GRAMÁTICA

GERUNDIOS E INFINITIVOS
Verbos seguidos por el gerundio y verbos seguidos por el infinitivo.
Cuando un verbo sigue a otro, el primero determina la forma del segundo. Este puede ser el
gerundio (verbo + -ing) o el infinitivo (con o sin “to”).
- I enjoy listening to music.
- I couldn’t help laughing.
1 Se usa el gerundio después de ciertos verbos y expresiones, como enjoy, can’t help.
Cuando un phrasal verb es seguido por otro verbo, el verbo es el gerundio: carry on, keep
on, give up, look forward to, etc.

2 Usar el infinitivo (con “to”) después de ciertos verbos y expresiones, como want o afford.
- I want to speak to you.
- They can’t afford to buy a new car.

3 Se usa el infinitivo (sin “to”) después de verbos modales y algunas expresiones como
might, would rather, y después de los verbos make y let. En la pasiva, make es seguido por
el infinitivo con “to”. Compara: My boss makes us work hard. (Mi jefe nos hace trabajar duro).
At school we were made to wear a uniform. (En la escuela queríamos llevar uniforme).
- It might rain tonight. I’d rather eat in than go out tonight.

 like, love, hate, y prefer se usan generalmente con el gerundio en inglés británico, pero
también se pueden usar con el infinitivo. Tendemos a usar el gerundio cuando hablamos en
general y el infinitivo cuando hablamos específicamente:
- I like swimming (general) → A mi me gusta nadar.
- I like to swimming first thing in the morning when there aren’t many people there
(específico) → Me gusta nadar lo primero de la mañana cuando no hay mucha gente aquí.
- I prefer cycling to driving (general) → Prefiero montar en bicicleta a conducir.
- You don’t need to give me a lift to the station. I prefer to walk (específico) → No tienes por
qué llevarme a la estación. Prefiero caminar.
Cuando like, love, hate y prefer se usan con would, siempre van seguidos de “to” +
infinitivo: I’d prefer to stay at home tonight, I’d love to come with you.

Verbos que pueden ir seguidos de gerundio o infinitivo con “to”

1 Algunos verbos pueden ir seguidos por el gerundio o el infinitivo (con “to”) sin diferencia de
significado. Los verbos más comunes son start, begin, y continue.
- It started to rain.
- It started raining.
2 Algunos verbos pueden ir seguidos por el gerundio o el infinitivo (con “to”) con cambio de
significado:
remember + infinitivo → primero recuerdas, luego haces algo: Remember to lock the door.

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remember + gerundio → haces algo y entonces lo recuerdas: I remember going to Venice
as a child.
forget + infinitivo → no recuerdas haber hecho algo: Sorry, I forgot to do it.
forget + gerundio → hiciste algo y no lo olvidarás. Esto es más común en la negativa: I’ll
never forget seeing the Taj Mahal.
try + infinitivo → hacer un esfuerzo para hacer algo: I tried to open the window.
try + gerundio → experimentar para ver si algo funciona: Try calling Miriam on her mobile.
need + gerundio es una construcción pasiva, needs cleaning → needs to be cleaned, no
needs to clean. You need to clean the car.
The car needs cleaning.

Más ejemplos:
-Firstly, we listen to music to make us remember (remember) important moments in the past.
-When we hear a certain piece of music we remember hearing (hear) it for the first time…
-If we want to go (go) from one activity to another, we often use music to help us to make
(make) the change.

USED TO, BE USED TO, GET USED TO

-In Spain I always used to sleep in complete darkness. I usually did this in the past.
-It’s very hard to get used to being awake all night. It is not an habit yet.
-And just when I’m finally used to being on New York time, then it’s time to fly home. It is now
an habit.

used to / didn’t use to + infinitivo

Usamos used to o didn’t use to + infinitivo para hablar de hábitos del pasado o repetidas
acciones que han cambiado. Used to no existe en presente. Para los hábitos en presente
usamos usually + Presente Simple: I usually walk to work. No I use to walk to work.
- I used to sleep for eight hours every night, but now I only sleep for six.
- I didn’t recognize him. He didn’t use to have a beard (barba).
También se puede usar would para hacer referencia a acciones repetidas en el pasado. Sin
embargo, no usamos would con verbos que no sean de acción, como be, have, know, like,
etc. No I didn’t recognize him. He wouldn’t have a beard.

be used to / get used to + gerund

Se usa be used to + gerundio para hablar de una nueva situación que ahora es familiar o
menos extraña.
- I’m not used to sleeping with a duvet. I’ve always slept with blankets.
- Carlos has lived in London for years. He’s used to driving on the left.

Usamos get used to + gerundio para hablar de una nueva situación que se está
convirtiendo en familiar o menos extraña. La diferencia entre be used to (estar
acostumbrado) y get used to (acostumbrarse) es la misma que la diferencia entre be y get +
adjective.

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- I can’t get used to working at night. I feel tired all the time. Don’t worry, you’ll soon get
used to it.
- No puedo acostumbrarme a dormir de noche. No te preocupes, pronto te acostumbrarás a
ello.
*pasiva: used + infinitivo

Ejemplos:
1 When we were children we used to playing football in the road. X play
2 When we visited our British friends in London we couldn’t get used to drink tea with
breakfast. X drinking
3 Have you got used to live in the country or do you still miss the city? X living
4 I’m really sleepy. I’m not used to staying up so late. I’m usually in bed by midnight.
5 There used to be a cinema in our village, but it closed down three years ago.
6 Paul is used to having very long hair when he was younger. X have
7 I don’t think I could work at night.
It’s not so bad. I’m use to it now. X used
8 Did you use to wear a uniform to school?
9 It’s taking me a long time to be used to living on my own. X to get used to living
10 When I had exams at university I used to stay up all night revising.

-My boyfriend is Spanish, so he isn’t used to driving on the left. (drive)

-When Nathan started his first job he couldn’t _______________________ at 6 a.m (get up)
-I didn’t recognize you! You ______________ long hair, didn’t you? (have)
-Isabelle _____________ a flat when she was at university, but now she has a house of her
own. (rent)
-When we were children _______________ all day playing football in the park. (spend)
-Jasmine has been a nurse all her life, so she _________________ nights. (work)
-I’ve never worn glasses before, but now I’ll have to __________________ them. (wear)
-Amelia is an only child. She ____________________ her things. (share)
-Although I’ve lived in Spain for years, I’ve never __________________ dinner at 9 o 10
o’clock at night. (have)
-I _______________ spinach, but now I love it. (like)
-If you want to lose weight, then you’ll have to ____________________ less. (eat)

PAST MODALS
must / might / may / can’t / couldn’t + have + participe
must: deber
might – may: posibilidad
can’t have – couldn’t have: imposibilidad, deducción negativa

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Usamos must have cuando estamos casi seguros de que algo sucedió o fue cierto. El puesto
de must have (deducción) es can’t have, no mustn’t have.
- I must have left my pone at Anna’s. I definitely remember having it there.
- You must have seen something. You were there when the accident happened.
Usamos might o might have cuando pensamos que es posible lo que sucedió o fue cierto.
También se puede utilizar could have con este significado: Somebody could have stolen
your wallet when you were getting off the train.
- Somebody might have stolen your wallet when you were getting off the train.
- He still hasn’t arrived. I may not have given him the right directions.
Se usa can’t have cuando se está casi seguro de que algo no sucedió o que es imposible.
También podemos utilizar couldn’t have cuando la especulación es sobre un pasado lejano:
You couldn’t have seen their faces very clearly; She couldn’t have gone to bed. It’s only ten
o’clock.

should have / ought to have + past participe

should have: aconsejar, indicar lo que se debe hacer
ought to: deber, alternativa a “should have” forma - oughtn´t
Usamos should have + participio para decir que alguien no hizo lo correcto, o para
expresar arrepentimiento o crítica. Se puede utilizar ought to have como alternativa a
should have: I ought to have told you earlier.
- We’ve gone the wrong way. We shouldn’t have turned left at the traffic lights.
-It’s my fault. I ought to have told you earlier that my mother was coming.

VERBS OF THE SENSES look / feel / smell / sound / taste

Utiliza look, feel, etc. con un adjetivo.
Utiliza look, feel, etc. + like + noun.
Utiliza look, feel, etc. + as if + clause.
Se puede usar like o as though en lugar de as if: It sounds like / as though it’s raining.

look: la vista → You look tired. / Tim looks like his father. / She looks as if she’s been crying.
feel: tacto → This jeans don’t feel comfortable. / This material feels like silk.
smell: olfato → That cake smells good! / It smells as if something’s burning.
sound: oído → It sounds as if it’s raining.
taste: gusto → That coffee tastes like tea.
 Feel like se puede usar como un verbo que significa “want” (querer) o “would like” (le
gustaría). Es seguido de un sustantivo o un verbo en el gerundio: I feel like pasta for lunch
today (Me gustaría pasta para el almuerzo de hoy). I don’t feel like going to bed (No quiero
ir a la cama).

Más ejemplos:
Parece francés → He looks French.
Estos zapatos no me resultan cómodos → These shoes don’t feel comfortable

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*El café recién hecho huele bien→ Freshly-made coffee smells good. NO Freshly-made
coffee smells well

-No confundir like con as. *

Julia se parece a su madre → Julia looks like her mother. NO Julia looks as her mother.
Sabe a queso → It tastes like cheese. NO It tastes as cheese.
Tiene el tacto de una esponja → It feels like sponge. NO It feels as sponge.

-Tener cuidado con las expresiones con “as if”

Parece que van a llegar tarde → It looks as if they’re going to be late.
NO It looks that they’re going to be late.
Sonaba como si pasara un tren por la casa → It sounded as if a train was coming through
the house. NO It sounded as a train….
Parecía que no llegaríamos a casa nunca → It felt as if we would never get home.
NO It felt like ifwe would never get home.

* La diferencia entre as y like es que like se usa para comparar: I work as a teacher / I work
like a teacher

HAVE SOMETHING DONE

They look up at Big Ben, and then they pose to have their photo taken.
1 Se usa have (something) done cuando consigues que otra persona haga algo por ti.
Compara: I took a photo of Westminster Bridge = I took the photo myself.
I had my photo taken on Westminster Bridge = I asked someone to take my photo.
2 Have es el verbo principal por lo que cambia de acuerdo con el tiempo.
I’m going to have my hair cut tomorrow. / I had my car repaired after the accident.
* También se pude usar get en lugar de have: I’m going to get my hair cut tomorrow.

-How often do you have your hair cut?

-Have you ever had a problem with your laptop? Where did you have it repaired?
-Do you usually have your passport or ID card renewed in plenty of time before it runs out?
-Have you had a burglar alarm installed in your house or flat? What kind is it?
-Have you ever had your photo taken in front of a famous monument?

THE PASSIVE
Police closed the road

The road was closed (by the police)

Se usa la pasiva cuando se quiere hablar de una acción, pero no se está interesado
en decir quién o qué hace o hizo la acción. Si también se quiere hablar de la persona o cosa

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que hizo la acción (el agente) se usa by. Sin embargo, en la mayoría de las oraciones
pasivas el agente no es mencionado.

Presente simple. Murderers are usually sentenced to life imprisonment.

Los asesinos son generalmente sentenciados a cadena perpetua.
Presente continuo. The trial is being held at the moment.
El juicio está siendo celebrado en este momento.

Presente perfecto. My car has been stolen. Mi coche ha sido robado.

Pasado simple. Jim was arrested last month. Jim fue arrestado el mes pasado.

Pasado continuo. The cinema was being rebuilt when it was set on fire.
El cine estaba siendo reconstruido cuando fue incendiado.

Pasado Perfecto. We saw that one of the windows had been broken.
Vimos que una de las ventanas se había roto.

Futuro. The prisoner will be released next month. The verdict is going to be given
tomorrow.
El prisionero será liberado el mes próximo. El veredicto va a ser dado mañana.

Infinitivo con “to”. People used to be imprisoned for stealing bread.

La gente solía ser encarcelada por robar pan.

Infinitivo sin “to”. You can be fined for parking on a yellow line.
Puede ser multado por aparcar…

Gerundio. He paid a fine to avoid being sent to jail.

Pagó una multa para evitar ser enviado a la cárcel.

it is said that (se dice que)…, he is thought to (se piensa que)…,etc.

active
-They say that the fire was started deliberately.
deliberately.
People think that the mayor will resign.
-People say the man is in his 40s.
The police believe he has left the country.
passive
It is said that the fire was started
It is thought that the major will resign.
The man is said to be in his 40s.
He is believed to have left the country.

Esta estructura formal se utiliza en especial en los informes de las noticias y en la TV con los
verbos know, tell, understand, report, expect, say y think.
Se puede usar It is said, believed, etc. + that + clause.
Se puede utilizar He, The man, etc. + is said, believed, etc. + to + infinitivo (to be, ser) o
infinitivo perfecto (haber sido, to have been).

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REPORTING VERBS
Estructuras tras los reporting verbs:
1 Sujeto + agree / refuse / offer / + to + infinitivo (not) to do something
promise / threaten
Jack offered to drive me to the airport. I promised not to tell anybody.

2 Suj. + advise / persuade / ask / remind / + to + infinitivo + somebody (not) to do something

convince tell / encourage / warn / invite
The doctor advised me to have a rest. I persuaded my sister not to go out with George.

3 Suj. + apologize / insist on / accuse sb of + -ing + (not) doing something

recommend / admit / regret
blame sb for / suggest / deny
I apologized for being so late. The police accused Karl of stealing the car.
Para informar de lo que otras personas han dicho, puedes usar say o un verbo específico:
I’ll drive you to the airport.
Jack said he would drive me to the airport. Jack offered to drive me to the airport.
Después de verbos específicos, hay uno o tres patrones gramaticales diferentes (estructuras
vistas antes).
En las oraciones negativas, usa el infinitivo negativo (not to do) o el gerundio negativo (not
doing): He reminded me not to be late. She regretted not going to the party.

Verbos que utilizan “that” cláusula.

Con agree, admit, deny, promise, regret, también se puede utilizar that + clause.
Leo admitted stealing the watch.
Leo admitted that he had stolen the watch.

CLAUSES OF CONTRAST AND PURPOSE (Cláusulas de comparación y contraste)

Cláusulas de comparación
Utiliza although, though, even though + clause. Although y even though pueden ir al
principio o en medio de la oración.
Even though es más fuerte que although y se utiliza para expresar una gran o sorprendente
comparación.
Though es más informal que although. Solo puede utilizarse en el medio de una oración.
- Although the advert said it would last for years, mine broke after two months.
- I went to work even though I wasn’t feeling very well.
- I like Ann, though she sometimes annoys me.
Después de in spite of o despite, se usa un sustantivo, un verbo en la forma de –ing, o the
fact that + subject + verbo. Recuerda no usar of después de despite: Despite of the rain.
In spite of (Despite) her age, she is still very active.
being 85, she is still very active.
the fact that she’s 85, she is still very active.

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Cláusulas de finalidad
Utiliza to, in order to, so as to, for y so that para expresar finalidad.
 Después de to, in order to y so as to, usa un infinitive.
to
- I went to the bank in order to talk to my bank manager.
soas to
 Utiliza for + a noun: for a meeting. También se puede utilizar for + gerundio para describir
el propósito exacto de una cosa: This liquid is for cleaning metal.
- I went to the bank for a meeting with my bank manager.

 Después de so that usa un sujeto + un verbo modal (can, could, woulds, etc.).
- I went to the bank so that I could talk to the manager in person.

 Para expresar un propósito negative, se utiliza so as not to o in order not to: I wrote down
what he said in order not to forget it. NO to not forget it.

WHATEVER (todo lo que), WHENEVER (siempre que), etc.

...a boss treating his employees whenever they won a new research contract.
...un jefe tratando a sus empleados cada vez que ellos ganaron un nuevo contrato.
Usamos whenever para decir en cualquier momento o no importa cuando: Come and see
me whenever you like.

También podemos usar whatever (cualquier cosa), whichever (cualquier cosa, de número
limitado), whoever (cualquier persona), however (de cualquier manera), wherever (en
cualquier lugar). También significan que no importa qué / quién / cómo / dónde. etc.
-Please sit wherever you like.
-There is a prize for whoever can answer the question.
-Whenever she opens her mouth she says something stupid.
-I’m going to buy it no matter expensive it is!
-Whatever I give her, it’s always the wrong thing.
-I’ll go by bus or train, whatever is cheaper.

SUSTANTIVOS INCONTABLES Y PLURALES

Sustantivos incontables
 Los siguientes sustantivos son siempre incontables: behaviour, traffic, weather,
accomodation, health, progress, scenery (paisaje), rubbish, work, politics (y otros
terminados en –ics, como athletics, economics. Estos siempre necesitan un verbo en
singular, no tienen plural, y no pueden ser usados con a / an.
- The weather is fantastic there, and there’s very little traffic so you can walk everywhere.
- The scenery is beautiful here, but it’s spoiled by all the rubbish people leave.

 Estos sustantivos son también incontables: furniture, information, advice, homework,

research, news, luck, bread, toast, luggage, equipment. Utiliza a piece of para hablar de
algo individual.

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- Could you give me some advice about where to stay?
- One useful piece of advice is to get a travel card.

 Algunos sustantivos pueden ser contables o incontables, pero el significado cambia: glass
= material usado para hacer ventanas, a glass = cosa de donde bebes. Otros ejemplos:
iron, business, paper, light, time, space.
- The new opera house is made mainly of glass.
- Can I have a glass of tap water please? (agua del grifo)

Plurales y sustantivos colectivos

 Armas (pistolas), pertenencias, ropa, modales, afueras, tijeras y pantalones son sustantivos
plurales sin singular. Necesitan un verbo en plural y no pueden ser usados con a o an. Si
consisten en dos partes, como tijeras, pantalones, pantalones cortos, etc. pueden ir con a
pair o some.
- One of the best museums is on the outskirts of the city.
- My clothes are filthy. I’ll put on some clean trousers / a pair of clean trousers.

 Equipo, policía, empleados, etc. con sustantivos colectivos y hacen referencia a un grupo
de gente. Se puede usar un verbo en singular o en plural con estos, excepto con policía,
que necesita un verbo en plural.
- The hotel staff are very efficient.
- The cabin crew are coming round with the drinks trolley in just a few minutes.

LOS ARTÍCULOS
Reglas básicas: a / an / the, sin artículo
 Se usa a o an cuando se menciona a alguien o algo por primera vez o para decir quién o
qué es algo o alguien. Usamos the cuando está claro quién o qué es alguien: it has been
mentioned before or it’s unique. (Se ha mencionado antes o es único).
- My neighbour has just bought a dog. The dog is an Alsatian.
- He got into the car and drove to the Town Hall.
 No se usa un artículo para hablar en general con sustantivos plurales o incontables, o en
frases como at home / work, go home / to bed, next / last (week), etc.
- Men are better at parking than women.
- I don’t like sport or classical music.
- I stayed at home last weekend.

Instituciones
Con palabras como prisión, iglesia, colegio, hospital y universidad, no se usa artículo cuando
estás pensando en la institución y el propósito normal para el que se utiliza. Si se piensa en
el edificio se usa a o the.
- My father’s in hospital. - They’re building a new hospital in my town.
- He was sent to prision for two years.
-My grandmother used to work in the prision as a cleaner.

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Nombres geográficos
 Normalmente no usan the la mayoría de los países, continentes, regiones que terminan
con el nombre de un país o continente, como North America, South East Asia, islas,
estados, provincias, pueblos y ciudades, excepto The USA, the UK, the Czech Republic).
- Tunisia is in the North Africa.

 Carreteras, calles, parques, puentes, tiendas y restaurants (excepciones: autopistas y

carreteras numeradas, como the M6, the A25).
- Selfridges, one of London’s biggest department stores, is in Oxford Street.

 Montañas y lagos individuales.

- Lake Victoria and Mount Kilimanjaro are both in Africa.

 Usualmente utilizamos the con: cadenas montañosas, ríos, mares, canales, desiertos y
grupos de islas.
- The river Danube flows into the Black Sea.

 Nombres de teatros, cines, hoteles, galerías y museos.

- The National Gallery and the British Museum are London tourist attractions.

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