MVSICA IN XVII

ET XVIII SAECVLIS

HISTORIA, COMPOSITORES ET EXERCITIA

PERIODI QVAE BAROCVS VOCANTVR,
IN QVIBVS STYLI NATIONALES DISCVTIVNTVR
 QUID EST BAROCVS

The word baroque comes to English through the French word of the same name
which in turn originates from the Portuguese word Barocco. Such a term had been
used by jewellers to describe an irregularly shaped pearl, or more generally,
something unusual or odd. The rst usage of this word to describe a piece of music,
never mind a 150 year long time period, comes from a 1734 review of Jean-Philippe
Rameau s opera Hippolyte Et Aricie published in the Mercure Du France, wherein
the opera is described as du barocque . This was certainly not a complement as this
work had divided audiences since it s premiere the previous October. Later that
century the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau made a similar comment.

The word baroque does not seem to have been used to describe the whole period of
music from 1600-1750 until the early 20th century by when the original meaning of
the word was presumable forgotten or at least ignored.

The very same word is also used to describe art and architecture in the period after
the renaissance and before the rococo and neo-classical. The period is exempli ed
by its opulence and grandeur that contrasts the more simplistic, symmetrical style of
the neo-classical.

This time period also coincides with the Age of Enlightenment in Europe, where
general knowledge and information became more widely available to the masses,
and the scienti c method more utilised.

As previously mentioned, the word now commonly describes the music written
between the years 1600 and 1750 between the eras known as the Renaissance and
the Classical. This period is often broken down into the early, middle and late or
high baroque to account for the wide range of styles and characteristics of a period
spanning over a century and one which traverses the European continent and its
National borders.

A brief mention of some key aspects of the era goes as follows,

The emergence of opera as an important theatrical form,
A break o from the complex contrapuntal choral style of the renaissance,
The emergence of the orchestra as a uni ed and standardised ensemble,
The prevalence of the basso continuo and the use of gured bass,
The emergence of new forms in instrumental music including solo concerti, concerti
grossi, sonatas, trio sonatas, suites, overtures and sinfonias,
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The development of programmatic music etc.

While the years 1600 and 1750 are set as the borders of the baroque, one must ask
by what authority and with what reason, owing to the fact that when looking at the
music itself it, is not so clear cut so as to easily be able to tell wether or not a
certain piece shows more de nite characteristics of one era or another. This is
especially true when taking into consideration that no-one in the 17th or 18th
centuries had any concept of their music being compiled into one supposedly
homologous period of music . It is necessary therefore, to take a closer look at
individual styles and customs of the time. These often show exceptional diversity
and prove to be divided more so by culture, region and the composer's own lived
experiences than own could imagine when looking upon this music through the
modern lens. One nds hardly any relation upon listening to the music of Sweelinck
to that of Mondonville, yet they are con ned to the same era. Much the same could
be said for Niccola Porpora and Marin Marais.

Nonetheless, the term baroque has undergone a transformation and is now used to
refer to almost all the music composed throughout the 17th and rst half of the 18th
century, and while it may not capture all the nuances of this music, It is the term
most easily understood and most recognisable.

IN PRINCIPIO

As to be expected, baroque music, as it has come to be known, was founded on the

rich traditions of the prior centuries and was deeply rooted in the music of the
Renaissance, from which it saw the day. Most would look towards Italy when
thinking of the early baroque, and quite rightly so, as it was there where the
separation between the old Renaissance contrapuntal style or Prima Practica (Stile
Antico) and the new style or Seconda Pratica (Stile Moderno) became evident. For
an in-depth, contemporary look at the di erences between these styles, see
L Artusi, overo Delle Imperfettioni Della Moderna Musica (1600) or the Seconda
Parte dell Artusi (1603).

This new style was a break from the rigorous traditions of the old Renaissance
polyphonic practices of Palestrina and saw many important developments which
can not be overlooked for their importance to music as a whole. We see in the
works of this new style some of the rst examples of basso continuo gured-bass
parts and ornaments expressly noted by the composer. It previous times, ornaments
were left to provided by the performer, without aid from the composer.
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 The basso continuo are the group of bass string and keyboard/plucked string
instruments that play all together from the same line of music often adorned with
gures to indicate the correct harmonies to play. Such bass string instruments can
include among others, the violoncello, the contrabass and the bass viol. Other
instruments used that are capable of playing chords include the harpsichord, the
organ, the regal, the lute, the theorbo, the baroque guitar and much later, the
fortepiano. These instruments improvise harmonies based on gures provided above
or below the bass line.

In response to criticism from the more conservative (Artusi), Claudio Monteverdi

(1567-1643), a leading gure and founder in this new style, announced in the
preface of his 5th book of madrigals a book entitled Seconda Practica, overo delle
Perfecttioni Della Moderna Musica .

Monodies and Sonate became popular around this time, including perhaps the rst
solo sonata for an instrument and accompaniment by Dario Castello. But above all
others, the most important development to the history of music that emerged at this
time in Italy was that of Opera.

Such a vast topic as that of opera cannot easily be condensed and therefore I shall
try to make no great attempt to do so, but for some background, opera emerged
through the e orts of the Florentine Camerata to recreate an ancient Greek practice
of drama being sung and not just spoken. This led to the development of recitativo
and the creation of the earliest operas by Jacopo Peri (1561-1633) and later those of
Claudio Monteverdi such as his famous Orfeo. Opera would later go on to ourish
all around Europe, and soon distinct national or regional styles would emerge.

IN ITALIA

Post Monteverdi
As previously mentioned, it was in Italy that The Baroque was born. The sound of
Monteverdi, Caccini, Castello and Gabrielli (1554/1557-1612), typify these nascent
years. As time moved on their rich harmonic tradition faded as the next generation
of maestri emerged.

One of the most important of these was Francesco Cavalli (1602-1676), the direct
successor to Monteverdi himself. It is in the opera of Cavalli and his contemporaries
that we begin to see the distinction between recitativo and aria with the latter being
more melody-driven than the former. This eventually led to the formation of the
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 famous Opera Seria form founded by Alessandro Scarlatti, who will be discussed
further at a later point.
Among his contemporaries, all be it a later one, was Alessandro Stradella
(1643-1682), who also served as a collaborator with Cavalli. Despite his work as an
opera composer, far more important is his contribution to the development of a new
form, the Concerto Grosso. As an interesting side note, Stradella was the victim of
an assassination attempt in 1677 which he incredibly survived but was later
murdered in the street by an unidenti ed hitman paid by a nobleman of the
Lomellini family.

AEVVM CONCENTVS
The baroque concerto as it is widely known exists in two forms, the previously
mentioned Concerto Grosso and the Solo Concerto. The concerto grosso is an
instrumental form founded on the concept of contrast between a small group of
instrumental soloists called the Concertino and a larger group called the Ripieno.
While Stradella was the founder of this new form, he was soon overshadowed by it's
perfectly, Archangelo Corelli (1653-1713).

Corelli, who, today is most famous for his works in this form, was in his day an
internationally renowned violinist and composer from whom it is said all the great
violinists of the eighteenth century can trace their lineage. His music is known for
its balance and re nement and he is also credited as rst to apply fully the modern
tonal system to his music. Corelli s concerti grossi make use of 2 violins and a cello
in the concertino and a larger string group makes up the ripieno. Later examples of
this form make use of more varied instruments. They also resemble the Venetian
concerto a quatro or concerto a cinque.

The other great composer of concerti of baroque Italy, upon whom Corelli no doubt
had an in uence was the Venetian Antonio Vivaldi (in fact, I have heard Vivaldi
noted as a student of Corelli, I deem this unlikely). Vivaldi was possibly a student of
Giovanni Legrenzi (1626-1690) who himself as a successor to Cavalli, thus tying
Vivaldi back to the early years of the Venetian baroque. Vivaldi was, like or even
more so than Corelli an outstanding violinist, so outstanding that one account notes
home as playing so high that he had to bow on the bridge. Despite being a noted
composer of Italian opera, he is most well known for his solo concerti. A solo
concerto di ers from a concerto grosso in that it is based around the contrast
between a solo instrument (or sometimes multiple in concerti a due or a quatro) and
the larger orchestra, in that it only has three movements (fast-slow-fast), and in that
they often act as vehicle to display the virtues technique of the performers much
more so than in concert grossi. Use of ritornello form is common in these concerti,
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where we see the opening theme return at various points (sometimes with changes)
throughout the piece between which we nd episodic passages. These Venetian
concert were hugely popular all over Europe with many of them being written for
the Ospedale Della Pietà where Vivaldi was employed. They have become Vivaldi s
legacy.

SCHOLA NEAPOLITANA
Some say that it is with the Neapolitan school that the history of modern opera
begins. This school was founded chie y by Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725).
Scarlatti studied with Giacomo Carissimi in Rome and may have some connection to
Stradella and Legrenzi in Venice. Scarlatti continued the operatic legacy of his
earlier musical forefathers and it was under him that Opera Seria as it came to be
known was born. With its Da Capo Arias and Secco recitativo, opera seria is
undoubtedly one of the most crucial musical forms of the late 17th and 18th
centuries.

These Opera Serias were often based on the mythology of Ancient Rome and
Greece and on the works of those such as Torquanto Tasso (Gerusalemme liberata).
They utilise the Da Capo (ABA form) aria, which is often extremely vocally virtuosic
(especially in later examples by Vinci, Porpora and Broschi) to convey the
contrasting emotions and sentiments of the of characters on stage. Secco recitativo
is used much as speech is to further the drama and is generally rhythmically free
with the singer being able to mould the note values to the text in order to best
convey it. This type of recitativo is only accompanied by continuo in comparison to
recitativo accompagnato, where the orchestra are employed.

Another important development by Scarlatti was the introduction of the Sinfonia or

Italian Overture with it's fast-slow-fast form. This would go on to develop into the
classical symphony.

The music of this Neapolitan school is noted for its grace and elegance and
resembles the music of the later classical period that it would develop into. Galant is
a very good way to describe some of the later music written in this style. It is often
much more musically simple than it's French counterpart, the Tragédie mise en
musique, although it was much more popular all over Europe. However, the blazing
vocal virtuosity employed in these operas to show o star Sopranni and Castrati
irritated some and led to the development of the reform opera movement
championed by Gluck which would eventually bring an end to the whole baroque
world. In it's day however, the fashion for Italian opera was unrivalled with
composers like Handel (who is not necessarily Neapolitan in his style, but a student
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 of Scarlatti none the less) bringing it to England others elsewhere. Composers in this
style include A. Scarlatti, Nicola Porpora, Leonardo Leo, Leonardo Vinci and
Giovanni Pergolese.

IN GALLIA

An entirely di erent musically world began to emerge in 17th century France. A

world that came to re ect the splendour of the court and of the nobility, and one
that, with the court and the nobility came toppling down at the end of the Ancienne
Regime.

While court ballets showing Italian in uence were popular with the dance loving
French court for a while, it was during the reign of Louis XIV that one man would
emerge as the central gure of all French music for well over a century.

Quite like how Louis XIV was the personi cation of the French state itself, Jean-
Baptiste Lully (1632-1687) was the personi cation of France s estimated music
through the majority of the baroque.

SUB LVLLY REGNUM

It is quite surprising to note that the Prince des Musiciens Français was in fact an
Italian. Giovanni Battista Lulli was born in Florence to miller in the 1632, which is
intriguing as Lully would latter pass himself o as the son of an Italian noble man.
He rst came to France at the age of 14 and it was not long before he found himself
dancing alongside the young Louis XIV in the 1653 12-13 hour long Ballet Royale
de la Nuict. One month later he was made royal composer for instrumental music
and in 1661, Surintendant de la Musique du Roy. He was naturalised a Frenchman
and enjoyed a relatively close relationship with Louis XIV who signed his wedding
certi cate and who was the Godfather of his Son. This furthered his career as
Frances's principal composer.

Lully made a number of advancements to instrumental music at this time and is

often credited as being the founder of the orchestra as we know it today. This
occurred when he combined the king's string orchestra with winds such as oboes,
bassoons, ûte à bec and ute aux allemands and brass from the Grande Ecrurie.
He is also the founder of the well-used French overture form (slow-fast).

Above all, Lully is remembered as the one who established the operatic tradition in
France called Tragedie en Musique. While the idea was not Lully s own and at least
one or two operatic works in French existed before Lully s tragedies, Lully
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established the form as an integral part of French musical life. He became director
of the Paris Opera when bought Perin s rights to opera and formed a kind of
monopoly on opera writing in France. He worked closely with the librettist Philippe
Quinault.
Lully died in 1687 possibly after striking himself in the foot with his large
conducting baton. Lully s music is characterised by its grand and sophisticated
sound soundworld that makes use of ve-string parts instead of the usual ve, and
also by its elegant vocal and melodic writing.

It should be noted that the French Tragedie, unlike the Italian Opera Seria, does not
make use of the aria in any regular way until the days of André Campra
(1660-1744), and even then the aria is nowhere near as essential to the music as it
is in the Italian form. Instead it makes use of dramatic Recitatif, quite di erent from
the Italian secco recitativo in it's prominent use of orchestral accompaniment (at
least from Marin Marais onwards) and melodic mature. Each act of tragedies (of
which there is a Prologue and ve traditionally) has its own ballet with much
dancing.

After Lully s death French operatic music could be seen as beginning to stagnate
with the exception of a few great composers such as Marais, a student of Lully and
one who remains true to French tradition, M.A. Charpentier, a student of the Roman
Carissimi, and Campra, who introduces new, lighter forms of opera and who is open
to Italian in uence. Lully s in uence still reigned supreme at this time and
composers generally did not sway far from his example.

French baroque keyboard music ourished around this time and would continue to
do so, with Francois Couperin and a certain Jean-Philippe Rameau being its greatest
masters. The same is true for the style of the Grand Motet, Frances's primary Sacred
form, with Lully, Charpentier, De Lalande and eventually Mondonville being its
primary exponents.

However, by the 1730s, as previously stated, in the world of the French Tragédie,
things had remained largely the same since Lully. This would change when a 50-
50-year-old Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764) made his debut in this genre.

AEVVM RAMEAU
Rameau was born in Dijon in 1683 and up until the 1720s worked primarily as an
organist. Relatively little is known about his life during this period. This changed
when he moved to Paris and published his monumental Traité de l Harmonie in
1722, giving him international renown as a music theorist. His nickname was the
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 Issac Newton in music. Rameau s rst tragedie was that of Hippolyte et Aricie with
a libretto by the Abbé Pellegrin. He approached Pellegrin in 1732 asking him to
write a libretto. Pellegrin obliged and Hippolyte was born. It was premiered on 1st
October 1733. There had been di culties in the rehearsals which had started in
July, with the preforms nding the music to been quite challenging.
It is said that the premiere of Hippolyte foreshadows that of the Rite of Spring,
almost 200 years later. While the Parisians of Rameau s day may not have reached
just as severely, they appear to be shocked to say the least at Rameau s deviance
from the norms laid out by Lully. As stated previously, the Mercure du France
described the work as du barocque , commenting on its peculiar and dissonant
harmonies (in one passage in Act 2 Rameau goes through 12 keys in the space of 6
bars). However, some others praised the work for its invention and called Rameau
the Orpheus of our century .

The next 30 years in France s music history are heavily marked by Rameau s
in uence. His music displays great grace, re nement, innovation, technical
complexity and excellent compositional technique. It also shows a good deal of
in uence from Italy while remaining true to its French roots.

His skill as an orchestrator was arguably unparalleled until the days of Beethoven.
He introduced the clarinet to the French orchestra and placed a large emphasis on
wind parts at a time when they often doubled other parts (He is one of the rst
people to write a high be for the bassoon). His use of innovative techniques went so
far as to include mu ed drums and even canons in his overtures in which he breaks
away from the standard Lullian mode. These overtures are particularly brilliant as
they are often very programmatic, depicting such scenes as The Creation of the
Universe in Zaïs, a rework show (in which canons are used) in Achante et Cephise,
and the Titan's attack on the heavens in Naïs.

In his operas, we see modern ballet emerging, with certain parts of the action being
told entirely through dance. Another advancement made in these operas was the
exclusion of the obligatory allegorical prologue which by the 1740s could be seen as
adding unnecessary weight to already long works.

He enjoyed considerable success in his lifetime and became a great gure in French
cultural life under Louis XV, and counted among his friends (at least for some time)
Diderot, D Alembert, Voltaire and Piron. However, Rameau made for himself an
enemy in the famed philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
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 Rousseau praised the music on the lighter Italian style and disliked the extreme
complexity of Rameau s music. The debit between the merits of Italian and French
music would continue up until the days of Gluck who, despite being quite Italian in
style, shows great in uencer Rameau and may be seen as bridging the gap between
the two.

While Rameau died well respected on 12th September 1764, it was his music and all
the that of this Age D or of the French tradition came to meet its fate on the
chopping block of the guillotine, as it was with the French Revolution that it
ultimately died out.

IN GERMANIA

Germany was in a unique place in the Baroque era. Unlike France, it was not a
single uni ed country and unlike most of Europe it was home to a large number of
protestants, in particular, Lutherans, whose Choral tradition would strongly
in uence the German baroque

PRIMIS DIEBVS
German Baroque music can be traced back to the protestant reformation in the
early 16th century. Martin Luther was keen for music to have a central part in
worship. This led to the development of the chorale, sung by the congregation, with
Luther himself even composing.

The rst great composer we nd in German music of this time was Heinrich Schütz
(1586-1672). Schütz is referred to as the father of German Music . In 1609, Schütz
travelled to Venice where he studied with Giovanni Gabrielli, thus tying him to the
early Venetian tradition. There he learned the Italian style and on returning to
Germany, he composed madrigals, motets and oratorios that combined the new
Italian style with the Lutheran chorale. He also developed the use of the German
language in religious works and his use of word painting and innovative harmony
would go on to greatly in uence composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach.

The North German Organ School also owes much to Schutz. One of its primary
gures was Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707). Buxtehude was in his own day as he is
now, renowned as an organist. His organ music in particular is well-known for being
technically demanding and imaginative.

His skill as an improviser and performer attracted musicians from all over Europe.
He is particularly known today for his in uence on Johann Sebastian Bach, whom
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 many consider the greatest composer to ever walk the earth, never mind those 200
miles to hear Buxtehude play.

BACH
As stated J.S Bach (1685-1750) is considered by many to be the greatest composer
to have ever lived. It is almost an insurmountable task to provide any quick
summary if his career and in uence. Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany in 1685
into a family of musicians. However, it was not Bach s lot to become an average
albeit knowable German Kapellmeister.

Bach wrote in a myriad of musical forms such as the fugue, the concerto, the suite,
the oratorio and the passion all with the most extreme perfection. His compositions
demonstrate unparalleled mastery of compositional skill and are characterised by
their intricate use of counterpoint and rich harmony and a knowledge of a wide
range of di erent musical styles and traditions.

His in uence can clearly be seen today in the world of music theory, with his works
often being used as examples displaying perfect use of counterpoint and voice
leading. His collection of 48 preludes and fugues, Das Wohltemperierte Clavier,
marks a cornerstone in this eld, marking the change from the use of the earlier
meantone temperaments to more modern well-temperaments (such as werke) that
allowed such a feat to be possible.

Above all his in uence on later composers and performers is almost unprecedented
with his compositions being closely studied by composers such as Beethoven,
Mozart and Brahms. His direct in uence on his sons, particularly J.C and C.P.E
Bach is also to be noted as it is true that J.C serves as possibly the single greatest,
direct in uence on Mozart. It is also true that C.P.E s treatise on keyboard playing,
much of which is directly passed from his father, is arguably the single most
important work leading to the development of modern keyboard technique.

Despite all this, Bach s music was not quite so popular in his own lifetime. While he
certainly did achieve fame as a player and as a composer, many in his day would
prefer the lighter Italian style to the complexity of Bach s music leading to his music
needing to be rediscovered in the nineteenth century and only from then was it met
with the acclaim that it duly deserves.

Among Bach's German contemporaries, we nd Georg Philip Telemann, who, whilst

being born into the German tradition, was very open to international styles,
particularly that of France and Rameau and also moved towards the lighter gallant
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style. Telemann is an unduly under-represented composer today, whose works show
a mastery of many compositional styles, forms techniques.

The other great German was Georg Friedrich Händel. Who spent most of his
working life in Britain.

IN BRITANNIA

Due to the English Civil War marking the rst half of the 17th century, the baroque
took a while to take hold in England, in fact, it wasn't until the restoration of King
Charles II in 1660 that England began to cultivate its national style.

RESTITUTIO
The music of Restoration England shows both heavy in uence from France, where
Charles II spent quite some time, and from England's own compositional heritage.
Undoubtedly the most important composer to emerge in restoration England was
Henry Purcell.

Purcell s music shows a deep knowledge of both French and English traditions and
it's true that in his short life, he achieved more than practically anyone else in the
entire Baroque period, as he was both a great in uence on composers who came
after him such Handel, as well as one of the founders of English language opera,
even though his teacher, John Blow is usually credited as its originator. Purcell, like
many others, wrote in a wide array of styles including Opera, Semi-Opera, Odes and
Cantatas.

Today, Purcell is best known for the lament from his per Dido and Aeneas, which
opens with a descending passus deriusculus line in the basso continuo, which acts
as a ground. The text is poignantly set with Dido s desperate cries of remember me
growing continually more desperate.

After Purcell s death, England does not serve as the native land to a composer of
such calibre until the late 19th century. But it did serve as the adoptive home of
some.

AEVVM HANDEL
Handel is arguably the most in uential composer to call Britain home, with
Beethoven even considering him the greatest composer to have ever lived.
Handel was the product of an amalgamation of numerous di erent styles and
traditions in his formation. Being German, he inherited something of the traditional
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 Lutheran style, having studied in Italy with Alessandro Scarlatti, he was well versed
in the Italian style, and living in England, he was familiar with the style of those
who preceded him such as Purcell.

The rst part of Handel s career is marked by his composition of various operas in
the Italian manner. He had his rst opera premiered at the age of 19 in Hamburg
and soon took o to Italy where he became extremely learnèd in the Italian way of
composing. He arrived in London in 1710. He soon achieved to great acclaim with
the premiere of his opera Rinaldo in 1711, in which he could been seen as
introducing Italian opera to English audiences.

Handel made a dazzling career out of this until English tastes began changing in the
late 1730s away from Italian opera. Handel being ever resourceful worked on an
alternative, the English Oratorio.

This style combines some elements of Italian opera and the German Passion with
the English language in order to create an entertainment that is much more
universally pleasing. Their Religious themes also allow them to be performed during
Lent, a time when opera was usually not staged. This new form consolidated
Handel s place in the history of British music and was instrumental in keeping
Handel in the performance repertoire from his time until now. This is especially
remarkable as in the 18th century, composers where often forgotten quickly after
their deaths.

Handel s music is characterised not only by its pomp and grandeur, but also by its
elegance and melodic drive that assures Handel place among the great melodists in
the history of classical music.

FINITIONE

All in all, the baroque period as we know it today, is a vast ocean of development
and discovery, in which, for those willing to take the dive, we nd some of the most
beautiful sounds that the ear could ever possibly perceive. With its great variety of
styles, forms and composers, it s important not to look upon the baroque as one
xed system of music making, but instead and as a nuanced collective of di erent,
often-times personalised approaches to composition that can be traced, appreciated
and studied, just as the stars in the night sky.
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