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/.4

/.5

L = N P A 0

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lnk`q_pk*hk_]hkatpn]jfank,
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_]i^e]qj]lkhpe_]`alnkik_ej`aatlknp]_ekjao,

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Pejai^]nck*l]n]ajpkj_ao ^ o bqj_ekj]nhko`ah]@FKAB_kiajv]nkj]lnak_ql]noalkn`kolnk^hai]o
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aha_pnje_kouokbps]na,

A ? N R S J M 4

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/.6

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I:K: >QIHKM:K > BFIHKM:K


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//-

DGESP?4 ,/

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M>HK:L => I:MKHG>L =><HF >K<BH


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J^ q^_i^ 4 ,/ obpr j b i^p m ofk `fm ^ibp qbl o^pa b `l j b o`fl v pr p kc^pfp, C pq^ pa fcbobk qbp qbl o^p b u +
m ^k a bk k r bpqol b k qbk a fj fbk ql pl _ ob i^p m liqf`^pa b `l j b o`fl a bi d l_ fbok l nrb m ra fbo^k ^ cb ` q^ o
i^ `l j m bqfqfs fa ^a a b r k k b d l `fl , N lobgbj m il* m ol m l o`fl k ^k m bopm f`^`f^ pl _ obb p`bk ^ofl pc^ s l o^ +
_ibp vm ol a r `ql pm ^ o^ b u m l oq^ `f k *^ v r a ^ k a l ^p^ i^p`l j m ^ ^p ^ a b qb oj fk ^ oa k a b r _ f`^ opr p
fk pq^i^`flk bpa b m olar ``fk `r ^ k a l ilpd l _ fbok l pfj mlkbk lk l obpqof``flk bp^ i`l j b o`fl ,

M>HK:=>E:FHOBEB=:= => EHL ?:<MHK>L


B b_fal ^ n r b i^ bpq^_ fifa ^a v i^p a fk ~ j f`^ p a b i^p m lpf`fl k bp a b `l j m bqfqfs fa ^a a b ilp m^pbp
a bm bk a bk bk d o^ k m ^ oqb a b i^ `^ k qfa ^ a v `^ifa ^a a b pr p c^`ql obp a b m ol a r ``f k &qfboo^* qo^_^gl*
`^m fq^i* qb `k l il d^'*`l k `ir fj l pbi`^m qr il ` l k rk ^k ~ifpfppl _ obi^ j lsfifa ^a a b ilpc^`qlobp,

A ? N R S J M 4

Q > ? I > 4,/

? j h `m^dj dio`mi \^dj i \g to`j m~\_` g\ hjqdgd_\__` gja\^ojm`n

//.

N q ] j ] hev ] j u m q j k h] ol nej _ el ] ha op a k n] o ` a _ k i a n_ ek 8 qj] heop] ` a ra nebe_] _ej

R j ] l ] hk i ep] & - ' ej ` e_ ] m q a I]pakn]` a _k i a n_ek i a j _ek j ] ` ] ] hFj e_ ek ` a hn a j ch j oanah]_ekj]_ k j h]l na cq jp] m q a aj_]^av]h]_ k hq i j ]
_k nnaolkj`eajpa*oed ] u q j c q e j *j k oanah]_ekj],B j h]o_ k hq i j ] o 2 ] 5 l q a ` a r a j a _ i k na ol k j ` a _] ` ] pakn]] I]l na cq jp] aola_be_]9
` a j q a rk *q j c q e j ej ` e_] m q a h]pakn]j k i ]jaf]I]l nacqjp],

B bp`ofm`fk abi`lj bo`flk ^qr o^i

Rblo^

A r~kql
b p`lj bo+
`f^ifw^al=

O r
molar`qlp

Alk
n rfbkbppb

Cidl_fbokl

A r~kql
a b_bpbo

O r
molar`qlp

Alk n rfkbp
pba b_biibs^o

plk`l j b o+
`f^ifw^alp=

iibs ^^`^_l
bi `lj bo`fl=

`lk qoli^
bi `lj bo`fl=

` l j b o+
`f^ifw^al=

pbab_bk
`lj bo`f^ifw^o=

^`^_ lbi
`lj bo`fl=

[[

Pe

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!

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Mnklkn_ekja9`ahb]_pkn

P ei ehep q ` ` a l ] o

D _ h k ` a r e` ] ` a q j

J a n_ ] j peheoi k
K a ki a n_]j peheoi k
Sajp]f]]^ okhqp]

Sajp]_k i l ]n] per]

Q ] i ] k ` a hl ] o

l nk ` q _ pk & @ S M '

Nobp`ofm`fka bi^pobi^`flkbpa b `lj bo`fl

+++

Ll
Kk

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A e] i ] j pa ` a rajp]f]` a
_ k i l a p e r e ` ] ` j]_ekj]h

+++

R blo^pabfk qbosbk `fk


A l j b k `b j l p`l k bi j b o`^ k qfifpj l a b_fal ^ n r b bp i^ ^ k qfd r ^ qblo^ abi `l j b o`fl * a b i^ `r ^ i bi
k bl j bo`^k qfifpj l e^ b j b od fa l j ~ p ob`fbk qbj bk qb, C pq^ p qb l o^ pp b _ ^ p^ k bk ^ id r k ^ p a b i^ p o^ +
wlkbp m ^ o^ i^ fk qb os b k `f k abi d l _ fb ok l *m b ol b u fpqb k l qo^ p o^ w l k b pn r b q^j _ fk ^ k ^ ifw ^ j l pbk
a pfd r fb k qb `^ m qr il ,

F>K<:GMBEBLFH
. j b o`^ k qfifpj l plpqfbkb nrb i^ ofnrbw^ a b rk m ^ p b p j ba fa^ m l opr p `^ k qfa ^ a b pa b qb p l o l ,
il`r ^ i^ j b k r a l pfdkfcf`^ pr pob pb os ^ p j l k bq^of^pbkl ol , B b^ ` r b oa l `l k bpq^ qb l o^*nrb cloj
i^p_^pbpa b i^ b`l k lj ^ a b pa b ^ m ol u fj ^ a ^ j b k qb / 3 . . ^ / 6 . . *0 il pm ^pbpa b_ bk b u m l oq^ o j ~ pa b

Bb^`rboal`lobi
jbo`^kqfifpjl*ilpm^fpbp
ab_bkbumloq^oj~pabil

il nrb fj m loq^k v*pf qfbkbk u fql *ab_bk ob`f_fo l ol a b ilpm ^pbp `l k abfqp, J l p bpq^a l p+k ^`f k
b j bod fbol k a r o^ k qb b pqb m b ofl a l * v bi l ol b j m l a b o ^ il pd l _ fbok l p `bk qo^ibp m ^ o^ cl oj ^o bgo+

Orb jmloR^k

`fql pb fksboqfo bk fkpqfqr `flk bp k ^`fl k ^ibp^ cfk a b `l k pl ifa ^ o i^p m ofj bo^ p ib^iq^a bpa b i^ dbkqb
e^`f^ i^pk r b s ^ pk ^`fl k bp
N ^ o^ b u m l oq^ o j ~ p ab iln r b fj m loq^_ ^k * ilp d l _ fbok l p obpqofk dfb+
olk i^p fj m loq^`fl k bpv pr_pfaf^olk i^ m ola r ``fk nrb a b l qo^ j ^k bo^ k l mla^ `l j m b qfobk ilp
j b o`^ a l pfkqbok lpl a b bum l oq^`f k ,? id r k l pm^pbpr p^olk pr p`l il k f^ pm ^o^ ^ m l v ^ ob pqbl_gbqfsl
a b `l j b o`fl ^i m ol s bboi^pa b m ol a r `ql pn r b*a b kl e ^`boil ^p* qbk^k nrb`l j m o^ opb ^ m ^pbpkl
^pl `f^a l p v j ^ k qb k b o pr m bo~s fqp`l j bo`f^ibp`l k b pl p m ^pbp`l j l rk^ j ^k bo^ ^a f`fl k ^i a b l _ +
qbkbol ol , J l p dl_fbok lp e f`fbolk bpql kl pil ^i j l k l m l ifw ^ o bi `l j b o`fl `lilkf^i* pfkl q^j _ fk
^i cl ow ^ o ^ i^p `lilk f^p ^ b u m l oq^ o j bk lp j ^ qb of^ p m ofj ^p pr j ^j bk qb s ^ifl p^ p b fj m l oq^ o j ~p
m ol a r `ql pj r vs ^ ifl pl pj ^ k r c^ `qr o^ a l pm l obiilp,
A l j l i^ fkcirbk`f^ a b i^ cfilplc^ a bij bo`^k qfifpj l pba b_fifqa b pm r pa b / 6 . . * ilpdl_fbok lp
a b i^p m lqbk `f^p`l ilk f^ibpo^o^ s b w fk qbk q^ol k ifj fq^oa fob`q^j bk qbb ia b p^ ool iil a b i^p` ^ m ^ ` fa ^ +
abp fka rpqof^ibp a b k qol abpr p`lilk f^p, Qfkb j _ ^ od l *pr p`l j m ^ ^ pa b lofdbk k ^`fl k ^i qbk^k bi
ifa bo^wdlqb`k l i df`l * i^ m ol m fba ^a a b i^ m ol a r ``f k a b j ^qbof^p m ofj ^pbkbib u qo^ k gb ol *v^ j b +
k ra l^ id k d o^ a l a b m ol qb``f k `l k qo^ i^ `lj m bqbk`f^ b uqo^k gbo^ r k ^ `l j _ fk ^`f k a b c^`ql obp
nrb`l k qfk r e ^pq^ i^p`l il k f^pa bm bk a fbk qbpa b i^ m ol a r ``f k a b j ^qbof^ m ofj ^ v ^ q pr `l j b o+
`fl^ p r p fk a r pqof^ifw^a ^pj ^a obpm ^qof^p , Q bdr fj l psfbk a l^ k sbpqfd fl pa b bp^ pobi^`flkbp,

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