11 - San Alfonso y La Ciencia de Los Santos

11.
San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los santos

DENNIS J. BILLY*
En 1773, san Alfonso public una breve obra titulada: Reflexiones devotas sobre diversos puntos de espritu para gua de las almas que desean avanzar en el Amor divino1. Esta popular pieza de lectura espiritual busca ayudar a sus lectores a profundizar en su relacin con Dios y crecer en su amor. Para conseguir este fin, Alfonso propone cuarenta y cinco breves meditaciones y un amplio espectro de cuestiones sobre la vida moral espiritual. Entre estas reflexiones, incluye una exposicin sobre lo que l llama la ciencia de los santos que, para l, es simplemente conocer el amor de Dios 2. Mi propsito en este trabajo es examinar la presentacin que hace Alfonso de este importante elemento de su visin moral espiritual. Pondr especial nfasis en su manera de argumentar y en el modo en que conduce a sus lectores a lo largo del proceso de conversin.
I. UNO
DE MUCHOS
* 1
* Profesor en la Academia Alfonsiana, Roma.
A. DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni devote sopra diversi punti di spirito a pro delle anime che desiderano avanzarsi nel divino amore , in: ID., Opere ascetiche, vol. 2, Marietti, Torino 1846, 249-316. [Traduccin inglesa: Pious Reflections on Different Points of Spirituality to Guide Souls that Desire to Advance in the Love of God , in: E. GRIMM (ed.), The Complete Works of Saint Alfonso de Liguori, vol. 2, Benzinger Brothers, New York-Cincinnati-St. Louis 1886, 171306]. La scienza desanti sapere amar Dio. Cf. Ibdem, 257; (Pious Reflections..., 189).
DENNIS J. BILLY
Desde el comienzo es importante hacer notar que el estudio de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos es una de las muchas meditaciones de una obra especficamente diseada para conducir a otros a la santidad. Para este fin, l mismo ley cada da un poco de esta pequea obra y animaba a otros a hacer lo mismo. Debido a que cada meditacin es independiente y relacionada con las dems en un sentido laxo y temtico, ofrece a sus lectores una ayuda excelente para la meditacin diaria. Parece que Alfonso escribi esta obra con este propsito especficamente en su mente3. La mayor parte de las reflexiones siguen el mismo esquema tripartito: (1) un breve ttulo, que introduce el tema (2) una meditacin, que lo desarrolla a travs de un argumento racional y una rica seleccin de fuentes relevantes de la tradicin catlica, y (3) una oracin conclusiva, que busca incitar al lector a una oracin sentida desde el corazn4. La reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos, la sexta en esta coleccin, difiere de este formato literario subyacente slo en que aade a la oracin un ejemplo histrico relativamente reciente para demostrar su punto de vista5. El uso de este exemplum coloca esta sexta reflexin como algo aparte de la mayora de las otras que forman la coleccin, y ofrece a sus lectores un punto concreto de referencia desde el cual medir su progreso en la vida moral espiritual 6. Por esta razn, el exemplum debera entenderse formando parte integral de la meditacin y no como un apndice innecesario o una ocurrencia literaria posterior. Como textos para la meditacin, las reflexiones de Alfonso estn dirigidas al corazn y diseadas para conducir a sus lectores hacia actos fervientes de
3
En una carta a la Hermana Brianna Carafa del monasterio de S. Marcellino en Npoles, fechada el 8 de septiembre de 1773, Alfonso escribe: Leo tambin algo cada da de la otra obrita titulada Reflexiones Devotas, etc.. Quisiera haga lo mismo; pues la compuse especialmente para aquellas almas que desean entregarse completamente a Dios. Ver: Letters of St. Alfonso Maria de Liguori , in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vol. 2, 513. Para una informacin sobre el original italiano, ver Opera omnia SantAlfonso de Liguori , Lettera n. 0001449 (http://www.eulogos.it/lettere/0001449.htm). La mayora de las meditaciones de Alfonso en otros escritos siguen la misma estructura bsica. Ver, por ejemplo, su Via della salute, en: A. DE LIGUORI, Opere ascetiche, vol. 10, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 1968, 7-133; [Traduccin inglesa: The Way of Salvation, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., 17-169]. Este exemplum se refiere a la conversin de Pietro Metastasio, el poeta de la corte imperial. Ver: A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1), 258; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1), 190-191]. La sola excepcin es la reflexin decimosptima titulada, Della confidenza in Ges Cristo. Ver: Ibdem, 275-277; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1), 225-229].
5 6
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oracin. No fueron escritas para resistir el intenso examen del telogo profesional y no se debe esperar que produzcan frutos a ese nivel. Viniendo de la mano de una de las grandes mentes morales espirituales del siglo dieciocho, sin embargo, las Reflexiones devotas tienen mucha ms sustancia que su ttulo podra sugerir en un primer momento. La reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos es uno de estos casos. En lugar de ofrecer a sus lectores una cadena de sentimientos piadosos, les trasmite una enseanza slida que toca el corazn mismo del mensaje evanglico, es decir, la llamada a la conversin.
II. EL
SIGNIFICADO DE
CIENCIA
Antes de continuar, deberamos decir algo sobre el uso del trmino ciencia a lo largo de la reflexin. Alfonso comienza diciendo que hay dos clases de ciencias en el mundo: una celestial, otra mundana7. Esta estricta divisin trae a la mente la descripcin paulina de la lucha entre la carne y el espritu y la descripcin de san Agustn de la continua lucha entre la ciudad de Dios y la ciudad del hombre8. Un tipo de ciencia completamente opuesta al otro y puede no tener nada que ver uno con otro. Esta perspectiva refleja una comprensin de Cristo contra el mundo en la relacin cristianismo y cultura, que ha sido hecha famosa por H. Richard Niebuhr9. En cuanto a la palabra ciencia, el lenguaje de Alfonso permite tres interpretaciones, dos de las cuales son distintas pero estrechamente relacionadas, y una tercera que enfoca la cuestin desde otra direccin. Con respecto a las dos primeras posibilidades, la palabra ciencia puede referirse a un cuerpo objetivo de conocimiento gobernado por un sistema verificable de reglas y ordenanzas, o a la apropiacin personal de ese conocimiento. De estas dos posibilidades, la segunda presupone la primera y es la ms subrayada. La ciencia de cualquier clase sea matemticas, teora literaria o una disciplina subalterna como la teologa alcanza su pleno potencial cuando
7 8 9
Due sorte di scienza vi sono sulla terra, luna celeste, laltra mondana: Ibdem, 257; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1), 189]. Ro 8,1-12; Ga 5,13-26. Ver tambin AGUSTN c.2.
DE
HIPONA, De civitate Dei, XIV c.28-XV
Cf. H. R. NIEBUHR, Christ and Culture, Harper & Row, New York 1951, 83-115.
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la persona humana la integra como un cuerpo vivo de conocimiento. Esta comprensin de la ciencia reconoce las divisiones clsicas de conocimiento objetivo y subjetivo, pero da una clara preferencia al segundo 10. En la tercera posibilidad, el trmino ciencia se refiere no tanto a un cuerpo de conocimiento en el sentido objetivo o subjetivo, sino al encuentro experiencial cara-a-cara con otra persona. En la ciencia de los santos, este otro es Dios mismo. Esta posibilidad se basa en la diferencia entre conocer sobre alguien y conocer a alguien personalmente. Con su insistencia en el crecimiento en santidad y en el conocimiento experiencial de lo sagrado, se asemeja ms a la visin monstica de la teologa, que a la escolstica, con su fuerte nfasis en clarificar el objeto de la revelacin 11. Es tambin congruente con el fuerte nfasis devocional de la devotio moderna tardomedieval en su sospecha sobre el aprendizaje acadmico y sofisticado 12. Cuando se refiere a la ciencia de los santos, Alfonso reconoce esta ltima posibilidad como la ms importante: La ciencia de los santos es conocer el amor de Dios 13. En este contexto, para Alfonso ciencia tiene que ver con (1) conocimiento y (2) el amor de Dios. A pesar de que otras posibles interpretaciones no quedan excluidas de esta simple definicin, el conocimiento al que Alfonso parece estar refirindose es el conocimiento experiencial de lo divino. Tal conocimiento no es mstico, en el sentido estricto de experiencias extticas extraordinarias de lo divino, es ms cercano a los dones del Espritu de conocimiento y sabidura, que corresponden y completan las virtudes teologales de la fe y la caridad14.
10 11
La diferencia entre conocimiento objetivo y subjetivo se remonta a la distincin finis quo/finis cuius de Toms de Aquino. Cf. Summa theologiae, I-II, q. 1, a. 8, resp. Para una comparacin entre teologa monstica y escolstica, ver B. P. GAYBBA, Aspects of the Medieval History of Theology , University of South Africa, Pretoria 1988, 5257. Cf. O. GRNDLER, Devotio Moderna in: JILL RAITT (ed.), Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation, Crossroad, New York 1988, 176-93. Cf. nota 2. Alfonso probablemente hace derivar la expresin ciencia de los santos (la scienza desanti) de la definicin de doctrina sagrada dada por Toms de Aquino como ciencia subalterna: Et hoc modo sacra doctrina est scientia: quia procedit ex principiis notis lumine superioris scientiae, quae scilicet est scientia Dei et beatorum, Summa theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 2, resp. Sobre la fuerte conexin que establece Toms de Aquino entre la doctrina sagrada y la sabidura cristiana, ver Summa theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 6, res. Para su doctrina sobre los dones de conocimiento y sabidura, ver Summa theologiae, II-II, q. 9, aa.1-4; q. 23, prol.; q. 45, aa. 1-6. Debe notarse que, para Toms de Aquino, la accin de los dones del Espritu constituye la verdadera esencia del misticismo cristiano y es un
12 13 14
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III. TRES
CLASES DE ARGUMENTO
En su presentacin de la ciencia de los santos, Alfonso emplea tres diferentes tipos de pruebas: auctoritates, rationes y exempla. Estas tres formas comunes de argumentacin hunden sus races en la Edad Media, y en tiempos de Alfonso se haban convertido en predicacin popular 15. Su uso en una obra de lectura espiritual como las Reflexiones devotas apunta a la fuerte conexin que Alfonso vio entre una actividad pastoral como es la predicacin y el crecimiento de la vida moral espiritual. Puesto que el fin de la predicacin y de la lectura espiritual era fundamentalmente el mismo ayudar a una persona a acercarse a Jesucristo tiene sentido que los elementos de una forma de expresin puedan encontrar su camino en la otra. Esta posibilidad se hace ms natural cuando nos damos cuenta de que la lectura espiritual era, a menudo, entendida como una preparacin interior que ayudaba al predicador a profundizar su propia relacin con el Seor. Cuando se ve a esta luz, la reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos emplea muchos de los mismos mtodos de demostracin que el sermn. La nica diferencia estriba en que la reflexin se produce en el silencio del propio corazn en lugar de ser expresada en voz alta en el contexto de una liturgia pblica. Una mirada al uso que Alfonso hace de los tres argumentos en esta reflexin lo demuestra.
1. Auctoritates
En tiempos de Alfonso, el uso de autoridades era ya un mtodo bien conocido para establecer un punto teolgico. Los escritos de los Padres de la Iglesia estn llenos de citas de la Escritura para dar apoyo a sus argumentos. El uso de la autoridad era tambin parte integral del mtodo escolstico, donde las voces divergentes de la tradicin eran sometidas a un escrutinio dialctico
fenmeno ms ordinario que extraordinario en la vida de los cristianos. En tiempos de Alfonso, esta comprensin clsica del misticismo cristiano haba quedado oscurecida por la reaccin de la Iglesia contra el quietismo y por la creencia sostenida generalmente de que el misticismo requera la recepcin de gracias extraordinarias y no deba ser ni deseado ni esperado. Cf. J. AUMANN, Spiritual Theology, Sheed and Ward, London 1980, 122-130, sobre todo 127.
15
Para las races medievales de estos argumentos, cf. J. LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London 1988, 78-80.
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cuidadoso. En el siglo dieciocho, toda la base de la casustica moral descansaba sobre el peso que poda ser atribuido a las opiniones de autoridades reconocidas. A nivel popular y devocional, las citas de las autoridades eran utilizadas como un modo de poner a la gente en contacto con la tradicin viva de la Iglesia. Las autoridades citadas eran normalmente las de la Escritura y los Padres de la Iglesia, los cuales eran citados abundantemente para asegurar al fiel la consistencia y profundidad teolgica del mensaje que estaban recibiendo16. Alfonso sazona su reflexin sobre la ciencia de los santos con una muy generosa seleccin de autoridades. stas vienen en primer lugar de la Escritura, los Padres de la Iglesia, los santos, y algunas fuentes seculares bien conocidas. Por orden de aparicin, sus citas de la Escritura incluyen: 1Cor 3,19; 1Cor 8,1; Sant 4,6; Dt 32,29; Sl 75,6; Sb 10,10; Mt 11,25; y 1Cor 2,2 17. Estas referencias vienen bien va cita directa o bien por alusin, y estn seleccionadas por el modo en que contrastan la sabidura celestial con la del mundo. En cuanto a los Padres de la Iglesia, se cita dos veces a san Juan Crisstomo y dos a san Agustn 18. Las citas del primero se refieren respectivamente a la naturaleza racional del hombre y a la meditacin sobre la muerte como un camino para el aprendizaje de la vanidad del mundo; por su parte, las del segundo tienen que ver respectivamente con la importancia de amar a Dios sobre todas las cosas y cmo los ignorantes son capaces de levantarse y asaltar el cielo. En cuanto a los santos, Alfonso recurre a san Francisco, san Pascual, y san Juan de Dios como ejemplos de los que, a pesar de un pobre conocimiento mundano, fueron particularmente destacados en la sabidura de Dios19. En contraste con estas figuras santas, Alfonso menciona cmo la muerte termina con las glorias de este mundo; as afirma que hombres como Cicern, Demstenes y Ulpiano no tienen ya nada de qu presumir 20.
16
Para la definicin de autoridad y del argumento de autoridad, cf. B. MONDIN, Autorit, in: B. MONDIN (ed.), Dizionario enciclopedico del pensiero di san Tommaso dAquino , Studio Domenicano, Bologna 1991, 73-74. Para una visin ms general, cf. L. KRIEGER, Authority, in: PH. P. WEINER (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, vol.. 1, Charles Scribners Sons, New York 1973, 141-162, especialmente 147. A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1), 257-58; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1), 187-190]. Ibdem, 257-58; [Pious Reflections..., 187-189]. Ibdem, 258; [Pious Reflections..., 189]. Ibdem, 257; [Pious Reflections..., 189].
17 18 19 20
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En este uso de la autoridad, Alfonso usa la Escritura, los Padres, los santos y las figuras seculares para presentar el contraste entre sabidura celestial y mundana. Su intencin al usarlos es ayudar a sus lectores a hacer del conocimiento del amor de Dios una prioridad en sus propias vidas.
2. Rationes
Adems de las citas de autoridades, Alfonso hace uso de argumentos racionales para explicar su comprensin de la ciencia de los santos. Y lo hace incluso cuando parte de su plan es dejar expuesta la debilidad del conocimiento mundano. Desde los tiempos de los apologistas cristianos, la razn era valorada como una herramienta til para exponer las verdades de la fe cristiana. Probablemente la mejor evidencia del profundo respeto del cristianismo por las intuiciones de la razn sean las muchas sntesis teolgicas basadas en un amplio espectro de sistemas filosficos, la sntesis neoplatnica de Agustn y la sntesis aristotlica de Aquino, por nombrar slo unos pocos. Aunque la comprensin de lo que constituye un argumento racional ha evolucionado en el curso de la historia, los pensadores cristianos han hecho buen uso de sus contornos cambiantes para profundizar en su comprensin de la fe. Alfonso no es una excepcin21. Tomando la Escritura y las autoridades de la tradicin de la Iglesia como punto de partida, Alfonso generalmente se mueve de un modo silogstico para alcanzar una conclusin lgica. Un ejemplo de este uso del argumento racional aparece pronto en su reflexin:
Pero esta ciencia mundana es locura y necedad a los ojos de Dios. La sabidura del mundo es necedad con Dios. Es necedad, pues hace necios a los que la cultivan; los hace necios y como las bestias, pues les ensea a gratificar sus apetitos carnales como las bestias. San Juan Crisstomo escribi: Llamamos hombre al que preserva la imagen completa de un hombre; y cul es la imagen del hombre? Ser racional. De modo que si una bestia actuara de acuerdo con
21
Para una presentacin histrica del uso de la razn en la teologa cristiana, cf. J. A. BONSOR, Athens and Jerusalem: The Role of Philosophy in Theology , Paulist Press, New York and Mahwah, N.J. 1993, 1-97.
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la razn, deberamos decir que tal bestia acta como hombre; del mismo modo decimos que un hombre que acta basndose en sus apetitos sensuales y de modo contrario a la razn, acta como una bestia22.
Alfonso comienza su argumentacin con una identificacin entre necios y bestias. El conocimiento mundano, declara, ensea a la persona a satisfacer sus apetitos sensuales. Al hacerlo, la persona se comporta como las bestias. Una vez establecido este presupuesto subyacente, el resto del argumento fluye con suavidad. Ser creado a imagen de Dios significa actuar de acuerdo con la razn. Si un animal actuara de tal modo, sera descrito como actuando como un hombre. As, si las acciones de un hombre son contrarias a la razn, es razonable afirmar que est actuando como una bestia. El modo de razonar de Alfonso aqu es bastante lgico. Usa la razn para apoyar su tesis de que el conocimiento mundano es necedad a los ojos de Dios23.
3. Exempla
Lo que distingue la reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos de las dems meditaciones en el libro es el exemplum, tomado de la vida de Pedro Metastasio, que aade despus de la oracin conclusiva. Como se apunt ms arriba, el uso de los exempla era una caracterstica comn de la predicacin medieval y era una herramienta ampliamente usada en tiempos de Alfonso. Alfonso tambin usa exempla en muchas de sus obras devocionales de modo que su presencia en esta coleccin de meditaciones no debera sorprender a nadie. El propsito de un exemplum es ofrecer hechos recientes que ayuden a
22
Ma questa scienza di mondo stoltezza e vera pazzia presso Dio: Sapientia enim huius mundi stultitia est apud Deum. Pazzia, perch tale scienza rende pazzi tutti coloro che la coltivano: li rende pazzi e simili alle bestie, mentre loro insegna a secondare gli appetiti sensuali come fanno le bestie. Scrive s. Giovanni Crisostomo: Hominem illum dicimus, qui imaginem hominis salvam retinet; quae autem imago hominis? rationalem esse. Per ritener limagine duomo bisogna essere ragionevole, cio operare secondo la ragione. Dal che ricavasi che, siccome se vi fosse una bestia che sempre operasse secondo la ragione si direbbe che quella bestia opera da uomo; cos allincontro un uomo che opera secondo lappetito desensi e contro la ragione deve dirsi che opera da bestia. Cf. A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1), 257; [Pious Reflections..., 187-188]. Un buen ejemplo de uso alfonsiano de la razn en sus escritos ascticos puede verse en su refutacin del jansenismo en: A. DE LIGUORI, Del gran mezzo della preghiera , in: ID., Opere ascetiche, vol. 2, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 1962, 117-44. [Traduccin inglesa: The Great Means of Salvation, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vol. 2, 161-200].
23
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la gente a identificarse con el mensaje trasmitido en el discurso. A pesar de que el exemplum en este caso particular viene al final de la meditacin e incluso despus de la oracin, juega un importante papel en la presentacin que hace Alfonso del significado de la ciencia de los santos y debera ser considerado como una parte integrante de toda la reflexin 24. Puesto que el exemplum es generalmente una narracin histrica breve, es importante tomarlo en su totalidad. La historia entera tal como fue escrita por Alfonso es presentada a continuacin:
Permtaseme aqu expresar la gran consolacin que tuve hace pocos das por una informacin concerniente al objeto de las consideraciones precedentes, la ciencia de los santos. Me han asegurado que, despus de recibir mucho aplauso en toda Europa por sus composiciones poticas, las cuales son tan nocivas como hermosas (me refiero a las que slo tratan del amor profano), pues cuanto ms tiernas sus expresiones, ms estn calculadas para encender en los pechos de los jvenes las perniciosas llamas de las afecciones impuras, el celebrado seor Pedro Metastasio ha publicado un librito en prosa, en el cual expresa la detestacin de sus escritos sobre amor profano, y declara que, si estuviera en su poder, los retirara y los hara desaparecer del mundo, incluso a costa de su sangre. Y he sido informado de que sus composiciones poticas se reducen ahora a piezas sobre materia moral o espiritual, que escribe slo para cumplir con su obligacin de poeta con la corte imperial. Vive retirado en su propia casa, llevando una vida de oracin. Esta informacin me ha producido una consolacin inefable; pues su declaracin pblica y su muy laudable ejemplo ayudar a desengaar a muchos jvenes que buscan adquirir un gran nombre con similares composiciones de amor profano. Es cierto que, por esta retractacin, el seor Metastasio se merece ms encomios que mereciera por la publicacin de mil obras poticas; pues stas pudieron ser alabadas por los hombres, pero ahora l es alabado por Dios. Pues, como antes detest su vanidad en estimarse con tales composiciones (no hablo de sus piezas sagradas, que son excelentes y merecedoras de aplauso), ahora no cesar de alabarle; y si se me permitiera
24
Para una literatura de exempla, cf. O. GREGORIO ET ALII (eds.), S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale , Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 1960, 239-283. Uno de los mejores usos de ejemplos de S. Alfonso lo encontramos en Le glorie di Maria cf. ALFONSO M. DE LIGUORI, Opere ascetiche, vol. 10, Redentoristi, SantAlfonso, Roma 1935; (Traduccin inglesa: The Glories of Mary, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vols. 7-8).
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besara sus pies, viendo que se ha convertido voluntariamente en el censor de sus obras, y que ahora l desea verlas desaparecer del mundo entero, a precio, dice l, incluso de su propia sangre25.
Es interesante notar que el otro nico lugar de las Reflexiones Devotas donde Alfonso usa un exemplum de modo similar es en la reflexin decimosptima titulada, Sobre la confianza en Jesucristo 26. A pesar de que el tema de este exemplum es ms difuso, la conversin de Pedro Metastasio (y la alegra de Alfonso por ella) es subrayado como un punto central. Cuando leemos estas reflexiones, es claro que Alfonso aadi estos exempla para sealar a sus lectores, con una evidencia concreta, el movimiento de la gracia de Dios en medio de ellos. En el contexto presente, Alfonso ayuda a sus lectores a ver que la ciencia de los santos comienza con el aqu-y-ahora y no es simplemente algo a lo que aspirar en el ms all. Para los lectores de esta reflexin, Metastasio representa alguien que ha alcanzado las cimas del conocimiento mundano, una hazaa que le ha aportado una considerable suma de riqueza y reconocimiento pblico. El vuelco completo de su parte, mostrado incluso por su deseo de derramar su propia sangre para poder ver su poesa profana destruida, presenta a los lectores un ejemplo concreto de lo que
25
Mi si permetta qui di manifestare una grande consolazione che pochi giorni sono mi rec una certa notizia la quale cade a proposito della materia di sopra considerata della scienza desanti. Mi fu assicurato per cosa certa, che il celebre abate signor Pietro Metastasio dopo tante lodi ricevute da tutta Europa per le sue composizioni poetiche date alle stampe, che quanto pi belle, tanto sono state pi nocive (intendo di quelle cose che trattano damor profano); poich le sue espressioni quanto sono state pi tenere e vive, tanto pi han potuto accendere necuori depoveri giovani fiamme perniciose daffetti impuri; al presente ha dato fuori un libretto in prosa, ove detesta queste sue fatiche e si protesta che se potesse ritirarle tutte e fare che pi non comparissero al mondo lo farebbe ad ogni suo costo, anche del suo sangue. Ed in effetto mi dicono che ora non compone pi in versi se non alcuni drammi spirituali o morali costretto dallincombenza che tiene di poeta della corte cesarea, e che sta sempre ritirato in casa a far vita devota e di orazione. Io no ho intesa una consolazione indicibile, perch questa sua pubblica dichiarazione e questo suo lodevolissimo esempio giover a far ravvedere molti giovani ingannati che cercano acquistar nome ed onore con simili componenti amorosi. E certo che il signor Metastasio con tal sua dichiarazione merita pi encomio che se avesse dato alla luce mille famosi libri di poesia; mentre con quelli sarebbe lodato dagli uomini ed ora lodato da Dio. Quindi ove prima io detestava la di lui vanit in pregarsi di tali suoi componimenti (non parlo dei drammi sacri che sono eccellenti e degni dogni lode), ora non mi sazio di lodarlo, e se mi fosse permesso gli bacerei i piedi, vedendolo fatto da se stesso censore di quelle sue opere, con desiderio di vederle abolite per tutto il mondo a costo (come dice) anche del suo sangue. Cf. A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1), 258; [Pious Reflections..., 190-91]. Cf. nota 6.
26
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Alfonso ha estado diciendo. Pedro Metastasio no es un santo como san Francisco de Ass, san Pascual o san Juan de Dios, sino alguien que ha alcanzado las alturas del conocimiento mundano y sentido todo el peso de sus vacas promesas. Alfonso incluye este exemplum al final de su reflexin porque quiere que sus lectores reflexionen sobre su propia situacin ante las vanas promesas del conocimiento mundano y actuar en consecuencia.
IV. EL
USO DEL TIEMPO
El uso por Alfonso de estos tres distintos tipos de argumentos auctoritates, rationes, y exempla es importante para su presentacin de la ciencia de los santos, porque cada uno de ellos empuja al lector en una particular perspectiva sobre el significado y naturaleza del tiempo 27. Para entender las connotaciones ms profundas de la reflexin de Alfonso, el lector debe tener en cuenta estas tres perspectivas.
1. Auctoritates
Los argumentos de Alfonso desde la autoridad son tomados de la Biblia o de los Padres de la Iglesia. Ambas fuentes subrayan el papel de la memoria y de la retrospeccin para la comprensin del lector del tiempo, aunque de diferentes modos. Las numerosas citas de la Escritura provienen del Antiguo y Nuevo Testamento, y trasmiten un sentido de los muchos caminos por los cuales Dios ha hablado a su pueblo a travs de los siglos. Este sentido de multiplicidad temporal queda claro cuando se tiene en cuenta los muchos gneros literarios que componen la palabra escrita de Dios 28. Las citas de Alfonso representan la palabra de Dios tal como ha sido expresada en variedad de medios: proverbios, himnos, cartas y los dichos de Jess. Aunque fueron compuestas hace mucho tiempo, todas estas palabras retienen su significado para el lector de hoy. Son afirmadas por los comentarios de los Padres de la Iglesia, tales como Agustn y Crisstomo, cuyas intuiciones muestran que la
27
La conexin entre los tres tipos de argumentacin y el retrato de tiempo viene de J. LEGOFF, o. c., 78-80. La aplicacin a la reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos es ma. La frase multiplicidad temporal es de J. LEGOFF, o. c., 79.
28
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DENNIS J. BILLY
palabra de Dios necesita ser escuchada e interpretada de nuevo en cada poca. Cuando se toman en conjunto, las autoridades de la Escritura y los Padres de la Iglesia ofrecen una comprensin escatolgica del tiempo, que recoge el pasado en el presente al tiempo que mira hacia su futuro cumplimiento. Cuando se aplica a la ciencia de los santos, este enfoque del ya-pero-todava-no orienta al lector hacia el futuro, a travs del presente, por va del pasado. Introduce al lector en la historia de la implicacin de Dios con su pueblo y enciende la confianza para afrontar cualquier reto que el futuro pueda traer29.
2. Rationes
Los argumentos racionales de Alfonso afirman la naturaleza eterna de la verdad y la capacidad de la mente humana para percibirla. Subrayan las funciones invariables y perennes de la verdad en medio del cambio histrico. El carcter atemporal de estas afirmaciones reducen la percepcin del tiempo a un agente limitado e imperfecto. El tiempo no contiene la verdad, sino que es contenido por ella. Los argumentos de Alfonso confrontan al lector a travs del medio del presente didctico. No limitado por el tiempo, entran en su conciencia a travs de las conclusiones sacadas por silogismo o deduccin lgica. La afirmacin resultante funde las categoras del tiempo y lo eterno y ofrece al lector la oportunidad de encarnar la verdad en un momento de intuicin razonada. A pesar de que puedan parecer intrusas en una meditacin enfocada en gran medida sobre la futilidad del conocimiento humano, estas rationes proveen un teln de fondo significativo sobre el cual conduce su reflexin sobre la ciencia de los santos. Todos los otros tipos de autoridad introducidos por Alfonso presuponen y utilizan, de algn modo, un elemento de la capacidad de la razn para alcanzar la verdad. Sin esto, el movimiento de su reflexin no podra moverse de una intuicin a la siguiente ni podra influenciar a sus lectores con su poder para persuadir30.
29
Para el uso devocional que Alfonso hace de las autoridades, ver O. GREGORIO (eds.), o. c., 329-331.
ET
ALII
244
3. Exempla
A diferencia de otros tipos de autoridad usados por Alfonso, el exemplum coloca al lector en la experiencia diacrnica del tiempo. El movimiento narrativo de un ejemplo histrico reciente familiariza al lector con su propia experiencia cotidiana. El propsito del exemplum es establecer una conexin con el lector, de modo que las intuiciones expuestas en otras reas de la reflexin tengan un valor ms inmediato y personal. El exemplum pone carne y hueso a las verdades abstractas desarrolladas antes en la reflexin por las auctoritates y rationes. Tambin le invita a considerar la posibilidad de incorporarlos a su propia vida. Los Exempla a menudo describen un caso de conversin en la vida de un personaje histrico de reciente memoria. En el caso de la reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos, sta se refiere a Pedro Metastasio, el poeta de la corte imperial, y al rechazo de su poesa profana. Alfonso incluye este ejemplo en su reflexin por varias razones: la fama de Metastasio, la cualidad dramtica de su rechazo, la vida de reclusin y oracin que abraz, y su deseo de derramar su sangre para defender sus nuevas convicciones. Todas estas cualidades dan a Alfonso una oportunidad nica. Metastasio es una figura bien conocida por sus lectores, que alcanza el pinculo de la ciencia mundana y la rechaza a favor de la celeste. Al incluirlo en su reflexin, invita a sus lectores a seguir un camino similar de arrepentimiento y conversin de vida 31. En su presentacin de la ciencia de los santos, Alfonso emplea diferentes tipos de argumentos para subrayar la orientacin ilimitada y polivalente de la bsqueda de la santidad. A travs de estos argumentos, pasado, presente y futuro confrontan al lector con la oportunidad de reflexionar sobre su propia vida y responder a la llamada de la conversin fundamental. Slo de este modo, se podr llegar a conocer el amor de Dios de un modo ntimo y afirmador de la vida.
V. LA
30
ORACIN
La afirmacin de Alfonso sobre la naturaleza eternal de la verdad aparece incluso en su primera obra publicada, Massime eterne. Ver A. DE LIGUORI, Opere ascetiche, vol. 9, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 1965, 379-95. [Traduccin inglesa: Maxims of Eternity, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vol. 1, 387-403]. Para el uso general por Alfonso de los exempla, ver O. GREGORIO 285-290. Ver tambin nota 24.
ET
31
ALII (eds.), o. c.,
245
DENNIS J. BILLY
Dada la exposicin que hemos hecho ms arriba del uso alfonsiano del tiempo, no debera sorprendernos que la oracin a Jess, al final de la reflexin, contenga referencias especficas al pasado, presente y futuro. Dice as:
Oh T que eres mi ms verdadero y perfecto amante, dnde encontrar uno que me haya amado ms que T! Durante mi vida pasada, he perdido mi tiempo en alcanzar el conocimiento de muchas cosas que no han beneficiado a mi alma en nada, y no he pensado en conocer cmo amarte. Veo que mi vida se ha perdido. Percibo que T me llamas a Ti, santo amante. Mira, lo dejo todo; desde este da en adelante, mi nico pensamiento ser agradarte a Ti, mi ms alto bien. Me entrego completamente a Ti; acptame; dame ayuda para serte fiel; no deseo ya ser mo sino todo, todo tuyo. Oh Madre de Dios! Aydame t con tus oraciones32.
En esta sentida oracin a Jess, Alfonso comienza con el tiempo futuro y luego se mueve respectivamente en el pasado y el presente. La afirmacin futura confirma los roles de Jess como el verdadero y perfecto amante; nadie parecido puede encontrarse en lugar alguno. Esta fuerte afirmacin del amor de Jess mueve a Alfonso a mirar a su pasado y a reconocer el tiempo que ha desperdiciado innecesariamente con ocupaciones y a admitirlo humildemente ante su Seor. Al hacerlo as, inicia un proceso de arrepentimiento que ltimamente conduce a un deseo de cambio. La oracin entonces se mueve desde estas afirmaciones en tiempo pasado hacia una variedad en tiempo presente que refleja un profundo deseo de vivir un proceso de conversin aqu y ahora: Veo que mi vida se ha perdido... Percibo que T me llamas... Lo dejo todo... Me entrego completamente a Ti. Este deseo de querer vivir el proceso ntegro de conversin en un solo momento de intensa purificacin se compensa ms tarde con el reconocimiento
32
O mio vero e perfetto amatore, dove trover io chi mabbia amato quanto mavete amato voi? Io per lo passato ho perduto il tempo in sapere pi cose che niente mi han giovato allanima e poco ho pensato a sapere amarvi. Vedo la mia vita perduta. Sento che mi chiamate al vostro amore: eccomi, lascio tutto: da ogginnanzi lunico mio pensiero sar di darvi gusto, mio sommo bene. Io tutto a voi mi dono, accettatemi voi, datemi aiuto ad esservi fedele; io non voglio esser pi mio, ma tutto vostro, tutto, tutto. O Madre di Dio, soccorretemi ancora voi colle vostre preghiere. Ver A. DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni devote sopra diversi punti di spirito a pro delle anime che desiderano avanzarsi nel divino amore , in: ID., Opere ascetiche, vol. 2, Marietti, Torino 1846, 258; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1), 190].
246
de la necesidad de la ayuda de Dios para permanecer fiel. La implicacin aqu es que el proceso de conversin exige ms que un cambio momentneo del corazn. La prueba real vendr en los das venideros cuando la propia resolucin sea probada a travs de las dificultades y tentaciones de la vida cotidiana. Por esta razn, la peticin de ayuda corre paralela a la orientacin futura de la oracin inicial. Alfonso desea ser un verdadero y perfecto amante como Jess, su Seor y Redentor. La oracin de ayuda dirigida a Mara confirma este deseo y extiende la oracin de una conversacin personal con el Seor a una oracin que hace espacio (y acoge con todo el corazn) a la intercesin de los santos. Alfonso ofrece esta oracin en esta reflexin sobre la ciencia de los santos primeramente para beneficio de sus lectores. Su energa y espontaneidad demuestran que no puede provenir de ningn otro lugar que no sea directamente del corazn y que espera que sea una gua til para sus lectores en sus propias conversaciones orantes con el Seor. Ms importante, mueve el punto principal de la reflexin ms all invitando a sus lectores no solamente a reflexionar sobre el significado de la ciencia de los santos para sus vidas, sino tambin a hacer algo sobre ello. Cuando es vista desde esta perspectiva, la oracin es una parte integral de la meditacin. Une las diversas dimensiones temporales expuestas en el resto de la meditacin, al tiempo que busca guiar a sus lectores a una experiencia personal de la ciencia de los santos.
VI. CONCLUSIN
El librito de Alfonso Reflexiones devotas ofrece una variedad de meditaciones sobre el crecimiento en la vida moral espiritual. Su meditacin sobre la ciencia de los santos se centra en un tema particular al presentar un fuerte contraste entre conocimiento profano y conocimiento sagrado y luego sita a sus lectores ante la necesidad de elegir uno de los dos. A pesar de que la palabra ciencia, tal como aparece en la expresin, puede referirse a un cuerpo objetivo de conocimiento y al modo en que ese conocimiento es incorporado en el sujeto, su connotacin ms probable tiene que ver con un conocimiento personal e ntimo de Dios mismo.
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DENNIS J. BILLY
Para mostrar el contraste entre lo sagrado y lo profano, Alfonso emplea argumentos de autoridad, razn y ejemplo. Puesto que estos mtodos de demostracin pueden usarse igualmente tanto en escritos seculares como espirituales, este duro contraste implica tambin un cierto nivel de semejanza entre los dos. En su enseanza de la ciencia de los santos, Alfonso no rechaza tanto el valor del aprendizaje humano en s, sino su uso para fines egostas o egocntricos. En el anlisis final, la ciencia de los santos no es otra cosa que conocer el amor de Dios. Este conocimiento personal de lo divino admite varios grados de intimidad. Aunque no excluye los grados superiores de experiencia mstica, como es el matrimonio espiritual, stos no son necesarios. Dios quiere que todos participen de su amistad y distribuye su gracia para hacerlo posible. Cuando se ve bajo esta luz, la enseanza de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos pone en primer lugar lo nico que importa. Los santos son posedos por el conocimiento del amor de Dios. Vivir para Dios es su nico deseo, su sola ocupacin. A travs de esta reflexin, Alfonso invita a sus lectores a seguir su gua volviendo sus vidas hacia Dios y practicando el camino de la conversin.
248
St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

Dennis J. Billy, C.Ss.R. In 1773, St. Alphonsus published a brief work entitled, Pious Reflections on Different Points of Spirituality to Guide Souls that Desire to Advance in the Love of God.33 This popular piece of spiritual reading seeks to help its readers deepen their relationship with God and to grow in his love. To achieve that aim, Alphonsus provides forty-five brief meditations on a wide range of topics on the spiritual moral life. Among these reflections, he includes an exposition of what he refers to as the science of the saints which, for him, is simply to know the love of God.34 My purpose in this essay is to examine Alphonsuss presentation of this important element of his spiritual moral vision. I will give specific emphasis to his manner of argumentation and the way he leads his readers along the process of conversion. I will also look at some of the underlying assumptions of his teaching and offer some comments on his understanding of growth in the spiritual moral life.
I. ONE
OF
MANY
At the very outset, it bears noting that Alphonsuss discussion of the science of the saints is just one of many loosely related meditations of a work
33
ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote sopra diversi punti di spirito a pro delle anime che desiderano avanzarsi nel divino amore , in: G. CACCIATORE (ed.) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere aschetiche, vol. 2, Marietti, Turin 1846, 249-316. The English translation comes from Pious Reflections on Different Points of Spirituality to Guide Souls that Desire to Advance in the Love of God , in: EUGENE GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori , vol. 2, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1886, 171-306. La scienza desanti sapere amar Dio. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 257; Pious Reflections 189.
34
DENNIS J. BILLY
specifically designed to lead others to sanctity. To this end, he himself read a little each day from this little work and encouraged others to do the same. Since each meditation is self-contained and related to the others in only a loose, thematic sense, it offers its readers an excellent aid for daily meditation. Alphonsus, it seems, wrote this work specifically with this purpose in mind. 35 For the most part, each of the reflections follows the same threefold structure: (1) a short title, which introduces the theme offered for ones considerations, (2) a meditation, which develops the theme through rational argument and a rich selection of relevant sources from the Catholic tradition, and (3) a closing prayer, which seeks to incite the reader to heartfelt prayer. 36 Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints, the sixth in the collection, differs from this underlying literary format only in that he adds to the prayer a relatively recent historical example to bring his point home. 37 His use of this exemplum sets this sixth reflection apart from most of the others in the collection and provides his readers with a concrete point of reference with which to measure their progress in the spiritual moral life. 38 For this reason, the exemplum should be understood as an integral part of the meditation and not an unnecessary appendage or a mere literary afterthought. As texts for meditation, Alphonsuss reflections are directed toward the heart and designed to lead their readers to fervent acts of prayer. They were not
35
In a letter to Sister Brianna Carafa of the monastery of S. Marcellino in Naples, dated September 8, 1773, Alphonsus writes : I also read every day something of the other little work, entitled Pious Reflections, etc. I wish you to do the same; for I have composed it specially for those souls that desire to give themselves entirely to God. See Letters of St. Alphonsus Maria de Liguori, in: E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol. 19, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1892, 513. For information on the Italian original, see Opera omnia SantAlfonso de Liguori , Lettera n. 0001449 (http://www.eulogos.it/lettere/0001449.htm). Most of the meditations in Alphonsuss other writings follow this same basic structure. See, for example, his Via della salute, in: O. GREGORIO (ed.) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori,Opere ascetiche, vol. 10, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 1968, 7-133; The Way of Salvation, in: E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori , vol.. 2, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1886, 17-169). This exemplum refers to the conversion of Pietro Metastasio, the poet of the imperial court. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 258; Pious Reflections 190-91. The only exception is the seventeenth reflection entitled, Della confidenza in Ges Cristo. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 275-77; Pious Reflections 225-29.
36
37 38
written to withstand the intense scrutiny of the professional theologian and should not be expected to yield fruits on that level. Coming from the hand of one of the great spiritual moral minds of the eighteenth century, however, they provide much more substance than their title, Pious Reflections, might first seem to suggest. Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints is a case in point. Rather than offering his readers a string of pious sentiments, he offers them a sound teaching that touches the very heart of the Gospel message, i.e., the call to conversion.
II. THE MEANING
OF
SCIENCE
Before proceeding, something should be said about the use of the term science throughout the reflection. Alphonsus begins by saying that there are two kinds of sciences in the world: one heavenly, the other worldly. 39 This stark division calls to mind St. Pauls depiction of the struggle between the flesh and spirit and St. Augustines description of the ongoing struggle between the city of God and the city of man. 40 One type of science is completely opposed to and can have nothing to do with the other. This approach reflects the Christ against the world understanding of the relationship between Christianity and culture made famous by H. Richard Niebuhr.41 As far as the actual word science itself is concerned, Alphonsuss language allows for three possible interpretations, two of which are distinct but closely related, and a third that approaches the question from another direction. With respect to the first two possibilities, the word science can refer to an objective body of knowledge governed by a verifiable system of rules and ordinances or to the personal appropriation of that knowledge. From these two possibilities, the second presupposes the first and is emphasized the most. Science of whatever sort---be it mathematics, literary theory, or a subalternated discipline
39 40 41
Due sorte di scienza vi sono sulla terra, luna celeste, laltra mondana. ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 257; Pious Reflections 189.
See
See Ro 8,1-12 ; Ga 5,13-26. See also AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO, De civitate Dei, XIV c.28-XV c.2. H. R. NIEBUHR, Christ and Culture, Harper & Row, New York 1951, 83-115.
DENNIS J. BILLY
like theology--- reaches its full potential when it is the human person internalizes it as a living body of knowledge. This understanding of science recognizes the classical divisions of objective and subjective knowledge, but gives a clear preference to the second.42 In the third possibility, the term science refers not so much to a body of knowledge in the objective or subjective sense, but to the experiential, faceto-face encounter with another person. As far as the science of the saints is concerned, this other is God himself. This possibility bases itself on the difference between knowing about someone and knowing that someone personally. It resembles more the monastic approach to theology with its focus on growth in holiness and the experiential knowledge of the sacred than the scholastic with its strong emphasis on clarifying the object content of revelation.43 It is also continuous with the strong devotional emphasis of the late-medieval devotio moderna with its suspicion of sophisticated, academic learning.44 When referring to the science of the saints Alphonsus recognizes this last possibility as the most important: The science of the saints is to know the love of God.45 In this context, science, for Alphonsus has to do with (1) knowledge and (2) the love of God. Although the other possible interpretations do not seem to be excluded from this simple definition, the knowledge, Alphonsus seems to be referring here to the experiential knowledge of the divine. Such knowledge is not mystical in the strict sense of extraordinary ecstatic experiences of the divine, but more akin to the Spirits gifts of knowledge and wisdom that correspond to and complete the theological virtues of faith and charity.46
42
The difference between objective and subjective knowledge goes back to the finis quo/finis cuius distinction of Thomas Aquinas. See Summa theologiae, I-II, q. 1, a. 8, resp. For a comparison between monastic and scholastic theology, see B. P. GAYBBA, Aspects of the Medieval History of Theology , University of South Africa, Pretoria 1988, 5257. See O. GRNDLER, Devotio Moderna in: Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation, Jill Raitt (ed.) Crossroad, New York, 1988, 176-93. See above n. 2. Alphonsus probably derives the phrase the science of the saints ( la scienza desainti) from Aquinass definition of sacred doctrine as a subalternated science: Et hoc modo sacra doctrina est scientia: quia procedit ex principiis notis lumine superioris scientiae, quae scilicet est scientia Dei et beatorum. See Summa theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 2, resp. For
43
44 45 46
III. THREE KINDS
OF
ARGUMENT
In his presentation of the science of the saints, Alphonsus employees three different kinds of proofs: auctoritates, rationes, and exempla. These common forms of argument have three roots deep in the medieval ages and, by Alphonsuss time, had become a mainstay of popular preaching. 47 Their use in a work of spiritual reading such as the Pious Reflections points to the close bond that Alphonsus saw between a pastoral activity such as preaching and growth in the spiritual moral life. Since the goal of preaching and spiritual reading was fundamentally the same---to help a person draw closer to Jesus Christ---it makes perfect sense that elements from one form of expression might eventually find their way in the other. This possibility becomes even more likely when one realizes that spiritual reading was often looked upon as an internal preparation that helped the preacher deepen his own relationship with the Lord. When seen in this light, Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints employs many of the same methods of demonstration as a sermon, the only difference being that it is reflected upon in the quiet of ones heart rather than expressed aloud in a public liturgical setting. A look at the use that Alphonsus makes of all three arguments in this reflection bears this out. 1. Auctoritates. During Alphonsuss day, the use of authorities was already a well-known method of establishing a theological point. The writings of the Church fathers were filled with citations from Scripture to support their arguments. The use of authority was also an integral part of the scholastic method, where divergent voices from the tradition were subjected to careful dialectical scrutiny. In the eighteenth century, the whole basis of moral
the close bond drawn by Aquinas between sacred doctrine and Christian wisdom, see Summa theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 6, res. For Aquinass teaching on the gifts of knowledge and wisdom, see Summa theologiae, II-II, q. 9, aa.1-4; q. 23, prol. ; q. 45, aa. 1-6. It should be noted that, for Aquinas, the actuation of the gifts of the Spirit constitutes the true essence of Christian mysticism and is an ordinary rather than extraordinary phenomenon in the lives of Christians and. In Alphonsuss day, this classical understanding of Christian mysticism was obscured the Churchs reaction against Quietism and by the generally held belief that mysticism required the reception of extraordinary graces and was not to be desired or expected. See J. AUMANN, Spiritual Theology, Sheed and Ward, London 1980, 122-30, esp. 127.
47
For the medieval roots of such arguments, see J. LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination, Arthur Goldhammer (trans.) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London 1988, 78-80.
DENNIS J. BILLY
casuistry rested on the weight that could be attributed to the opinions of recognized authorities. On the popular, devotional level, citations from authorities were used as a way of putting people in contact with the living tradition of the Church. These authorities cited were normally those from Scripture and the fathers of the Church, which were cited in abundance to assure the faithful of the consistency and theological depth of the message they are receiving.48 Alphonsus salts his reflection on the science of the saints with very generous selection of authorities. These come primarily from Scripture, the Church fathers, the saints, and some well-known secular sources. In the order of their appearance, his citing of Scripture includes: 1Cor 3,19; 1Cor 8,1; Sant 4,6; Dt 32,29; Sl 75,6; Sb 10,10; Mt 11,25; and 1Cor 2,2. 49 These references come either by way of direct citation or allusion and are selected for the way they contrast heavenly wisdom with the wisdom of the world. As far as the Church fathers are concerned, he refers twice to both St. John Chrysostom and to St. Augustine.50 Those from the former refer respectively to the rational nature of man and to meditation on death as a way of learning the vanity of the world; those from the latter have to do respectively with the importance of loving God above all else and how the unlearned are the ones who arise and storm heaven. As far as other saints are concerned, Alphonsus uses St. Francis, St. Paschal, and St. John of God as examples of those who, though poor in worldly knowledge, were particularly skilled in the wisdom of God. 51 In contrast to these saintly figures, Alphonsus mentions how death brings the glories of the world to an end and how the likes of Cicero, Demosthenes, and Ulpian now have nothing to show for themselves.52 In his use of authority, Alphonsus uses Scripture, the fathers, the saints, and secular figures to demonstrate the
48
For the definition of an authority and a presentation of the argument of authority see B. MONDIN, Autorit, in: B. MONDIN (ed), Dizionario enciclopedico del pensiero di San Tommaso dAquino Edizioni Studio Domenicano, Bologna 1991, 73-74. For general background, see LEONARD KRIEGER, Authority, in: Philip P. Weiner (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, vol.. 1, Charles Scribners Sons, New York 1973, 141-62, esp. 147. ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 257-58; Pious Reflections 187-90. ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257-58; Pious Reflections 187-89. ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 258; Pious Reflections 189. ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257; Pious Reflections 189.
49 50 51 52
contrast between heavenly and worldly wisdom. His aim in using them is to help his readers to make the knowledge of Gods love a priority in their own lives. 2. Rationes. In addition to the citation of authorities, Alphonsus makes use of rational arguments to explain his understanding of the science of the saints. He does so even though part of his agenda is to expose the weaknesses of worldly knowledge. From the time of the Christian apologists, reason was valued as a useful tool for expounding the truths of the Christian faith. Probably the best evidence of Christianitys deep respect for the insights of reason are the many theological syntheses based on a wide range of philosophical systems, Augustines Neoplatonic synthesis and Aquinass Aristotelian synthesis to name but a few. Although the understanding of what constitutes a rational argument has developed over the course of history, Christian thinkers have made good use of its changing contours to deepen their understanding of the faith. Alphonsus is no exception. 53 Using Scripture or the authorities of Church tradition as his point of departure, Alphonsus generally moves in syllogistic fashion to reach a logical conclusion. An example of his use of rational argument appears early on in his reflection: But this worldly science is folly and madness in the sight of God. The wisdom of the world is foolishness with God. It is folly, for it makes fools of those who cultivate it; it makes them fools, and like the brutes, for it teaches them to gratify their carnal appetites like the beasts. St. John Chrysostom wrote, We call him a man who preserves complete the image of a man; and what is the image of a man?---to be rational. Hence it is that if a brute were ever to act according to reason, we should say that such a brute acted like a man; so we say that a man who acts upon sensual appetites and contrary to reason acts like a brute.54
53
For a historical presentation of the use of reason in Christian theology, see J. A. BONSOR Athens and Jerusalem: The Role of Philosophy in Theology, Paulist Press, New York and Mahwah, N.J. 1993, 1-97. Ma questa scienza di mondo stoltezza e vera pazzia presso Dio: Sapientia enim huius mundi stultia est apud Deum. Pazzia, perch tale scienza rende pazzi tutti coloro che la
54
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Alphonsus begins his argument with a close identification between fools and beasts. Worldly knowledge, he states, teaches a person to satisfy ones sensual appetites. In doing so, it makes that person behave like the beasts. Once he establishes this underlying presupposition, the rest of his argument moves quite smoothly. To be created in the image of God means to act in accordance with reason. If an animal were ever to act in such a way, it would be described as acting like a man. So if a mans actions are contrary to reason, it stands to reason that he is acting like a brute. Alphonsuss mode of reasoning here is quite logical. He uses reason to support his claim that worldly knowledge is foolishness in the eyes of God.55 3. Exempla. What sets Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints apart from most of the other meditations in the book is the exemplum from the life of Peter Metastasio that he adds after the closing prayer. As pointed out earlier, the use of exempla was a common feature of medieval preaching and was a widely used tool for popular preaching in Alphonsuss day. Alphonsus also uses exempla in many of his devotional works so its presence in this collection of meditations should catch no one by surprise. The purpose of an exemplum is to provide an historical narrative of recent vintage that helps people to identify with the message being conveyed in the larger discourse. Although the exemplum, in this particular instance, comes at the end of the meditation and even after the prayer, it plays an important role in Alphonsuss
coltivano: li rende pazzi e simili alle bestie, mentre loro insegna a secondare gli appetiti sensuali come fanno le bestie. Scrive s. Giovanni Crisostomo: Hominem illum dicimus, qui imaginem hominis salvam retinet; quae autem imago hominis? rationalem esse. Per ritener limagine duomo bisogna essere ragionevole, cio operare secondo la ragione. Dal che ricavasi che, siccome se vi fosse una bestia che sempre operasse secondo la ragione si direbbe che quella bestia opera da uomo; cos allincontro un uomo che opera secondo lappetito desensi e contro la ragione dee dirsi che opera da bestia. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257; Pious Reflections 187-88.
55
For a good example of Alphonsuss use of reason in his ascetical writing, see his refutation of Jansenism in his Del gran mezzo della preghiera , in: G. CACCIATORE (ed.) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche , vol. 2, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 1962, 117-44; The Great Means of Salvation , in E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol. 3, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1886, 161-200.
presentation of the meaning of the science of the saints and should be considered an integral part of the entire reflection. 56 Since the exemplum is generally a brief historical narrative, it is important to take it in its entirety. The entire story as written by Alphonsus appears below: Permit me here to express the great consolation which I derived a few days since from information connected with the subject of the preceding considerations---the science of the saints. I have been assured that, after having received so much applause from all Europe for his poetic compositions, which are as noxious as they are beautiful (I mean those only which treat of profane love), for the more tender his expressions, the more they are calculated to kindle in the breasts of young persons the pernicious flames of impure affections, the celebrated Signore Peter Metastasio has published a little book in prose, in which he expresses his detestation of his writings on profane love, and declares that, were it in his power, he would retract them and make them disappear from the world, even at the cost of his blood. And I am informed that his poetic compositions are now confined to some pieces on moral or spiritual subjects, which he writes in order to comply with his obligation as poet to the imperial court. He lives retired in his own house, leading a life of prayer. This information has given me unspeakable consolation; because his public declaration and his most laudable example will help to undeceive many young persons who seek to acquire a great name by similar compositions on profane love. It is certain that, by his retraction, Signore Metastasio has deserved more encomiums than he would by the publication of a thousand poetic works; for these he might be praised by men, but now he is praised by God. Hence, as I formerly detested his vanity in prizing himself for such compositions (I do not speak of his sacred pieces, which are excellent and deserving of all praise), so now I shall never cease to praise him; and were I permitted, I would kiss his feet, seeing that he has voluntarily become the censor of his own works, and
56
For the literature of exempla, see O. Gregorio et al. (eds) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale, 239-83. One Alphonsuss best use of exempla is in Le glorie di Maria. See O. GREGORIO (ed.) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, vol. 10, SantAlfonso, Roma 1936; E. GRIMM (ed.) The Glories of Mary, in The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori , vol.s. 7-8, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1887.
DENNIS J. BILLY
that he now desires to see them banished from the whole world, at the expense, as he says, even of his own blood.57 It is interesting to note that the only other place in the Pious Reflections where Alphonsus uses an exemplum in a similar way comes in the seventeenth reflection entitled, On Confidence in Jesus Christ. 58 Although the topic of this exemplum is more diffuse, the conversion of Peter Metastasio (and Alphonsuss delight in it) is highlighted at a central point. When reading the reflections, it is clear that Alphonsus added these exempla to provide his readers with concrete evidence of the movement of Gods grace in their midst. In the present context, Alphonsus helps his readers see that the science of the saints begins in the here-and-now and is not simply something to look forward to in the afterlife. To the readers of this reflection, Metastasio represents someone who has reached the heights of worldly knowledge, a feat that has brought him a considerable amount of wealth and public acclaim. The complete turnaround on his part, displayed even by a willingness to spill his own blood to have his profane poetry destroyed, presents the readers with a concrete example of what
57
Mi si permetta qui di manifestare una grande consolazione che pochi giorni sono mi rec una certa notizia la quale cade a proposito della materia di sopra considerata della scienza desanti. Mi fa assicurato per cosa certa, che il celebre abate signor Pietro Metastasio dopo tante lodi ricevute da tutta Europa per le sue composizioni poetiche date alle stampe, che quanto pi belle, tanto sono state pi nocive (intendo di quelle cose che trattano damor profano); poich le sue espressioni quanto sono state pi tenere e vive, tanto pi han potuto accendere necuori depoveri giovani fiamme perniciose daffetti impuri; al presente ha dato fuori un libretto in prosa, ove detesta queste sue fatiche e si protesta che se potesse ritirarle tutte e fare che pi non comparissero al mondo lo farebbe ad ogni suo costo, anche del suo sangue. Ed in effetto mi dicono che ora non compone pi in versi se non alcuni drammi spirituali o morali costretto dallincombenza che tiene di poeta della corte cesarea, e che sta sempre ritirato in casa a far vita divota e di orazione. Io no ho intesa una consolazione indicibile, perch questa sua pubblica dichiarazione e questo suo lodevolissimo esempio giover a far ravvedere molti giovanni ingannati che cercano acquistar nome ed onore con simili componenti amorosi. E certo che il signor Metastasio con tal sua dichiarazione merita pi encomio che se avesse dato alla luce mille famosi libri di poesia; mentre con quelli sarebbe lodato dagli uomini ed ora lodato da Dio. Quindi ove prima io detestava la di lui vanit in pregarsi di tali suoi componimenti (non parlo dei drammi sacri che sono eccellenti e degni dogni lode), ora non mi sazio di lodarlo, e se mi fosse permesso gli bacerei i piedi, vedendolo fatto da se stesso censore di quelle sue opere, con desiderio di vederle abolite per tutto il mondo a costo (come dice) anche del suo sangue. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 258; Pious Reflections 190-91. See above n. 6.
58
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Alphonsus has been talking about. Peter Metastasio is no saint like St. Francis of Assisi, St. Paschal, or St. John of God, but someone who has reached the heights of worldly knowledge and felt the full weight of its empty promises. Alphonsus includes this exemplum at the end of his reflection because he wants his readers to reflect on their own standing before the vain promises of worldly knowledge---and act accordingly.
IV. THE USE
OF
TIME
Alphonsuss use of these three different types of arguments--- auctoritates, rationes, and exempla---are important for his presentation of the science of the saints, because each of them steeps the reader in a particular outlook toward the meaning and nature of time.59 To understand the deeper connotations of Alphonsuss reflection, the reader must take all of these perspectives into account. 1. Auctoritates. Alphonsuss arguments from authority are taken either from the Bible or from the Church fathers. Both sources highlight the role of memory and retrospection in the readers understanding of time, albeit in different ways. The numerous citations from Scripture come from both the Old and New Testaments and convey a sense of the many ways in which God has spoken to his people through the centuries. This sense of temporal multiplicity comes through more clearly when one takes into account the many literary genres that comprise Gods written word.60 Alphonsuss citations represent Gods Word as spoken through a variety of mediums: proverbs, hymns, letters, and the sayings of Jesus. Although composed so long ago, all of these words retain their significance for the reader today. They are affirmed by the commentaries of the fathers of the Church such as Augustine and Chrysostom, whose insights show that Gods Word needs to be listened to and interpreted anew in each succeeding age. When taken together, the authorities from Scripture and the fathers of the Church offer an eschatological understanding of time that collects
59
The connection between the three types of argumentation and the portrayal of time comes from LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination, 78-80. The application to Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints is my own. The phrase temporal multiplicity comes from LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination, 79.
60
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the past into the present as it looks forward toward its future fulfillment. When applied to the science of the saints, this already-but-not-yet focus orients the reader toward the future, through the present, and by way of the past. It roots the reader in the ongoing story of Gods involvement with his people and ignites confidence to face whatever challenges the future might bring. 61 2. Rationes. Alphonsuss rational arguments affirm the eternal nature of truth and the capacity of the human mind to perceive it. They highlight the perennial, unchanging foundations of truth in the midst of historical change. The atemporal character of these assertions expands the readers perception of time as a limited, imperfect agency. Time does not contain truth, but is contained by it. Alphonsuss arguments confront the reader through the medium of the didactic present. Unbounded by time, they enter the readers awareness through conclusions wrought by syllogism and logical deduction. The resulting affirmation merges the categories of time and the eternal and offers the reader the opportunity to embody truth in a moment of reasoned insight. Although they appear quiet an unobtrusive in a meditation that focuses largely on the futility of human knowledge, these rationes provide a significant backdrop against which he conducts his reflection on the science of the saints. All of the other types of authority introduced by Alphonsus presuppose and, in some way, utilize an element of reasons capacity for truth. Without it, the movement of his reflection could not move from one insight to the next or be able to influence its readers with its powers to persuade. 62 3. Exempla. Unlike the other types of authority used by Alphonsus in his reflection, the exemplum steeps the reader in the diachronic experience of time. The narrative movement of a recent historical example re-familiarizes the reader with his or her own, normal day-to-day experience. The purpose of the exemplum is to draw a bond with the reader so that the insights put forth in
61
For Alphonsuss devotional use of authorities, see O. GREGORIO et al. (eds) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale (Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1960), 329-31. Alphonsuss affirmation of the eternal nature of truth comes through even in his first published work, the Massime eterne. See O. GREGORIO (ed.) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, vol. 9, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma, 1965, 379-95; Maxims of Eternity, in: E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori , vol. 1, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1886, 387-403.
62
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other areas of the reflection have more immediate, personal value. The exemplum puts flesh and bones on the abstract truths developed by the auctoritates and rationes earlier on in the reflection. It also invites the reader to consider the possibility of incorporating them into his or her own life. Exempla often depict an instance of conversion in the life of a historical personage of recent memory. In the case of Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints, it focuses on Peter Metastasio, the poet of the imperial court, and his disavowal of his profane poetry. Alphonsus includes this example in his reflection for a number of reasons: Metastasios fame, the dramatic quality of his disavowal, the life of seclusion and prayer that he has embraced, and his willingness to spill his blood over his newfound convictions. All of these qualities provide Alphonsus with a unique opportunity. Metastasio is figure, well known to Alphonsuss readers, who reaches the pinnacle of worldly science and rejects it in favor of the heavenly. By including it in his reflection, he invites his readers to follow a similar path of repentance and conversion of life. 63 In his presentation of the science of the saints, Alphonsus employs different kinds of arguments to underscore the limitless, multivalent orientation of the quest for holiness. Through these arguments, past, present, and future confront the reader with the opportunity to reflect on his or her own life and to respond to the call to fundamental conversion. Only in such a way will one ever come to know the love of God in an intimate, life affirming way. The Prayer Given the above exposition of Alphonsuss use of time, it should come as no surprise that the prayer to Jesus at the end of the reflection proper contains specific references to the past, present and future. It reads thus: O Thou who art my true and perfect lover, where shall I find one who has loved me as Thou hast! During my life that is past, I have lost my time in attaining the knowledge of many things which have profited my soul nothing, and I have thought nothing of knowing how to love Thee. I see that my life has
63
For Alphonsuss general use of exempla, see O. GREGORIO et al. (eds) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale , 285-90. See also above n. 24.
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been lost. I perceive that Thou callest me to Thy holy lover; behold, I leave all; from this day forth, my one thought shall be to please Thee, my highest good. I give myself wholly to Thee; accept me; give me help to be faithful to Thee; I desire to be no longer my own, but all, all Thine. O mother of God! Do thou also help me with thy prayers.64 In this heartfelt prayer to Jesus, Alphonsus begins with the future tense and then moves respectively to the past and the present. The future affirmation confirms the Jesus roles as the true and perfect lover, the likes of whom will be found nowhere else. This strong affirmation of Jesus love moves Alphonsus to look at his past and to recognize the time he has needlessly wasted with occupations and then to humbly admit this to his Lord. In doing so, he initiates a process of repentance that ultimately leads to a desire for change. The prayer then moves from these past tense affirmations continues with a variety in the present tense that reflect a deep desire to undergo a process of conversion right then and there: I see that my life has been lostI perceive that Thou callestI leave allI give myself wholly to Thee. This desire to want to undergo the entire process of conversion in a single moment of intense purification is later offset by the recognition of the need for Gods help to remain faithful. The implication here is that process of conversion involves more than a momentary change of heart. The real test will come in the days ahead when ones resolve will be tested through the trials and temptations of everyday life. For this reason, the petition for help parallels the future orientation of the prayers beginning. Alphonsus wishes to be a true and perfect lover like Jesus, his Lord and Redeemer. The prayer for help directed to Mary confirms this desire and expands the prayer from a person conversation with the Lord to one that makes room for (and wholeheartedly welcomes) the intercession of the saints.
64
O mio vero e perfetto amatore, dove trover io chi mabbia amato quanto mavete amato voi? Io per lo passato ho perduto il tempo in sapere pi cose che niente mi han giovato allanima e poco ho pensato a sapere amarvi. Vedo la mia vita perduta. Sento che mi chiamate al vostro amore: eccomi, lascio tutto: da ogginnanzi lunico mio pensiero sar di darvi gusto, mio somme bene. Io tutto a voi mi dono, accettatemi voi, datemi aiuto ad esservi fedele; io non voglio esser pi mio, ma tutto vostro, tutto, tutto. O Madre di Dio, soccorretemi ancora voi colle vostre preghiere. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 258; Pious Reflections 190.
14
Alphonsus offers this prayer in this reflection on the science of the saints primarily for the benefit of his readers. Its power and spontaneity demonstrate that it could have come from nowhere else than straight from his heart and he hopes that it will prove to be a useful guide for his readers in their own prayerful conversations with the Lord. More importantly, it moves the main point of the reflection further by inviting its readers not merely to reflect on the meaning of the science of the saints for their lives, but also to do something about it. When seen from this perspective, the prayer is an integral part of the meditation. It brings together the diverse temporal dimensions laid out in the rest of the meditation as it seeks to lead its readers into a person experience of the science of the saints. Observations Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints allows for a number of remarks about his guiding assumptions and his understanding of the spiritual moral life. Listed below is a limited list of the most prominent concerns. 1.One way of understanding Alphonsus teaching is to interpret it in the context of his overall understanding of growth in the spiritual moral life. The journey to God, for Alphonsus, involves an ongoing process of detachment (distacco) from worldly values so that a growing union ( unione) with God might occur.65 In describing spiritual moral growth in this way, he does not mean to denigrate the goodness of the created order, but to merely to uproot any inordinate attachments that have resulted from or might lead to sin. Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints makes sense only when viewed against the backdrop of a worldview where the consequences of the fall, though eventually to be wiped out, still have considerable sway over the hearts and minds of men. Because of that influence, care must be taken to uproot whatever inordinate attachments stand in the way of ones intimate knowledge of the divine.
65
For a brief presentation of the role of detachment (distacco) and union (unione) in Alphonsuss spiritual moral vision, see M. Vidal, Moral y spiritualidad: De la separacina la convergencia, PS Editorial, Madrid 1997, 90-91.
15
DENNIS J. BILLY
2. As a work of spiritual reading, Alphonsuss Pious Reflections offers a series of meditations with a primary purpose of drawing others closer to God. To achieve that aim, it author presents his readers with an antagonistic relationship between knowledge of God and the world and then challenges them to make a choice between one or the other. This underlying framework of choice is a part of a rhetoric of conversion that permeates the entire reflection. What Alphonsus says about the science of the saints cannot be separated from this underlying pastoral intention. When seen in this light, the choice that Alphonsus himself made and which he presents his readers is not to rejection of human knowledge as such, but to use it for the glory of God rather than for ones own self-centered ends. To choose and to act otherwise effectively excludes one from growing in an intimate knowledge of the divine. 3. Alphonsuss tacit affirmation of human knowledge can be seen in his use of three different types of arguments--- auctoritates, rationes, and exempla---to further his ends. These ways of supporting ones position were a mainstay of popular preaching during Alphonsuss day, but could just as easily be found in a wide variety of secular works. There is nothing especially sacred about the use of authority, rational argument, or examples in making ones point. Secular authors could very easily use similar ways of arguing as a way of finding support for their own positions. By using these means, Alphonsus is implicitly affirming the goodness of human knowledge and its use for higher ends. At the same time, he is absolutely against the use of such knowledge for anything that would distract or, worse yet, even impede a person from moving into a deeper, more intimate knowledge of the divine. 4. Alphonsus use of these three types of argumentation demonstrates his sensitivity to the difficulty of communicating to his readers the true nature of the science of the saints. His decision to add the exemplum of Peter Metastasio at the end of the reflection suggests that Alphonsus himself felt the need in this particular entry to provide his readers with an actual historical example of someone who has rejected the world and embraced the knowledge and love of God. Although this argument by way of example is by far the most effective of the three, it too ultimately falls short of its aim. Extrinsic starting points such as Scripture, an argument from reason, or a recent historical personage ultimately prevent any of the arguments from leading the reader into the kind of personal 16
experience of the divine upon which the true science of the saints is based. To possess such intimate knowledge, one must follow the lead of the saints in prayer and turn ones life over entirely to Christ. 5. Alphonsuss use of time in his treatment of the science of the saints also reflects a profound sensitivity to the limitations of the historical time to capture the full implications of Christs redeeming activity. This diachronic activity has concrete ramifications both in and out of time for the lives of believers. To understand what these consequences might be, Alphonsus encourages his readers to look beyond the limitations that time places on their earthly existence. Alphonsus counsels meditation on death as an especially helpful way of bringing one face-to-face with the vanity of worldly knowledge. Contemplating the end of life helps one to live ones life mindful of ones ultimate end in God. To this end, the sepulchers are great schools of truth: 66 they move a person to evaluate his or her priorities; they invite him or her to remember the divine source from which all good things come. 6. Similarly, Alphonsuss reflection emphasizes the close bond between the science of the saints and the life of prayer. One can come to know God personally only through intimate conversation with him. Prayer, for Alphonsus, is easy to perform and reaps great benefits: He who prays is certainly saved. He who prays not is certainly damned. 67 The fluid, spontaneous way in which his reflection on the science of the saints turns into a prayer suggests the ease and frequency with which it should be practiced. Merely thinking about God is not enough. One comes to know and to love him only by engaging him in conversation. It is not insignificant that Peter Metastasio, the hero of Alphonsuss exemplum, is described as leading a life of prayer. 68 As the great means of salvation, prayer is a sine qua non for leading a person into a relationship of intimacy with the divine.
66 67
Oh che belle scuole di verit sono le sepolture per conoscere le vanit del mondo! See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257; Pious Reflections 188. ...chi prega, certamente si salva; chi non prega, certamente si danna. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Del gran mezzo della preghiera , in: G. CACCIATORE (ed.) Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche , vol. 2, Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 1962, 32; The Great Means of Salvation 49. ...che sta sempre ritirato in casa a far vita divota e di orazione. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 258; Pious Reflections 190.
68
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DENNIS J. BILLY
7. There are different degrees of intimacy, however, and not all attain to the level of the mystical. Following the teaching St. Teresa of Avila, Alphonsus recognizes a great variety of stages in spiritual moral growth. 69 At any one moment, a person can be in right relationship with God and enjoy a deep level of intimacy with him, while not experiencing those intense degrees of divine possession exhibited in the higher stages of spiritual betrothal or spiritual marriage. Just as it is possible to have, close, intimate friends outside the context of marriage, so too is it possible to have a deep, intimate relationship with God without having the extraordinary ecstatic experiences that define the later stages of the mystical relationship. For this reason, Alphonsuss teaching on prayer focuses on the lower grades of prayer such as mental and affective prayer. For him, all people are called to intimacy with God and to participate in some degree on the science of the saints.70 8. Finally, Alphonsuss aim in his presentation of the science of the saints is to bring his readers a little further along the way of conversion. Writing in the first person plural, he establishes a bond with his readers and is able to lead them to a consciousness of their need for change. Alphonsus can write in this way because he is deeply aware of the need for change in his own life. As the reflection itself becomes act of prayer, he shifts from the first person plural to the first person singular.71 This subtle change highlights Alphonsuss own awareness of his need for change and, hopefully, will intensify that awareness among his readers. Alphonsus knows that his writing can only serve as an instrument of change by providing a context within which the process of conversion takes place. As his prayer itself suggests, only the response to the
69
For Alphonsuss teaching, see his Pratica del confessore per ben esercitare il suo ministero, nos. 99-122, Tipografia Pontificia ed Arcivescovile Immacolata Concezione, Modena 1948), 160-89; Praxis confessarii ad bene excipiendas confessiones, chap. 9, in Opera moralia Sancti Alphonsi Mariae de Ligorio , vol. 4, Typis Polyglottis Vaticania, Roma 1912, 596-608. For an English translation of the latter, see F: M. JONES, ed., Alphonsus de Liguori: Selected Writings, The Classics of Western Spirituality, Paulist Press, New York and Mahwah, N.J. 1999, 165-200. For Alphonsuss fidelity to Teresas ascetical and mystical doctrine, see E. LAGE, S. Alfonso e la direzione spirituale : Spicilegium historicum CSSR 48(2000) 37. For a general presentation of Alphonsuss approach to prayer, see D. J. BILLY, Plentiful Redemption: An Introduction to Alphonsian Spirituality . Liguori Publications, Liguori, Mo. 2001, 3-37. ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 258; Pious Reflections 190.
70
71
18
movements of God within ones heart will lead a person to the intimate knowledge of God that the saints possess. These observations do not represent an exhaustive list of insights into Alphonsuss teaching on the science of the saints. They seek merely to point out some of the underlying assumptions of this teaching and to offer some suggestions for interpreting what he says in the light of his understanding of growth in the spiritual moral life. If space were available, many more could have been added to their number---and to very good effect. Conclusion Alphonsuss little book of Pious Reflections offers a variety of meditations on growth in the spiritual moral life. His meditation on the science of the saints focuses on a particular theme by presenting a strong contrast between profane and sacred knowledge and then confronting its readers with a choice between one of two. Although the word science, as it appears in the phrase, can refer to an objective body of knowledge and to the way such knowledge is incorporated by the subject, its more likely connotation has to do with a personal and intimate knowledge of God himself. To demonstrate the contrast between the sacred and the profane, Alphonsus employs arguments of authority, reason, and example. Since such methods of demonstration could just as easily be used in secular as in spiritual writing, his stark contrast also implies a certain level of similarity between the two. In his teaching of the science of the saints, Alphonsus is not so much rejecting the value of human learning in itself as he is its use for egotistical, self-centered ends. In the final analysis, the science of the saints is nothing other than to know the love of God. This personal knowledge of the divine admits varying degrees of intimacy. Although it does not exclude the later stages of mystical experience as found in spiritual betrothal and spiritual marriage, it does not specifically require them. God wants everyone to share in his friendship and distributes his grace accordingly. When seen in this light, Alphonsuss teaching on the science of the saints brings to the fore the one thing that matters. The saints are possessed by the knowledge and love of God. Living for God is their 19
DENNIS J. BILLY
one desire, their sole occupation. Through his reflection, Alphonsus invites his readers to follow their lead by turning their lives over to God and walking the path of conversion.
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11.

San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los santos

* Profesor en la Academia Alfonsiana, Roma.

San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los Santos

HIPONA, De civitate Dei, XIV c.28-XV

San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los Santos

San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los Santos

San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los Santos

San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los Santos

USO DEL TIEMPO

San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los Santos

ALII (eds.), o. c.,

San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los Santos

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

II. THE MEANING

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

III. THREE KINDS

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

IV. THE USE

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

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