Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
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(i) Medidas preventivas: sus objetivos son prevenir los daños y evitar la
salida de bienes del patrimonio del deudor. Entre ellas encontramos las
siguientes:
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los criterios de menor restricción posible y de medio más idóneo para asegurar
la eficacia en la obtención de la finalidad. (11)
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(g) Acción de los acreedores del causante: el heredero responde con sus
propios bienes por el pago de las deudas del causante y cargas de la herencia si
no hace el inventario en el plazo de tres meses desde que los acreedores o
legatarios lo intiman judicialmente a su realización; oculta fraudulentamente los
bienes de la sucesión omitiendo su inclusión en el inventario (32); exagera
dolosamente el pasivo sucesorio; y enajena bienes de la sucesión, excepto que el
acto sea conveniente y el precio obtenido ingrese a la masa. (33) En caso de
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Cabe tener presente que, cuando los bienes de los particulares estén
afectados directamente a la prestación de un servicio público, el poder de
agresión de los acreedores no puede perjudicar la prestación del servicio. (46)
Ante la cesación de pagos del deudor, para evitar que en una "carrera de
diligencia" los acreedores ejecuten de manera individual al deudor común o que
el mismo quiebre, las diversas legislaciones prevén distintos procesos
preventivos colectivos para reestructurar deuda, algunos de ellos más flexibles e
informales que otros. (47) La posibilidad de elegir entre ellos tiene su razón de
ser en que están pensados para atender situaciones económicas diversas.
Sus críticos sostienen que ellos son ineficientes ya que aumentarían los
costos sociales de la insolvencia y privarían a la quiebra de su objetivo primario
que sería reasignar los activos del deudor a destinos más productivos. En
contraste, sus defensores sostienen que ellos reducen dichos costos sociales ya
que son procesos eficientes que evitan liquidaciones innecesarias. (48)
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En general las diversas legislaciones se rigen - entre otros - por los siguientes
principios generales:
No obstante ello este principio tiene sus límites ya que no cualquier empresa
debe ser conservada sino solo aquellas que son socialmente útiles y
económicamente viables (52) ya que un negocio que crea menor valor que el
que consume disminuye la riqueza del dueño del negocio y de la sociedad. Es
decir, si la empresa puede ser reestructurada para que sea sustentable y genere
un flujo de fondos positivo de sus operaciones, tiene sentido conservarla y no
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obligaciones que soporta el concursado; de modo que todos los acreedores están
alcanzados por sus efectos..." (60) lo cual se relaciona también con la regla de
concurrencia en virtud de la cual "...todos los acreedores deben concurrir a la
sede concursal para poder participar del acuerdo". (61)
Para llevar adelante este tipo de acuerdos las partes deben coincidir en la
ventaja de negociar por lo cual es importante que el deudor y, al menos, el o los
acreedores más importantes quieran iniciar las negociaciones. La existencia de
los procesos previstos en la LCQ genera incentivos indirectos y/o persuaden a
los acreedores a intentar llegar a un acuerdo privado (64) toda vez que, de
fracasar aquellas, el deudor recurrirá a dichos procesos en los cuales los
acreedores seguramente recibirán un pago menor por sus créditos debido a los
mayores costos en los que se incurre. (65) Mientras más bajas sean las
expectativas de los acreedores de recuperar el monto de sus créditos en dichos
procesos previstos en la LCQ, más incentivos van a tener para prestar su
conformidad a la reestructuración privada de deuda. En definitiva, la elección
entre una reestructuración privada o cualquiera de los procesos de la LCQ
dependerá de los costos relativos de cada uno. (66)
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El perfil del pasivo determinará las distintas estructuras legales a utilizar -las
cuales pueden combinarse- a fin de llevar adelante la reestructuración, algunas
de las cuales a continuación son descriptas.
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teniendo en cuenta que ellos otorgan acción ejecutiva a sus tenedores. (75)
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originales que se quieren reestructurar por títulos nuevos (85) los cuales
usualmente tendrán términos más favorables para el emisor. (86)
Así, los títulos nuevos tendrán plazos de pago más extensos, quitas de capital
y/o reducción de la tasa de interés en comparación con los títulos
reestructurados. Es evidente que, cuanto mejor sea la oferta en términos
económico financieros, más conformidades se obtendrán y para ello se pueden
utilizar distintos tipos de incentivos: pago en efectivo a pocos días de adherir al
canje, una tasa de interés más alta, menos quita, etc.
Puede ocurrir que la mayoría de los tenedores acepten las diversas propuestas
que formule el deudor (denominados "holdin") a fin de evitar que este último
recurra a uno de los procesos de la LCQ pero otros, observando que el canje va a
resultar exitoso, pueden optar por no prestar su conformidad y/o por otras
razones no quieran expedirse sobre la propuesta lo cual genera el problema de
los acreedores disidentes o "holdouts".
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decrete su quiebra. Sin perjuicio de ello, a menos que exista alguna disposición
contractual que no se lo permita, el deudor también podrá arribar a un acuerdo
de pago con los acreedores disidentes que seguramente será más beneficioso
para estos últimos que aquel acuerdo alcanzado con los acreedores que
prestaron su conformidad con la reestructuración.
(b) Salidas Consentidas: el deudor hace una oferta para que una mayoría de
tenedores acepte enmendar las condiciones no fundamentales de los títulos que
se pretenden reestructurar eliminando "covenants" protectores (por ejemplo, la
jurisdicción) de los acreedores y, al mismo tiempo, canjear los títulos originales
ya enmendados por unos nuevos. Es decir, se aplican la enmienda y el canje de
títulos conjuntamente.
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Las críticas que se le pueden hacer a esta técnica es que ella sería coercitiva
ya que se busca incentivar a potenciales acreedores holdouts a que acepten una
oferta de canje que, si no fuera por la posibilidad de quedarse con un título
enmendado y sin covenants protectores, no aceptarían. Esta sería una versión
del dilema del prisionero dónde los tenedores de bonos están dispersos y no se
pueden comunicar entre sí para coordinar su negativa a una oferta a la cual la
mayoría de los tenedores no quiere adherir. Además, los tenedores que votan
por enmendar los títulos, no van a tener que vivir con dichas enmiendas con lo
cual podría ser cuestionable prestar conformidad con la enmienda si
comercialmente ya se ha decidido canjear el instrumento a enmendar. (94)
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Sin perjuicio de ello, no establece el modo en que los pasivos que tengan
como causa dichos contratos deben ser reestructurados en caso que el deudor
incurra en mora la cual se produce por el vencimiento del plazo. (101) Por ello el
modo en que la reestructuración puede ser llevada adelante (fuera de los
procesos previstos en la LCQ) depende de lo que acuerden libremente el
acreedor y su deudor.
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Por otro lado, en caso que existan varias entidades bancarias que sean
acreedoras del deudor es posible que, a fin de evitar que este último presente su
concurso preventivo o APE, aquellas formen un comité de bancos e intenten
llegar en conjunto a un acuerdo con el deudor. A tal fin se suele acordar no
iniciar o suspender las acciones judiciales contra el deudor (123) por un plazo
determinado para, en el ínterin, intentar llegar a un acuerdo bajo la condición de
que otros acreedores no reciban un trato preferencial. (124)
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crédito se encuentra sobre garantizado, por ejemplo con alguna garantía real, los
incentivos del banco para prestar conformidad con la reestructuración
descenderán ya que eventualmente podría cobrar íntegramente su crédito con el
producido del bien asiento de dicha garantía. Naturalmente, si el banco disidente
tiene un crédito importante en relación al pasivo del deudor o si son varios los
bancos que no prestan su conformidad con la reestructuración privada, la misma
será inviable y el deudor deberá acudir al remedio del concurso preventivo o el
APE.
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En tal sentido, mediante los institutos del pago por subrogación (164) y la
cesión de derechos (165), algunos acreedores y/o terceros pueden buscar
conseguir dicha posición de bloqueo frente a la propuesta de acuerdo y, en
contraste, mediante ellos también se puede buscar el voto complaciente con el
deudor. Ante la aplicación de dichos institutos la doctrina (166) ha adoptado
distintas posiciones: (i) los únicos acreedores habilitados para votar son los
verificados y declarados admisibles; (ii) sólo es posible el pago por subrogación
o la cesión del crédito antes de la presentación en concurso preventivo del
deudor; y (iii) ninguna norma excluye la posibilidad de ejercer los derechos que
surgen de la cesión de un crédito concursal.
La LCQ también prevé la exclusión del voto de ciertos acreedores para evitar
el voto complaciente con el deudor (167) pero, para evitar el problema de los
acreedores disidentes y la posición de bloqueo, la jurisprudencia (168) ha
ampliado dicha exclusión para los casos en que el voto se avizora como
forzosamente adverso, negativo u hostil, contrario a la aprobación de la
propuesta. Con esto se busca evitar que acreedores que ejercen sus derechos
abusivamente afecten los intereses del resto de los acreedores, los trabajadores y
la comunidad en su conjunto.
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Como se ve, el "salvataje" puede funcionar como un incentivo para que los
acreedores disidentes intenten bloquear la homologación del acuerdo para
adquirir las acciones del deudor concursado. A su vez, la existencia del art. 48
bis de la LCQ de difícil aplicación y dudosa constitucionalidad, también podría
generar que los trabajadores obstaculicen la solución preventiva para que la
cooperativa de trabajadores adquiera las acciones de la sociedad concursada.
IV.2.2. El APE
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produce efectos respecto de todos los acreedores e incluso sobre quienes no han
prestado su conformidad al mismo. Es decir, al igual que el concurso
preventivo, es un negocio de mayorías en dónde se descarta la unanimidad de
los acreedores para alcanzar un acuerdo.
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con las mayorías necesarias para la homologación del APE (191) las cuales son,
al igual que en el concurso preventivo, la mayoría absoluta de acreedores
quirografarios que representen las dos terceras partes del pasivo quirografario
total. (192) Sin perjuicio de ello en algún caso la jurisprudencia ha resuelto que
de acuerdo a la nueva redacción del art. 73 de la LCQ la mayoría se requiere
"...Para que se dé homologación judicial al acuerdo...", es decir, que no sería
necesario contar con ella al momento de la solicitud de la homologación por lo
cual el juez no debería desestimar in limine la petición por una ausencia inicial
de mayorías sino que debería dar curso al trámite quedando el deudor obligado a
reunirlas antes del dictado de la homologación. (193)
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Por otro lado el APE también resulta útil desde diversas perspectivas. Así, se
puede hacer una invitación a suscribir un acuerdo para su homologación como
APE, establecer un piso de adhesiones e indicar que alcanzadas ciertas mayorías
(por ejemplo, el 95 % del pasivo) el acuerdo no se presentará a homologar pero
tendrá los efectos propios de un acuerdo de reestructuración privada. De esta
forma, se utiliza la eventual presentación de un APE para incentivar a los
acreedores a que presten su conformidad para evitar todo el proceso de
homologación (el cual puede llevar más de un año) y así cobrar antes sus
créditos ya que los percibirán al cierre del acuerdo y no luego de la
homologación.
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todos los acreedores incluso sobre quienes no han prestado su conformidad con
el mismo pero, en caso que el mismo sea declarado nulo o si el deudor incumple
el mismo, se decretará la quiebra. La doctrina diverge sobre si la homologación
del APE produce la novación de las obligaciones de causa o título anterior al
APE (205). En relación a la conclusión y el cumplimiento del APE se aplica lo
dicho para el concurso preventivo.
V. La quiebra
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remate no judicial (219), venta directa (220), venta de títulos y otros bienes
cotizables en los mercados respectivos (221) y el cobro de créditos. (222) Para
distribuir el producido de los bienes enajenados, se elabora un informe final con
un proyecto de distribución final con arreglo a la verificación y graduación de
los créditos. (223)
En virtud de ello una futura reforma de la LCQ tendría que prever que, en
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(ii) Costos indirectos: aun cuando ellos no puedan ser mensurados con
exactitud, suelen ser mucho más altos que los costos directos. (233) Entre estos
costos indirectos se encuentran los siguientes:
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se paraliza. Así, los flujos de fondos que ingresen o se generen con posterioridad
al inicio de la reestructuración, deben utilizarse para mantener y facilitar el
desarrollo de su actividad ordinaria. (235) En el caso particular de la quiebra, de
continuarse con la explotación de la empresa, obtener financiamiento resultará
casi imposible.
Sin perjuicio de ello, al no estar haciendo frente a sus obligaciones con los
acreedores, el deudor se financia "contra" ellos ya que los intereses de los
créditos impagos continúan devengándose. Al respecto Franklin sostuvo que
"...el crédito es dinero. Si alguien me deja tener su dinero después de que yo
hubiera tenido que devolvérselo, me está regalando los intereses o lo que yo
pueda hacer con ese dinero durante ese tiempo. Esto puede llegar a una suma
considerable si un hombre goza de buen crédito y hace uso de él." (236) Ello así
salvo que se haya presentado el concurso preventivo (237) o se haya decretado
la quiebra (238) en dónde los intereses se suspenden.
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(f) Pérdida de clientes: los clientes pueden no querer contratar con el deudor
por temor a que este incumpla; no pueda brindar el servicio o entregar los
productos comprometidos; no tenga los recursos para percibir sus propias
cuentas a cobrar o pueden sospechar que el deudor elegirá con quien cumplir.
Aun cuando todo ello no tenga como consecuencia la pérdida del cliente puede
ocurrir que estos se nieguen a otorgar anticipos por las compras.
Los costos descriptos son afrontados por los deudores toda vez que "Los
acreedores prevén los costes y prevén que los pagarán ellos si la quiebra se
produce. Por ello piden una compensación por adelantado en forma de mejores
resultados cuando la empresa no está en quiebra. Es decir, demandan un mayor
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tipo de interés prometido. Eso reduce los resultados posibles de los accionistas y
reduce el valor actual de mercado de sus acciones" (244) y que "...los tenedores
de deuda no son tontos — ellos reconocen que cuando la firma incurra en
default, ellos no van a poder obtener el valor completo de los activos. Como
resultado de ello, inicialmente ellos van a pagar menos por la deuda. Cuanto
menos? Precisamente el monto que finalmente ellos van a sacrificar — el valor
presente de los costos de insolvencia. Pero si los tenedores de deuda pagan
menos por la deuda, hay menos dinero disponible para que la firma pague
dividendos, recompre acciones, y haga inversiones. Esto es, esta diferencia es
dinero fuera de los bolsillos de los accionistas." (245)
Es decir, ante mayor riesgo, los acreedores exigen una tasa de interés más
alta a fin de "compensar" los costos futuros de una eventual cesación de pagos y
quien deja de ganar, y debe asumir los costos futuros vía ese aumento en la tasa
de interés, son los deudores y por ende sus accionistas quienes en un escenario
de quiebra son los últimos en cobrar, si es que existe un remanente. (246) Es
que, quienes internalizan el costo de la insolvencia son los deudores en conjunto
ya que, en un mundo de información asimétrica, los deudores poco confiables
con una mayor probabilidad de incumplir pasan parte del costo de la insolvencia
- vía un aumento de la tasa de interés - al resto de los deudores más confiables.
(247) Ahora bien, cuando la crisis empresaria es tan grande que ella era
imprevisible para los acreedores y las quitas son muy grandes o el patrimonio
del deudor no resulta suficiente para cubrir todos los créditos, en el caso
concreto los acreedores también soportan los costos de transacción ya que no
podrán cobrar íntegramente sus créditos.
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Por otro lado, una vez acaecido el incumplimiento del deudor, las partes
también deberán reducir la asimetría de información para evaluar un eventual
acuerdo de pago. En la reestructuración privada de deuda, la información se
produce de modo similar a lo que se hizo antes de contratar y los acreedores
tendrán especial cuidado en averiguar cuál es la verdadera capacidad de pago
del deudor para mantener un delicado equilibrio entre obtener el pago íntegro de
su crédito y evitar que el deudor recurra a alguno de los procesos de la LCQ. En
el caso del APE la LCQ requiere que el deudor suministre una cantidad de
información sobre su situación económica — financiera (253) que, en caso que
tenga omisiones, puede dar lugar a impugnaciones de los acreedores (254) y el
rechazo de la homologación del APE. (255) En el concurso preventivo, la
información es generada por el deudor en la presentación del concurso; por los
acreedores al verificar sus créditos; por la sindicatura mediante su informe
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acreedores, entre otras cuestiones puede ocurrir que el capital y los intereses
sufran quitas y esperas; los garantes presenten su concurso preventivo (261) o
quiebren y la ejecución de las garantías reales puede suspenderse (262) y
demorarse en el tiempo. Ello puede incentivar a los acreedores a evitar la
"carrera de diligencia" entre ellos para facilitar que el deudor logre una solución
preventiva y evite una quiebra. Para el deudor el incumplimiento tiene el riesgo
que en última instancia se le decrete la quiebra lo cual, para sus accionistas,
prácticamente implicará perder toda su inversión de capital.
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De lo expuesto resulta fácil deducir que, mientras más corto y rápido sea el
proceso de reestructuración, menores serán sus costos de transacción y más altas
serán las posibilidades de los acreedores de recuperar sus créditos como así
también las del deudor y sus accionistas de conservar el negocio y mantener los
puestos de trabajo.
VII. Conclusión
De lo expuesto a lo largo del presente surge que los acreedores cuentan con
distintas herramientas para conservar la integridad del patrimonio del deudor y,
de ser necesario, ejecutar de manera individual los bienes que integran el
mismo. No obstante ello, una "carrera de diligencia" de los acreedores puede
derivar en un desmembramiento de dicho patrimonio, un proceso preventivo o
una quiebra. Consecuentemente, los acreedores deberán analizar cuáles son las
posibilidades de recupero de su crédito y hasta dónde pueden presionar al
deudor a tal fin.
Por su parte el deudor podrá elegir entre alguno de los procesos preventivos
para solucionar sus problemas económicos financieros u optar por la quiebra.
De intentar encarar una reestructuración deberá realizar una propuesta de pago
sustentable que le permita continuar con su negocio, lograr la mayor cantidad de
conformidades con la misma y solucionar el problema de los acreedores
disidentes para evitar el bloqueo. Entre algunas de las cuestiones que se deben
considerar al momento de elegir qué proceso llevar adelante se debe ponderar:
(i) la conservación del control de la empresa; (ii) la protección que le brinda al
deudor cada uno de ellos; (iii) la aplicación de la propuesta a los acreedores
disidentes; (iv) los costos que se deben afrontar; (iv) la posibilidad de acceder a
distintas fuentes de financiamiento, y (vi) el mayor o menor nivel de
confidencialidad del proceso. En definitiva, a fin de llevar adelante la
reestructuración, el deudor debe tener en claro ab initio la estrategia a seguir y
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http://encyclo.findlaw.com/7800book.pdf.
(268) Conf. arts. 160 a 171de la LCQ.
(269) Conf. arts. 173 a 176 de la LCQ.
(270) Conf. arts. 115 a 124 de la LCQ.
(271) Conf. arts. 102 a 114 de la LCQ.
(272) Conf. art. 234 y ss de la LCQ.
(273) Conf. art. 233 de la LCQ.
(274) Conf. art. 176 y ss. del Código Penal.
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