5/7/2012

8. Falla Mecánica
• Como se inician las fallas?

• Como se estiman esfuerzos de fractura?

Chip de computadora sometido a

Sometido a fuerzas cíclicas de olas..
Adapted from chapter-opening
photograph, Chapter 8, Callister 7e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)
cargas ciclicas termica.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National
Semiconductor Corporation.)
Chapter 8 - 1

Mecanismos de Fractura
• Fractura dúctil
– Ocurre con deformación plástica
• Fractura Frágil
– Poco o nada de deformación plástica
– Catastrófico

Chapter 8 - 2

1
 5/7/2012

Falla Ductil vs Fragil

Modo, comportam.. Muy Moderadam.
de fractura Fragil
ductil ductil

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 7e.

%AR o %EL  Grande Moderado pequeño

• Ductil Ductil: Fragil:
deseable avisa inminente Sin aviso
generalmente. fractura warning

Chapter 8 - 3

Ejemplos de fallas
• Falla Ductil:
-- una pieza
-- Deformacion grande

• Falla Frágil:
-- muchas pedazos
-- pequeña
deformación
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.
Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

Chapter 8 - 4

2
 5/7/2012

Falla Ductil Moderado

• Evolution a falla:
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage fracture
nucleation at surface
s

•Superficie 50
50mm
mm
fracturada
(acero)

100 mm
partículas From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
son sitios de Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
nucleación de ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P.
Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
OH. Used with permission.
cavidades Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.) Chapter 8 - 5

Falla Ductil vs. Fragil

Fractura copa-y- conoe Fractura Fragil

Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 6

3
 5/7/2012

Falla Fragil
Flechas indican los puntos de origen de la falla

Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 7

Superficies de fractura frágil

• Intergranular • Intragranular
(entre granos) 304 S. Steel (dentro de granos
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
160 mm
4 mm National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol. Chapter 8 - 8
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)

4
 5/7/2012

Materiales Ideales vs Reales

• Comport. Stress-strain ( T amb):
s Material perfecto
E/10 sin defectos TSmateriales << TS materiales
de ingenieria perfectos
Fibra de vidrio, prod cond esp

E/100 Ceramico tipico metal tipico endurecido

polimero tipico
0.1 e
Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics
• DaVinci (500 años atrás!) observó... of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.)
-- mientras mas largo el cable, mas Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996.
pequeño la carga para falla.
• Razones?
Chapter 8 - 9

Defectos son concentradores de esfuerzos!

Resultado de propagación de
fisuras
• Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a 
sm  2so    K t so
 t 

t
where
t = radio de curvatura
so = esfuerzo aplicado
sm = esfuerzo en punta de grieta
Kt = factor concent. esfuerzo
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 10

5
 5/7/2012

Concentración de
esfuerzos en la
punta de la grieta

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 11

Diseño de fractura ingenieril

• Evitar esquinas agudas!
so s
max
Kt Factor Con.Stress, Kt =
s
w o
smax
2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 aumenta w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 12

6
 5/7/2012

Propagacion de grietas
Propagación debido al ángulo agudo de la punta de la grieta
• Un material plástico se deforma en la punta de la fisura.

región deformada

frágil
plástico

Balance de energía en la grieta

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy Chapter 8 - 13

Cuándo se propaga una grieta?

Grieta se propaga sobre stress critico
1/ 2
i.e., sm > sc  2E s 
sc   
or Kt > Kc  a 
donde
– E = modulo de elasticidad
– s = energía superficial especifica
– a = ½ de longitud interna de grieta
– Kc = sc/s (fracture toughness)
Para ductil => remplace s por s + p
donde p es energia de deformacion plastica
Chapter 8 - 14

7
 5/7/2012

Fracture toughness (Resistencia a Fractura)

Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C (|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
K Ic (MPa · m0.5 )

Callister 7e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete Chapter 8 - 15
0.5

Diseño usando mecánica de fracturas

• Condición para
crecimiento de grieta: K ≥ Kc = Ys a

• la grieta más grande, más estresada crece primero!

-- 1: El tamaño max de defecto --2: Esfuerzo de diseño determina el
determina el esfuerzo de diseño tamaño max de defecto.
2
1  K c 
Kc amax  
sdesign    Ysdesign 
Y amax

amax
s
fractura fractura
no no
fractura fractura

amax s
Chapter 8 - 16

8
 5/7/2012

Ej. Diseño: ala de avión

• Material tiene Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• dos casos a considerar...
Diseño A Diseño B
--Defecto más grande es 9 mm --mismo material
--esfuerzo de falla = 112 MPa --defecto más grande es 4 mm
-- Esfuerzo de falla = ?
Kc
• Use... sc 
Y amax
• punto clave: Y and Kc son lo mismo en ambos diseños
--Resultado:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

(sc amax A  (sc amax B

Answer: (sc )B  168 MPa
•comentario!


Chapter 8 - 17

Test de impacto
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

Chapter 8 - 18

9
 5/7/2012

Temperatura
• Aumento en temperatura...
--aumenta %EL y Kc
• Temperatura de Transicion Ductil- a - Fragil (DBTT)...

FCC metales (ej., Cu, Ni)

Energia de Impacto

BCC metales (ej., Fe a T < 914°C)

polimeros
Fragil Mas Ductil

mater altamente resist. s y > E/150)

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister 7e.
Temperatura
Temp.Trans.Ductil-a-fragil

Chapter 8 - 19

Estrategia de diseño:
estar sobre DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)

Problema: Se uso un tipo de acero con un DBTT ~ T ambiente

Chapter 8 - 20

10
 5/7/2012

Fatiga
• Fatiga = falla bajo esfuerzo ciclico.
specimen compression on top Adapted from Fig. 8.18,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.18 is
motor from Materials Science in
bearing bearing counter
Engineering, 4/E by Carl.
A. Keyser, Pearson
flex coupling Education, Inc., Upper
tension on bottom Saddle River, NJ.)

• Esfuerzo varia con tiempo. s

smax
-- parametros clave son S, sm, y
S
frecuencia sm
smin time

• Puntos clave: Fatiga...

-- puede producir falla parcial, aun con smax < sc.
-- causa ~ 90% de las fallas mechanicas.
Chapter 8 - 21

Parámetros de diseño de Fatiga

• Límite de Fatiga, Sfat: S = stress amplitude
caso para
no-fatiga si S < Sfat inseguro acero (tip.)

Sfat
seguro
Adapted from Fig.
8.19(a), Callister 7e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
• Algunas veces, el
límite de fatiga es cero! S = stress amplitude
Caso para
inseguro Al (tip.)

seguro Adapted from Fig.

8.19(b), Callister 7e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 22

11
 5/7/2012

Mecanismo de fatiga
• Grieta crece incrementalmente
tip. 1 to 6
da
 (K 
m

dN
~ (s a
Increm. longitud de grieta por ciclo de carga
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as
• s increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister 7e.
• crack gets longer (Fig. 8.21 is from D.J.
• loading freq. increases. Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)

Chapter 8 - 23

Creep
Deformation (a altaT) a un esfuerzo constante (s)
vs. times
s,e

0 t

Creep primario: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Creep secundario: steady-state
i.e., constant slope.
Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister 7e.
Creep terciario: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 8 - 24

12
 5/7/2012

Creep
• Ocurre a temperaturas elevadas, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Figs. 8.29,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 25

Creep secundario
• Veloc. de deformación es constante T,y s dados
-- Endurecimiento por deformación se balancea con
recuperación.
stress exponent (material parameter)
 Q 
e s  K 2sn exp  c  activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress

• Strain rate 2 00 Stress (MPa) Adapted from

Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
427°C (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
aumenta a 10 0 Handbook: Properties
538 °C and Selection:
valores altos de 40 Stainless Steels, Tool

T, s
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
20
649 °C 9th ed., D. Benjamin
(Senior Ed.), American
10 Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 26

13
 5/7/2012

Creep: Falla
• Falla: • Estimate rupture time
a lo largo de limites de grano S-590 Iron, T = 800°C, s = 20 ksi
g.b. cavities
100 Adapted from
applied Fig. 8.32,
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.32 is
stress

Stress, ksi
from F.R.
20 Larson and J.
Miller, Trans.
10 ASME, 74, 765
(1952).)

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of data for

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
S-590 Iron
Press, Inc.) 1
12 16 20 24 28 24x103 K-log hr
• Time to rupture, tr 3
L(10 K-log hr)
T ( 20  logt r )  L T ( 20  logt r )  L
temperatura function of 1073K
applied stress
time to failure (rupture) Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 8 - 27

Resumen
• Materiales de ingeniería no alcanzan resistencias teóricas.
• Defectos producen concentraciones de esfuerzos que
causan falla prematura.
• esquinas agudas producen concentraciones grandes de
esfuerzos y causan falla prematura.

• Tipo de falla depende de T y esfuerzo:

Chapter 8 - 28

14