major places. This should be completed by either driving or
walking the distance first-hand.
• Neighbourhood context: Zoning of the neighbourhood is important and information of

this type can typically be found at the municipal planning department of the site.
Numerous issues at this stage require direct observation. Features of this sort include
architectural patterns, street lighting, and condition of existing buildings. This would
also include the immediate surroundings of the site. The reaction of the surrounding
buildings towards the site and people moving around should be analysed.
• Size and zoning: Site boundaries can be located by either verifying the dimensions
physically or contacting the county tax assessor's office. Zoning classifications, set-
backs, height restrictions, allowable site coverage, uses, and parking requirements are
obtained by obtaining zoning classifications from a zoning map, which can be located
from the city planning department.
• Legal: Typical legal information can be obtained from the deed to the property. The
deed is held by the owner of the title insurance company. In this deed is information

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such as the property description, present ownership, and the governmental jurisdiction
the site is located in, and the city or county.
• Natural physical features: Most of this information will be derived from the topographic
features on the site. A contour map of this magnitude can be located from the survey
engineer. Drainage problems as well as existing natural features of trees, ground cover,
ground texture, and soil conditions on the site should be directly observed.
• Man-made features: Features located on the site such as buildings, walls, fences, patios,
plazas, bus stop shelters should be noted. The site and location of such features should
be directly measured. Documentation of existing historical districts should be made,
some of which may already have reports completed. Locating this information can be
done through the municipal planning department for the site.
• Circulation: The uses of streets, roads, alleys, sidewalks, and plazas are important in
this inventory step. It is not necessarily an analysis of these elements but more an
analysis of what occurs on these circulation gateways.
• Utilities: Information for utilities concerning the site can be found through the utility
departments and companies in the local area. Generally this company has a print of the
drawing of this information needed. Information in this print includes the location of all
utilities and their locations around or on the site itself.

436
• Sensory: Much of the sensory information collected will be done through first-hand
experience. This type of information is obtained from sketching and photographs
(sometimes aerial photographs). Direct observation of other sensory elements of noise,
odours, smoke, and pollutant areas must also be completed.
• Human and cultural: This information can be obtained through census statistics on the
neighbourhood. Information regarding these statistics is available from the local
municipal planning agency. This information includes activities among people on the
site and their relationships to these activities.
• Climate: This information can be obtained through the local weather service. Conditions
such as rainfall, snowfall, humidity, and temperature over months must be considered
and analysed. The sun-path and vertical sun angles throughout an entire year are
important to note.
Lynch Site Analysis
Lynch created analysis maps highlighting the 5 key elements of a place...
• paths, the streets, sidewalks, trails, and other channels in which people travel;
• edges, perceived boundaries such as walls, buildings, and shorelines;
• districts, relatively large sections of the city distinguished by some identity or

character;
• nodes, focal points, intersections or loci;
• landmarks, readily identifiable objects which serve as external reference points.

437
1.3.Site Parameters
There are a variety of parameters or constraints that architects have to deal with in the U.K.
The main predicament with building in the U.K is that big businesses can buy large open sites
or fields (often just to sit on the plot of land) with fewer regulations or hassle. Brown Field
sites in the cities and conversions are covered by a range of required regulations dependant on
where you live
- A building can have a listed status or lie in one of these categories; English heritage, areas of
'outstanding natural beauty' or SSSI. An archaeological survey might also be required.
- An area that requires a Bat Survey, Badger Survey or other conservation surveys.
Some main considerations are;
• The permitted development distance. Right of Access and Right to Light Laws.
• Drainage Certification including possible survey for pipe cracks.
• Ground Bearing Capacity and Topographical Surveys whilst a contamination survey

might be required.
• If building on the site of an old petrol station more vents would be required at ground
level and/or use of a radon resistant membrane.

438
• Asbestos if in a public building must be sealed appropriately. Overhead cables also need
attention.
• A Dry and Wet Rot survey.
• If building social housing a survey by Housing CORP, that includes the police, needs to
be carried out.
• Traffic noise Surveys and when converting a party wall build a thermal survey is also
required.
• Way leaves - the right of way through private property for the laying of water pipes and
sewers.
• Certain regulations exist for specific space quality for example the BB95 for schools.
Restrictive covenants could be placed on a site when built and continued over to the house
deeds when bought. Obtaining a legal document from the council before starting on site is
always recommended.
1.4.KEYWORDS
1 Location Localización 27 Synthesis SIntesis

2 Cultural Importancia 28 Cost Estimate Estimacion de coste
Significance cultural
3 Site Solar 29 Zoning Zonificacion
4 Opportunity Oportunidad 30 Circulation Circulacion
5 Re-use Reusar 31 Public Utility Empresa de serviciopublico
6 Private Privado 32 Climate Clima
7 Public Publico 33 Landmark Hito
8 Urban Urbano 34 Aerial FotografíaAerea
Photograph
9 Rural Rural 35 Municipal Municipal
10 Suburban Suburbano 36 Pattern Patron
11 Composition Composición 37 Street Light Farola
12 Isolation Aislamiento 38 Site Boundary Limite (linde) del solar
13 Distinct Place Lugar definido 39 Height Restriccion de altura
Restriction
14 Scale Escala 40 Site Coverage Cobertura del solar
15 Topography Topografía 41 Parking Aparcamiento
16 Cultural Contexto cultural 42 Deed Escritura
Context

439
17 Character Caracter 43 Contour Map Mapa de contorno

18 Measurement Medida 45 Census Censo
19 Geology Geología 46 Identity Identidad
20 Inhabitant Habitante 47 Focal Point Puto central o focal
21 Observe Observar 48 Parameter/ Parametro/ Restriccion
Constraint
22 Site Analysis Analisis del solar 49 Brownfield Site Zona industrial abandonada
23 Inventory Inventario 50 Listed Status Estatuscatalogado
24 Planning Planeamiento 51 Archeological Peritacion/
Survey inspeccion/medicionarqueologica
25 Urban Planner Urbanista
26 Research Investigador
2. CDM SITE SAFETY

2.1.Regulations
The CDM Regulations are aimed at improving the overall management and co-ordination of
health, safety and welfare throughout all stages of a construction project to reduce the large
number of serious and fatal accidents and cases of ill health which happen every year in the
construction industry. The HSE (Health and Safety Executive) says that the new regulations
emphasise planning and management to secure a safe project, rather than paperwork.
The Regulations place duties on all those who can contribute to the health and safety of a
construction project. Duties are placed upon clients, designers and contractors with more
power given to the CDM Coordinator in what is considered a more authorative and policing
role.
Construction design and management regulations are in place to ensure the work is carried out
safely on the site. CDM regulations place legal duties on virtually everyone involved in
construction work.
• Clients - A 'client' is anyone having construction or building work carried out as part of
their business. This could be an individual, partnership or company and includes
property developers or management companies for domestic properties.
• CDM co-ordinators - A 'CDM co-ordinator' has to be appointed to advise the client on

projects that last more than 30 days or involve 500 person days of construction work.
The CDM co-ordinator's role is to advise the client on health and safety issues during
the design and planning phases of construction work.
• Designers - The term 'designer' has a broad meaning and relates to the function
performed, rather than the profession or job title. Designers are those who, as part of

440
their work, prepare design drawings, specifications, bills of quantities and the
specification of articles and substances. This could include architects, engineers and
quantity surveyors.
• Principal contractors - A 'principal contractor' has to be appointed for projects which

last more than 30 days or involve 500 person days of construction work. The principal
contractor's role is to plan, manage and co-ordinate health and safety while construction
work is being undertaken. The principal contractor is usually the main or managing
contractor for the work.
• Contractors - A 'contractor' is a business who is involved in construction, alteration,

maintenance or demolition work. This could involve building, civil engineering,
mechanical, electrical, demolition and maintenance companies, partnerships and the
self-employed.
• Workers - A 'worker' is anyone who carries out work during the construction, alteration,
maintenance or demolition of a building or structure. A worker could be, for example, a
plumber, electrician, scaffolder, painter, decorator, steel erector, as well as those
supervising the work, such as foreman and chargehands.
All construction projects (Part Additional duties for notifiable projects

2 of the Regulations) (Part 3 of the Regulations)
• Appoint CDM co-ordinator*
• Check competence and
• Appoint principal contractor*
resources of all
Make sure that the construction phase does
appointees
not start unless there are suitable welfare
• Ensure there are suitable
facilities and a construction phase plan is in
management
Clients place.
arrangements for the
(excluding • Provide information relating to the
project welfare facilities
domestic health and safety file to the CDM
• Allow sufficient time
clients) co-ordinator
and resources for all
• Retain and provide access to the
stages
health and safety file
• Provide pre-construction
(* There must be a CDM co-ordinator
information to designers
and principal contractor until the end of
and contractors
the construction phase)
• Advise and assist the client with
his/her duties
• Notify HSE
• co-ordinate health and safety
CDM co-
aspects of design work and co-
ordinators
operate with others involved with
the project
• Facilitate good communication
between client, designers and

441
contractors
• Liaise with principal contractor
regarding ongoing design
• Identify, collect and pass on pre-
construction information
• Prepare/update health and safety
file
• Eliminate hazards and • Check client is aware of duties and
reduce risks during CDM co-ordinator has been
Designers design appointed
• Provide information • Provide any information needed for
about remaining risks the health and safety file
• Plan, manage and monitor
construction phase in liaison with
contractor
• Prepare, develop and implement a
written plan and site rules (Initial
plan completed before the
construction phase begins)
• Give contractors relevant parts of
the plan
• Make sure suitable welfare
facilities are provided from the start
Principal
and maintained throughout the
contractors
construction phase
• Check competence of all
appointees
• Ensure all workers have site
inductions and any further
information and training needed for
the work
• Consult with the workers
• Liaise with CDM co-ordinator
regarding ongoing design
• Secure the site
• Plan, manage and • Check client is aware of duties and
monitor own work and a CDM co-ordinator has been
that of workers appointed and HSE notified before
• Check competence of all starting work
their appointees and • Co-operate with principal
Contractors
workers contractor in planning and
• Train own employees managing work, including
• Provide information to reasonable directions and site rules
their workers • Provide details to the principal
• Comply with the specific contractor of any contractor whom

442
requirements in Part 4 of he engages in connection with

the Regulations carrying out the work
• Ensure there are • Provide any information needed for
adequate welfare the health and safety file
• facilities for their • Inform principal contractor of
workers problems with the plan
• Inform principal contractor of
reportable accidents, diseases and
dangerous occurrences
• Check own competence
• Co-operate with others and co-ordinate work so as to ensure the health
Workers/
and safety of construction workers and others who may be affected by
everyone
the work
• Report obvious risks
The CDM 2007 Regulations apply to most common building, civil engineering and engineering
construction work. You must notify HSE of the site if the construction work is expected to
either:
• last longer than 30 days; or
• Involve more than 500 person days of construction work.
CDM co-ordinators: roles and responsibilities
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2007
All those who work in the construction industry have their part to play looking after their own
health and safety and in improving the industry's health and safety record.
A CDM co-ordinator is only required where theproject is notifiable. Their main duties are to:
• advise and assist the client with their duties;
• notify details of the project to HSE;
• co-ordinate health and safety aspects of design work and co-operate with others
involved with the project;
• facilitate good communication between the client, designers and contractors;
• liaise with the principal contractor regarding on-going design work;
• identify, collect and pass on pre-construction information; and
• Prepare/update the health and safety file.

443
2.2.KEYWORDS
1 Regulation Normativa 11 Designer Diseñador

2 Management Gestion 12 Contractor Constructor
3 Health Salud 13 Coordinator Coordinador
4 Safety Seguridad 14 Civil Engineer Ingeniero civil
5 Welfare Prestaciones, 15 Advise Consejo
asistencia, bienestar
6 Construction Construccion 16 Communicate Comunicar
7 Accident Accidente 17 Liaise Actuar de enlace
con
8 Paperwork Papeleo
9 Duty Deber, servicio,
impuesto
10 Client Cliente
3. CONSTRUCTION SITE
3.1.Site Considerations
Land Contamination
Land contamination is the term used to describe land that is affected by spills, leaks and
inappropriate storage, handling or disposal of hazardous materials.
Many areas of land in the UK are contaminated by past activities. For example, where
chemicals have seeped into the land from previous industrial processes, or where previous
owners have buried waste.
Your business activities could also cause land contamination, particularly if you handle
hazardous substances such as chemicals or fuel.
If you want to develop a site or use the land for a new purpose you may have to clean up any
land contamination as a condition of planning permission.
Cleaning up land contamination is called remediation. Remediation ensures that the land is no
longer a risk to human health or the environment.
Noise from construction sites
A site could create noise in many ways. Sources of noise include machinery, vehicles and loud
music.
On site activities could also create vibration. The definition of noise nuisance often includes
vibration and noise and vibration are often controlled at the same time.

444
If noise from work is found to be causing a nuisance to the surrounding community, the local
council can limit or even prevent work from continuing. They can restrict:
• the type of machinery used
• working hours
• noise levels emitted from the premises.
Failure to address a noise problem could result in legal action and a fine.
Loud noise can cause irreversible hearing damage. One has a duty to protect the hearing of
employees.
Pollution
All nearby watercourses should be protected; water contaminated with silt cannot be
discharged or allowed to enter a watercourse or drain as it can cause pollution.
Pollution is prevented via channelrun-off away from watercourses and surface water drains.
The surface water drains and watercourses must be protected with cut-off ditches or earth
bunds. These should be at least 10 metres from the watercourse.
Soil should not be stripped up to the edges of any watercourse, stream or drainage ditch as loose
soil can be washed into the watercourse. This can silt-up the riverbed and harm wildlife.
Construction must be planned in order to manage silt run-off so that it does not pollute
watercourses or ruin any Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) designed for the
completed phase.
Environmental Considerations
When planning the design of any new development, it is important to consider how the
proposals affect wildlife habitats. To gain consent and allow the development to take place, the
regulatory board need to be satisfied that the proposal is ecologically acceptable.
There is a legal duty to protect and improve the environment. This duty always forms part of the
assessment of any application for consent. If it is believed that there will be unacceptable
damage to wildlife, the proposal may be refused consent and so prevent the development from
taking place.
SUDS - Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems
Sustainable drainage is a departure from the traditional approach to draining sites. There are
some key principles that influence the planning and design process enabling them to mimic
natural drainage by:
• storing runoff and releasing it slowly (attenuation)
• allowing water to soak into the ground (infiltration)
• Slowly transporting (conveying) water on the surface

445
• filtering out pollutants
• allowing sediments to settle out by controlling the flow of the water
A useful concept used in the development of drainage systems is the surface water management
train, illustrated below. Just as in a natural catchment, drainage techniques can be used in series
to change the flow and quality characteristics of the runoff in stages.
The management train starts with prevention (preventing runoff by reducing impermeable
areas), or good housekeeping measures for reducing pollution, for individual premises; and
progresses through local source controls to larger downstream site and regional controls. Runoff
need not pass through all the stages in the management train. It could flow straight to a site
control, but as a general principle it is better to deal with runoff locally, returning the water to
the natural drainage system as near to the source as possible. Only if the water cannot be
managed on site should it be (slowly) conveyed elsewhere. This may be due to the water
requiring additional treatment before disposal or the quantities of runoff generated being greater
than the capacity of the natural drainage system at that point. Excess flows would therefore need
to be routed off site. End of pipe solutions where runoff is directly discharged to a wetland or
pond should be avoided.
SUDS design requires a balancing of different options, often depending on the risks associated
with each course of action. The risks of an area flooding have to be balanced with the costs of
protecting the area from different levels of floods.
The management train concept promotes division of the area to be drained into sub-catchments
with different drainage characteristics and land uses, each with its own drainage strategy.
Dealing with the water locally not only reduces the quantity that has to be managed at any one
point, but also reduces the need for conveying the water off the site.
When dividing catchments into small sections it is important to retain a perspective on how this
affects the whole catchment management and the hydrological cycle.

446
3.2.KEYWORDS
1 Contamination Contaminación 11 Music Musica

2 Spill Derramar 12 Vibration Vibracion
3 Disposal Eliminación 13 Nuisance Molestia
4 Hazardous material Materialespeligrosos 14 Impermeable Impermeable
5 Fuel Combustible 15 Flooding Inundacion
6 Remediation Remedio 16 Catchment Captacion
7 Risk Riesgo
8 Noise Ruido
9 Machinery Maquinaria
10 Vehicle Vehiculo
4. SITE DOCUMENTATION
4.1.Permission Letter
This letter highlights some of the important considerations to be made when making a planning
application.

447

448
4.2.Key Drawings
SITE PLAN
CONTOUR SITE PLAN

449

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No

Unit 2. Construction Agents 12

Unit 3. General Info 23

Unit 7. Structural Systems 80

Unit 8. Footing & Foundation System 103

Unit 9. Foundation Walls 117

Unit 10. Metal & Concrete Structures 136

Unit 11. Construction Systems 164

Unit 12. Floor Systems 176

Unit 13. Wall Systems 203

Unit 14. Roof Systems 235

Unit 15. Window & Door Types 265

Unit 16. Services Systems 297

Unit 17. Renewable Energy 350

Unit 18. Sustainability 380

Unit 19. Materials & Finishes 399

Unit 20. Construction Site 431

Unit 1 Outline Plan of Work

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

Unit 1. Outline Plan of Work

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 2

1.1. ¿QUÉ ES EL RIBA?............................................................................... 2

1.2. ¿TAMBIÉN EN LA COMUNIDAD ECONÓMICA EUROPEA? ....................................... 2

1.4. ¿CÓMO FUNCIONA LA ACREDITACIÓN? ......................................................... 3

2. BASIC INFORMATION .................................................................. 3

3. GUIDE TO THE PART 3 EXAMINATION ............................................ 4

3.1. WHO IS ELIGIBLE TO TAKE THE PART 3 EXAMINATION? ...................................... 4

3.2. WHEN SHOULD I TAKE THE PART 3 EXAMINATION? .......................................... 4

3.4. WHAT DOES THE PART 3 EXAMINATION INVOLVE? ........................................... 5

3.5. THE DOCUMENTARY SUBMISSION. .............................................................. 5

3.6. THE ORAL EXAMINATION. ........................................................................ 5

4. TERMINOLOGY ........................................................................... 6

5. OUTLINE PLAN OF WORK ............................................................. 8

5.1. SCHEMES: ......................................................................................... 8

6. KEYWORDS ............................................................................. 10

El RIBA es el (Royal Institute of British Arquitect) Instituto Real de Arquitectos Británicos. Es

1.2.¿También en la Comunidad Económica Europea?

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

1.4.¿Cómo funciona la acreditación?

• The PEDR is an electronic record of a student's professional experience, development

• To complete the record, graduates must normally be registered with a Professional

3. Guide to the part 3 examination

3.2.When should I take the Part 3 Examination?

3.3.Where can I study for the Professional Practice Examination?

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

• a documentary submission to demonstrate professional knowledge, judgement, conduct

3.5.The documentary submission.

• a professional curriculum vitae recording the candidate's educational and professional

• a career evaluation including a personal appraisal of the candidate's education and

• a record of professional experience recording the development of competences achieved

• a case study reflecting the candidate's professional experience and examination

• written examinations, assessed course work, scenario-based essays and reports

3.6.The oral examination.

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

Experience which consists of activities which would typically be

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

5. Outline Plan of Work

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción

TENDER ACTION Licitación del proyecto

Curso de Inglés Técnico para Profesionales de la Construcción