2023

Report 2

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Basically armature winding of a DC machine is wound by one of the two
methods, lap winding or wave winding. The difference between these two is
merely due to the end connections and commutator connections of the
conductor. To know how armature winding is done, it is essential to know the
following terminologies -
1. Pole pitch: It is defined as number of armature slots per pole. For
example, if there are 36 conductors and 4 poles, then the pole pitch is
36/4=9.
2. Coil span or coil pitch (Ys): It is the distance between the two sides
of a coil measured in terms of armature slots.
3. Front pitch (Yf): It is the distance, in terms of armature conductors,
between the second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the
next coil. OR it is the distance between two coil sides that are
connected to the same commutator segment.
4. Back pitch (Yb): The distance by which a coil advances on the back
of the armature is called as back pitch of the coil. It is measured in
terms of armature conductors.
5. Resultant pitch (Yr): The distance, in terms of armature conductor,
between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil is
called as resultant pitch of the coil.
Armature winding can be done as single layer or double layer. It may be
simplex, duplex or multiplex, and this multiplicity increases the number of
parallel paths.
[Also read: Armature reaction in DC machines]
Lap Winding And Wave Winding
In lap winding, the successive coils overlap each other. In a simplex lap
winding, the two ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator
segments. The winding may be progressive or retrogressive. A progressive
winding progresses in the direction in which the coil is wound. The opposite
way is retrogressive. The following image shows progressive simplex lap
winding.

In wave winding, a conductor under one pole is connected at the back to a

conductor which occupies an almost corresponding position under the next
pole which is of opposite polarity. In other words, all the coils which carry emf
in the same direction are connected in series. The following diagram shows
a part of simplex wave winding.
Power Factor Meter
Definition: The power factor meter measures the power factor of a
transmission system. The power factor is the cosine of the angle between
the voltage and current. The power factor meter determines the types of load
using on the line, and it also calculates the losses occur on it.
The power factor of the transmission line is measured by dividing the product
of voltage and current with the power. And the value of voltage current and
power is easily determined by the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter
respectively. This method gives high accuracy, but it takes time.
The power factor of the transmission line is continuously changed with time.
Hence it is essential to take the quick reading. The power factor meter takes
a direct reading, but it is less accurate. The reading obtained from the power
factor meter is sufficient for many purposes to expect precision testing.
The power factor meter has the moving system called pointer which is in
equilibrium with the two opposing forces. Thus, the pointer of the power
factor meter remains at the same position which is occupied by it at the time
of disconnection.
Types of Power Factor Meter
The power factor meter is of two types. They are
• Electrodynamometer
Single Phase Electrodynammeter
Three Phases Electrodynamometer
• Moving Iron Type Meter
Rotating Iron Magnetic Field
Number of Alternating Field

Wattmeter
A wattmeter is an instrument which is used to measure electric power given
to or developed by an electrical circuit. Generally, a wattmeter consists of a
current coil and a potential coil.
Types of Wattmeter
Electrodynamometer wattmeter – for both DC and AC power
measurement
Induction wattmeter – for AC power measurement only
Working Principle of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
The electrodynamometer wattmeter works on the dynamometer principle i.e.
a mechanical force acts between two current carrying conductors or coils.
It consists of a fixed which is divided into two halves which are parallel to
each other and is connected in series with the load while the moving is
connected across the load through a series multiplier resistance. The fixed
coil is called current coil while the moving coil is called potential coil.
When the wattmeter is connected in a circuit to measure power. The current
coil carries the load current and potential coil carries a current proportional
to the load voltage. Due to the currents in the coils, a mechanical force acts
between them. The result of this mechanical force deflects the moving coil
and the pointer over the scale. The pointer comes to the rest when the
deflecting torque and controlling torque become equal. As the reversal of the
circuit current reverses the currents in both the current coil and potential coil
so that the direction of deflecting torque remains unchanged. Therefore,
electrodynamometer wattmeter can measure power in both the AC as well
DC circuits.
Working Principle of Induction Wattmeter
The induction type wattmeter can be used to measure AC power only.
The working of induction type wattmeter is based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
The induction wattmeter consists of two laminated electromagnets viz. Shunt
Magnet and Series Magnet. The shunt magnet is connected across the
supply and carries a current proportional to the supply voltage. The coil of
shunt magnet is made highly inductive so that the current in it lags the supply
voltage by 90°. The series magnet is connected in series with the supply and
carries the load current. The coil of series magnet is made highly
noninductive. A thin disc (made up of aluminium) mounted on a spindle is
placed between the two magnets so that it cuts the flux of the two magnets.
Write Short notes about the R, L C, XL, Xc, Z and Y
Here are short notes on electrical parameters
R (Resistance),
L (Inductance),
C(Capacitance),
XL (Inductive Reactance),
XC (Capacitive Reactance),
Z(Impedance),
and Y (Admittance):
Resistance (R):
Resistance is a fundamental electrical parameter that quantifies the
opposition to the flow of electrical current in a circuit. It is measured in ohms
(Ω) and represents the dissipative element in a circuit that converts electrical
energy into heat. Resistance is characterized by its effect on the magnitude
of current flowing through a circuit according to Ohm's Law (V = I * R).
Inductance (L):
Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit or component that opposes
any changes in current flow by inducing a voltage. It is measured in henries
(H) and represents the ability to store energy in a magnetic field. Inductance
is commonly found in coils, solenoids, and transformers and causes an
inductive reactance (XL) in AC circuits.
Capacitance (C):
Capacitance is the ability of an electrical system or component to store
electrical charge. It is measured in farads (F) and represents the ability to
store energy in an electric field. Capacitance is found in capacitors and
influences the behavior of circuits by introducing a capacitive reactance (XC)
in AC circuits.
Inductive Reactance (XL):
Inductive reactance is the opposition offered by an inductor (or inductive
component) to the flow of alternating current. It is directly proportional to the
frequency (f) and inductance (L) of the circuit
and is calculated as XL = 2πfL. Inductive reactance is measured in ohms (Ω)
and causes a phase shift of +90 degrees between voltage and current in an
AC circuit.
Capacitive Reactance (XC):
Capacitive reactance is the opposition offered by a capacitor (or capacitive
component) to the flow of alternating current. It is inversely proportional to
the frequency (f) and capacitance (C) of the circuit and is calculated as XC
= 1 / (2πfC). Capacitive reactance is measured in ohms (Ω) and causes a
phase shift of -90 degrees between voltage and current in an AC circuit.
Impedance (Z):
Impedance is the overall opposition to the flow of alternating current in a
circuit, considering both resistance (R) and reactance (XL, XC). It is a
complex quantity, represented by Z = R + j(XL - XC), where j is the imaginary
unit (√-1). Impedance is measured in ohms (Ω) and represents the total
effective resistance in an AC circuit, considering both resistive and reactive
components.
Admittance (Y):
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance and represents the ease with
which alternating current can flow through a circuit. It is a complex quantity,
represented by Y = G + j(B), where G is the conductance and B is the
susceptance. Admittance is measured in siemens (S) and is the sum of
conductance and susceptance, where conductance represents the
reciprocal of resistance and susceptance represents the reciprocal of
reactance