Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
1600 AC ya se describían los primeros 1600 460 1860 1891 1969 1973 1982 1983 -86 1992 2001 2007 2011
tumores de cabeza y cuello en el papiro AC DC
etc.) lo que terminará en una célula con la capacidad de salir de su origen o tumor
primario, para desencadenar una metástasis (locales o a distancia)
CARCINOGÉNESIS
Desde los años 2000 y con el Normal appearing
epithelium
Hyperplasia
Mild
dysplasia
Severe
dysplasia or
Invasive
carcinoma
advenimiento de la secuenciación y
carcinoma in situ
Immune escape
A modo de ejemplo, el tabaco que es uno de los principales factores de riesgo de Argiris 2008
cáncer escamoso de cabeza y cuello presenta alrededor de 4500 sustancias, las cuales
Figure 1: Presentation of phenotypical progression and accumulated molecular alterations in head and neck carcinogenesis
Histological evolution shown in haematoxylin and eosin specimens (×200) parallels genetic and epigenetic events. Modified from references 33 and 34.
muchas son carcinógenas (PAH, aza-arenos, nitrosaminas, polonio, 1,3 butadieno, etc),
EGFR=epidermal growth factor receptor. PTEN=phosphatase and tensin homologue.
22,23
incidence of head and neck cancer has been detected in Furthermore, the risk for SCCHN increases in individuals
grupos de nucleótidos y sus secuencia de DNA. En caso de haber daño, normalmente
the past two decades; however, an increase in cancer in with cancer susceptibility syndromes, such as hereditary
3
the base of tongue and tonsillar cancer has been noted, non-polyposis colorectal cancer, Li-Fraumeni syndrome,
10
hay sistemas de reparación de DNA que reemplazan las secuencias de DNA dañadas,
which could be more pronounced in young adults in the Fanconi’s anaemia, and ataxia telangiectasia. 25,26
USA and European countries. The 5-year survival for HPV, mainly HPV type 16 and to a lesser extent type 18,
11,12
Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) data is about 60%; HPV subtypes can be detected with in-situ hybridisation
resultará en una reparación insuficiente o inadecuada lo que terminará en secuencia
survival is worse for specific primary sites such as the and p16 immunohistochemistry. About 25% of SCCHN
hypopharynx. 3
contain HPV genomic DNA. The association between 27
alcohol consumption (ie, three or more drinks per day) HPV16 genomic DNA can be detected in up to 72% of
inadecuada de proteínas.
CARCINOGÉNESIS
has been associated with an increased risk of SCCHN. oropharyngeal cancers. HPV-related SCCHN occurs
16 2
Selected genetic polymorphisms in enzymes that more frequently in individuals who are not smokers,
metabolise tobacco and alcohol have been linked with an drinkers, or immunosuppressed, and are often poorly
increased risk for SCCHN. Smokeless tobacco and differentiated and of basaloid histology. The role of
16,17
Las mutaciones la podemos encontrara a nivel de (A) overactivity mutation (gain of function)
1696 Figure 20–17www.thelancet.com Vol 371 May 17, 2008
fall into two r
ONCOGENES
en donde si se hereda un gen mutado por un progenitor, es más probable que en el
inant—that is, only one of the cell’s two gene copies needs to change to have an
effect. One or another of the three human Ras family members is mutated in per-
transcurso de su vida se altere el otro alelo para que se exprese la mutación.
haps 30% of all human cancers. Ras genes are thus among the most important of
all cancer-critical genes.
Genes Mutated in Cancer Can Be Made Overactive in Many Ways
La secuencia de activación de Figure 20–18 summarizes the types ofMecanismos de activación
accidents that can convert a proto-on-
los oncogenes, puede ser de cogene into an oncogene. (1) A small change in DNA sequence such as a point
distintos tipos, según donde se proto-oncogene
produzca la mutación:
- “Mutación a nivel de la DELETION OR POINT
REGULATORY
secuencia de DNA”, lleva a una
MUTATION IN GENE AMPLIFICATION CHROMOSOME REARRANGEMENT
CODING SEQUENCE MUTATION
reguladoras de expresión de
los genes) en donde se puede EGFR HRAS TGFBR2 PI3KCA
producir, por ejemplo, que se
hiper exprese este gen (sobre expresión del gen), desencadenando una mayor
producción de un cierto tipo de proteínas. MBoC6 m20.33/20.18
- “Amplificación génica” en las cuales en ves de tener una sola copia de la proteína,
vamos a tener una multiplicación de copias, sobre expresando la proteína.
- Re-arreglos cromosómicos, promotores de una proteína se fusionan con la secuencia
de otras proteínas, lo que terminará en que se puedan sobre expresar o mal expresar
secuencias génicas y por lo tanto, producción de proteínas inadecuada o proteínas
con características inadecuadas (pj. Proteínas muy activas que pierden su regulación).
Ejemplos de Oncogenes que han sido involucrados en la patología de Cabeza y cuello:
- EGFR: Receptor de factor de crecimiento epidermal, lugar donde actúa el cetuximab.
- HRAS: participa en la vía de las map-quinasas, que participa en la regulación de
procesos de las mitosis (proliferación celular)
- TGFBR2: Receptor de TGFB que también participa en la proliferación celular
- PI3KCA:participa en las vías de Akt mTOR , vías que también se ha visto involucradas
en la patología de cabeza y cuello.
EGFR
Mecanismo de activación
S. Sigismund et al. Novel functions of the EGFR in cancer
Cetuximab (Erbitux; ImClone Systems/ factor (EGF) and other ligands to EGFR, and irinotecan, or cetuximab alone . Patients 6
funcionantes.
et al., 2015, 2016; Montagut et stimulated
al., 2012;with Vanhigh
Emburgh
EGF doseset al., 2016).
(active EGFR) is phosphorylated (P) and ubiquitinated (Ub) and undergoes both clathrin-mediated
respond to current treatments or who develop endocytosis (not depicted) and nonclathrin-dependent endocytosis (NCE), the latter dependent on the formation of RTN3-mediated ER–PM
contact sites. This is accompanied by calcium release in the proximity of contact sites, which likely controls fission of the tubular
resistance to them.
invagination. It is still unclear whether RTN3 is the tethering factor between the ER and the PM (as depicted), or it is just involved the
tubulation of cortical ER, but not directly engaged at contact sites. EGFR ligand stimulation elicits the classical signaling cascade based on
Ligand binding the recruitment of PI3K (made of its p85 regulatory subunit and p110 catalytic subunit) that catalyzes the formation of PIP3s. PIP3s bind to
Basis of discovery the PH domain of AKT and of phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1, PDK1. PDK1 phosphorylates AKT on Thr308, while mammalian target
desencadene la cascada rio abajo. have greater activity and higher specificity for
tumour cells than traditional cytotoxic drugs.
migration (Tsai et al., 2014), an issue that requires fur-
Autophosphorylation
ther investigation.
All along the endocytic route, the ER makes con-
in defining the timing and position of endosome fis-
sion during cargo sorting (Rowland et al., 2014), but
they also have a direct role in the regulation of
Gefitinib
Otro tipo de medicamentos, processes como el proliferation,
such as cell Getifinib,
apoptosis
Molecular Oncology 12 (2018) 3–20 ª 2017 The Authors. Published by FEBS Press and John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 9
droga no sea suficiente para controlar, o pueden aparecer otro tipo de ligandos o sub
tipos de ligandos distintos al EGF (como el VEGF)
GENES SUPRESORES DE
TUMORES
Genes supresores de tumores: 1110 Chapter 20: Cancer
Mecanismos de inactivación
Puede ocurrir a partir de la mutación de mutation Figure 20–22 The pathways leading to
loss of tumor suppressor gene function
p16INK4A
p16INK4A
p16INK4A
p16INK4A
hMLH1
hMLH1
hMLH1
hMLH1
BRCA1
BRCA1
BRCA1
BRCA1
p14ARF
p14ARF
p14ARF
p14ARF
del ciclo celular, PTEN que es un supresor de tumor súper importante que regula la
APC
APC
APC
APC
40
hypermethylation
vía Akt, , CASP8 que participa en los procesos de apoptosis que permite que la célula
frequency of
30
20
TP53
ND
0
Además tenemos en esta vía genes que son dependientes del contexto, en donde en un
(B) BREAST COLON/RECTUM STOMACH LUNG
tejido o en una etapa del tumor pueden actuar como genes supresores de tumores y
deletion or duplication, without the need for complete sequence information.
(see Figure 7–3). These approaches generally involve comparing cancer cells with
representativos y que participa vía delta normalNOTCH que regula
controls—ideally, noncancerous
from the same patient.
cells originatingel
in the proceso
same tissue and de
diferenciación y proliferación celular y que se encuentra alterado en cáncer escamoso MBoC6 m20.32/20.22
truncating mutation
Figure 20–23 The distinct types of DNA
sequence changes found in oncogenes
Otro Gen que tenemos que conocer es el kinase domain marked by yellow arrowheads. (A) As in
(A)
this example, oncogene mutations can
be detected by the fact that the same
proteína Mdm2, las cuales al detectar The p53el pathway, therefore, behaves as a sort of antenna, sensing the pr
Chk1/Chk2 kinase activation
and Chk2, are then recruited and
activated, resulting in the phosphorylation
daño se fosforila (se separa de Mdm2) range of dangerous conditions, and when any are detected, tr
ence of a wide MBoC6 m20.40/20.27 of the transcription regulatory protein
p53. Mdm2 normally binds to p53 and
Mdm2 promotes its ubiquitylation and destruction
gering appropriate action—either a temporary or permanent arrest of cell cycl
transformándose en una p53 activado y
PHOSPHORYLATION in proteasomes. Phosphorylation of p53
OF p53 blocks its binding to Mdm2; as a result,
(senescence), or suicide by apoptosis (Figure 20–27). These responses serve P
stable,
p53 accumulates to high levels and
(see Movie 17.8). Indeed, the most common mutations observed in p53 in hum p21 (Cdk
tumors are in its DNA-binding domain, where they cripple the ability of p53 inhibitor protein)
en toda la maquinaria de reparación del DNA y principalmente en regulación del ciclo
celular. Por lo tanto, si mi célula esta acumulando mucho daño en el DNA, se detiene el
ciclo celular para que no se herede el daño. REVIEWS
Datos importantes sobre el p53: Telomere
The linear end of a
HNSCC, and TP53 and the genes encoding the Rb family chromosom
(comprising RB1, RBL1 (which encodes p107) and RBL2 genes locate
- Mutación entre un 42.a 89% de HNSCC (carcinoma de células escamosas de cabeza y
chromosome. The telomere is (which encodes p130)) are established cancer genes in has been sug
shortened with each round of HPV-positive HNSCC. The cancer-associated pheno- (FADD) . 72
cuello DNA replication.
type caused by inactivation of these two pathways in oral Although
- Presenta 4 veces más mutaciones en HNSCC con HPV negativos. keratinocytes is at least cellular immortalization. This either by som
phenotype fits with the timing of the genetic events that is one of the
- HNSCC corresponde al cáncer con mayor número de mutaciones en p53 occur early in the progression of HPV-negative HNSCC. contain mu
same pathways are also the first to be inactivated by the is the unlik
viral E6 and E7 oncogenes. missed, but
CANCERIZACIÓN DE CAMPO Definición
It is noteable that the identification of CCND1 as an ing proteins
established oncogene in HNSCC does not necessarily cases or tha 73
mean that this is the only relevant cancer gene in the malignant p
Besides a
Nosotros sabemos que los carcinógenos inactivation
actúan a todo nivel, para caracterizar el Tumour Surgical resection shortening
achieve limi
ejemplo usaremos el tabaco, el cual actúa a telomerase
nivel de la mucosa de la vía aereodigestiva. cases analys
TERT seem
Tendremos una zona en donde habrá mucho the data are
keratinocyte
daño (zona susceptible de lesión maligna) , telomeres (A
otras donde no encontraremos daño y otras Progression of Progression of
of telomere
still unclear
con daño incipiente. Esto generará un tumor related field independent field
candidate ca
TERT (5p15
en la zona de mayor dañó, pero en los otros amplified in
sitios de la mucosa habrá otro tipo de ‘Second field tumours’
(clinically, a local of increased
recurrence or second at least in th
alteración, como daño en el p53 pero que no primary tumour) Local recurrence
(tumour cells)
Second
primary tumour
desencadenaran lesiones tumorales. Este es Figure 3 | Field cancerization and local relapse. The relationship Nature Reviews
between | Cancer
field
Changes in
way. One of
el motivo por el cual en los tumores de field cancerizationCancerización de campo
cancerization and types of relapse is shown. On the basis of recent molecular findings,
is defined as the presence of one or more mucosal areas consisting kinases is th
activating in
cabeza y cuello hay que hacer estudios ofA precursor
epithelial cells that have cancer-associated genetic or epigenetic alterations.
field (or field; shown in light blue) is monoclonal in origin and does not show homodimer
Leemans
completos de la vía aéreo digestiva para buscar posibles lesiones incipientes o zonas
invasive growth or metastatic behaviour, which are the hallmarks of an invasive cascade. EG
carcinoma. A field is preneoplastic by definition; it may have histological aberrations and signals t
de riesgo (endoscopia, TAC, etc). Recordar characteristic
que estas lesiones
of dysplasia, premalignas
but not necessarily . A leukoplakia is the
60,132
las
clinical and phosph
manifestation of a field, but most fields are clinically invisible. At least some fields can be EGF-bound
podemos encontrar en otras regiones contiguas o a distancia.
visualized by autofluorescence . An important clinical implication of a field is that it
133,134
nucleus and
En definitiva, este proceso explica el por qué tenemos que hacer el estudio completo o
may be the source of local recurrences and second primary tumours after surgical
resection of the initial carcinoma. These two possibilities can be distinguished clinically
co-activator
nal transduc
el por qué aparecen recidivas tempranas o tardías. on the basis of their distance from the index tumour or the time interval after
develop (whereby a local recurrence is less than 2 cm away from or occurs within 3 years
which they
proteins 77,7
of the primary tumour; a second primary tumour is more than 2 cm from or occurs more nuclear EG
progression
than 3 years after the primary tumour). Additional genetic changes are needed to
Tenemos entonces que el cáncer es un proceso principalmente génico, se produce por
transform a field into a new carcinoma. The field and primary tumour share genetic intracellula
be pleiotrop
alteración a nivel genético, el cual se va heredando en las generaciones subsecuentes
alterations and should be considered as having a common clonal origin. Tumours that do
arise in a non-resected field have been described as ‘second field tumours’ as opposed to various leve
de las células, que a su vez van adquiriendo nuevas mutaciones,
true local recurrences (which developnuevos oncogenes,
from residual tumour cells) or true second primary
tumours (which have an origin that is independent from that of the first tumour) . 135
activated in
to be discov
silenciándose genes supresores de tumores, que al final van a llevar a la producción de
This process has been summarized in an animation that can be found in the VU Medical EGFR has be
Center website (see Further information). It is not known what specific genetic
un nuevo tumor. characteristics determine the risk of a field developing into cancer. Recent studies, as
keratinocyte
In 1986,
well as immunostaining for mutant p53, have shown that genetic changes at
Al alterarse los genes, se van a alterar una serie de circuitos y guías que participan en
chromosome 9p, decreased cytokeratin 4 expression and decreased cornulin expression in many cas
by a multitu
distintos procesos de regulación de la homeostasia celular (pj. La regulación celular,
are promising biomarkers in this respect . From leukoplakia studies we know that the
56,136
presence and number of genetic changes, typically chromosome 9p loss, chromosome cal trial that
progresión de TU diferenciados a indiferenciados, circuitos de proliferación, circuitos
3p loss and chromosome 17p loss, are associated with the risk of progression .
38,41,42
when it was
- Se integra al DNA del huésped (DNA integrado) propagation accompanied by failure to activate apoptotic pathways. cycle checkpoint [46]. CDKN2A gene is inactivated through deletions,
Mallen St
This ultimately results in genomic instability and host cell malignant mutations, and promoter.
transformation. hypermethylation in HNSCC resulting in functional loss of p16