Twilley, R. (1989) Impacts of Shrimp Mariculture Practices on the Ecology of Coastal Ecosystems in Ecuador.

In: Olsen, S. and Arriaga, L., editors. A Sustainable Shrimp Mariculture Industry for Ecuador. Narragansett, RI:
Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island

A SUSTAINABLE SHRIMP MARICULTURE

INDUSTRY FOR ECUADOR

Edjttd by Stephen Olsen and Luis Arrlaga

Environmental fssues
 Impacts of Shrimp Mariculture Practiceson the Ecotogy of
Coastal Ecosystemsin Ecuador

Andlisis del Ecosistemadel Estuario del Rio Guayas en el

Ecuador: Implicacionespara el Manejo de Manglares y la
Maricultura del Camar6n.

Robert R. Twilley

Resumen

La expansi6nde la consEuccidn depiscinasparael cultivodel camar6nen la zonaintermarealha

causadoel mayorcambioen el usodel sueloen el iireacostera.Estecrecimiento,en su mayorparte,esl6
ubicadoen lasprovinciasde Guayasy El Oro. El mayorrio y m6simportantesistemaestuarinode la costa
fluye-atravdsde estasprovinciashaciael Golfo de Guayaquil.El Golfo y los estuariosadyacentes
constituyenel ecosistema estuarinomayorde la costaoccidentalde Sudam6rica.La descarga mediadel rio
Guayasesde 1.143,7m3/s,con ampliasvariaciones estacionales quevandesdeun promediode 200 m3lsen
\a 6pocasecahastaunosl.600m/s, en la estaci6nlluviosa.
El cultivodel camardnen esta6rea,sehallainfluenciadopor algunasactividades tambi6nen
expansi6n,comola agricultura,exploraci6ndepetrdleo,desarrollourbanoy pesquerias.
BaMndoseen la densidadde siembradepostlarvas (pls)por hertArea(ha),los m6todosde cultivoson
clasificadosen: (a) extensivo(siembrade 10.000- 20.000pls/ha;rendimienros de 100-400Kgha/aflo); O)
semi-extensivo (50.000- 60.000pls/hacon suplemento alimenticio;obtienedobleproducci6n-a la del'
m6todoextensivo);y, (c) semi-inlsnsivo(100.000pls/ha;con suplementoalimenticioo fertilizacidn;
rendimientos 1.000- 1.800Kglha).
La existenciade la ampliazonade manglares en la provinciadel Guayas(12L.4& ha) ha sido
atribuidaaun gmnaportede la Cuencadel Guayasy a lasaltastasasde euapo-transpiraci6n. isto, asociadoa
la frecuenciade maleas,ha creadolas condicionesfovarablesparadesarrollodel manglarcondensidades de 185
y unadreabasalde 62,4^2, lo queindicamejorescondiciones
rirboles/ha queen Venezuela, Colombia,
Malasiay PuertoRico.
En el estuariodel Guayas,la calidaddel aguaestiiinfluenciada por las aportaciones provenientes de
13Cuencadel Rio Guayas,el intercambiocon Ia zonaintermarealy los procesoioceanogrdfiios fisicosdel
Golfo.
El trabajorevisala influenciade la industriade la mariculturadel camardnen la calidaddel agua,
estimandoquela cantidadde aguaderecambioentrelos esterosy laspiscinas,mediantebombeo,esde
20xl0omJ por dia, (30.000hasde piscina,tasade recambioSvoldia),volumen queestangrandecomola
descarga del rio Guayasduranteel perfodode estiaje.Esto,asociadoa la evaporaci6n en laipiscinas,indica
unagrandescarga de aguashipersalinas enel estuario.
Sediscuteel efecto_de la calidaddel aguaen el cultivodel camar6ny los factoresqueinfluyenen la
grod_uc9i61 comoson:perdidasde manglar;salinizaci6ndel aguaen los esteros;futuraoperici6ndeia presa
Daule-Peripa; enriquesimiento excesivode nuffientesy posterioranoxia;presencia de suitanciast6xicas
comohidrocarbulos, pesticidasy metalespesados.Tambi6n,serealizaunanrilisisglobal,desdeel puntode
vistaecoldgico,de las interacciones enfe la industriadel cultivo del camar6ny el eituariodel rio Guayas,
especialmente referidasa factoresasociados a la calidaddel agua,incluyendolai descargas de aguasresiduales
domdsticas e industriales,el incrementodebombeode agua,la feraltiaci6nenlaspisJinasy ierturbaciones
clim6ticoscomolas originadasen el eventode El Nifro.
Lasrecomendaciones del autorcomprenden:efectuarel inventariodela pirdida demanglares;
disnibuci6nactualdel bosquede manglarparaidentificarimpactosactualesy futuros;restauracidn e
integraci6ndel manglaren lasoperaciones de lascamaroneras, paracontrolde la erosi6n,estabilizacidn de
sedimentos y Eatamientode efluentesen lascamaroneras; estudiossobrebalancehidricoen el estuariodel
Guayas;desarrollarun modelosobrela calidaddel aguaparael ecosistema del estuario;establecer un
progama paravigilanciade la calidaddel agua.

9r
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Citation:

Twilley, R. (1989) Impacts of Shrimp Mariculture Practices on the Ecology of Coastal

Ecosystems in Ecuador. In: Olsen, S. and Arriaga, L., editors. A Sustainable Shrimp
Mariculture Industry for Ecuador. Narragansett, RI: Coastal Resources Center,
University of Rhode Island
Introduction

TheIncaspracticedmariculturein Ecuador400 yearsagoby closingoff lagoonswhich were

temporarilyfloodedwith seawater andpenaeidshrimplarvae.While theIndianshrimpfarmersusedttreir
harveststhemselves, ttrerapidgrowthof maricultureasan indusftyoverthelastdecadein Ecuadorhasmade
it the leadingfarm shrimpproducerin the world (McPadden,1985). The first commercialshrimp
operationsdid not beginttrereuntil 1969(Siddallet al., 1985),andby 1979farmingproducedonly 4,698
metrictons(m.t.) of shrimpcomparedtD7,787m.t. caughtat sea. Ecuadorianfarmedshrimpproduction
rosedramaticallyfrom 1979to 1984;in 1983,the yearof the highestproductionon record,shrimpponds
produced29,100m.t. while productionfrom the searemainedat 7,500m.t. The exportvalueof the total
tonnagein 1983,nearlytripletheamountproducedin 1979,wasU.S.$183million,rankingshrimp
secondonly to petroleumasan exportcommodityfor Ecuador.
The expansionof the farmedshrimpindustryresultingin the constructionof pondswithin the
intertidal zonehascauseda major changein coastalland use. Initially shrimppondswere constructedin
moreinland,baren intertidalareas(salinas).Locatingthepondscloserto theshorelowerscostsassociated
with supplyingwaterandlarvaeto ttreponds. From 1980to 1984nearly 10,000hgctares(ha)of ponds
wereauthorizedforconstructionannually,increasingthe totalto 60,000ha by 1983(Figure1). A recent
suvey by CLIRSEN(1984)showsthat therearecurrently89,368ha of shrimppondsalongthe coastof
Ecuador(Table1), manyoccupyingformermangrovehabitats.
itris expansionof the farmedshrimpindustryhasbeenlargelyconfinedto the two southerncoastal
provinces,Guayis andEl Oro (Table1). The largestriver andestuarineecosystem of the-coastallowlands,
ihe GoayasRiver basinandestuary,flows throughtheseprovincesand into theGulf of Guayaquil.The
Gdf of buayaquilandadjacentesiuariesaretle largestestuarineecosystem on thewesternPacificcoastof
SouthAmerica(Cucalon,1984). This ecosystem handles 95 percent of the country'simportsand50
percentof its exports,andits coastlineincludesthemostpopulatedcity in Ecuador,Guayaquil@ngineering
iournal, 1972). Theshrimpfarmingindusry developedin an areaof the coastalzonethatis influencedby
severalotherexpandingindustriesincludingagliculture,oil exploration,utbandevelopment, andcoastal
fisheries.In addition,ihis region maintaini an extensive areaof intertidalcommunities including nearly83
percentof all man$ovesin Ecuador(Table1).
Oneof themajorreasonsthatfarmedshrimpproductionhasnot returnedto high levelsobservedin
1983is reducedavaitabilityof postlarvae(PL) for stockingponds. Total productionin shrimpwasdown in
1984comparedto thepreviousyear,not only becauseof low catchratesin thetrawl fishery,but also
becauseoi the lack of iarvaefor shrimppondsduringthe secondhalf of theyear. It is estimatedthatduring
1985,only half (30,000-40,000 ha)of theshrimppondsconsftucted in theGuayasprovincewerein
operationbecauseof thelack of postlarvae. 4
The billion postlarvaeprovidedlargelyby the "laveros"
(primarilypushnet fishermen) represented an annualstockingrateof about133,000postlarvaeper ha of
p-ondor abbut65,000postlarvaeper ha per season,basedon two harvestsper year. This_isfairly intensive
maricultureandproduitionratesper ha of pondseemto be decreasing.However,suchcalculationsare
tenuoussinceiniormationon ttrequality of shrimpsoldandtlreareaof pondsactuallyin operationis
somewhatconfusing.
Severalfactorshavebeenassociated with thedeclineofpostlarvaein the estuaries alongthecoast
of Ecuador,includinglower watertemperatures following an El Niflo eventin 1982-83,lossof mangrove
habitat,declinein witer quality andoverfishing. Poorerwaterquality hascontributedto increasein disease
andpoormaturationof postlarvae,andlower growthratesandhighermortalityof wild shrimp,which affect
theavailabilityof wild postlarvaeaswell asthe survivalof larvaetransported to glowoutponds.
Coasialresorucemanagement to sustainoptimumlevelsof productivity is complicatedby
conflicting goalsof diverseuser groups. Changes in watershedland use and utilization of estuarinewaters
traveprorn-pied concernouerposiiblenegativeimpactsto theqlality of coastalresources andresultant
damageto the shrimpindustry. Also, constructionandoperationof the shrimpindustryitself haveraised
concsrnsaboutits negativeimpacton thecoastalzone.
This paperwitl showihe interactionsof variouseconomicenterprises andenvironmental resources,
andwill recommendelementsfor an integrativemanagement schemefor fte coastalzoneof Ecuador.
 Geography

The coastalzoneof Ecuador(1oN to 3o20's)consistsof four coastalprovinces@smeraldas,

Manabi,Guayas,andEl Oro) situatedin 284,000km2 of lowlandsbetweenthepacific Oceanandthe
Andeanhighland@gure 2). Therearethre€climaticzonesalongthecoast:a moderatelywet climatein
thesouthwith abundantfreshwaterfrom runoff aroundGuayaquil;an arid centralprovincewith very sparse
vegetation;and,in the northnearEsmeraldas, a morehumid,tropicalzonewith abundantrainfall and
runoff. More than95 percentof the-annual precipitationfalls duringthe wet seasonfrom Januaryto May
(Stevenson, 1981), andvariesfrom lessthan500mm in the centralprovincesandthe coastof the southern
provincesto over 3000mm at SantoDomingode las Coloradosin the north
@ngineerloumal, 1972;
Schaeffer-Novelli,1983).
.Annualmeantemperatures (from 24.2ob 27o C) vary liule alonglhe coast,
thuspotentialevapotranspiration is about1300mm per yeu.
_ The two major river andestuarineecosystems of tle coastareRio Esmeraldas in thenorttrandthe
Rio Guayaswhich flows into the Gulf of Guayaquilin lhe sourh 2). TheGulf of Guayaquil
Egore
receivesrunoff from some20 riverswith a watershed of 51,230km2, equivalentto a watershed: water
surfacearearatio of 4.3. The GuayasRiver is themajorsourceof freshwaterto the Gulf, which forms60
km inlandat theconfluenceof Rio DauleandRio Babahoyo.This freshwaterenterstheRio Guayas
estuary,and to a lesserextenttheEsteroSalado,aroundthecity of Guayaquilandtl-renflows 55 km to the
Gulf of Grayaquil.Themeandischargeof 1143.7m3/sfor ttreGuayasriver is thehighestamongthe30
riversin the coastalzoneof Fcuador,iepresenting39 percentof ttreiotal dischargerro? trrisiowUna
region. Me-anprecipitation^in the GuayasRiver drainigesystemnorthof Guayaquilis BSimm/yr, which
may rangefrom lessthan400 mm to morethan 1800mm duringany oneyear (Figure3). Discliargeis
strongly-seasonal rangingfrom 200 m3/sduringthe d.y season!o 1600r3/, in ur,-uueralewet season
Gigure 3). Tidesaresemi-diurnalandareof equala*ptituae (1.8m) in theGulf of Guay"aquii, bur are
amplifiedto 3-5 m in theRio Guayasestuarynearthe city of buayaquil. Flushingtime of ttreGulf of
Guayaquilis about21 days.

Shrimp Mariculture Management

The methodsof shrimpmariculturein theintertidalzonearegroupedinto threeclassifications

basedon the densitiesof iuvenileshrimpstockedin theponds. Exteniivemariculture,using
a stocking
densityof 10'000-20,000 iuvenilesper heclare(ha),relieslittle on furthersupplements from"seawater
exchange^viapu-mping or from artificialfertilization.h._lrt9rl arepresentandannualyieldsarerelatively
low at.100-400kgftia' An increasein stockingratesto 50,000-60,b00* juvenilesper trais a semi
extensivesystemthatrequiressomesupplemental feedingandexchange of seawateito con6olwaterquality
problemssuchasdecreased levelsof dissolvedoxygen.Productionrites rno." thandoublewith this
program. The mosthighly managedsystemis semi-intensive operationsthat stockpondsat 100,000*
juvenilesperha-andsupplyfood supplements or fertilizethepondsto increasesourcesof food. Water
exchangewith theesfuaryis higherandannualproductionraiesincreaseto 1,000-1,g00 kgd.
The dramaticexpansionof thefarmedshrimpindustryandincreased levelsof pont *-ug.r.nt
stimulated-thedevelopmentofa new fisherytoprovidepostlarvaeandseedshrimprotiro.llng mariculture
polds' Industrysources thatup to 90,000artisanalfishcrmanwereinvolvedin the 19g3harvest
_estimated
andin 1984numbersof fishermenyo+ing alongthecoastwereevenhigher(N4cpadden, 19g5). Seed
fishingis concentrated in areas-ofsignificantfreJhwaterdischargealongttreioastline,suchasbt oro and
Esmeraldas, with the highesteffort occurringin theGuayasp.oulnce.
The catchesarenon-selective, with smallfish, pena-eiO postlarvaeandjuvenileshrimpincludinga
mixtureofP.vannamei,P.stylirostris,P.occidentalis andP.ialiforniensis,aswellassomefreshwater
Carid spe*ies'Sinceonly the
lorqer two speciessurvivebestin maricultureponor,o*n.ir pay according
to theproportionof the stockthat is P . vainamei andP. stylirostris(Mcpadden,r43sl. ser;ion is
a
post-harvest processandthereforeless-valued speciesarelost from thi estuary.Thepeakof theseedfishing
seasonis from Deccmberto Marchwhenfisherman maytakeup to 40,000p.istr-uai a-oal iii sire
rangingfrom 7-10mm.

*
villalon et al. (thisvolume)reportslightlyhigherstockingdensities.

93
 A majorfactorassociated with theavailabilityof immatureshrimpis temperature of offshore
water. Temperatures arecontrolledby themixtureof warmwaterflowing southwardfrom thePanama
Bight wittr cold watersflowing northwardfrom thePeruvianHumboldtCurrent. This mixing occurs
beiweenMantaandPuntaSantoElenaalongthecoastof Ecuadorandgraduallymovessouthwardinto the
Gulf of Guayaquil.Thesoutherlyflowing watercausesincreasein seawater temperatureandinitiatesthe
onsetof therainy season(Cucalon,tttisvolume;Cucalon,1984; McPadden, 1985).
Yearso1abnormallywarmwatertemperatures with El Niflo events
andhigh rainfall areassociated
andhaveresultedin the explosivepopulationsof white shrimpoff the coastof Ecuador.The high
availabilityofpostlarvaethat supportedtheexpansionofthe shrimpindustryin 1983and 1984hasbeen
associated with theseoffshoreprocesses (Cucalon,this volume).

Reclamation of Mangroves

Eight speciesof mangrovesare distributedalonga rurrow bandof the outerintertidal zoneof

Ecuador*it=ha non-negetated-area called"salinas"(saltflats) in moreinland intertidal areasClable2). The
oiii.nr. of 121,4& of hi mangrove in the Guayasprovincehasbeenattributedto extensiveriver flow
iro* tft" GuayasRiverbasinani highratesof evapotranspiration (Schaeffer-Novelli, 1983).
Theieawardintertidalron6 is colonized6y specilsof mangroves in theRhizophoraceae family,
withRhizophoraharisoniion the perimeter of the ihoreline and mixtures of the other species inland of this
zonelgintron et a1.,1981). More inland of this fringe is a mixed zone of Rhizophora and Auicennia
gir*inort. Still fartherinlandlies a monospecificsiandof Avicennia,which yieldseventuallyto shrub
frequencyandri-verdischargecreate
ii*s * Salinaswith extremehypersalinesoil conditions.High tidal
ionOitlon, suitablefor mangroveiorest structures in the northern provinces with treedensityof 185/haand
a basal arcaof 62.4,&ha. This densityis greater than for mangroves in Venezuela, Columbia,Malaysia
puerto Rico (Cintron, 1981). Mangrove forests are less dense in tle southern provinces (CinEon'
and
1981), particularlysurrounding shrimp ponds (Snedaker et al., 1986)'
The mostobviousexfloitationof mangrovesalongthecoastalzoneof Ecuadoris the construction
of pondsfor theproductionof shrimpandfish. This land usepatternin the intertidalzonefirst involved
wholesaledestructionof mangrovesin Machalaandin the southernprovinceof El Oro. Followingthis
period of total mangrovedestl"uction, pond constructionwas authorizedmainly in the Salinasand inland
less
i"ung1ou.,ones. Ilo*euer, asthearei of pondconstructionincreaseddramaticallyin the early 1980s,
was avaiiable and mangroves wg_rg again heavily impacted by the
of tflir unu"getatedintertidal area
mariculturelndustry.Recently,therehasbeena decreeihat prohibitsnew authorizationof pondsin
**g.ou"r. Severalthousandtechresof pondshavealreadyUeenauthorizedin theintertidalzone,though
constructionin manyinstanceshasnot yet begun.
-e of mangroveslostio the constructionof pondsal-o1g{e coastalprovinceof
The exactnu*U.r
percentof the
Ecuador is uncerrain. t"..nt iufr"y from CLIRSEN(1984)showsthat 79,396ha or 88.8
provinces of Guayas
total areaof shrimppondsalongthecoastof Ecuadoris locatedin tle two southern
gt the potential_loss of mangroves based on proportion of ponds
una Oro (Iable-li. A Aiagrai"representing
constructedin mangrove3r.lus ir shbwn in Ffuure +. ffris diagram demonstrates that if all 52,9l2haof
.trrintppondsin Guiyasprovince(fable 1) wLe built in mangroue-areas, Iheoriginalmangroveareawould
havebeen 174,375na,aridmangrovelosswould be 30.3 percint of the resource. At a utilizationrateof 10
the loss of mangro-ve would be 4'2percenI'
f.t".ni of pondsbuiliin mangr6ues, !a!i1at
Historicalrecordsof-thesoutherncoastof tlie Gulf of Guayaquilin theprovinceof€l Oro at
ponds(fable
Machalagive someindicationasto the proportionof mangroveslsedfor the constructionof
gi. F LgiT rherewere 834.ih;of pondsconsructedand, based on the loss of mangroves
period,55 percentof thesepondsw-erebuilt in mangrovehabitats.This estimateis probably
"*1qO6b
Ouringrhis
rince urba'nareasalsoapparentlyincreased at theexpenseof mangroves'If urban,expansion
"*ugg"out"d divided between salinaiand mangroves, then 45 percentof thepondsconstructed in thisperiod
*^"Jq"uUv
would havebeenin mangroves.
From 19??to 1-982,an additional1496.5ha of pondswerebuilt, however,therewasno
conesponding lossof salinasandmangroves.Rather,decreased landusefor agriculturewasobserved,
which couldaccountf* tnr additionalpondconsEuction andurbanexpansion.However,assumingthatall
then 63 p-ercent of thepondswereconstructed in
of the mangrovelosswasfrom pondconstruction, in El
gased on ttii, ,ung" of 45-63 percent of pond consEuction in mangrove habitat
*ungro"" f;abitats.

94
Oro, an estimated16-21percent+of themangrovein theGuayasprovincemay havebeenlost to shrimp
farming. Recentestimatesby CLIRSENindicatethat mangrovelossin the GuayasProvinceis muchless,
at about4 percent+of the originallnangrovecover. This would meanthatabout10percent.of the shrimp
pondsconstructed in this provincewerebuilt in mangrove(Figure4).

Factors Influencing Water Quality

Waterqualityof theGuayasRiver estuaryis influencedby inputsfrom thewatershed, exchanges

with the intertidalzone,andphysicaloceanographic processes in theGulf of Guayaquil.Activitiesin the
watershed includea damprojectthatwill influencefreshwaterinput,expandingagriculturewith associated
dischargeof chemicalsincludingnutrientsandpesticides, sewagefrom increasedurbanizatton,and toxic
substances from industrialactivities(Arriaga,this volume). Exchangeof estuarinewaterwith theintertidal
zonevia tideshasbeenreplacedwittr dieselpumpsttratpumpwaterto improvetheproductivityof grow-out
ponds.Naturalresources within theintertidalzone,includingmangrove,may alsoinfluencewaterquality,
thoughthe functionof thesecommunitiesis still uncertain.Offshorewatersinfluencethe temperatueand
salinityof the GuayasRiver estuary,mostnotablyduringEl Niffo eventsandduringpresenceof red tidesin
coastalwaters.Thesediversenaturalandanthropogenic influenceson waterqualityin theestuary
complicatewaterqualitymanagement in this coastalecosystem.

Daule-Peripa River Dam Project

A damis proposedat theconfluenceof theDauleandPeripariversfor watersupplies,conEolof

river flow, andhydroelectricpower. Waterwill be divertedwith an aqueductfrom theRio Dauleto the
SantaElenapeninsulafor potablewater,irrigationfor agricultureandindustriatuse. Thedamwill also
increasethe flow of freshwaterto the GuayasRiver estuaryduringttredry seasonto preventsaltwater
intrusionin fhe lowerDauleRiver andenhanceagriculturein this area.TheRio Dauledrainsone-thirdof
the GuayasRiver basinand hasa meancapacityflow of 11.5km3/yr or 365r3/r. Thr total river basinof
both theDauleandPeripaRiversis 420,000ha andit receivesa meanprecipilationof 1800mm per year.
A thoroughdescriptionof thesoil characteristics
andlanduseof this watershed areprovidedin a reportby
the GuayasRiver BasinCommission(CEDEGE,1970).
The damwill createan impoundmentwitfi a storagecapacityof 6.0km3 of waterwiti a surface
area,of 2'70km2, meandepthof 21 m andvolumeof 5.4tL3. fne impoundmentwill supplypotable
waterfor 300,000peopleat 400 litersper personper day,irrigation waierfor 42,000ha of tandand20
Titlign cubicmetersper yearfor industry. Projectedindusrial useincludesapetroleumrefinery,nirrogen
fertilizercomplex,petrochemical complex,anda perochemicalport facility at-Monteverde
The damwill influencethe amountof waterfrom the DauleandPeripaRiversthatnormaly
dischargeinto theGuayasRiver. Presenl.ly theproposedoperationof thedamcallsfor an averageannual
flow of from 100to 175mr/s (Jenkins,1979; Arriaga,this volume). This flow will vary from a high of
321m3/sduringthe wet seasonin April, to a low oi nq *3/s in August. Comparedto the normalflow
of theDauleandPeripaRivers@gure 5), thismodifiedflow is muchlower thanthefreshwaterdischarge
of up to t000 m3/sthat usuallyoccursduringthe wet season.During the dry season,to controlsaltwater
intrusion,the damwill providewaterabovethe avengedischarge of about50 m3ls from suppliesstore.d
in
the impoundment.Basedon averagemonthlyflows, the normaldischargeof 343m3/sfor thesetwo rivers
will be restrictedto 175m3ls,a reductionof about49 pe,rcent
(Figure5). This reductionrepresentsa loss
of 15percentof the freshwaterto the GuayasRiver and 13percentfrom theGuayasRiver estuary.The
lossof freshwaterfrom an estuaryin a semiaridzonesuchasthe Guayasprovincemay influencettre
patternsof salinityin the ecosystem.

+ Alvarezet al. (this volume)reportslightly differentpercentages

of mangrovelossfor 1986-1984.

95
 Nutrient Loading

Sourcesof nuEientsfrom watersheds to aquaticecosystems maybe describedaseitherdiffuseor

from somespecificpoint of effluent. Diffuse nutrientinputsincluderunoff from naturalvegetationor from
managedlandscapes suchasagricultureor forestryareas.Muchresearchhasgoneinto developingnutrient
loadingratesfor different typesof nativevegetationandfor specifictypesof cropsin watershedsin various
geographic areas.Most of theseloadingrateshavebeendeveloped for watersheds locatedin temperate
climates.Lessis known aboutthe lossof nutrientsfrom tropicalwatersheds.
Thefive principlecropsraisedalongthecoastofEcuadorarebananas, rice, sugarcane,cacao,and
coffeefilho, 1983). Theseagriculturalproductscomeprimarily from theGuayaslowlands,situatednorth
andeastof the city of Guayaquil,andalongtheeastemshoreof the Gulf of Guayaquil(Table4). Statistics
for the Guayasand Ins Rios provinceshavebeencombinedto representagriculturalactivity in the Guayas
River basin. Over 50 percentof ttreagriculturalactivitydescribedin Table4 for the coastalzoneof Ecuador
occursin the GuayasRiver basin.
The GuayasRiver basinis a majorproducerof rice, witfr neady95 percentof the totalrice
productionalongthecoastoccurringin the GuayasandLos Rios provinces.Rice in the GuayasRiver
basinis of particularsignificanceto thenutrienteconomyof theGuayasRiver estuarybecauseof thelarge
areaof production(Iable 5), the potentialexpansionof this crop in the watershedoncethe Daule-Peripa
damis completed(projectedat 17,000ha duringthe initial phaseof the project),andits proximity to
waterways.

Point Source Inputs

Pointsourceeffluentsareassociated witl urbanareasandindustry. However,nutrientwastefrom

urbancenterscanalsobe diffuseload.ings via groundwater transportfrom septicsystems.Loadingratesof
nutrientsfrom cities are dependent on population density and degreeof wastetreatmentprior to discharge
into aquaticsystems.In the GuayasRiver basin,thereis very little treatmentof domesticwaste. Sewage
is eitherreleaseddirectlyto theriversor estuaries via ditches(refenedto as "treated"),or is divertedto septic
ponds. Thusnurient loadingfrom point sourcesin this watershedis largelyrelatedto populationdensity
and per capila rafes of nutrientinputfrom untreatedsewage.
Thepopulationin the coaslalprovincesof Ecuadorhasincreasedoverthepast35 years,most
dramaticallyin the Guayasprovince(Figure6). From 1962to 1982the populationof this provincemore
thandoubledto over 2,000,000persons.In thelastseveralyears,thegowth ratehasbeenevengeater
with a presentpopulationof over 2,568,452(Figure6). Togetherwith the populationof Los Rios, there
ue 3.14million peoptein the GuayasRiver basin@gure 6), of which 84 percentis consideredurban,with
53 percentof the basinpopulationlocatedin the vicinity of Guayaquil.Cunently,only 18percentof the
34i00 ha city is servicedLy sewers.The city'scontaminated watersareemptied,untreated,into the
Guayas Rivei @l Guasmo pumping sfation),Daule River @l Progreso pumpingstation),andEstero
Salado.
Initial estimatesof theimpactof urbanwasteon the qualityof waterin theriversandestuariesof
the southerncoastalzoneof Ecuadorarelistedin Table6. Theseestimatesarefor themajorpopulation
centersalongthe waterwaysof the GuayasRiver basin(includingtheGuayasandLos Riosprovinces),and
includea total populationof 1.7million people,or 54 percentof the watershedpopulation.
Treatediewagehererefersto sewagewhichis transported directlyto theriversandestuaries,
whereasuntreatedsewageis transported to septic ponds. From the availablestatistics,wastefrom 62
percentof thepopulationis pumpedto septic ponds (untreated), however, 86 percentof the 54.83(10)6m3
;f waste generated annuallyis discharged directly to aquatic ecosy-stems. Based on thesepoprlation
statisticsind per capitaratesfor eachtreatment,the loadingratesfor oxygendemand(biological and
chemical),soilas(totatanddissolved),andnutrients(totalnirogen andphosphorus) haveb-een calculated.
This preliminaryanalysisindicatesthatthecity of Guayaquil discharges over 90 percent of all domestic
wastesthatentertheriver, andan even greater percentage of the nutrientsthat enter the Guayas River
estuary. Solorzano (thisvolume) claimi that domestic and industrial waste has lowered water quality in the
DauleandGuayasRiversby contributingto a high level of bacterialcontamination, decreasing dissolved
oxygencontentandincreasingconcentration of nutrients.
 River Discharge

Ratesof nutrientinput from riversdischarginginto the GuayasRiver estuaryandEsteroSalado

may be estimatedfrom informationon seasonal concentrations relativeto periodsof high andlow river flow
(Figure7). Ammoniumconcenftations above15ug-at/Loccurin threeof thefour riverssurveyedand
concentrations ashigh as4Aug-atloccurredin theRio Milagro. Thesehigh concenfrations occurredduring
the low flow season,andthusdo not necessarily indicatehigh input to the GuayasRiver estuary.However,
peaknitrite andnitrateconcentrations with valuesgreaterthan2.0 and50.0ug-av,respectively,occurredin
all theriversfrom Februaryto Juneduringperiodsof highriver flow (seeFigure3 foi seasonal river flow
in the GuayasRiver basin). Thepatternfor nitratewascommonamonglhe river systemsinvestigated,
indicatingthat this may representa high input of nitrogento the estuaryfigure 7). Concenrationsof
nitrite above2.0 ug-atlue indicativeof ninification,which is usuallyaccompanied by decreases in
dissolvedoxygenconcenfiations (dissolvedoxygenis requiredfor theoxidationof ammoniumto nitrate;
nitrite is an intermediaryion of thisprocess).Low dissolvedoxygenconcentrations wereobservedin lhe
Rio Coloradoduringthewet season, but the otherriverswerenearlysaturated with dissolvedoxygen
throughouttheyear. High concenEations of silicateandphosphate werealsoassociated with thewet
season,but the otherriverswerenearlysaturated with dissolvedoxygenthroughoutthe year. High
concentrations of silicateandphosphate werealsoassociated with thewet season, indicatingthatthe
deliveryof thesenutrientsmaybe substantialto thedownstreamestuaries.This typeof information,along
with dischargedatafor eachriver system,is importantfor the development of nurient loadingratesto the
GuayasRiver estuary.

Toxic Substances

Pesticides

Agriculturemay alsocontributetoxic substances suchaspesticidesto riversandestuaries of the

Guayasbasin(Table7). Table7 is basedon theareaof rice andsoybeansundercultivationin the Guayas
andLos Rios provinces,an^d_the specificapplicationratefor eachcrop. This analysisis only an
approximationof theuseof thesechemicalsin thewatershed anddoei not indicatetheir actualtransportto
aquaticsystems.Dr. Solorzano(personalcommunication) hasexpressedconcernabouttheconcendadons
of pesticidesin theestuary,bur only tracesof pesticideshavebeendetectedat thebeginningof therainy
seasonin the DauleRiver (Solorzano,this volume). A CEDEGEriver basinstudysho*ed'thatDDT levels
in the riversflowing into the estuarywerelow, but little documentationwasavaillble.

Petroleum Hydrocarbons

Petroleumis theprimarysourceof foreignincomefor Ecuador.The impactof oil on coastal

provinceswasdocumented (Cintronet al., 1981),andonepublicationrefersspecificallyto thecoastalzone
of Ecuador@lho, 1983). Concenfationsof oil hydrocarbbns in theGuayasniuer estuaryandEsterSalado
rangefrom 0.10 to 2.80 ug/L (Solorzano,*ris volume). Concenrationsaregenerallyleis than2 ug&
exceptnearoil spills or centersof commercialoil vesselactivitv.

Heavy Metals

Thereis somemining activity in the GuayasRiver basin,andseveralmetalshavebeenfound

concentrated in riverineandestuarinesediments.Solorzano(thisvolume)givesrecentmeasurements
of
copper,iron, cadmiumin the watercolumnsof theBabahoyo,DauleandGuayasRivers,andmercuryin the
sedimentof the Guayas.The readeris referredto that repori.

97
Shrimp Farming

Pumping of Estuarine Water

More intenseshrimpfarmingtechniquesinvolve stockingpondsat higherdensitiesof juveniles,

which necessitates additionalfertilization andsupplementalfeedingto assurean adequatefood supplyfor
secondaryproductivity. This level of pond management. requiressfiict control of waterquality since
phytoplanktonbloomsresultingfrom nuftientadditionsmay depletedissolvedoxygenconcentrations to
levels that will causeshrimp mortality.
Oneof the solutionsto thispotentialwaterqualityproblemis to increasethe exchangeof seawater
throughthe pondsby pumpingwaterfrom the estuary.This exchangeratevariesfrom 3 percentto 8
percentof th-evolumeof the shrimppondper dayundersemi-extensive madculture,andmayincreasewifi
moreintensefarming practices. The total volume of water pumped from theGuayasRiver estuaryto
shrimppondsdependson pondmanagement practicesandthe totalareaof pondsunderoper,ation.Figure8
showi thevolumi of estuarinewaterexchanged with ponds(usinga meanponddepthof 1.5m) basedon
variousexchange rates(percentof pondvolume day),andareasof pondsin operation.Theseexchange
per
volumesarecoinparedt-othe low andhigh flow dischargeof theGuayasRiver. At a presentoperationof
30,000ha of pondsundersemi-extensive management (5 percentpumpingrate),thevolumeof water
exchangeddaily with the estuary is approximately 20 (10)6 m3 €rgur9 8). This volumeis greaterthan
freshwaterdischargeftom theGuayasRiver duringlow flow periods.With intensivepondmanagement
(10 percentpumpingrate),thesameareaof pondswould exchange nearly36 percentoftheriverine
Os.i'rrg" Airindtrigtr flow periods. These tlpes of reasonable scenarios underscorethe importanceof the
impact
' of shrimp ponds on the water flow pattern in this estuary.
Most oi'ihe waterthatis pumpedinto thepondsreplaceslossesassociated with seepage and
evaporation.Althoughthereareno dan on waterbudgetsfor semi-extensive mariculture,observations
suggestthat lessthanhalf of thewaterremovedfrom the estuaryis returnedin a flow-throughdesign@.
l,tiigle, personalcommunication).The amountof waterlossdueto evaporatiolin 4q pondsis probably
highlr thanin the estuary,sinceshallowness decreases theheatabsorptioncapacityof thewatercolumn.
Oien watergenerallylosesmorewaterper areato evapotranspfuation thanwetlands.For example,
*'ungrou"t i-nsouthiforida areknown to have lower actual ratesof evapotranspiration thanpotentialmtes
1982). Therefore, the conversion of intertidal areasoriginally vegetated by mangrovesto shrimp
ltwiiley,
pondscouldintreaserhelossof freshwaterfrom the GuayasRiver Estuary.This_increas^e in waterloss
iould resultin the dischargeof hypersaline watersto theestuary.Snedaker, et al (1986) found thatwaterin
22 of 30 pondssurveyedhadhighersalinities ttran the source water.

Fertilization

Supplemental feedingandfertilizationarerequiredto *ryt thedemandfor food at higherstocking

densitiesof'postlarvaein pon-cls.A main sourceof nutritionfor shrimpin growoutpondsis phytoplankton
bloomsthatiesult from uria andsuperphosphates addedprior to stocking.Supplemental feedingis carried
out towardthe endof the growth cycle,usually in the last four weeks. The impact of rhese^chemicals on
tt r *ut r quality of the GriayasRiver esruarydepcnds on their fatewithin the pond an{ on effluentdischarge
rates.Muc^hof ihe nitrogenind phosphate applied!o pondsareabsorbedby phytoplanktonandarethus
returnedto the estuaryi-norganii form. fnesi organii nutrientsrepresent biologic.aloxygendemandwith
ida;;*posirion of ttrispl-anktonbiomass. Nutrients released duringdecomposition may thenbe
available for Uiotogical upiak" andcontribute to the red tidesrecently observed in the estuary. Therefore,
nutrient effluent fr-ompondr *uy contributeeithcr directly or indirectly to thebalanceof dissolvedoxygen
in the estuary.

98
 Mangroves

Sincethe Guayasestuaryis tightly coupledto ttreintertidalzonevia 3-5 metertides,mangroves

may influencethesewatersin severalways. Sediments suspended in thewatercolumnaredepositedin
mangrovesduringflooding,enrichingtheseforests.The extensiveroot systemof mangrovesenhances the
sedimentation processandretardsthe forcesof erosionalongthe shoreline(Scoffin,1970). Nixon (1984)
observedthattotal suspended sedimentloadof an estuaryin Malaysia,in which mangroves hadbeen
reclaimedfor agriculture,wasan orderof magnitudehigherthanin an adjacentmangrove-dominated system.
Somepreliminaryevidenceindicatesthatmangroves may alsobe a sinkfor nutrientsin coastal
waters.This may seemto contradictthe theorythatmangroves act asa sourceof detritusto estuarine
ecosystems (OdumandHeald, 1972;Twilley, 1985;Twilley et al., 1986). One explanationis that net
nu,trientuptakemaybe a balancebetweeninorganicnutrientinput andorganicnutrientexport. Walsh
(1967)noticeda decrease in inorganicnutrientconcentrations in watersmovingthrougha mangrovein
Hawaii. Nedwell(1975)usedenclosures to measurenufient uptakeby mangrovesediments andnoticed
theyhad a greatcapaciryto removenitrates,particularlyin areasof nuhientenrichmentfrom sewage
discharge.The useof mangroves for treatmentof nutrient-enriched effluenthasreceivedsomepreliminary
investigation(Sell, 1977),but this functionis still poorly understood.The lossof mangrovesmay be a
contributingfactorto changesin waterquality,particularlynutrientlevels,in the GuayaiRiver esruary.

Impact of Water Quality on Shrimp Mariculture

Fxisting informationsuggests thattheproductionin shrimppondshasdecreased from 1600to 250

kg of shrimpTha/yr over the lastseveralyears,thoughstockingrateJ6avebeenmainLained at about65,000
PL/haper harvest.Mortality ratesin shrimppondsareestimttedat greaterthan50 percent(p. Maugle,
personalcommunication), andevidencesuggests thatmaturationratesarealsolower-.In addition,therehas
beena declinein theavailabilityof wild PL to theshrimpfarmingindustry,restrictingttreacreageof ponds
in operation'Decrease of wild PL hasincreased demandfor PL fiom hatciieries.Curiently,therearesome
68 hatcheriesunderconstruction.Twenfyhatcheries still in initial phasesof operationproducedabout500
million postlarvae in 1985.
_. 9ood waterqualityis critical to theproductivityof hatcheries becauselarvaearesusceptible to
disease.no$t_eI, supplyand shrimpgrowthandmortalityin pondsdeterminetheproductivityof tnis
indusEy;andbothdependon thequaliryof waterin rheeituary.

Mangroves and Fisheries

Thelossof mangroves from tropicalestuaries

mayhavedirectconsequence to economically
importantfisheriesthroughlossof habitatandfood. ZimmermanandMinello (this volume)havefound
lhatP. vannameiandP . stylirostrisinhabitareasin the mangroves, buf it is noi known whetherthese
habitatsenhancethe survivalor growthof theseandothermarineorganismsin theEsteroSalado.
Associations do existbetweenthe productionrateof shrimpandthetxFnt of mangrovearea(Macnae,
1974;Tumer,1977:Jottry,1984)because onehectareof mangroves canyieldrnoi" thanOOO tgyr of
shrimpand 100!S/:r of without management (Turner, tOzll. nasea on an approximatelJsi of 10,500
.fistr
ha of mangrove(Figure4), thereductionin shrimpproductionfrom the estuaryroutO Ueequivalentto
5,300_m.t./yr. Althoughthesestatistics do not shbwcausalrelationships, theydo polnrou?ihat wheneuer
a?roductivepostlarvaefisheryexist,thereis thepresence of themangrovehabitatasobservedin Ecuador
(Turner,this volume). Withoutfurtherinformationon possibledepeidanceof shrimplarvaeandother
marinefaunaon mangrovesfor part of their life cycles,theeffectof mangroueclearingon natural
populationsin theGuayasRiverestuarywill remainunknown. Mangrovedestruction-may alsohavean
indirecteffecton fisheriesby changingwaterquality

99
 Salinization

The Daule-Peripadamandthe pumpingof waterinto shrimpponds,may influencethe disnibution

andincreasethe concenfration of salinityin the GuayasRiver estuary.Mangrovesthatexistin arid
environments suchasthecoastof Ecuadorwhereevapotranspiration is greaterthanprecipitationarevery
susceptibleto slight changes in hydrology. For mangrove forests in arid life zones,small shiftsin
precipitationresult in increasedsoil salinity followed by an increasein treemoftality and a shift in
vegetationfrom foreststo tannesor Salinas(DavisandHilsenbeck,L974:Cintronet al.,1978). In Ecuador
the diversionof freshwaterfrom theGuayasRiver estuarymustbe managedwith awareness of possible
negativeeffectson mangrovessincetheyexistin a relativelyarid environment.MargalefandCrespo
(1979)suggested thatthe lossof freshwaterfrom ttredamwill probablynot affectmangroves,thoughthe
researchers did not takeinto accounttheclimaticinfluenceof mangrovedistributionin the southern
provinces.
Increasesin salinitydueto changesin freshwatersupplyto the GuayasRiver estuarymay also
impacteconomicallyimportant.fisheriesin this estuarineecosystem.TheEsteroSalado,which harbors
mostof thefisheryresoruces of theinnerGulf of Guayaquil,doesnot receivefreshwaterdischarges directly
from the GuayasRiver. Therefore, the flushing rate of this section of the inner gulf is less than the more
southemsectionsthatarelinked directlyto dischargefrom theriver. As a consequence of lessdischarge,the
EsteroSaladomaybe moresusceptible to increases in theconcenftation of materialsdissolvedin the water
column. Salinityis a conservative elementin thewatercolumnand indicates the concentrating natureof
this bodyof waier. Precipitation during 1985 was relatively low, and the Estero Salado was hlpersaline
with valuesup to 30 parti per thousand(ZimmermanandMinello, this volume). This increasein salinity
-other
suggeststhat miterials,suchastoxic chemicalsandnutrientsmay alsobe concentrated (assumingthat
their betravioris conservative).Organisms,suchasshrimp,that inhabitthe Estero Salado are very
susceptible to changesin water quality, especially salinity and toxicity which may increase mortalityand
retard"growth rates.
Changesin freshwatersupplymay alsoinfluenceseasonal movementor recruitmentof organisms
into the Guayi River estuary.The recruitmentof shrimpinto an estuaryis importantto their life cycle
becausetheestuaryprovidesoptimalconditions,sucha low predation,duringcritical stagesof maturation.
Seasonaltiming oi recruitrneniis thoughtto be dependent on fluctuationsin salinityalongwith influx of
offshorewatermasses.SincetheDaule-Peripa damis designedfor a nearconstantflow of waterto the
EsteroSalado,thepotentialimpactof this projectshouldbe evaluatedrelativeto disturbingseasonal
fluctuationsoi saliirityin the eituary. Sincethe maricultureindustryrelieson shrimppostlarvaethaf
seasonally utilize thelstuary, management plansshouldstronglyconsiderthosefactorsthatinfluence
recruitmentof fisheriesin theestuarineecosystem.

Nutrient Enrichment and Anoxia

Nutrientsthat increasethe productivity of agricultureandarethe by-products.ofhumannutrition

alsostimulatethe primaryproductivityof aquaticecosyst€ms.Changesin waterqualityin responseto
nu6ientenrichmentis caiteOeurophiiation.-Dissolvedoxygenis a popularindexof waterquality;oxygen
concentrations below4 mgl ueconsideredstressfulto manyfisheries.The negativeeffectsof low dissolved
oxygento fisheriescanalil be indirectby disturbingbasicfoodchains.Thedischargeof organicmaterials
ttrat"consume oxygenduringdecomposition (biologicaloxygendemand,BOD) andof someinorganic
nu6ients (chemicil o*yg.n?"ranO, COO), can causea decrease of dissolvedoxygenin
in concentrations
the estuary.A balance5f pto""r.es thatcontribute(photosynthesis anddiffusion)andremoveBOD and
COD dissblvedoxygenis necessary for a healthyenvironmentfor economicallyimportantfisheries.
Anoxia or low dissolvedo*yg"n -Bay conditionshavebeenobservedhistoricallyin somestratified
estuaries, such as in the Chesapeake whereanoxiaof bottomwaterswasobservedin the 1930s
Q.{ewcombe and Horne, 1938). A concern regardingthe Chesapegke Bay that may be relevantto many
irturtin" is'therecentincreaseinlnoxia in greater
volumes of waterandthepersistence of tttis
".oryrt"*,
conditionin thewatercolumn. The linkage between incieasednutrientloading,enhanced productionof
phytoplanktonbiomass,and the consumftion of oxygenduring decompositionof this organic materialin
itt" ryrt". eitherin the watercolumnoiin the surfacesedimentsmay contributeto anoxiain the
6tt rlup"ut"Bay (Officeret al., 1984).Therefore,nutrientabatement andcontrolbecomesa centralissuein
dealingwith simiiar water qualityproblems in estuarineecosystems such astheGuayasRiver estuary.
 Redtides,phytoplanktonbloomsthatdiscolorthe water,area commonoccurrencein the Gulf of
Guayaquilandin the inlandwatersof theGuayasRiver estuary@eArcos,1982;Jimenez,1980;Jimenez,
this volume). Thesebloomsvary in speciescomposition,densityof cells,andduration. The mostdirect
influenceon theestuaryis fish kills causedby thepresenceof toxic organismssuchas Gonyaulaxcatenella
and Gymnodiumbreve. Gonyaulexmonilataoccurredin theupperportionof the Gulf of Guayaquilin
April 1980,andin March 1986alongthe coastof Manglaralro.The 1980bloom resultedin high fish
mortality (Jimenez,1980),while the 1986bloom causedsignificantmortalityof shrimppostlaryaein eight
hatcheries, interruptingoperationsfor 3045 days(Jimenez,1986).
Otherred tidesin ilre GuayasRiver estuaryincludeGyrodiniumstratumin September1982,
Mesodiniumrubrumin August 1984,Prorocentrummaximumfrom February1985to February1986,and
a recentbloom of Nitzschiasp. (Jimenez,this volume). Thesebloomscausedhigh mortalityin shrimp
pondswhenphytoplanktoncontaminated waterswerepumpedfrom the estuary.
Anoxic watersareapparendyuncommonin theGuayasRiver estuary,occurringonly in areasnear
sewageoutfalls(Arriaga,this volume). A surveyof five stationsin EsteroSatadofoundthatdissolved
oxygenconcentrations at 1 m depthrangedfrom 3.5 to 5.3 mV (Solorzano,this volume). Concenfations
arenormallylower nearthebottom;for instance,SolorzanoandViteri (1981)measured concenEationsof
1.5 ml/ at 1 m depthcomparedto 2.0-2.5ml/ nearthe bottomat two stationsadjacentto the city of
Guayaquil.The strongtideswith amplitudesfrom 3 to 5 m in the GuayasRiveiestuaryareresponsible for
thewell-mixedaeratedwatercolumn. Evenduringpresence of red tidei in the estuary,inoxic pioblemsin
pondsarenot causedby pumpinganoxicwaterfrom theestuary;rather,anoxiain pondwaterd^evelops when
waterthat containsmaterialsthatmay promotelow oxygenconditionsis pumpedinto the lesswell-mixed
shrimpponds.

Toxic Substances

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons canbe lethalto fish at relativelylow concentrations(Table8). However,cturent

informationsuggeststhat theconcentrations of hydrocarbons in EsteroSaladoarelessni z ig/,an order
of magnitudelessthanconcentrations '
thatmay ai'fectthe naturalresources of this ecosysi...

Pesticides

Crustaceans, especiallylarvae,areusuallymoresensitiveto 1owconcentrations ofpesticidesttran

areothermarineorganisms(Costlow,1982). Theextensiveuseof thesechemicalsin theeituarine
watershedcreatesa potentialhazardto the shrimpmaricultureindustryin Ecuador.Table9 shows
the
amountof pesticidesimportedinto Ecuadorin 1979and 1980.For eiample,Endrin,which is applied
at an
approximate rateof 145m.t. per yearin therice paddiesof theGuayasRiver'basinsignificantlyreduced
growth_rates of rapidly growingjuvenileMysidipsisbahia(McKenney,1986),ar coicentationsof 60
*gF:
Jn addition,physiologicalmeasurements of metabolicdysfunciion in iysids ruurethallyro
pesticidesin laboratoryandfield conditionsshowedlowergrowthandreproductlu" "r,for"Jin
trese
organismsduringlaterstagesof theirlife cycle(McKenney,1986).Daugherty(1975j "upuiity
nodd ftar decreased
!!.ifp yieldsin El Salvadorprobablyresultedfrom the heavyuseor peJticidesin cottonfarmingduringthe
1960sandearly 1970s.Pestiiideshavea tendencyto becomemoreconcentrated alongthefood chainand
thusmay stresspredatorsandhighertrophicleveissuchasfish. Beforethisproblemian be solved,more
informationis neededon theambientconcentration of thesechemicalsthataretoxic to certainfisheries,and
on their fatein theaquaticenvironment.

Metals

High concentrations
of heavymetalsin certainareasof theestuarineecosystem demons6atethe
affectsof urbandevelopment
andindustry. Solorzano(1986)expressed particularion.e.n for the
concenftationof copper,cadmiumandmercuryin the watercolumn and sedimen8of the GuayasRiver
estuary.Copperconcentrations arehigherthan 10ug/ which is considered
innocuousto aquaticspecies
(Ketchum,1975),althoughtheseconcentrations couldbe dueto naturalprocesses.Cadmiumis also
presentin concentrationsthatcouldimpactaquaticorganisms(etchum, 1975),andsedimentsshowed
significantmercurycontamination(Solorzano,1986).

The Ecosystemand Shrimp Mariculture

The interactionsof the shrimpfarmingindustrywith theGuayasRiver estuarineecosystem are

summarizedin Figure9. Waterquaiityinfluencesthe supplyof wild PL aswell asthe successful
productionof PL by hatcheries.Waterqualityalsodetermines the swvival andgrowthratesof PL once
theyate stocked in growout ponds. Alttrough water quality of ponds dependsprincipallyon the typeof
managementused,characteristicsof the waterpumpedfrom the estuarycan alsodeterminethe numberof
shrimpproducedin theponds. Activitiesin the GuayasRiver basinaffectthe qualityof waterin the
estuaryand,therefore,the shrimpindustrythroughchemicalssuchasnutrientsandpesticidesfrom
agdculture,sewagefrom the largepopulationcentersaroundthe estuary,andheavymetals_fromindustry.
Tiredisnibutionandtumoverraie of inesepollulantsandsalinityin the estuarinewatercolumnof the
estuaryareinfluencedby thedischargeof fieshwaterfrom thewatershed.Thusa damon theDaule-Peripa
Riveri mustbe evaluatedin termsof its potentialimpactto waterquality in this estuary,giventhe strong
seasonalnatureof its freshwaterinputs.
Therearealsomanynaturaloccurrences thatinfluencewaterqualityandthe shrimpindustryin this
ecosystem @igure9). For example,elevatedwatertemperatures-in the Gulf of Guayaquillnay be a
dominating'fadtor in thetremendous recruitment of shrimp into the inner estuariesduringclimatic
disturbancis known as ElNiflo. Red tides are also recruited from the Gulf of Guayaquilto theestuaries, in
additionto thebloomsthatoccurin situ. Theextensiveareasof mangroves areconsidered nurseriesfor
economicallyimportantshrimplarvaeaswell aspossiblyinfluencingnutrientand sedimentdynamicsin
this turbid .ituury. Tidesaffectwaterqualityin theestuaryby mixing the watercolumnandpreventing
stratificationthaicould leadto problernswith low levelsof dissolvedoxygen' Consideringthehuge
amountsof untreatedsewagettrratis discharged into this system,therearefew accountsof anoxiawith in
the estuary,a patternthat his beenattributedto thepresenceof stron-g tidal currentswithin the system.
1'tr"*-y interactions of the human and natural resources of this estuarineecosystem underscore
thecomplexityinherentin questionsregardingttrefluctuationsof PL supplyandtheapparentdecrease in
ponOptoOo"tionof shrimpin thepastseveralyears. The shrimp indusfiy is not only_affectg$ bV changes in
itt" qriatityof waterpump.Otro* ttreestuary, but it also connibutes to the problem by loading nufrients
ifertiiization),increaslng'fresh waterloss(pumping),anddesroyingmangroveforests(construction) €tgure
ql. Td G".iits of ponf,management invotvingthesepraclicesmustalsobe evaluatedin the contextof
their possible
' negativeeffectson waterqualityandthe shrimpindusry iself.
ThereiJ now a generalfeelingin Ecuadorthatttrelossof mangrovehabitathascontributedto the
declineof witd postlarvaE,particularlyturing periodsof normalrecruitment. In fact, new authorizations
forbid.onrt octionof ponOsin mangioves.In orderto accommodate theselawsandmaintainor increase
the level of shrimpproductionin th6existingponds,mariculture operations mustbe intensified(Siddallet
al., 1985). fnus ftr6supplyof postlarvae inlhe estuaryias a strong influence on both the rateof pond
.onrt u.iion and the typ6 6f poira management (prg*d 9). The intense utilizationof existingpondswould
of estuarinewaterwhichwould, in tum,lead to increased loading
.i*ie in.reasedpumplig andferritizatio-n
alternative may adversely affect water quality of the estuary
of nutrientsto theestua{. This management
euenthoughthe objectiveis to lessen-negative impactsby preventingthe lossof mangrovesfrom the
The negative impacts of pond construction on tireecosystem arereplacedby-increased pumping
..oryrp1nl
(Figure 9). These issues
una-i..tifirutionasjociated*ittr *ore intensiveshrimppondmanagement
the importanceof consideringshrimppondmanagement in thecontextof the ecosystem and,
demonsgate
to thoJe factois associated with water quality control (Figure 9).
'prii.ufarfy, payingcloseattenrion
Tirtshiftirom extensiveto intensivemariculturemay not necessarilyimpacttheestuarine
ecosystem if mangrovescouldbe utilizedin theoperationof ponds. Mangrovesmay actas-sinksof several
p;i-'21'y;"ftients-usedin rhefertilizationof ponfu,particularlyphosphates andnitrogen. Mangrove
sedimentsmay alsotraueitte the capacity to ibsorb some of the BOD associated with pondbiomassthat is
high in ctrloropnyilandasan effluent,may impactthebalanceof dissolvedoxygenin the estuary'
prior to
irjtu.nt, trom stfimp pondscouldbe oisfiiuutedin nearbymangroveforestsfor nutrientremoval
This use of mangroves as a nutrient buffer, which would most
the returnof pondwaterUact to theestuary.

r07
 likelyenhancemangroveproductivity,would serveasa meansof minimizingthenegativeimpactof
intensiveaquaculture on th_eestuarineecosystem.N{angroves couldalsoUerititlzeOiir pondmatragement to
preventor relarderosionalongthe shorelinesof ponds. Sedimentstabilizationis an importantnatural
functionof mangroves along thecoastline,particularlybecausethey minimizethe impactof stormsurges.
, Even though ttrereis a law that deniesthe constructionof newly authorizedpbndsin mangrove
areas,therearethousands of hectaresof pondsthatwerepreviouslyauthorizedbut nofconstructed, ind are
exemptfrom this decree.It is only the lack of postlarvaeandcapitalthat hascontrolledthe constructionof
pondsin mangrovehabitats.Thus,an increasein the supplyof postlarvaeby warmertemperatures of
offshorewatersor increased productionfrom hatcheries, iepiesenia dangerro mangroves.
Hatcherieshavebeenviewedasan operationthatwould savemangrovef6restsfrom further
desftuction.However,if hatcheries andlarverosbecomeableto produceerioughpostlarvaefor 45,000-
50'000ha of pondsaspredicted,_then pressureto ggiljle mangrovesitesfor po.-nd consrucrionis likely to
dgvglo.n(presentpostlarvaelevelskeeplessthan30,000- 45;000ha of pondssupptieO).ihus, ttregrbwth
of thehatcheryindustryto supplypostlarvaewill havesomeinfluenceon manag-ehenf decisionsto either
intensifyexistingpondsor to constructnew ones. If this meansmoreintensiv"l*tning iaatrniques,
then
mangrovesshouldbe partof the operationalschemeto €nhancetheproductionof this iiOustry.
Profit in shrimpfarmingis incomegenerated from pondproductionlessthecostsasiociatedwith
pondoperationThe levelof shrimpproductionandoperationcostsincludingdredging,
constuction,
pumping,fertilization,andland(authorizations)depend largelyon ttrequali$ of w"atei*tatis fumpeo from
the estuaryinto the ponds. Severalfactorshavebeenioentiiied in the estuaryandthe waterstrfr
ftat could
influencewaterqualityand,thereby,determinetheeconomyof theshrimpi"o".t y. ffiy ;i
th" natural
resources suchasmangrov_es andtidesprovidetheshrimpindustrywith cieanwaterandimportanthabitats
that enhancewild PL supplyandshrimpproductionin ponds(Figure9). The lossof these?ree
services
increases the costof shrimpproduction,iuch asthe coit of proufring pL by operatingtlarcheries.
Negative
effectsfrom otherindus&iesandshrimpmaricultureitself on waterqiality inonut*uir.;;;;;;;
shouldhave
someinfluenceon the costsandprofis of shrimpfarming,sinceit is so uitally tint<ed
with G estuarine
ecosystem.
The management practicesthatarebestfor the shrimpfarmingindustryin Ecuadorpoint
needfor integrativ,e up the
approaches to coastalzonemanagement. the interictionsof rrrestrimp iurn1ing
industrywith theGuayasRiver estuary,alongwith th-ewatershed andoffshorewaters,inOiJatetne
complexityanddiversityof management opiions. For instance,management plansto dealwittr the
fluctuationof PL in theestuarymustaddresstheinfluenceor rrestr*aiEr oiscrtige,
orrsrroiewater
temperatures, lossof mangrovehabitat,pesticidesfrom agriculture,anduntr"at d'rr*age from
populationcenters.Also the industryitielf hasa_potenriillymajoi major
impacton the ecoslystem, so decisions
concemingtliitg pondmanagement mustconsiderttrepo.iiutr negutiueeffects;rhrfitp;Jduction
PL supply. and
^Theshrimp{ar}inq industrymustconsidertttr pto."rrE andfunctions natural
resourcesof the estuaryin developingpiansthatwill sustainthe long "rr-liti"g
termproduction of mariiulture in this
coastalzone.

Recommendations

Documentthelossof mangroves from thecoastalzoneof Ecuador;sincemangruves arethe

centerof the controversyon impactsin thecoastalzone,thenall piernisesrelated
to this
impactwill requireinformationon the exlentof loss.
Doclment thepresentdisribution of mangroveforeststo identifypresent
andfutureimpacts
on this naturalresource.
Restoreand-integrate existingmangroveforestsinto the operationof shrimpponds. Utilize
mangrovesfor treatmentof effluentsfrom pondsin operadbn,andfor erosioniontrol
and
sedimentstabilizationin areasof pondconitruction.
Developawaterbudget.for G-uayas River estuary,includinga synthesisof existing
{re
informationandthecalibration of cunentdatagathering,to incieasethe utility of this?ata
base.
Integratean-analysisof nutrientsandtoxic substances into thewaterbudgetto developa water
qualitymodelfor this ecosystem.Includein this modelthe fateof chem]cab
in trreestoary,--
andthemodeof impactof thesechemicalseconomicallyimportantfisheries.

103
Institutea waterqualitymonitoringprogramdesignto determinethecunentlevelsof
nutrients,dissolvedoxygen(includingBOD andCOD),pesticides,heavymetals, -. .
petrochemical hydrocar6ons (temperature,
andphysicalcharacteristics Ug!! Td salinity)in the
iresh andestuarinewatersof the GuayasRiver estuary. This progfamcould alsobe expanded
to aid shrimppondandhatcheryoperatorswith decisionsconcerningwaterquality
management.
Evaluatethe relative contributionof cold/warmwaterintrusionsin the Gulf of Guayaquil,loss
of mangrovehabitat,nu6ientloadingandwaterqualityon themaricultureindustryof Ecuador.
 Table 1.
Land usepattemsalongthecoastof Ecuador(areasin ha)

LandUse Guayas El Oro Manabi Esmeraldas TOTAL

Mangroves 121463.5 24489.3 7973.4 21293.2 175219.4
69.4 24.0 4.4 12.2 100.0
Shrimpponds 52911.8 26483.9 8376.6 ?<o<5 89367.8
59.2 29.6 9.4 1.8 100.0
Salinas 17340.L 2520.0 163.8 4.4 20028.2
86.6 12.6 .8 .0 100.0
TOTAL 191775.4 53493.2 16513.8 22893.r 284615.4
67.4 28.8 5.8 8.0 100.0
Source:CLIRSEN,1984

Mangrove
qpecies
tffJf""?'tt'e coasrof
Ecuador
Rhizophoraceae
Rhizoplnr a harrisonii (eachm)
Rhizoplnra racemosa(GFM Mayer)
RhizophoramangleQ)
Rhizophorasamoensis

Pellicieraceae
Pelliciera rhizophorae@lanchonandTriana)

Avicenniaseae
Avicennia ger minans Q_.)

Combretaceae
Lagunculariaracentosol.)Gaertnf.
ConacarpuserectusL)

Historical
records t#lrtJ;.*s (areas
in hectares)
"f
showingthe declinein mangroves Cuayaquil(CI-fB5q(19g3y.
(Arealocaredin hovince19ar
El Oro,iriloto Machala)
LandUse 1966 1977 1982
It4angrove 4962.9 423t.7 3294.7
Camaroneas 0.0 834.2 2330.7
Salinas 1087.7 478.5
Agriculture 162.6
615.2 730.2 634.7
Vegetation 466.3 332.2 139.4
Urban 256.7 434.7
Rivers 588.5
1437-5 1514.5 1465.7
TOTAL 8556.3 8556.0 8616.3

105
 Table 4.
Cultivation areasin hectaresfor differentcropsin the coastalprovincesof Ecuador
(datatakenfrom Solorzano1981)

GuaYas
l,os Rios RiverBasin Manabi Fsmeraldas El Oro T0TAL
Crop Guayas

35,280 37,058 72,338 1,304 1918 128 75,688

Rice
540 540 5,656 6,196
Cotton
10,038 24,470 34,508 165 5t 90 34,800
Soya
12,134 I 1 6 ,115 t28,249 40,077 12,367 t6,117 196,810
Cacao
42,020 73,701 138,431 11,000 t5,L76 238,308
Coffee 31,681

220,203 309,336 185,633 25,322 31,511 551,802

TOTAL 89,133

1981.
Source;Solorzano,

Table 5
Arealcultivationof rice with
associated theriversin thecoastalregionof Ecuador
(fromSolorzano 1981)

Rivers
Area

GUAYAS
35,280
Guayaquil
1,600
Daule
7J4s
4,198
Sanrborandon
Balzar
3,038
Yaguachi
8,003
Milagro
1,106
El Triumfo
5,164
4A26
Naranjal

R10S
37,058
19A09
Babahoyo
Baba
3,033
3,000
Vinces
Urdanea
r2r4
2,160
Puebloviejo
860
Ventanas
7,382
Quevedo
r,304
MANABI
SantaAna
565
AA'
Portoviejo
29'.7
Rocafuerte
1,918
ESMERALDAS
293
Esmeraldas
r,625
Quininde
t28
ELORO
128
SantaRosa

r06
 Table 6.
Estimatesof ttredischargeof domesticwastefrom the Guayaswatershed
basedon thepopulationof themajorcitiesof the GuayasandLos Rios provinces
City Treatnent Population Volume BCD TSS TDS ]N
GUAYAS
Guayaquil sewer 634,720 46.335 r2,5M 27,927 t2,694 23,t67 2094.5 253,8
unfeated 876,520 6.399 6,049 t4,024 t4,024
TOTAL 1,511,240 52.734 19,552 4l,g5t 26,7L9 23,t67 2094.5 253.8
Salinas sewer
untreated 22,360 .163 154 357 358
TOTAL 22,360 .163 t54 357 358 0.0 0.0
I-alibertad sewer
unrea@d 65,45A .478 452 1,447 l,M7
TOTAL 65,450 .478 452 l,M1 7,047 0 0.0 0.0
Naranjal sewer 4,580 .335 90 202 92 r6'l 15.0 2.0
unfeated 7,480 .055 52 329 329
TOTAL 12,060 .390 r4z 531 42r r67 15.0 2.0
Manglaralto sewer
unrearcd 12,300 .090 85 r97 197
TOTAL L2,3OO .090 85 t97 r97 0.0 0.0
Playas sewer
unteated 18,550 .208 r97 457 451
TOTAL 28,550 .208 r97 457 457 0 0.0 0.0
SantaElena sewer
unneated 15,670 .tI4 108 25r 25r
TOTAL 15,670 .114 108 25L 251 0.0 0.0
LOS RIOS
SantaRosa sewer 6,040 .44r 119 266 r2r 220 20.0 2.0
untreated 27,530 .20r 9A 444 440
TOTAL 33,570 .&2 309 706 s6l 220 20.0 2.0
TOTAL sewer ss34a 47.111 t2,713 28,395 12,907 23,554 2129.5 257.8
unEeated 1,055,960 7.709 7,286 17,102 17,103
TOTAL 0 0 0
1,701,200 54.819 19,999 45,497 30,010 23,554 2129.5 257.8
EngineeringI oarnal,I972.

107
 Table 7.
Applicationrateandinput of pesticidesusedin the cultivationof rice and soybeans
basedon theareaof eachcropin theprovinces
GuayasandLos Rios,thewatershedof the Gulf of Guayaquil

Rice SoyBeans

Pesticide Treatrnent Input Pesticide Treatrnent Input

Ronstar25 2.00 Llha r44,676 Bravo 3.00 Lftla t03,524

Ronstar12 4.00 289,3s2 Daconil 2.50 Kg/ha 86,270
Machete 4.00 289,3s2 Afalon 3.00 r03,524
Saturno 3.00 217,0r4 Preforan 15.00 Llha 5r7,620
Propanil 8.00 578,704
Hormonales 2.00 144,676
Fuxadan 15.00 Kdha 1,085,070
Curater5-lA7o 0
Diazinon 1.00 72,338
Ozad:r;, 0.50 36,169
Lorshan 0.50 36,169
Endrin 2.00 144,6'16
Lannate 2.00 r44,6'76
Diprerex957o 1.00 72,338
Bin 75 300.00 gllha 21,701,400
Benlate 250.00 glha 18,084,500
Kasumin 0.75 Llha 54,253.5
Inosin 0.75 54,253.5

1981
Solorzano,

Table 8.
Comparativetoxicity of the water solublefractionof No' 2 fuel oil
to different life stagesof four marinecnrstaceans
Concentrationsareppm of total hydrocarbon
1981)
6en ei a- 1976,citedfi6m Neff andAnderson'
LC-50 CI(95Vo)
Species
postlarvae 6.6 6.1 6.9
Penoeusaztecus 3.0 5.1
(brownshrimP) earlyjuveniles ).t
latejuveniles 2.9 2.2 3.8

postlarvae t.4 0.9 2.1

Penaeus setiferus r.2
juveniles 1.0 0.8
(white shrimP)
larvae 1.2 1.0 - 1.5
PalaemonetesPugio 2.r - 2.8
(grassshrimP) postlarvae 2.4
adults 3.5 2.4 - 4.9

postlarvae(1 daYold) 1.8

MysidopsisalmYra
(opossumshrimP) postlarvae(7 daYsold) 1.8
adults .7
Figure I Areas of ponds authorized by the Ecuadorian govemment for the construction of shrimp ponds.

o
9so

0 cLrRsEN fr
3sn

=10

8so
U
N

?ro
U

76 77 '6 79 a0
YEAR

Figure ThecoastalprovincesofEcuador

80
 Figure
- 3 A) Forty yearrecordof annualprecipitationin Guayaquil. B) Averagemonthlydischargeof
theRiverGuayasfrom 1962to I9&. (Bothfiguresfrom Stevenson 1981).

RIO GUAYAS
1962 - '196.1

6
c
(9
E
z I'J
I
F

ts
g
7
o
o a
t! o

RiosDaule_-tj'Ii oj:
7.

JJ

YEAFS MON]HS

Figure4 Hypotheticallossof mangrovesin the Guayasprovince'

giventhat a percentageof pondsare constructedin
(53'000ha)
-rngrin. forest.fbr examp'te,if all pondsasof 1984
tr"adUeenconstructedinmangroves,then 307oof Guayas
mangroveswould havebeencut' (Seetable 1)'

o9
f.
FA.l. at
0
0a
(lt6
';h
c)=

L OQ
a0tr
=q, (!
tr> q

a=

25Vo 50Vo 75Vo

Hypotheticalareaof pondsconstructedin Mangroves

hs io of tolal area of shrimPfarms)
Figure5 No-rmaldischargeat theconfluenceof tlte DauleandPeripaRivers(solidline) comparedto
therestrictedflow controlledby theproposeddam(dottedline). Slantedlines represent
dischargelostfrom theestuaryduringthewet season, andthestipuledareais discharge
providedby theimpoundmentduringthe dry season(FromJenkins1979).

rt
o
:c 500
o
o

.IFMAMJJASOND

MONTHS

Figure 6 Populationduringttrepast35 yearsin thecoastalprovincesof Ecuador(datafrom

Gomez
1986).

@
o
r ,.s
;
F
J
:)
3 r.o
c
MANABI
-.t'

't":,r;$H'::
1970
YEAR.

111
Figure7 of nuffientsfor differentriversin the GuayasRiver basin(datafrom Rendon
Concentrations
et al., 1983).

E
3

a
a
Figure 8 Volumesof waterexchanged with shrimppondsper dayat differentpumpingrates
(percentage
of thevolumeof a shrimppondper day)basedon the areaof ponds(ha)with
a meandepthof 1.5m (seetext).

(o 200
x
c)
E
t
{En
o
o
[rJ
o
z
T 100
()
x
uJ
UJ

J
o

50,000 100,ooo
A R E A O F P O N D Sh, A

ll3
Figure 9 Interactionsbetweenshrimpfarming andGuayasRiver estuarineecosystem.
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