PUBLICACIÓN

Edición © 2014 Asociación Museo Primera edición

Milosz Giersz de Arte de Lima 1350 ejemplares
Cecilia Pardo Paseo Colón 125, Lima
Teléfono 204 0000 ISBN 978-9972718-40-3
Coordinación editorial www.mali.pe
y producción Proyecto Editorial No.
Pamela Castro de la Mata © De los textos: 11501001300666
Cecilia Pardo los autores
Hecho el depósito legal en la
Asistente de coordinación © De las fotografías: Biblioteca Nacional del Perú
Katherine Román Asociación Museo de Arte de Lima, Nº – 2014-07507
Alejandra Valverde Ministerio de Cultura – Proyecto de
Investigación Arqueológica Castillo Reservados todos los derechos.
Corrección de estilo y traducción de Huarmey, las instituciones Prohibida la reproducción total
Javier Flores Espinoza (véase sección de créditos o parcial sin previa autorización
fotográficos y reproducciones) expresa del Museo de Arte de
Fotografías Lima – MALI
Daniel Giannoni © De las obras:
Milosz Giersz los autores
Patrycja Przadka Giersz

Concepto y diseño
vm& estudio gráfico
El Museo de Arte de Lima – MALI
Ralph Bauer
tiene como sede el histórico
Verónica Majluf
Palacio de la Exposición gracias al
generoso apoyo de la Municipalidad
Retoque
Metropolitana de Lima.
Lápiz Roto

Impresión
Gráfica Biblos
Jirón Morococha 152,
Surquillo, Lima
EL PROYECTO DE INVESTIGACIÓN ARQUEOLÓGICA PROYECTO DE CATALOGACIÓN
CASTILLO DE HARMEY (PIACH) Y CONSERVACIÓN

Director Colaboradores Coordinación y supervisión

Milosz Giersz Mateusz Baca Pamela Castro de la Mata
Miron Bogacki
Co-director Julia Chyla Inventario y catalogación
Roberto Pimentel Santiago del Castillo Dextre Roberto Pimentel
Ángel de la Flor Fernández Patricia Quiñonez
Investigadores Claudia García Meza
Patrycja Przadka Giersz Emilia Jastrzebska Conservación
Wieslaw Wieckowski Karolina Juszczyk Martín Blum
Jakub Kaniszewski Maribel Medina
Asesor científico Jacek Kosciuk Marcela Rosselló
Krzysztof Makowski Aleksandra Lisek Milagros Servat
Krzysztof Misiewicz
Wieslaw Malkowski
Gonzalo Presbitero Rodríguez
Patricia Quiñonez Cuzcano
David Rodríguez
Dagmara Socha
Monika Solka
Weronika Tomczyk

La temporada de campo 2012 del Proyecto de Investigación

Arqueológica Castillo de Huarmey fue financiada por el Centro
Nacional de Ciencia de la República de Polonia
(NCN 2011/03 / D / HS3 / 01609). Las temporadas 2012-2014 de
campo del Proyecto Arqueológico Castillo de Huarmey fueron
apoyadas por las subvenciones del Centro Nacional de Ciencia
de la República de Polonia (NCN 2011/03 / D / HS3 / 01609), la
National Geographic Society (EC0637-13, GEFNE85-13 ,
GEFNE116-14 y W335-14) y el apoyo financiero de la Compañía
Minera Antamina.
Contenido 22 La muestra de un descubrimiento.
Castillo de Huarmey en el MALI
Cecilia Pardo

34 El fenómeno Wari:
tras las huellas de un imperio prehispánico
Milosz Giersz y
Krzysztof Makowski

68 El hallazgo del mausoleo imperial

Milosz Giersz

100 Ajuar personal: las mujeres de

la élite wari y su atuendo
Patrycja Prza adka Giersz

128 El ajuar funerario de las damas

nobles de Castillo de Huarmey.
Selección
188 Élites imperiales y símbolos de poder 280 Ensayos en inglés
Krzysztof Makowski

333 Créditos fotográficos

210 Los rituales funerarios y la identidad y de reproducciones
de los difuntos en el mausoleo de
Castillo de Huarmey
Wieslaw Wieckowski 335 Referencias

222 Los objetos de metal en el mausoleo

wari de Huarmey
María Inés Velarde y
Pamela Castro de la Mata

240 Objetos de plata de Castillo de

Huarmey: corrosión y tratamiento
Marcela Rosselló

250 Dos khipus wari del Horizonte Medio

provenientes de Castillo de Huarmey
Gary Urton

258 Los textiles de Castillo de Huarmey.

Selección

268 Otras colecciones de Huarmey

295
The Discovery of the Imperial Mausoleum
Milosz Giersz
Director of the Castillo de Huarmey Archaeological Research Project
Warsaw University
A cyclical conception of the cosmos and of human beings has played a key
role in most religious traditions, both past and present. Throughout the
history of humankind, in different times and places, the immaterial entity
of the living being—the soul, or any other transcendental vital energy—
the conceptualisation of death as a passage, and the beliefs held regarding
the otherworld have conditioned, in one way or another, the way people
and social groups act. But the hope of a life after death is not just limited
to eschatology. The perspective of staying posthumously within the social
milieu as part of a collective memory made different civilisations commemo-
rate their major ancestors. Alongside the erection of monuments or statues,
the desire to preserve the material remains of the deceased and commemo-
rate them with a menhir, a dolmen, a statue or an inscription was highly
popular, as well as building enormous architectonic complexes devoted to
venerating them. On the other hand, in many cases the preparation of the
deceased for eternal life was related with sophisticated mortuary ceremonies,
and with providing them with material goods equal to the status they had
in life. In the case of some of the ancient kings or emperors with almost
limitless resources at their command, their burials, impressive grave goods
and many secondary offerings, including boats, horse chariots, furniture
and human offerings from all of the royal court, show the obsession people
had with life in the afterworld. One need only to recall here the royal
cemetery of Ur in southern Iraq, with the famed Death Pit full of the ladies
of the court who had been buried in front of the tomb of the king of ancient
Mesopotamia; or the still unexcavated mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang at
Mount Li, the last residence of the first Emperor of a unified China, who
was accompanied on his last journey by over 7,000 polychrome terracotta
warriors and horses.
Not many funerary monuments are known for the uppermost elite of remote
times, but those that were built in different times and places in prehistory
and world history without a doubt fascinate their visitors. Although they
really cannot be compared, they are always unique and unsurpassable in their
own cultural context. ‘Royal’ tombs may be buried underground or hidden
inside a mound, like the royal Celt tomb in Hochdorf (Germany), the seventh
century A.D. ship burial laden with treasure found at Sutton Hoo (England),
or the spectacular frozen bodies buried at the Pazyryk and Ukok kurgans
belonging to the ancient nomadic chieftains of the Altai Mountains (Russia).
In a few cases they may also be part of a veritable necropolis like that of
Memphis, with the famed pyramids of Giza, and the one in the Valley of
the Kings (both in Egypt), or the ancient necropolis of the Persian rulers at
Naqsh-e Rostam, close to ancient Persepolis (Iran). Their construction was
not necessarily a capricious act by a despotic ruler seeking to prepare his own
final resting place. The most impressive funeral monuments were the result
of the immense grief caused by the loss of a loved one, like the tomb of Fu
Hao, one of the wives of emperor Wu Ding of the Shang Dynasty, which was
discovered intact at Yin Xu (China), or the impressive mausoleum of Taj Mahal,
which was erected by Sha Jahan, the ruler of the Mughal Empire (India) as
a posthumous offering to his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
The archaeological discovery of the intact context of an ancient elite tomb
provides a fascinating laboratory for scholars with different specialities,
whose work changes our image of the past forever. The tomb of Tutankhamun,
which was discovered in the 1920s by Howard Carter; the tomb of the Lord
of Sipán, found by Walter Alva in 1987; the tomb of Philip II of Macedon
(the father of Alexander the Great), found by Manolis Andronikos in 1977
at Vergina (in northern Greece); or the tomb of the Maya ruler K’inich Janaab’
Pakal, which was discovered at Palenque in the 1950s by Alberto Ruz—these
magnificent discoveries all helped the experts rewrite forgotten sections of
the history of humankind.
The Central Andes are a particular instance in the world’s landscape of
high cultures and civilisations of the past. Both the people in the Pacific
coastal strip and the inhabitants of the high Andean areas rendered a special
cult to their ancestors. Over seven thousand years ago, the Chinchorro people
of the Atacama desert were extraordinarily skilled in the practices meant
to preserve human bodies after their death, and they intentionally prepared
the most ancient mummies known to the world.1 With the rise of complex
societies and the first Andean empires, the care and attention the living gave
to their dead evolved even more. The body of the still-living lord and those
of his dead ancestors, preserved as bundles and periodically presented in
this manner during special events, had the leading role in the rites and cere-
monies celebrated in the new, specially built areas, related with the ancestor
cult: the mausoleums or funeral towers known as chullpas.2 A successful State
known as Wari, which several scholars consider was the first pre-Hispanic
Andean empire, and which after expanding from Ayacucho held sway over
a large part of Peru’s highlands, coast and tropical forest, had a decisive role
in the dissemination of this peculiar type of mallqui-cult.3 The achievement
attained by a few successful leaders would have been enough to mark the
conquest and the transformation of a territorial State into an Empire which
lorded over several peoples, cultures, and languages, just like the Tahuantin-
suyu, the Inca Empire, which rose some centuries later.
Comparatively to any past complex society, the study of diversity and social
status in the ancient Wari Empire could be undertaken by analysing funerary
patterns. Unfortunately, none of the tombs of the uppermost Wari elite
survived intact to modern times. At Huari, the presumed imperial capital
city, the monumental megalithic tombs of Cheqo Wasi (Fig. 28) and the large
mausoleums with mortuary galleries of Monjachayuq (Fig. 29), which probably
belonged to the Wari emperors,4 were looted hundreds of years ago. However,
the study of the architectural remains of these burial monuments suggests
that the looted tombs originally had accesses to facilitate social relations
between the living and their ancestors.5 Nor have funeral contexts of individuals
from the upper Wari hierarchy been located outside the Ayacucho imperial
heartland except for the tomb of the “Wari Lord of Vilcabamba”, which was
discovered in 2011 at Espíritu Pampa, a tropical and humid area that is part
of the Amazon region.6
Between August 2012 and September 2013, the binational Polish-Peruvian
team, headed by myself, excavated the largest intact burial chamber of all
the graves found at Castillo de Huarmey, in the coastal region of Ancash,
which dates to the Middle Horizon. This is a discovery that surpasses by far
all that had been previously found within the areas of the Wari and Tiwanaku
cultures, not only in the number but in the quality of the offerings. Castillo
de Huarmey is the first excavated example of a large Wari mausoleum and
site of ancestor worship on the Peruvian North Coast, an area that lies on the
borders of the world controlled by the first Andean empire.
Some Background
In June 1918, Julio C. Tello came upon several finely carved wooden objects
on sale in Lima. These beautiful objects, which were of clear pre-Hispanic
provenance, had been fascinatingly preserved, and according to the dealer,
had been found in the Huarmey Valley. Tello was obsessed with the peculiarness
of these artefacts and dreamed of preparing an archaeological expedition
to eventually open a museum. The dream of the father of Peruvian archaeology
came true on January 8th, 1919.7 His first expedition left Lima and headed
296
to the Huarmey and Culebras River Valleys, where he made several inter-
esting discoveries,8 (Fig. 30 a-b) but was unable to locate the place where the
wooden artefacts that had driven his scientific journey came from. His team
unfortunately had to change plans and flee to the neighbouring highlands
due to a virulent bubonic plague outbreak.9 Despite his heightened archaeo-
logical interest in the Chavín culture, Tello never forgot the original goal
of his first expedition. Eleven years later he asked Eugenio Yacovleff, his
assistant, to continue the unfinished survey of the Huarmey Valley.10 Tello
himself visited this valley whenever he travelled from Lima to Nepeña,
and whilst carrying out his research at Punkurí and Cerro Blanco. It was
during one of these journeys—probably on July 27th, 1934—that the renowned
Peruvian archaeologist purchased another very rare artefact from the manager
of Huarmey’s Hotel Royal, in this case a tanned-leather and painted drum
that came from one of the valley’s pre-Hispanic cemeteries (see Figs. 230-232).11
This membranophone instrument, which is decorated with the painted repre-
sentation of a front-facing figure with two staffs in his hands and a shining
halo, and which is derived from Tiwanaku and Wari art, bears witness to the
significance the coastal area of Ancash had during the Middle Horizon. Every-
thing seems to indicate that at the time Julio C. Tello made his pioneering
archaeological explorations, Castillo de Huarmey lay forgotten under the
desert dust as an untouched monument, as the adjacent fields were managed
directly by their owners, who did not allow any pillage whatsoever or let a
house be built close by that could harm it.12 This changed dramatically in
the 1970s. The earthquake that struck on May 31st, 1970 damaged the monu-
mental edifice and probably—so local inhabitants claim—revealed some intact
tombs and rich artefacts hidden in the heart of the adobe brick-and-stone
platform. From this moment on Castillo was pillaged by gangs of pre-Colum-
bian treasure hunters known as “huaqueros” and even by the local popula-
tion, who not only sacked the ancient tombs but also removed materials as
if it was a quarry, using the adobe bricks, the earth and the wooden beams.
The photographs of the complex taken by Frédéric André Engel13 and Alberto
Bueno Mendoza14 in 1979 clearly show that Castillo de Huarmey had already
been seriously damaged by clandestine diggers. The numerous fragments of
newspapers the PIACH found in the rubble during the systematic excavations
confirms the early dates for the large-scale pillaging of the site.
Ernesto Tabío15 and Duccio Bonavía16 began their research in the Huarmey
Valley basin and in the nearby desert areas in 1958-1960, almost three
decades after the exploration undertaken by Eugenio Yacovleff. Both visited
the site; Bonavía apparently did so on several occasions and even witnessed—
in February, 1977—the major destruction brought about by clandestine
diggers.17 Subsequent studies made by Donald Thompson18 and Hans Hork-
heimer19 in this valley did not focus on Middle Horizon vestiges, nor on
Castillo in particular. The site was visited and briefly studied only in 1979
by the above-mentioned Frédéric André Engel—who made the first sketch
of the site and recorded it with photographs—and Alberto Bueno Mendoza—
who published an article regarding the problem raised by illicit “huaquería”.20
The first studies performed at this site were limited to a surface reconnais-
sance and to studying certain archaeological artefacts preserved in museum
collections, whose provenance from Castillo de Huarmey had been proven.
In 1963, the German archaeologist Heinrich Ubbelohde-Doering made two
short visits to this site encouraged by Yoshitaro Amano, the founder of the
museum in Lima that bears his name. There Ubbelohde-Doering managed
to assemble a large collection of textiles, ceramic fragments and wooden arte-
facts that are now in the Museum für Völkerkunde at Munich. These mate-
rials were never published and the museum does not have a written or photo-
graphic record except for a catalogue of the textile pieces collected in the
Huarmey Valley, which was prepared by Elsa Ubbelohde-Doering, his wife.21
William Conklin made a very important investigation22 when he analysed
the textiles collected by Yoshitaro Amano and held by his namesake museum,
which are assumed to have come from Campanario and El Castillo23 (see
Figs. 233-245). Based on the study of the techniques and on the iconographic
representations in the textiles, Conklin claimed that during the Middle
Horizon El Castillo de Huarmey possibly was a major southern centre influ-
enced by Moche, and he ascribed these textiles, which clearly date to the Wari
epoch, to the native Mochica style.
Despite some fabulous and fortuitous finds, Castillo de Huarmey had never
been the subject of a study based on the systematic excavation of primary
archaeological contexts prior to the creation of the PIACH, but there indeed
were some previous, albeit unsuccessful, attempts to begin this kind of
study. The most important contributions were made by Heiko Prümers,24 who
carried out an intensive exploration of the lower Huarmey Valley in 1985-86
and prepared a monographic study of the Castillo. This German archaeologist
was unfortunately unable to obtain the institutional backing essential for
an agreement, and which was required in order to work at a site that has
monumental architecture. He therefore had to limit himself to a study of the
textiles that Heinrich Ubbelohde-Doering and he himself had recovered in
the tombs that had been looted around El Castillo’s platform. Prümers also
cleaned five looter’s pits and recovered interesting grave goods: pottery, a
pyro-engraved gourd, and several weaving utensils such as spindles, spindle
whorls, balls of fibre, combs and a sword.
In January 2010, the Polish specialists from Warsaw University made a full
archaeological survey of the site, thus beginning the first long-term archaeo-
logical project which considered area excavations at Castillo de Huarmey.
The survey compared different non-destructive methods: Global Positioning
System (GPS) Real Time Kinetic (RTK) mapping, aerial kite photogrammetry,
caesium magnetometry, and spatial analysis of surface artefact distribution
(Fig. 31 a-b). The data they provided were combined using a geographical
information systems database in order to record the monumental adobe brick,
stone and wood architecture and the vast adjoining necropolis, so as to reflect
the surface underlying the site.25 The subsequent processing of the data
obtained during the non-destructive research season allowed us to prepare
and visualize two-dimensional and three-dimensional models, which served
as the starting point for the excavations. These were made as part of a project
jointly run by Warsaw University and the Pontificia Universidad Católica
del Perú, as part of a bilateral agreement between both universities.
Castillo de Huarmey: the Venue of the Living and the Dead
The site of Castillo de Huarmey is located one kilometre to the east of the
city of Huarmey, in the province of the same name, in the region of Ancash.
It is the biggest Middle Horizon (A.D. 600 - 1050) site in the southern North
Coast of Peru, and the only one known yet where the Wari presence can be
glanced at its full splendour. This centre is at the southern end of the Huarmey
River Valley, at the entrance to a small, dry, adjacent ravine some four kilome-
tres to the east of the Pacific Ocean. The site comprises forty-five hectares,
with close to seventeen hectares that have remains of monumental architec-
ture and scattered burial areas (Fig. 32). The archaeological complexes were
clearly multifunctional and included areas for public, domestic, and ritual
activities. Most of the structures are visible on the surface. The central sector
with monumental architecture includes two main buildings that form one
single architectonic complex. The section that most stands out is the one known
as El Castillo, and which had previously been erroneously interpreted as a
typical coastal huaca formed by burial platforms, which gave the whole
building a pyramid-like look.26
The monument, which was built with adobe bricks and stones, thanks to the
not-too-common architectural technique of using enormous wooden beams,
sprawls over practically the entire summit of a large rocky spur that extends
outwards towards the valley. It is an architectural work unique in its kind.
It comprises two groups built along slightly different architectural axes,
whose core was formed by enormous chullpa-tower-shaped mausoleums with
a regular plan and several stories high (Fig. 33).
In time, the site’s expansion due to the erection of smaller chullpas around
the main one turned the “Castillo” into a type of “pantheon” or temple where
the Wari ancestors were worshipped. Its funeral bundles were inhumated
in dozens of collective chambers (Fig. 34) enclosed on the lower slopes of the
rocky spur with retaining walls made using semi-edged stones (Fig. 35), thus
giving form, during its last construction phase, to one single architectural
complex that was about 200 m long, 65 m wide and 19 m high (Fig. 33). Access
to the top was possible thanks to the construction of a system of monumental
297
stairways, whose design changed from one phase to the other along with the
expansion of the whole complex (Fig. 36). Masons of different origins and
different cultural and technological background must have participated in
the construction of the monument. The orthogonal layout of the mausoleums
in the shape of chullpa-towers, with niches in the walls and chambers
partially carved in the rock, as well as the new and infrequent use of large
wooden beams (Fig. 37) in the construction of the monument—all elements
of a clearly foreign origin—27 is in contrast with the use of smooth- and
cane-moulded parallelepiped adobe bricks28 that were often adorned with the
marks made by their makers (human hands and feet, dog tracks, geometric
figures) of clear local provenance.
Towards the south, below the rocky spur with the chullpa mausoleums on
its summit, is a monumental building atop a low-standing platform that at
present seems to have been trimmed when the agricultural fields were
expanded using heavy machinery. During the heyday of this centre in the
Middle Horizon, however, this low platform was much larger than the upper
section of the complex that has the chullpas. Due to the expansion of agricul-
tural fields and human settlements, as well as possible natural causes related
with harmful climate events (large landslides corresponding to large-scale
El Niño-Southern Oscillations [ENSOs]), all that has survived to the present
day is but a segment of this ceremonial and/or residential group with raised
buildings and a quadrangular patio that measured twenty metres on its side.
Our excavations at the centre of the quadrangular patio showed that more
than two metres below the original adobe brick pavement, there were archi-
tectural remains related with an earlier phase dated to the Early Intermediate
Period. The artefacts found and the presence of the relatively small and
typical quadrangular adobe bricks, with the marks left by the cane moulds,
show that these remains correspond to the local Virú-Gallinazo/Moche tradi-
tion. These buildings consisted of raised platforms of a monumental nature.
Throughout the Middle Horizon, these platforms were covered with several
layers of architectural fill that included gravel, woven mats, river cobblestones,
and two mortuary contexts (probably dedicated human offerings), as well as
multiple camelid offerings (Fig. 38). The raised buildings around the patio
were originally roofed, as is evidenced by several lined holes filled with
gravel and sealed with flat stones; these surely were the base of the original
columns, which were probably made out of carved wood. This type of architec-
ture recalls the typical palace of the pre-Hispanic Andes, with large walled
plazas over platforms with roofed porticos and audiencias, which were used
to re-legitimise the power of the rulers vis-à-vis their vassals during festivities
of a ritual nature: a place where the secular and the sacred world merged 29.
Several minor structures rise around the monumental area. The geophysical
survey undertaken with the help of fluxgate magnetic gradiometers and
caesium magnetometers—which was carried out as part of the studies that
the PIACH made in one of these elevated platforms on the northern part of
the site overlooking the agricultural fields—revealed the presence of adobe
brick architecture with an orthogonal layout, along with several rectangular
enclosures surrounded by perimetrical walls and arranged around a presumed
central patio. The presence of locally manufactured, Middle Horizon utili-
tarian wares, including the typical storage and food and beverage production
forms, as well as the abundant organic remains—a large number of frag-
mented camelid-bone remains have been recorded amongst the latter—
suggest that the Castillo de Huarmey complex comprised not just the necrop-
olis and ceremonial areas, but also food production areas, residential sectors
and specialised workshop areas.
The Archaeological Context of the Find
The PIACH’s second field season began in September 2012 and it uncovered
the mausoleum and the intact tomb. Due to our previous work, the expectations
of finding intact mortuary contexts at the site were extremely low if not
non-existent. The harshness of time and of systematic looting had left the
monument in such a frightening condition that it did not raise much hope.
Tons of scattered debris would mean months of work cleaning contexts
disturbed by clandestine diggers and a low probability of finding at least one
undamaged part. Day after day, our team carried out detailed and monotonous
work, separating the debris from the fragments of archaeological artefacts,
the result of the extensive depredation carried out by the looters. After a
while the top part of the original adobe brick walls appeared and gradually
revealed a network of perpendicular walls that formed a complex built
with adobe bricks. We soon realised that we were unearthing an impressive
building with an orthogonal layout that was enclosed by massive external
walls, decorated with an ochre clay plaster. Small rooms gradually became
visible in its almost quadrangular plan (about 13.5 x 11.5 metres) that were
organised in almost symmetrical fashion and were interconnected by a
labyrinthine system of entrances. The main room, 4.3 metres long and 3.4
metres wide, with an entrance on the northeastern side, stood out amongst
them (Fig. 39). The walls and the floor had been carefully plastered. Four
lateral niches of approximately 0.6 metres wide and 0.5 metres deep adorned
the long walls. Although the walls of this group had only been preserved
up to half their height, the other mortuary towers recorded at the site had
some similar niches that had preserved the original, carefully worked wooden
beams (Fig. 40), and thus suggested that the niches in the main room of
the mausoleum may have been about one metre high. At the centre of this
ceremonial area there was a quadrangular bench that measured 2.3 metres
on its side, and which had been built as if it was a throne. The first unusually
shaped, trapezoidal adobe bricks, which were on average sixty centimetres
long, forty-five to twenty centimetres wide and fifteen centimetres tall, were
clearly visible below the floor and in between the pits that had been made
by the looters. We continued cleaning and recording, and realised that these
adobe bricks formed a rectangular seal 6.3 metres long and 5.2 metres wide
(Fig. 41). A solid layer of rubble was found below the seal, which had been
disturbed in some parts by the clandestine diggers. This layer of fill, which
had over thirty tons of stone and was one metre wide on average, had been
placed in an area defined by a chamber hewn into the rock, and completed
with walls of smooth-moulded parallelepiped adobe bricks that were 4.65-3.9
metres long and 3.6-3.35 metres wide. Although the layer of rubble was
completely sterile, we soon realised that it held something very important:
hundreds of pupae left by the larvae of muscomorph flies,30 which began to
appear between the wall of hewn rock and the stone filling, gave us the first
solid indication of the presence of some organic deposit stored below. Another
sign of a potential find, much clearer than the first one, was found after
lifting the first twenty-five centimetres of the layer of rubble. At the centre
of the chamber, and pointing towards the centre of the bench in the upper
room, there rose a massive rod 1.17 meters long, with a handle that had a
five centimetres diametre on average, decorated with small grouped incisions,
and had a palette 9.5 centimeters wide and 5.5 centimeters thick on its point,
which has circular concavities as well as remains of incrusted metal.
After carefully removing every layer of rubble we found a second layer of fill
formed by earth, broken adobe bricks, debris from carved stones and some
round stones. In it we found the first articulated bones belonging to six
presumed teenage human offerings, which lacked textile wrapping and had
no associated grave goods. The bodies of the presumably sacrificed individuals
had collapsed in prone or supine position over the fifty-four individuals buried
in the main room of the burial chamber. The latter were seated with their
legs bent, most of them leaning on the walls of the chamber and had originally
been wrapped inside funeral bundles (Fig. 42 a-b). The fragments of the
bundles preserved in the central part of the chamber suggest that they were
made with a two-coloured white and green cloth, and had also been wrapped
with thick netting (Fig. 43).
The patient cleaning of the human-bone remains and the large set of associated
artefacts disclosed a complex funerary context, which had been organised
following quite sophisticated rules. Most of the more than fifty individuals
buried in the central section of the chamber were adult women of different
ages, accompanied by teenagers—quite possibly women, too—who comprised
a fifth part of the total. Four individuals with a higher social status were
inhumed in three rectangular sub-chambers, separated on the northeast side
from the large chamber and covered by a crafted wooden beam 2.6 metres
long (Fig. 44). The sub-chambers were subsequently covered by the northern
wall of the room with the bench that was built on the upper story. A woman
over fifty years of age was buried in the northeastern sub-chamber, which has
298
the shape of a quadrangle one metre long on its side, along with a teenager,
thirteen-fifteen years old. The central sub-chamber, which is of rectangular
shape and measures 0.75 by 0.7 metres, was the last abode of the main lady,
who was about sixty years old. The final sub-chamber, which lies more to
the southeast and is also of rectangular shape, measured 0.6 by 0.7 metres
and housed the remains of a middle-aged woman about thirty-five to forty
years old. All of them were placed in the sub-chambers with exceptionally
rich grave goods, and were covered with earth and fine gravel before the
wooden-beam seal was placed.
Over one thousand three hundred prestige items were found alongside the
women buried in the central part of the chamber and in the three lateral sub-
chambers, which comprised the personal grave goods or additional mortuary
offerings. These items included jewellery (metal, wood and bone ear orna-
ments, necklaces, pectorals, pendants, tupus and rings, amongst other items),
weapons (an axe, knives, spear throwers), paraphernalia (wood containers,
rattles, a whistle), weaving utensils (looms, spindles, spindle whorls, spoons
with pigments), and ceramic, metal and carved stone vessels (jars, bottles,
pilgrim flasks, cups and bowls).31 All of the offerings stand out due to their
finish and the materials used, such as gold, silver and bronze. The ornamental
earpieces, which are a type of male noble attire, here embellish the grave goods
of noble women. The hundreds of objects offered to the deceased for their last
journey to the otherworld, and which were considered luxury items within
the areas of the Wari and Tiwanaku cultures (e.g. the objects made out of gold,
silver, bronze, and obsidian, the kero cups, the tropical seashells, fine textiles,
and others), emphasise the uppermost social status of the aristocratic women
buried in the tomb,32 who undoubtedly were part of the Empire’s upper elite.33
The high social standing of the women buried also shows in their ante-mortem
health conditions, which suggest a life almost free of physiological stress,
serious illnesses and major traumas.34
The Funeral Rite and the Ceremonies of Death
We can reconstruct the sophisticated burial ritual that was held over a
thousand years ago thanks to the patient cleaning and recording of the archi-
tecture, the human-bone remains, and the hundreds of associated artefacts
that was done using modern techniques (remote detection and aerial photo-
grammetry using kites and drones, the development of layered three-dimen-
sional digital models during the excavation, the accurate mapping of all
artefacts and bones with a total station and the subsequent distribution
analysis applying GIS) (Fig. 45).
The study of the tomb and the architecture of the entire pantheon evinced
the intention of legitimising the new political power wielded by the Wari elite
in the Huarmey Valley. This would be achieved by promoting the erection
of a peculiar monumental complex formed by a palace abutting the temple
where the ancestors were to be worshipped. The latter were buried in a type
of funeral structure of clear foreign origin: multi-storied chullpa-tower shaped
mausoleums built on the summit of a rocky hill. The main mausoleum incor-
porated the core of the subsequent pantheon, and comprised chullpas and
smaller chambers that were attached to the mausoleum or hidden between
the rock and the large retaining walls forming the false façades of the complex.
Its erection began with the construction of the burial chamber that was found.
The chamber was partially hewn out of the rock and closed to the north and
west with adobe brick walls, leaving two entrances on each short side (one
to the northeast and another one to the southwest); it was 0.75 to 1.35 metres
deep due to the irregular shape of the bedrock, which descends more on the
north side. At the back of the tomb there is some sort of canal carved in stone
that comes out on the other side of the southwestern wall below one of the
sealed entrances, and which meanders down to the sub-chambers built on the
northeastern corner. It is possible that this canal was dedicated to some type
of liquid offering made to the most prominent dead buried in the tomb, which
is so typical a trait of the cult given to Wari mallquis.35 The people buried in
the chamber were not inhumed at the same time: the high presence of fly
pupae, bugs, snakes and their eggs found inside the bundles and crania of the
buried dead shows that the chamber was open or at most protected by a light
structure during the time dedicated to the ceremonial extension [prórroga]
allotted for the burial of fifty-eight noble women. Once this was over, the
lateral entrances were sealed for good. The sub-chambers of the women with
the highest status were also protected with a large wooden beam. The funeral
ritual was completed with different offerings placed on top of the bundles.
The metal rattles with wooden handles were placed close to the bundles of the
most important individuals (Figs. 46 and 47). The large, carved looms, which
had been placed on both sides of the wooden rod placed at the centre of the
chamber, were now intentionally broken and/or partially burned (Fig.48).
Several offerings of fine pottery were smashed during the penultimate act of
the ceremony, which ended with the sacrifice of six teenagers cast down from
the top along with the earth, mud and stones which formed a leveling layer.
Two additional burials were made on the northeast side, on the other side
of the main entrance to the chamber, in what was some kind of antechamber.
The bodies of an adult woman and an adult man were buried in seated positions
inside depressions in the rock (Fig. 52). The woman was oriented towards the
chamber whilst the man turned his back to the entrance and looked towards
the northeast side. The personal grave goods of these individuals and their
health conditions suggest that they did not belong to the elite. Their presence
within the context of the imperial mausoleum surely had another purpose.
Everything seems to indicate that this couple was prepared whilst they were
alive. Their bodies were mutilated years before their death: both were missing
the left foot. This detail brings to mind not just the case of the royal tombs
of Sipán,36 but also the significance offerings of mutilated feet—both real ones
as well as under the guise of foot-vessels—had in the Tiwanaku and Wari
traditions.37
After the funerary ritual, the chamber was covered with tons of rubble and
was sealed off with a layer of trapezoidal adobe bricks. The antechamber was
given a special treatment: a solid adobe brick fill was built up to the height
of the perimetrical wall of the main chamber. Ten cavities with a rectangular
opening were left inside this fill. Each of them held a large jar or a pair of
mammiform face-neck bottles (Fig. 49). The vessels were originally full of maize
chicha seasoned with beans, the favourite beverage of the main lady and
the other members of the court buried in the funeral chamber.38 Once the
chicha jars had been placed, the cavities were sealed off with four layers of
adobe brick. With the event finished, the builders of Castillo de Huarmey then
proceeded to plan and build the next story in the mausoleum (Figs. 50 and 51).
The Erection of the Imperial Mausoleum
The construction of the orthogonal mausoleum, which includes at least
twenty-one rectangular rooms over an area of about one hundred fifty-five-
square-metres, began with the erection of the main room with niches and
a bench immediately above the trapezoidal adobe brick seal. This room was
then surrounded by other, smaller rooms. Three sections can be distinguished
in the plan of the mausoleum: the front, middle and back sections. In the
front section, located on the northeast, at least seven small rooms (one to
seven square metres) interconnected by a passageway system are visible.
The central section comprises the main enclosure with an area of 14.6-square-
metres and has four niches and a bench; it is connected with the front section
by a single entrance, one metre wide on its northeast wall. On both sides
of the main room there are two almost symmetrical groups of four rooms
interconnected with each other and with the passageway system in the front
section. These eight rooms have an almost identical area of about two-square-
metres. The back section, which lies to the southwest of the mausoleum
and has its back turned to the main room, is comprised of four lateral elongated
rooms that are about 2.5-square-metres each and have internal divisions,
and a central room with an area of nine-square-metres. The rooms in the
back section were completely closed off and there was no connection between
them or with another part of the mausoleum, at least in the floor plan that
has survived to the present day. In the middle room in the back section
we found four quadrangular chambers measuring 0.6 metres at the side and
which were on average 0.5 metres deep (Fig. 53). These chambers contained
human and animal bones which were found completely disarticulated. We soon
realised that these contexts were not the result of looting, and were instead
some type of typical secondary burial. The chambers could therefore be inter-
299
preted as a peculiar type of pre-Hispanic ossuary or reliquary, where bodies,
or parts of them, were buried along with fragments of clothing, grave goods
and offerings which had been removed and transported from their original
context, perhaps even over long distances. Secondary burials and the manipu-
lation of bodies have been recorded in the final stage of the Moche culture,39
but the contexts at Castillo de Huarmey have significant differences with
these northern examples. The lower number of bones, which are at the same
time well-selected, and the potentially easy access to the four chambers, lead
us instead to a different hypothesis. Since they could be easily reached, the
bones may have been some type of cult object. It should be recalled that some
authors suggest that in Huari, the bones removed during the reopening of the
tombs stood for the ancestral mummies and were physically worshipped in
ceremonies related with the ancestor cult40 something similar has also been
recorded at Tiahuanaco.41
Although the rest of the mausoleum had been much devastated by clandestine
diggers, the archaeological materials recovered in the rubble and in the deepest
parts of the rooms allow us to better understand the function such a particular
building had. Abundant animal bone materials were recovered in the closed
lateral rooms in the back section, which contain not just remains of camelids
but also of rare animals like the condor (Vultur gryphus), a bird that had a
highly symbolic significance in State and religious content during pre-Hispanic
times (Fig. 54). All this suggests that the back section, which was separated
from the other architectonic segments of the mausoleum, probably had the
function of a gallery of offerings and of human relics. On the other hand, the
small rooms in the central and front sections, which were well connected and
large enough, may have acted as a mortuary gallery and/or offerings gallery.
This interpretation is suggested by the discovery of hundreds of fragments
of fine vessels and textiles in various styles and shapes, the finding of the
extremely rare Wari khipus,42 (see Figs. 210 a-b and 211 a-b), and of fragments
of mummified and tattooed bodies. The function of the main chamber with
four niches and a bench remains an enigma. Was this the hall were an impor-
tant mallqui was exhibited and worshipped, bundled and placed on the bench,
surrounded by other mummified ancestors in the niches?43 Or was it instead
an exclusively ceremonial room where the living worshipped their ancestors
in sophisticated esoteric rituals? Answering these questions is clearly not easy,
given the loss of empirical evidence caused by the looters.
In our search of parallels to the mausoleum of Castillo de Huarmey in other
monumental edifices of a similar nature, we turned first to the “temples” or
mausoleums of the Callejón de Huaylas. The best examples of these buildings
are in Willkawain44 and Honcopampa.45 These are structures that are up to
three stories high and have several rooms in each of them. They may have
ventilation ducts and eaves, and reach a height of up to ten metres. These
highland chullpas are usually built over quadrangular platforms. Although
the buildings at Wilkawain or Ama Punku—in Honcopampa—have been
looted, human bone remains were found inside their rooms. For some scholars,46
however, the variations in the size and patterning of the internal divisions
require that we distinguish various classes of mortuary monuments, and
this has strong implications for the social organisation of their beneficiaries.
The differences in construction are obvious, but they are derived from envir­
onmental differences and differential access to raw materials. At Castillo
de Huarmey the monoliths were replaced with coastal adobe bricks, adorned
with a fine ochre plaster. The big granodiorite slabs with which the roofs of
the chullpa temples were made in the Callejón de Huaylas, were supposedly
substituted with heavy beams of carved wood. Were there other superimposed
stories? Although the walls of the first story of the Castillo de Huarmey
mausoleum were only preserved up to one metre high, in other smaller
mortuary towers we were fortunately able to record all of the first floor as
well as some remains of the second upper level, where the only entrance
to the whole group was located. From a structural standpoint, the massive
walls of the mausoleum could have withstood two or more stories above the
level of the niches-and-bench room. All of the data convinced us that the
building we found had the role of a mortuary mausoleum and temple dedicated
to the cult of the ancestors buried in the burial chamber, and perhaps also in
the galleries in the various stories, as well as in the dozens of smaller chullpas
and chambers adjacent to the main tower.
Interpretation, Discussion, and Conclusions
It is clear that the multiple-female elite tomb located below the multi-storied,
chullpa-tower type main mausoleum, built on the highest part of the entire
Middle Horizon monumental complex, is the first excavated example of such
a complex mortuary context from the time of the Wari Empire. Although
it is true that its discovery came as a surprise, the process of excavation and
subsequent documentation and preservation of the artefacts by the PIACH’s
team and the experts from the MALI’s workshop produced a myriad of ques-
tions, and thus gave rise to a new academic discussion. The complexity of
the various problems that arose throughout the research process—which is
not yet over and will surely continue in subsequent years—does not allow us
to solve them all, and instead invites us to solve the major issues.
A diversity in styles and manufacturing techniques is characteristic of all of
the artistic media present in the context found. The ceramic pieces in styles
from the imperial heartland (Chaquipampa B, Viñaque, Huamanga) are in
harmony with bottles in styles from the South Coast (Atarco), the Central
Coast (Nievería, Teatino), and even the northern highlands (Cajamarca
Serrano), as well as with the local prevailing mould-stamped ceramic style,
which is often decorated with simple polychrome designs derived from the
classic Wari styles, and which occasionally combines with survivals of North
Coast forms and motifs (Fig. 55). The presence of exotic pottery, the stone-
carved kero, the valves or objects made out of Spondylus sp. shells, obsidian,
turquoise and fine metals, all indicate a strong long-distance interaction
that was probably facilitated by the early expansion and the economic organ-
isation of the Wari Empire. The same is envisaged in the diversification of
textile and metalworking styles and techniques.
The excellent preservation conditions found on the Ancash coast allowed
many textiles to survive to the present day in perfect condition. Although the
textiles in the tomb were not as well preserved due to the process of decompo-
sition of the many human bodies placed in a pit partially hewn in the rock,
the fragments that have been recovered and others, found in the mausoleum’s
upper story, let us sketch a vast range of the most renowned techniques and
styles. Cotton and wool, spun and twisted in brilliant colours thanks to the
dying process, were considered the most important materials. The Middle
Horizon textiles found in the remains left behind by the looters at Castillo de
Huarmey were once mistakenly known as Moche-Wari textiles.47 After years
of research and debates it was found that the technique that characterises
these pieces was in use in the Central and South Coasts as well as on the
North Coast, and that designs of Nasca and Wari origin prevailed in their
decoration. The themes of Moche and Recuay origin are less recurring. Tapestry,
particularly fretted tapestry or kelim, with cotton warps and camelid fibre
wefts, was a technique used above all in the unku tunics and in the embroi-
deries made by the skilled weavers of Castillo de Huarmey. But other textiles
were found alongside the locally manufactured ones that had a southern
provenance, e.g. painted textiles, pieces coloured in tie-dye, or bands woven
with the supplementary warp technique.
The precious metals used in manufacturing ornaments, utensils and tools,
along with their metalworking techniques and complex decoration, were
different in the grave goods of these noble women and in those of the simple
common weavers, and acted as status markers. On the other hand, objects
made with copper or its alloys confirm the widespread diffusion of the use
of copper alloys throughout the Middle Horizon.48
The presence or the absence of art styles with dates recently well established,
both from our excavations and previously published ones, allows us to place
the mausoleum in time at around the late eighth and early eleventh centuries
of the Christian era, i.e. essentially in Middle Horizon 249 in Dorothy Menzel’s
chronology.50 The absence of Moche IV-style pieces is significant and suggests a
date after the temple of the Huaca de la Luna was abandoned. We find it likely51
that the abandonment of the centres of power on the North Coast around A.D.
800 is causally related with the conquest of the Huarmey and Culebras River
Valleys by a coalition of southern people, who are known in the archaeological
300

literature as the Wari. No less significant is the absence of Middle Lambayeque (1) Arriaza, Bernardo T. Beyond Death. The (14) Bueno Mendoza. “Huarmey: la
pottery in the style that Shimada calls “Middle Sicán,” 52 as well as the local Chinchorro Mummies of Ancient Chile. huaquería.”
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Incised Casma53or Incised Huarmey54 ceramic styles, whose appearance has (15) Tabío, Ernesto. Prehistoria de la costa
Press, 1995.
often been ascribed—erroneously as we see—to the Middle Horizon. del Perú. Havana: Academia de Ciencias de
(2) Isbell, William H. Mummies and Cuba, 1977.
Mortuary Monuments. A Postprocessual
As for the strong presence of its own style both in pottery as well as in textiles, (16) Bonavía, Duccio. Los Gavilanes.
Prehistory of Central Andean Social Orga-
the contexts excavated along the coast evince that just like in the case of the Precerámico peruano: mar desierto y oasis
nization. Austin: University of Texas Press,
Inca, Wari-style objects from Ayacucho were rare and much prized. Local en la historia del hombre. Lima: Corpo-
1997.
ración Financiera de Desarrollo / Instituto
craftsmen continued manufacturing artefacts in accordance with their idiosyn-
(3) Amongst others, Menzel, Dorothy. Arqueológico Alemán, 1980.
crasies, or made up new designs by combining forms and decorations of “Style and time in the Middle Horizon,”
(17) Bonavía. Los Gavilanes, p. 439.
different origins.55 But the ideology expressed by the most prestigious pieces, Ñawpa Pacha 2, pp. 1-106, 1964; Isbell,
which have Wari iconography and which were found alongside the fifty-eight William H., and Gordon F. McEwan (18) Thompson, Donald. “Archaeological
noble ladies of Huarmey, was striking; besides, the State’s emphasis on the (Eds.), Huari Administrative Structure: Investigations in the Huarmey Valley,
Prehistoric Monumental Architecture Peru,” in Actas y memorias del XXXVI
essential differences in status was surely attractive for the emerging elites of
and State Government. Washington, Congreso International de Americanistas,
the new centres of power located in far removed provinces.56 D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1991; Schreiber, España 1964, Vol. I. Seville: 1966, pp.
Katharina J. Wari Imperialism in 541-548.
So when analysing the discoveries made at Castillo de Huarmey, are we really Middle Horizon Peru. Anthropological
(19) Horkheimer, Hans. “Identificación y
recovering some pieces of the lost history of the first pre-Hispanic Andean Papers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan,
bibliografía de importantes sitios prehis-
Museum of Anthropology, 1992.
empire, prior to the Inca? This site has parallels in more complex mortuary pánicos del Perú,” Arqueológicas 8: 1-51,
contexts both at Conchopata as well as at the capital city itself of Huari.57 (4) Isbell, William H. “Mortuary Prefer- 1965.
First of all, it is a mortuary complex formed by chambers of varied shape ences: A Huari Case Study from Middle
(20) Bueno Mendoza. Op. cit.
Horizon Peru,” Latin American Antiquity
that are directly associated with a palatial building, as is the case of the “royal”
15 (1): 3-32, 2004. (21) Prümers, Heiko. Der Fundort ‘El
mausoleums at Huari in Ayacucho.58 The orthogonal layout of the various
Castillo’ in Huarmeytal, Peru. Ein Beitrag
mortuary galleries as well as the effort invested in hewing a chamber out (5) Hastorf, Christine. “Andean luxury
zum Problem des Moche-Huari Textilstils.
foods: special food for the ancestors, deities
of the bedrock, the mortuary pattern, the exceptional offerings of prestigious Mundus Reihe Alt-Amerikanistik. Band 4.
and the elite,” Antiquity 77 (297): 545-554,
objects related to the exercise of power and the imperial administration 2003.
Bonn: Holos Verlag, 1990.
(kero cups with remains of chicha, khipus, bronze weapons and exotic animals, (22) Conklin, William J. “Moche textile
(6) Fonseca Santa Cruz, Javier. “El rostro
amongst others), all confirm that Castillo de Huarmey constituted a significant structures,” in Rowe, Ann Pollard, Eliza-
oculto de Espíritu Pampa, Vilcabamba,
Wari presence on the southern North Coast of Peru. The strong links between Cusco,” Arqueología Iberoamericana 10:
beth Benson, and Anne-Louise Schaffer
the central Wari area and the areas over which the Ayacuchano empire held (Eds.), The Junius B. Bird Precolumbian
5-7, 2011.
Textile Conference. Washington D.C.: The
sway on the Southern, Central, and Northern Coast are clear in the architec-
(7) Daggett, Richard E. “Julio C. Tello: An Textile Museum and Dumbarton Oaks,
ture and in the mortuary preferences, as well as in the forms and in the Account of His Rise to Prominence in 1979, pp. 165-184.
iconography depicted on the luxury items found. Even so, the significance Peruvian Archaeology,” in Burger, Richard
(23) According to the data found in the
and complexity of Castillo de Huarmey stand out once we bear in mind the L. (Ed.), The life and writings of Julio C.
archives of the Museo Amano, in Yoshitaro
mausoleum with the main subterranean chamber and the more than twenty Tello: America’s first indigenous archaeolo-
Amano’s nomenclature the name of
gist. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press,
different rooms, as well as the other chullpas and subterranean chambers “El Campanario” corresponded to the
2009, pp. 7-54.
that—along with the mausoleum—formed a sort of ancestor pantheon. monument at Castillo and all of the ceme-
There are obvious differences in the materials, the techniques and in some (8) Tello, Julio César. “Cuadernos de teries adjacent to the monumental area,
investigación de la Primera Expedición which lie on the southern slopes of the
of the architectural designs given that their builders probably were not from
Huaylas de 1919 en los valles de Huarmey Cerro Campanario.
Ayacucho. At Huari and Conchopata, chamber tombs were built inside the y Culebras.” Fuente: Grupo I Huaylas.
ceremonial architectural—and eventually residential—areas, and their (24) Prümers, Heiko. Der Fundort ‘El
Archivo Julio C. Tello del Museo de Arqueo­
Castillo’; and “‘El Castillo’ de Huarmey:
construction seems to have entailed a change in the use given to the complex. logía de San Marcos.
una plataforma funeraria del Horizonte
In Castillo de Huarmey, the palace and the temple for the funerary cult (9) The expedition led by Julio C. Tello Medio,” Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 4:
coexist side by side. This difference was probably due to the social and political travelled up the Huarmey valley to the 289-312, 2000.
context. Several noble lineages which lived or met periodically in the same Callejón de Huaylas, where major discov-
(25) Bogacki, Miron, Milosz Giersz,
urban space seem to have vied for power in the Huari imperial heartland. eries were made at sites like Pomakayán,
Patrycja Przadka-Giersz, Wieslaw
Katak, Yauya, Pomabamba, Huari
Castillo de Huarmey is the monument that materialised the hierarchies of Malkowski and Krzysztof Misiewicz.
and particularly at Chavín de Huántar;
power, and the place where the ancestors of the ruling lineage were worshipped Daggett. “Julio C. Tello,” pp. 20-21.
“Detección remota y análisis con GIS de
in the central mausoleum, surrounded by the chullpas and tombs of other, distribución de artefactos en superficie en
(10) Yacovleff, Eugenio. Informe acerca del el Castillo de Huarmey,” in Milosz Giersz
lower-ranking, chiefly curaca families. Where did they come from? What kinds
viaje a Huarmey III - 1930. Caja: 18 Grupo and Iván Ghezzi (Eds.), Arqueología de la
of relations did they have with the capital city and with other imperial centres Huaylas, Folios 601- 602. Archivo Julio C. costa de Ancash. Andes. Boletín del Centro
of power spread throughout the Andes? We expect to be able to answer these Tello, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San de Estudios Precolombinos de la Univer-
questions in the near future thanks to the application of new archaeometric Marcos. sidad de Varsovia, vol. 8. Warsaw - Lima.
methods and stable isotope and DNA analyses, both of the nobility buried Polish Latin American Studies Society
(11) Falcón Huayta, Víctor, and Rosa
and Institut Français d’Études Andines.
in the ancestral pantheon as well as of their subjects who built this particular Martínez Navarro. “Un tambor de cuero
Varsovia-Lima 2011, pp. 311-326.
monumental centre, which still overlooks the nostalgic coastal desert on the pintado del Museo Nacional de Arque-
shores of the Pacific Ocean. ología, Antropología e Historia del Perú,” (26) Prümers. Der Fundort ‘El Castillo’;
Anales del Museo de América 16: 9-28, and “El Castillo de Huarmey.”
2009.
(27) In the Virú Valley, horizontal wooden
(12) Bueno Mendoza, Alberto. “Huarmey: beams integrated into the body of the
la huaquería es un problema nacional,” building have been recorded at sites such
Espacio 2: 20-25, 1979. as Gallinazo (Strong, William Duncan, and
Clifford Evans Jr. Cultural Stratigraphy in
(13) The documents and the photographs
the Viru Valley, Northern Peru. New York:
taken by Frédéric André Engel in 1979 are
Columbia Studies in Archaeology and
held by the Centro de Investigación de
Ethnology, Vol. 4, 1952, p. 212), Castillo de
Zonas Áridas (CIZA) at La Molina, Lima.
Tomaval (Kroeber, Alfred L. Archaeological
Explorations in Peru II: The northern coast.
Anthropological Memoirs, Vol. 2, No. 2.
301
Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History,
1930: 78; Strong and Evans. Cultural
Stratigraphy, pp. 110, 212 and PI. Xllc;
Willey, Gordon Randolph. Prehistoric
Settlement Patterns in the Viru Valley, Peru.
Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin
155. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 1953: 164 and PI. 23), and Castillo
de Sarraque (Willey. Prehistoric Settlement
Patterns, p. 172). They can also be found at
Huaca Las Estacas in Túcume (Trimborn,
Hermann. El reino de Lambayeque en el
antiguo Perú. Collectanea Instituti
Anthropos No. 19. St. Augustin: Hans
Völkerund Kulturen-Anthopos Institut,
1979: 51-67). Although Prümers (“ ‘El
Castillo’ de Huarmey,” p. 294) interprets
them as a tradition native to Peru’s North
Coast, it should be noted that both of the
traditions mentioned above have a strong
foreign component. The use of horizontal
beams is more common in highland tradi-
tions, and their use on the coast was
certainly limited to the periods when
interregional contacts between the coast,
the highlands, and the tropical forest
intensified (the late Early Horizon and
the beginning of the Early Intermediate
Period, the Middle Horizon), and to
changes in the palaeoclimate that favoured
harvesting wood on the arid Pacific coast.
(28) The cane-moulded adobe bricks were
probably derived from the destruction and
reuse of previous buildings—which were
related with the presence of groups bearing
the Virú-Gallinazo and Moche material
culture—that were found and studied by
our team in the earliest strata under the
foundations of the monumental platform
with the central patio.
(29) See the essay by Krzysztof Makowski
in this volume.
(30) Flies of the Muscomorpha infraorder.
(31) See the essay “The funerary of the
noble women of Castillo de Huarmey. A
selection”, in this volume.
(32) See the essay by Patrycja Przadka
Giersz in this volume.
(33) See the essay by Krzysztof Makowski
in this volume.
(34) See the essay by Wieslaw Wieckowski
in this volume.
(35) It is worth recalling that some impor-
tant Wari tombs at Conchopata, Huari or
Espíritu Pampa (and perhaps in Tiahua-
naco too) had an aperture, breathing hole
or ttoco above the mortuary chamber that
reached right up to the tomb, and which
could be used on certain occasions to place
some objects or liquids as offerings. See
Isbell, William H. “Mortuary Preferences;”
Janusek, John W. Ancient Tiwanaku. Case
Studies in Early Societies. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2008; Isbell,
William H., and Antti Korpisaari. “Burial
in the Wari and the Tiwanaku heartlands:
similarities, differences, and meanings,”
Diálogo Andino. Revista de Historia,
Geografía y Cultura Andina 39: 91-122,
2012.
(36) Alva, Walter, Sipán: descubrimiento e
investigación. Lima: edición del autor, 2004.
(37) Trigo Rodríguez, David, and Roberto (49) The Middle Horizon’s Epoch 2 has (56) It was assumed since the study done
Hidalgo Rocabado. Tiwanaku - Huari: los been traditionally dated to A.D. 700-850, by Menzel, “Style and time,” that a new
miembros inferiores y sus representaciones and was recently refined and extended to centre of power and prestige arose on the
en las ofrendas del Horizonte Medio. (El A.D. 800-1000. North Central coast during the late Middle
simbolismo del rito de corte de piernas en Horizon, and that it probably had its focal
(50) Menzel. “Style and time in the Middle
la iconografía de los Andes). La Paz: point in the Huarmey Valley, where a
Horizon.”
Producciones Cima, 2012. mould-stamped pottery [alfarería impresa
(51) See the essay by Milosz Giersz and de molde] was manufactured that had
(38) The analyses Lima’s Palynology and
Krzysztof Makowski in this volume. designs derived from the Wari repertoire.
Palaeobotany Laboratory made of the
Menzel placed its rise in Epoch 3 (A.D.
grains of starch and of the phytoliths in the (52) Shimada, Izumi. “La cultura Sicán.
775-850 according to the initial estimates;
sediments of the vessels found in the Caracterización arqueológica,” in Mendoza
Epoch 3 was recently related with Epoch 4
niches in the seal in the antechamber, as Samillán, Eric (Ed.), Presencia histórica de
and was dated to A.D. 1000-1050).
well as those in the kero-cups and the Lambayeque. Lima: Ediciones y Represen-
bottles [botellas cantimplora] found in the taciones Falcón, 1985. (57) See the essay by Milosz Giersz and
main lady’s sub-chamber, showed that all Krzysztof Makowski in this volume.
(53) Collier, Donald. “Archaeological Inves-
of these vessels were used to store liquids
tigations in the Casma Valley, Peru.” Akten (58) According to Isbell and Korpisaari,
made out of Zea mays, with a slight touch
des 34 Internationalen Amerikanisten “Burial in the Wari and the Tiwanaku
of Phaseolus sp. and some other herbs.
Kongresses, Wien, 1960. Horn, Vienna: heartlands,” the “royal [Wari] burials”
(39) Nelson, Andrew, and Luis Jaime Verlag Ferdinand Berger, 1962, pp. comprise their types 5c and 9, and are
Castillo. “Huesos a la deriva. Tafonomía y 411-417. classified as “Megalithic Wari Internments”
tratamiento funerario en entierros Mochica or “Megalithic Monumental” tombs. These
(54) Thompson, Donald E. “Postclassic
Tardío de San José de Moro.” Boletín de buildings housed several individuals who
innovations in architecture and settlement
Arqueología PUCP, 1: 137-163, 1997. were placed in various structures inside
patterns in the Casma Valley, Peru,” South-
the same room or building. It is possible
(40) Isbell, William H. “Mortuary Prefer- western Journal of Anthropology 20 (1):
that a crypt occupied the central area in at
ences”. 91-105, 1964; and “Archeological Investiga-
least one of the mortuary rooms, whereas
tions.”
(41) Blom, Deborah E., and John Wayne all others seem to have been secondary.
Janusek. “Making Place: Humans as (55) According to the chronological system Each crypt may have held the remains of
Dedications in Tiwanaku.” World Archae- proposed by Menzel, op. cit., the Wari more than one individual.
ology 36: 123-141, 2004. Empire managed to impose its style during
Middle Horizon 1B and 2A, and its weak-
(42) See the essay by Gary Urton in this
ening was required for local traditions—
volume.
classified as styles belonging to Middle
(43) According to the looters who were his Horizon 2B, 3 and 4—to reappear. Even so,
informants, Prümers. “‘El Castillo’ de some of these traditions are found associ-
Huarmey,” p. 294, the niches had a ated in primary contexts with Middle
mortuary role with lateral burials that had Horizon 1B/2A pieces, whilst others are
humble grave goods, whereas the main associated with Middle Horizon 2B pieces.
contexts with very rich grave goods would A consensus was also recently reached
have been in the sealed rooms, in whose upon that Huari continued manufacturing
walls the niches were inserted. its distinctive pottery up to around A.D.
1000, as is shown by the C14 samples from
(44) Bennett, Wendell C. The North High-
Conchopata.
lands of Peru. Excavations in the Callejon
de Huaylas and Chavin de Huantar. New
York: Anthropological Papers of the
American Museum of Natural History 39
(1), 1944.
(45) Isbell, William H. “Honcopampa
Monumental Ruins in Peru’s North High-
lands,” Expedition 3 (33): 27-37, 1991;
Tschauner, Hartmut. “Honco Pampa:
arquitectura de élite del Horizonte Medio
en Callejón de Huaylas,” in Ibarra
Ascencios, Bebel (Ed.), Arqueología de la
sierra de Ancash. Propuestas y perspectivas.
Lima: Instituto Cultural Runa, 2003, pp.
194-220.
(46) Tschauner. “Honco Pampa: arquitec-
tura de élite,” p. 200.
(47) Based on our controlled excavations I
concur with Luis Jaime Castillo and Flora
Ugaz (“El contexto y la tecnología de los
textiles mochica,” in Lavalle, José Antonio
de (Ed.), Tejidos milenarios del Perú. Lima:
AFP Integra, 1999: 248) as regards the
problems raised by this inaccurate nomen-
clature that only survives in textiles. It is
worth pointing out that the presumed
“stylistic fusion” of the Moche and Wari
traditions is limited only to possible remi-
niscences of some northern techniques
(which are local techniques in this area)
and geometric iconographic elements.
(48) See the essay by María Inés Velarde
and Pamela Castro de la Mata in this
volume.
335
Referencias MANUSCRITOS
Tello, Julio Cesar
“Cuadernos de investigación de la
Primera Expedición Huaylas de 1919
en los Valles de Huarmey y
Culebras”. Fuente: Grupo I Huaylas.
Archivo Julio C. Tello del Museo de
Arqueología y Antropología de San
Marcos.
Yacovleff, Eugenio
1930 “Informe acerca del viaje a
Huarmey III-1930. Caja: 18 Grupo
Huaylas, Folios 601-620. Archivo
Julio C. Tello, Universidad Nacional
Mayor de San Marcos.
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
Agüero Piwonka, Carolina, Manuel
Uribe y José Berenguer Rodríguez
2003 “La iconografía tiwanaku.
El caso de la escultura lítica”, en
Textos antropológicos, número 14 (2),
pp. 47-82.
Albarracín-Jordán, Juan
2003 “Tiwanaku: A Pre-Inka
Segmentary State in the Andes”,
en Kolata, Alan (Ed.), Tiwanaku and
its Hinterland, Vol.2, Urban and
Rural Archaeology: Archaeology and
Paleoecology of an Andean Civiliza-
tion. Washington, D.C. Smithsonian
Institution Press, pp. 95-111.
Alcock, Susan E., Terence N.
D’Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison y
Carla M. Sinopoli (Eds.)
2001 Empires: Perspectives from
Archaeology and History. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Algaze, Guillermo
2001 “The Prehistory of Imperialism:
The Case of Uruk Period Mesopo-
tamia”, en Rothman, Mitchell S.
(Ed.), Uruk Mesopotamia & Its
Neighbors. Santa Fe: School of
American Research Press, pp. 27-84.
Alva, Walter
2004 Sipán. Descubrimiento e
Investigación. Lima: Quebecor World
Perú (reedición: 2009).
1994 Sipán. Colección Cultura y
Artes del Perú, edición dirigida por
José Antonio de Lavalle. Lima:
Cervería Backus & Johnston S.A.
Alva, Walter, y Luis Chero
2008 “La tumba del Sacerdote
Guerrero”, en Aimi, Antonio, Walter
Alva y Emilia Petrazzi (Eds.),
Sipán. El tesoro de las tumbas reales.
Florencia-Milán: Fondo Ítalo-
Peruano, Giunti Editore, pp. 114-137.
Anders, Martha
1986 Dual Organization and
Calendars Inferred from the Planned
Site of Azángaro—Wari Administra-
tive Strategies. Tesis de Doctorado.
Nueva York: Universidad de Cornell.
Ángeles, Rommel, y Denise
Pozzi-Escot
2010 “El Horizonte Medio en Pacha-
cámac”, en Romero Velarde, Rubén,
y Trine Pavel Svendsen (Eds.),
Arqueología en el Perú. Nuevos
aportes para el estudio de las socie-
dades andinas prehispánicas. Lima:
Anheb Impresiones, pp. 175-196.
2000 “Textiles del Horizonte Medio.
Las evidencias de Huaca Malena,
Valle de Asia”, Boletín de Arqueo-
logía PUCP 4: 401-424.
Archi Olsoufieff, A., O. Colacicchi
Alessandri y M. Ferretti
2004 “An Approach to the Conserva-
tion of Deeply Corroded Archaeolo-
gical Silver: the polos from Crucinia”.
Proceedings of Metal 2004. Canberra:
National Museum of Australia.
Arriaza, Bernardo T.
1995 Beyond Death, The Chinchorro
Mummies of Ancient Chile. Wash-
ington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Press.
Arriola Tuni, Carlos A. y Louis D.
Tesar
2011. “The Pikillacta 2004 Eastern
Gate Offering Pit”, Ñawpa Pacha,
Journal of Andean Archaeology,
31 (1), pp. 1-44.
Bauer, Brian S.
1999 “The Early Ceramics of the
Inca Heartland”, Fieldiana número
31: 63-66.
336
Bauer, Brian S., Miriam Aráoz Silva,
Lukas C. Kellet, Sabine Hyland y
Carlo Socualaya Dávila.
2013 Los chancas: investigaciones
arqueológicas en Andahuaylas
(Apurímac, Perú). Lima- Chicago:
Instituto Francés de Estudios
Andinos-UIC College of Liberal Arts
& Sciences, Institute for New World
Archaeology.
Bawden, Garth L.
1996 The Moche. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishers.
1994 “La paradoja estructural:
la cultura Moche como ideología
política”, en Uceda, Santiago, y Elías
Mujica (Eds.), Moche: propuestas
y perspectivas. Trujillo-Lima: Univer-
sidad Nacional de la Libertad-
Instituto Francés de Estudios
Andinos-Asociación Peruana para
el Fomento de las Ciencias Sociales,
pp. 389-412.
1982 “Galindo: A study in cultural
transition during the Middle
Horizon”, en Moseley, Michael E.,
y Kent C. Day (Eds.), Chan Chan:
Andean Desert City. Albuquerque:
University of New Mexico Press,
pp. 285-320.
Benavides, Mario
1979 “Notas sobre excavaciones en
Cheqo Wasi”, Investigaciones 2: 9-26.
Bennett. Wendell C.
1953 Excavations at Wari, Ayacucho,
Peru. Yale University Publications
in Anthropology 49. New Haven:
Yale University Press.
1944 The North Highlands of Peru.
Excavations in the Callejon de
Huaylas and Chavin de Huantar.
Nueva York: Anthropological Papers
of the American Museum of Natural
History 39 (1).
Berducou, Marie
1996 “Introduction to Archaeological
Conservation”, en Price, Nicholas
Stanley, M. Kirby Talley Jr. y
Alessandra Melucco Vaccaro (Eds.),
Historical and Philosophical Issues
in the Conservation of Cultural
Heritage. Los Ángeles: The Getty
Conservation Institute, pp. 248-259.
Bergh, Susan E.
2012 “Inlaid and Metal Ornaments”,
en Bergh, Susan, E. (Ed.), Wari:
Lords of the Ancient Andes. Nueva
York: Thames & Hudson, pp. 219-221.
2012 “Wood Containers and Cups”,
en Bergh, Susan, E. (Ed.), Wari:
Lords of the Ancient Andes. Nueva
York: Thames & Hudson, pp. 243-247.
2009 “The Bird and the Camelid
(or Deer): A Ranked Pair of Wari
Tapestry Tunics?».En : Young-
Sánchez, Margaret (Ed.), Tiwanaku:
Papers from the 2005 Mayer Center
Symposium at the Denver Art
Museum. Denver: Denver Art
Museum, pp. 225-245.
Bergh, Susan E. (Ed.)
2012 Wari: Lords of the Ancient
Andes. Nueva York: Thames &
Hudson.
Bertholon, Regis
1998 “Archaeological Silver”.
Conservation DistList, August 31.
http://cool.conservation-us.org/
byform/mailing-lists/
cdl/1998/1033html.
Billman, Brian R.
1999 “Regional Approaches to
the Study of Prehistoric Empires:
Examples from Ayacucho and Nasca,
Peru”, en Billman, Brian R., y
Gary M. Feinman (Eds.), Settlement
Patterns Studies in the Americas:
Fifty Years Since Viru. Washington,
D.C: Smithsonian Institution.
Blom, Deborah E. y John Wayne
Janusek.
2004 “Making Place: Humans as
Dedications in Tiwanaku”, World
Archaeology 36: 123-141.
Bogacki, Miron, Milosz Giersz,
Patrycja Przadka-Giersz, Wieslaw
Malkowski y Krzysztof Misiewicz
2011 “Detección remota y análisis
con GIS de distribución de artefactos
en superficie en el Castillo de
Huarmey”, en Miłosz Giersz e Iván
Ghezzi (Eds.), Arqueología de la
costa de Ancash. Andes. Boletín del
Centro de Estudios Precolombinos
de la Universidad de Varsovia, Vol. 8.
Varsovia-Lima: Sociedad Polaca de
Estudios Latinoamericanos e
Institut Français d’Études Andines,
pp. 311-326.
Bonavía, Duccio
1980 Los Gavilanes. Precerámico
peruano: mar desierto y oasis en
la historia del hombre. Lima:
Corporación Financiera de
Desarrollo / Instituto Arqueológico
Alemán.
Boytner, Ran
2004 “Clothing the Social World”,
en Silverman, Helaine (Ed.), Andean
Archaeology. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing, pp. 130-145.
Bray, Tamara
2003 Los efectos del imperialismo
incaico en la frontera norte. Quito:
Ediciones Abya Yala-Marka,
Instituto de Historia y Antropología
Andinas.
Bray, Warwick
1993 “Techniques of gilding and
surface enrichment in pre-Hispanic
American Metallurgy”, en La Niece,
Susan, y Paul Craddock (Eds.),
Metal Plating and Patination:
Cultural, Technical and Historical
Developments. Oxford: Butterworth
Heinemann, pp. 182-192.
Bueno Mendoza, Alberto
1979 “Huarmey: la huaquería es un
problema nacional”, Espacio 2: 20-25.
Burger, Richard
2008 “Los señores de los Templos”, en
Makowski, Krzysztof (Comp.), Seño-
res de los Reinos de la Luna. Lima:
Banco de Crédito del Perú, pp. 13-37.
Cabello de Balboa, Miguel
1951 Miscelánea Antártica. Una
historia del Perú antiguo. Prólogo de
Luis E. Valcárcel. Lima: Universidad
Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.
Callañaupa Álvarez, Nilda
2009 Tejiendo en los Andes del Perú,
Soñando diseños, tejiendo recuerdos.
Cuzco: Centro de Textiles del Cuzco.
Callister, William D.
1997 Materials Science and Engi­
neering. An Introduction. Nueva
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Carcedo de Mufarech, Paloma
2007 Oro del Antiguo Perú. Lima:
Unimundo.
2000 “Silver in Precolumbian Peru”,
en King, Heidi, con la colaboración
de Paloma Carcedo de Mufarech
y Luis Jaime Castillo. Rain of the
Moon: Silver in Ancient Peru. Nueva
York: Metropolitan Museum of Art,
pp. 24-29.
Cardoso Oliveira, Mariana
2010 Study of a 9th Century Silver
Earrings Set from Mikulčice: Corro-
sion, Conservation and Maintenance.
Tesis. Lisboa: Universidade Nova
de Lisboa.
Carroll, Maureen y Jane Rempel
2011 Living Through the Dead:
Burial and Commemoration in the
Classical World. Oakville, Conn.:
David Brown Book Company.
Castillo B., Luis Jaime
2012 “Looking at the Wari Empire
from the Outside In”, en Bergh,
Susan E. (Ed.), Wari: lords of the
ancient Andes. Nueva York-Cleve-
land: Thames & Hudson y The
Cleveland Museum of Art, pp. 47-61.
2001 “The last of the Mochicas, a
view from the Jequetepeque Valley”,
en Pillsbury, Joanne (Ed.), Moche
Art and Archaeology in Ancient Peru.
Studies in the History of Art 63.
Washington, D. C: National Gallery
of Art-Center for Advanced Study
of the Visual Arts, pp. 307-332.
2000 “La Presencia de Wari en San
José de Moro”, Boletín de Arqueo-
logía PUCP 4: 143-179.
2000 “The evolution of Ancient
Societes in Ancient Peru”, en King,
Heidi, con la colaboración de Paloma
Carcedo de Mufarech y Luis Jaime
Castillo. Rain of the Moon: Silver in
Ancient Peru. Nueva York: Metropo-
litan Museum of Art, pp. 16-23.
Castillo, Luis Jaime, y Flora Ugaz
1999 “El contexto y la tecnología de
los textiles mochica”, en Lavalle, Jose
Antonio de (Ed.) Tejidos milenarios
del Perú. Lima: AFP Integra, pp. 248.
337
Castillo, Luis Jaime, y Ulla
Holmquist
2000 “Mujeres y poder en la sociedad
mochica tardía”, en Henríquez,
Narda (Ed.), El hechizo de las
imágenes: estatus social, género y
etnicidad en la historia peruana.
Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Ponti-
ficia Universidad Católica del Perú,
pp. 13-34.
Castillo, Luis Jaime, y Carlos E.
Rengifo
2008 “El género y el poder: San José
de Moro”, en Makowski, Krzysztof
(Comp.), Señores de los Reinos de
la Luna. Lima: Banco de Crédito del
Perú, pp. 165-182.
Castillo B., Luis Jaime, Julio
Rucabado Y., Martín del Carpio P.,
Katiusha Bernuy Q., Karim Ruiz R.,
Carlos Rengifo Ch., Gabriel Prieto
B. y Carole Fraresso
2009 “Ideología y poder en la conso­
lidación, colapso y reconstitución del
estado Mochica del Jequetepeque.
El Proyecto Arqueológico San José de
Moro (1991-2006)”, Ñawpa Pacha 29:
1-86.
Castillo, Luis Jaime y Cecilia
Pardo (Eds.)
2009 De cupisnique a los incas.
El arte del valle de Jequetepeque.
Lima: Museo de Arte de Lima.
Castro de la Mata, Pamela
2007 “Tecnologías de cobre dorado y
evidencias de reutilización de piezas
de metal en el cementerio prehis­
pánico de Tablada de Lurín”, en
Lleras Pérez, Roberto (Ed.), Meta-
lurgia en la América antigua: teoría,
arqueología, simbología y tecnología
de los metales prehispánicos. Bogotá-
Lima: Banco de la República-Funda-
ción de Investigaciones Arqueológicas
Nacionales-Instituto Francés de
Estudios Andinos, 253, pp. 481-500.
Castro de la Mata, Pamela, y
María Inés Velarde
2009 “Contextualización y análisis
tecnológico de las piezas de metal
del sitio arqueológico Ancón”,
Arqueología y Sociedad 20: 149-180.
2008 “La tumba de una mujer de
élite Recuay”, en Makowski,
Krzysztof (Comp.), Señores de los
reinos de la Luna. Lima: Banco de
Crédito del Perú, pp. 262-265.
Castro Vásquez, Aquilino
2005 Teresa Apoalaya, “La mujer
muy poderosa Sra. Catalina
Huanca”, procuradora de indios y
ayllus, gran cacica gobernadora
de las parcialidades de Hanan
Huanca, Hatun Xauxa y Urin
Huanca. Chupaca: Edición del Autor.
Cerrón Palomino, Rodolfo
2011 “Contactos y desplazamientos
lingüísticos en los Andes centro-
sureños, el puquina, el aymara y
el quechua”, Boletín de Arqueología
PUCP 14: 255-282.
Chapdelaine, Claude
2010 “Moche and Wari during the
Middle Horizon on the North Coast
of Peru”, en Jennings, Justin (Ed.),
Beyond Wari Walls: Regional
Perspectives on Middle Horizon Peru.
Albuquerque: University of New
Mexico Press, pp. 213-232.
Chapdelaine, Claude, y Víctor
Pimentel
2008 “Personaje de alto rango en
San Juanito, valle de Santa”,
en Makowski, Krzysztof (Comp.),
Señores de los Reinos de la Luna.
Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú,
pp. 248-253.
Chávez, Sergio J.
2004 “The Yaya Mama Religious
Tradition as an antecedent of
Tiwanaku”, en Young-Sánchez,
Margaret (Ed.), Tiwanaku: Ancestors
of the Inca. Denver-Lincoln: Denver
Art Museum-University of Nebraska
Press, pp. 70-93.
1984-85 “Funerary offerings from
a Middle Horizon Context in Poma-
canchi, Cuzco”, Ñawpa Pacha 22-23:
1-48.
Cherkinsky, Alexander, y Gary Urton
2014 “Radiocarbon Chronology of
Andean Khipus”, Open Journal of
Archaeometry, Vol. 2 (5260): 32-36.
Chuchón Ayala, Hilda
2012 Diferencias de género en
prendas wari halladas en contextos
funerarios de Huaca Pucllana. Tesis
para optar el título de Licenciada en
Arqueología. Ayacucho: Universidad
Nacional de San Cristóbal de
Huamanga, Facultad de Ciencias
Sociales.
Cline, Eric H., y Mark W. Graham
2011 Ancient Empires: From
Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Cobo, Bernabé, S. J.
1956 [1653] Historia del Nuevo
Mundo. Mateos, Francisco, S. J.,
(Ed.), Obras del Padre Bernabé
Cobo de la Compañía de Jesús, t. II.
Biblioteca de Autores Españoles,
t. XCII. Madrid: Ediciones Atlas.
Collier, Donald
1962 “Archaeological Investigations
in the Casma Valley, Peru”. Akten des
34 Internationalen Amerikanisten-
kongresses, Wien, 1960. Horn, Viena:
Verlag Ferdinand Berger, pp. 411-417.
Conklin, William J.
1982 “The information system of the
Middle Horizon quipus”, en Aveni,
Anthony F., y Gary Urton (Eds.),
Ethnoastronomy and Archaeoastro-
nomy in the American Tropics.
Nueva York: New York Academy of
Sciences, pp. 261-281.
1979 “Moche Textile Structures”,
en Rowe, Anne Pollard, Elizabeth
Benson y Anne-Louise Schaffer
(Eds.), The Junius B. Bird Precolum-
bian Textile Conference, May 19th
and 20th, 1973. Washington, D.C.:
The Textile Museum y Dumbarton
Oaks, pp. 165-184.
Conlee, Christina A., y Katharina
Schreiber
2006 The role of Intermediate Elites
in the Balkanization and Reforma-
tion of Post-Wari Society in Nazca,
Peru”, en Elson, Christina M., y
R. Alan Covey (Eds.), Intermediate
Elites in Pre-Columbian States and
Empires. Tucson: The University of
Arizona Press, pp. 94-111.
Conrad, Geoffrey W.
1982 “The Burial Platform of
Chanchan: Some Social and Political
Implications”, en Moseley, Michael,
y Kent Day. Chan Chan: Andean
Desert City. Albuquerque: University
of New Mexico Press, pp. 87-117.
Conrad, Geoffrey, y Arthur Demarest
1990 Religión e imperio. Dinámica
en el expansionismo azteca e inca.
México: Alianza Editorial Mexicana.
Cook, Anita G.
2012 “The coming of the staff deity”,
en Bergh, Susan, E. (Ed.), Wari:
Lords of the Ancient Andes. Nueva
York: Thames & Hudson.
2004 “Wari Art and Society”, en
Silverman, Helaine (Ed.), Andean
Archaeology. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing, pp. 146-166.
2001 “Las deidades huari y sus
orígenes altiplánicos”, en Makowski,
Krzysztof (Comp.), Los dioses del
antiguo Perú. Lima: Banco de
Crédito del Perú, pp. 39-65.
1994 Wari y Tiwanaku: entre el estilo
y la imagen. Lima: Fondo Editorial
de la Pontificia Universidad Católica
del Perú.
1992 “The stone ancestors: idioms
of imperial attire and rank among
Huari figurines”, Latin American
Antiquity 3: 341-364.
1984-85 “The Middle Horizon
Ceramic Offerings from Concho-
pata”, Ñawpa Pacha, 22-23: 49-90.
Cook G., Anita, y Nancy. L. Benco
2000 “Vasijas para la fiesta y la
fama: producción artesanal en un
centro urbano Huari”, Boletín de
Arqueología PUCP 4: 489-504.
Cook, Anita G., y Mary Glowacki
2003 “Pots, politics, and power: Wari
ceramic assemblages and imperial
administration”, en Bray, Tamara
L. (Ed.), The archaeology and politics
of food and feasting in early States
and Empires. Nueva York: Kluwer
Academic / Plenum Publishers,
pp. 173-202.
Cook, Anita G., y Tiffiny A. Tung
s. f. “Expressing life through death:
mortuary rituals in Huari society”.
Ponencia presentada en la 71a
reunión anual de la Society for
American Archaeology, San Juan,
2006.
Cordy-Collins, Alana
2001 “Labretted Ladies: Foreign
Women in Northern Moche and
Lambayeque Art”, en Pillsbury,
Joanne (Ed.), Moche Art and
Archaeology in Ancient Peru. Wash-
ington, D.C: National Gallery of Art,
pp. 246-257.
338
Covey, R. Alan
2006 “Intermediate Elite in the Inka
Heartland, A.D. 1000-1500”, en
Elson, Christina M., y R. Alan Covey
(Eds.), Intermediate Elites in Pre-
Columbian States and Empires.
Tucson: The University of Arizona
Press, pp. 112-135.
Cronyn, J. M.
1990 The Elements of Archaeological
Conservation. Londres y Nueva York:
Routledge.
Cummins, Tom
2007 “Queros, Aquillas, Uncus and
Chulpas: The Comparison of Inka
Artistic Expression of Power”, en
Burger, Richard L., Craig Morris
y Ramiro Matos Mendieta (Eds.),
Variations in the Expression of Inka
Power. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton
Oaks, pp. 267-322.
Cumont, Franz
1942 Recherches sur le symbolisme
funéraire des Romains. Haut Comis-
sariat de l’État Français en Syrie
at au Liban, Service des Antiquités,
Bibliothèque archéologique et
historique, tomo XXXV. París:
Librairie Paul Geuthner.
1922 After Life in Roman Paganism.
Lectures delivered at Yale University
on the Silliman Foundation. New
Haven: Yale University Press.
Daggett, Richard E.
2009 “Julio C. Tello: An Account of
His Rise to Prominence in Peruvian
Archaeology”, en Richard. L. Burger
(Ed.), The Life and Writings of Julio
C. Tello: America’s First Indigenous
Archaeologist. Iowa City: University
of Iowa Press, pp. 7-54.
D’Altroy, Terence N.
2003 Los Incas. Barcelona: Editorial
Ariel.
2001 The Incas. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing.
D’Altroy, Terence N., y Katharina
Schreiber
2004 “Andean Empires”, en
Silverman, Helaine (Ed.), Andean
Archaeology. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing, pp. 255-279.
Day, Kent C.
1982 “Storage and labor service:
a production and management
design for the Andean area”, en
Moseley, Michael E., y Kent C. Day
(Eds.), Chan Chan: Andean Desert
City. Albuquerque: University
of New Mexico, pp. 333-352.
De Bock, Edward K., y R. Tom
Zuidema
1990 “Cohérence mathématique dans
l’art andin. Vers un modèle global
pour l’analyse de l’iconographie
andine”, en Purin, Sergio (Ed.),
Inca-Peru, 3000 mil ans d’histoire.
Bruselas: Musée royaux d’Art et
d’Histoire, Imschoot, uitgeverssa,
pp. 460-469.
DeLeonardis, Lisa, y George F. Lau
2004 “Life, Death and Ancestors”,
en Silverman, Helaine (Ed.), Andean
Archaeology. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing, pp.77-115.
Dentzer, Jean Marie
1982 Le motif du banquet couché
dans le Proche Orient et le monde
grec du VIIIème au IVème siècle
avant J.C. Roma: Bibliothèque des
Écoles Françaises d’Athène et de
Rome, fascículo 246.
Dillehay, Tom D.
2001 “Town and country in late
Moche times: a view from two
Northern Valleys”, en Pillsbury,
Joanne (Ed.), Moche Art and
Archaeology in Ancient Peru. Studies
in the History of Art 63. Washington,
D. C.: National Gallery of Art-Center
for advanced study of the Visual
Arts, pp. 259-283.
Donnan, Christopher
1995 “Moche Funerary Practice”,
en Dillehay, Tom (Ed.), Tombs for the
Livivng: Andean Mortuary Practices.
Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks
Research Library and Collection,
pp. 11-160.
1968 The Moche Occupation of
the Santa Valley. Tesis doctoral.
Los Ángeles: Departamento de
Antropología, Universidad de
California, Berkeley.
1968 “An association of Middle
Horizon Epoch 2A Specimens of the
Chicama Valley”, Ñawpa Pacha 6:
15-18.
Donnan, Christopher, y Luis Jaime
Castillo
1994 “Excavaciones de tumbas de
sacerdotisas moche en San José de
Moro, Jequetepeque”, en Uceda,
Santiago, y Elías Mujica (Eds.),
Moche propuestas y perspectivas,
Actas del Primer Coloquio sobre
la Cultura Moche, Trujillo, 12 a 16
de abril de 1993. Trujillo-Lima:
Universidad Nacional de La
Libertad-Instituto Francés de
Estudios Andinos, pp. 415-424.
Dumais, France-Éliane
2004 “La tecnología de los tejidos
mochica no decorados en el valle
de Santa, costa norte del Perú”, en
Castillo, Luis Jaime, Hélène Bernier,
Gregory Lockard y Julio Rucabado
(Eds.), Arqueología mochica, nuevos
enfoques. Actas del 1er Congreso
Internacional de Jóvenes Investiga-
dores de la Cultura Mochica. Lima:
Instituto Francés de Estudios
Andinos y Fondo Editorial de la
Pontificia Universidad Católica del
Perú, pp. 131-152.
Ebert, Virginia, y Thomas C.
Patterson
2007 “Gender in South American
Archeology”, en Nelson, Sarah
Milledge (Ed.), Worlds of Gender:
The Archaeology of Women’s Lives
Around the Globe. Lanham: Altamira
Press, pp. 259-280.
Falcón Huayta, Víctor, y Rosa
Martínez Navarro
2009 “Un tambor de cuero pintado
del Museo Nacional de Arqueología,
Antropología e Historia del Perú”,
Anales del Museo de América 16:
9-28.
Flores Espinoza, Isabel
2013 “Los wari en Pucllana”, en
Flores Espinoza, Isabel (Comp.),
Los Wari en Pucllana. La tumba
de un sacerdote. Lima: Ministerio
de Cultura, pp.17-86.
Fonseca Santa Cruz, Javier
2011 “El rostro oculto de Espíritu
Pampa, Vilcabamba, Cusco”,
Arqueología Iberoamericana 10: 3-7
(http://www.laiesken.net/
arqueologia/).
Ford, James A.
1949 “Cultural dating of prehistoric
sites in Virú Valley, Peru”, en Ford,
James A., y Gordon R. Willey (Eds.),
Surface survey of the Virú valley,
Peru. Anthropological Papers of the
American Museum of Natural
History, Vol. 43, Pt. 1. Nueva York:
American Museum of Natural
History, pp. 66-69.
France-Lanord, Albert
1996 “Knowing How to ‘Question’ the
Object Before Restoring It”, en Price,
Nicholas Stanley, M. Kirby Talley
Jr. y Alessandra Melucco Vaccaro
(Eds.), Historical and Philosophical
Issues in the Conservation of
Cultural Heritage. Los Ángeles:
The Getty Conservation Institute,
pp. 244-247.
Franco, Régulo
2008 “La Señora de Cao”, en
Makowski, Krzysztof (Comp.),
Señores de los Reinos de la Luna.
Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú,
pp. 280-287.
Franco, Régulo, y Ponciano Paredes
2000 “El Templo Viejo de Pacha-
camac: nuevos aportes al estudio
del Horizonte Medio”, Boletín de
Arqueología PUCP 4: 607-630.
Fundación Amano
s. f. “Yoshitaro Amano. 1898-1998”.
Lima: Fundación Amano.
García Márquez, Manuel, y Rosa
Bustamante Montoro
1990 “Arqueología del valle de
Majes”, Gaceta Arqueológica Andina,
18/19: 25-40.
Garcilaso de la Vega, Inca
1991 Comentarios Reales de los
Incas. Edición, prólogo, índice
analítico y glosario de Carlos
Araníbar. México, D. F.: Fondo de
Cultura Económica
Garland, Robert
1985 The Greek Way of Death. Ithaca,
N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Garrett, David
2009 Sombras del imperio. La
nobleza indígena del Cuzco, 1750-
1825. Lima: Instituto de Estudios
Peruanos.
339
Gero, Joan M.
2001 “Field Knots and Ceramic
Beaus: Interpreting Gender in the
Peruvian Early Intermediate
Period”, en Klein, Cecelia F. (Ed.),
Gender in Pre-Hispanic America.
Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks,
pp. 15-55.
1991 “Genderlithics: Women’s Roles
in Stone Tool Produccion”, en Gero,
Joan M., y Margaret W. Conkey
(Eds.), Engendering Archeology:
Women and Prehistory. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing, pp. 163-193.
Giersz, Milosz
2007 La frontera sur del Estado
Moche y el problema de la adminis-
tración Wari en la costa norcentral
del Perú. Tesis doctoral inédita.
Varsovia: Instituto de Arqueología,
Universidad de Varsovia.
Giersz, Milosz, y Patrycja Przadka
Giersz
2009 “Cronología cultural y patrones
de asentamiento prehispánico en el
valle del río Culebras”, ARKEOS.
Revista Electrónica de Arqueología
11 (http://mileto.pucp.edu.pe/arkeos/
content/view/232/68/).
2008 “Cronología cultural y patrones
de asentamiento prehispánico en
el valle del río Culebras, costa
norcentral del Perú”, en Kozlowski,
Janusz K., y Jaroslaw Zralka (Eds.),
Polish Contributions In New World
Archaeology, New Series, fasc. 1.
Cracovia: Polish Academy of Arts
and Sciences, Jagiellonian Univer-
sity, Institute of Archaeology.
Glowacki, Mary
2005 “Pottery from Pikillacta”, en
McEwan, Gordon (Ed.). Pikillacta:
The Wari Empire in Cuzco. Iowa
City: University of Iowa Press,
pp. 101-114.
2005 “Dating Pikillacta”, en
McEwan, Gordon (Ed.). Pikillacta:
The Wari Empire in Cuzco. Iowa
City: University of Iowa Press,
pp. 115-124.
2002 “The Huaro Archaeological
Site Complex: Rethinking the Huari
Occupation of Cuzco”, en Isbell,
William H., y Helaine Silverman
(Eds.), Andean Archaeology,
I. Variations in Sociopolitical
Organization. Nueva York: Kluwer
Academic-Plenum Publishers,
pp. 267-285.
Gómez Moral, Francisca
2004 Conservación de metales de
interés cultural. Quito: Banco
Central de Ecuador.
Gordon Childe, Vere
1954 What happened in history?
Nueva York: Penguin Books.
Grieder, Terence
1978 The Art and Archaeology of
Pashash. Austin: University of Texas
Press.
Guamán Poma de Ayala, Felipe
1980 [1615] El primer nueva
corónica y buen gobierno. Edición
crítica de John V. Murra y Rolena
Adorno, traducciones y análisis
textual del quechua de Jorge L.
Urioste. México D.F.: Siglo Veintiuno
Editores.
Haas, Jonathan
1985 “Excavations on Huaca Grande:
an initial view of the elite of Pampa
Grande”, Journal of Field Archeology
12 (4): 391-409.
Haas, Jonathan, Jane E. Buikstra,
Douglas H. Ubelaker y David
Aftandilian
1994 Standards for Data Collection
from Human Skeletal Remains:
Proceedings of a Seminar at The
Field Museum of Natural History
organized by Jonathan Haas.
Fayetteville, Ark.: Arkansas Archaeo-
logical Survey Research Series
No. 44.
Hastorf, Christine
2003 “Andean luxury foods: special
food for the ancestors, deities and
the élite”, Antiquity 77 (297):
545-554.
Hayashida, Frances
1994 “Producción cerámica en el
Imperio Inca: una visión global y
nuevos datos”, en Shimada, Izumi
(Ed.), Tecnología y organización de
la producción cerámica prehispánica
en los Andes. Lima: Fondo Editorial
de la Pontificia Universidad Católica
del Perú, pp. 443-474.
Hirth, Kenneth G., y Joanne
Pillsbury (Eds.)
2013 Merchants, Markets and
Exchange in the Pre-Columbian
World. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton
Oaks.
Hoces de la Guardia, María Soledad,
y Paulina Brugnoli
2006 Manual de técnicas textiles
andinas: terminaciones. Santiago
de Chile: Consejo Nacional de la
Cultura y las Artes: Fondo Nacional
de Fomento del Libro y la Lectura/
Museo Nacional de Arte Precolom-
bino.
Hocquenghem, Anne Marie, y
Patricia J. Lyon
1980 “A Class of Anthropomorphic
Supernatural Female in Moche
Iconography”, Ñawpa Pacha 18:
27-50.
Holmquist, Ulla
1992 El personaje mítico femenino
en la iconografía moche. Memoria de
bachillerato. Lima: Fondo Editorial
de la Pontificia Universidad Católica
del Perú.
Horkheimer Hans
1965 “Identificación y bibliografía
de importantes sitios prehispánicos
del Perú”, Arqueológicas 8: 1-51.
Isbell, William H.
2011 “La arqueología wari y la
dispersión del quechua”, Boletín de
Arqueología PUCP 14: 199-220.
2006 “Landscape of Power: A
Network of Palaces in Middle
Horizon Peru”, en Christie, Jessica
Joyce, y Patricia Joan Sarro (Eds.),
Palaces and Power in the Americas.
From Peru to the Northwest Coast.
Austin: University of Texas Press,
pp. 44-98.
2004 “Mortuary preferences:
a Wari culture case study from
Middle Horizon Peru”, Latin
American Antiquity 15 (1): 3-32.
2001 “Reflexiones finales”, Boletín de
Arqueología PUCP 5: 455-479.
2001 “Huari y Tiahuanaco. Arqui­
tectura, identidad y religión”, en
Makowski, Krzysztof (Comp.),
Dioses del Antiguo Perú, Vol. 2. Lima:
Banco de Crédito del Perú, pp. 1-37.
2000 “Repensando el Horizonte
Medio: el caso de Conchopata,
Ayacucho, Perú”, Boletín de Arqueo-
logía PUCP 4: 9-68.
1997 Mummies and Mortuary
Monuments. A Postprocessual
Pre­history of Central Andean Social
Organization. Austin: University
of Texas Press.
1991 “Conclusion: Huari Administra-
tion and the Orthogonal Cellular
Architecture Horizon”, en Isbell,
William H., y Gordon McEwan
(Eds.), Huari Administrative
Structure: Prehistoric Monumental
Architecture and State Government.
Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks,
pp.293-315.
1991 “Honcopampa: Monumental
Ruins in Peru’s North Highlands”,
Expedition 3 (33): 27-37.
1988 “City and State in Middle
Horizon Huari”, en Keatinge,
Richard W. (Ed.), Peruvian Prehis-
tory. An Overview of pre-Inca and
Inca Society. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 164-189.
1984-85 “Conchopata, Ideological
Innovator in Middle Horizon 1 A”,
Ñawpa Pacha 22-23: 49-90.
Isbell, William H., Christine
Brewster-Wray y Lynda E. Spickard
1991 “Architecture and Spatial
Organization at Huari”, en Isbell,
William H., y Gordon F. McEwan
(Eds.), Huari Administrative
Structure and State Government.
Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks,
pp. 27-33.
Isbell, William H., y Anita G. Cook
2002 “A New Perspective on
Conchopata and the Andean Middle
Horizon”, en Silverman, Helaine,
y William H. Isbell (Eds.), Andean
Archaeology Vol. II: Art, Landscape
and Society. Nueva York: Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers,
pp. 249-305.
Isbell, William H., y Patricia J.
Knobloch
2009 “SAIS: The Origin, Develop-
ment, and Dating of Tiahuanaco-
Huari Iconography”, en Young-
Sánchez, Margaret (Ed.), Tiwanaku:
Papers from the 2005 Mayer Center
Symposium at the Denver Art
Museum. Denver: Denver Art
Museum, pp. 165-210.
340
2006 “Missing Links, Imaginary
Links: Staff God Imagery in the
South Andean Past”, en: Isbell,
William H., y Helaine Silverman
(Eds.), Andean Archaeology III:
North and South. Nueva York:
Springer, pp. 307-351.
Isbell, William H., y Antti Korpisaari
2012 “Burial in the Wari and the
Tiwanaku heartlands: similarities,
differences, and meanings”, Diálogo
Andino. Revista de Historia,
Geografía y Cultura Andina 39:
91-122.
Isbell, William H., y Gordon McEwan
(Eds.)
1991 Huari Administrative
Structure: Prehistoric Monumental
Architecture and State Government.
Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks.
Janusek, John W.
2010 “El surgimiento del urbanismo
en Tiwanaku y del poder político en
el altiplano andino”, en Makowski,
Krzysztof (Comp.), Señores de los
Imperios del Sol. Lima: Banco de
Crédito del Perú, pp. 39-56.
2008 Ancient Tiwanaku. Case
Studies in Early Societies. Nueva
York: Cambridge University Press.
Jennings, Justin (Ed.)
2010 Beyond Wari Walls: Regional
Perspectives on Middle Horizon Peru.
Albuquerque: University of New
Mexico Press.
Jones, Sîan
1996 “Discourses of identity in the
interpretation of the past”, en
Graves-Brown, Paul, y Clive Gamble
(Eds.), Cultural Identity and
Archaeology: The Construction of
European Communities. Londres-
Nueva York: Routledge, pp. 62-80.
Kardoulias, Nick
1999 World-System Theory in
Practice: Leadership, Production and
Exchange. Lanham: Rowman and
Littlefield.
Kaulicke, Peter
2000 Memoria y muerte en el Perú
antiguo. Lima: Fondo Editorial de
la Pontificia Universidad Católica
del Perú.
2000 “La sombra de Pachacamac:
Huari en la costa central”, Boletín
de Arqueología PUCP 4: 313-358.
1997 Contextos funerarios de Ancón.
Esbozo de una síntesis analítica.
Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Ponti-
ficia Universidad Católica del Perú.
1983 Gräber von Ancón, Peru.
Materialien zur Allgemeinen und
Vergleichenden Archäologie, Band 7.
Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck.
Keatinge, Richard W.
1988 “Preface”, en Keatinge, Richard
W. (Ed.), Peruvian Prehistory.
An Overview of pre-Inca and Inca
Society. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. XIII-XVII.
King, Heidi, Paloma Carcedo de
Mufarech y Luis Jaime Castillo
2000 Rain of the Moon: Silver in
Ancient Peru. Nueva York:
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Knobloch, Patricia J.
2013 “Archives in Clay: The Styles
and Stories of Wari Ceramic Arts”,
en Bergh, Susan E. (Ed.), Wari Lords
of the Ancient Andes. Nueva York:
Thames & Hudson, pp. 122-143.
2010 “La imagen de los señores de
Huari y la recuperación de una iden-
tidad antigua”, en Makowski,
Krzysztof (Comp.), Los señores de los
imperios del Sol. Lima: Banco de
Crédito, pp. 197-209.
s. f. “Who Was Who? In the Middle
Horizon Andean Prehistory”. Con-
sultado 4/2008 en http://www-rohan.
sdsu.edu/~bharley/WWWHome.html.
Knudson, Kelly J., William J. Pestle,
Christina Torres-Rouff y Gonzalo
Pimentel
2012 “Assessing the Life History
of an Andean Traveler through
Biogeochemistry: Stable and Radio-
genic Isotope Analyses of Archaeo­
logical Human Remains from
Northern Chile”, International
Journal of Osteoarchaeology 22(4):
435-451.
Knudson, Kelly J., y Tiffiny A. Tung
2011 “Investigating Regional
Mobility in the Southern Hinterland
of the Wari Empire: Biogeochemistry
at the Site of Beringa, Peru.”
American Journal of Physical
Anthropology 145(2): 299-310.
Korpisaari, Antti, y Martti Parssinen
2005 Pariti: isla, misterio y poder.
El tesoro cerámico de la cultura
Tiwanaku. La Paz: CIMA.
Kroeber, Alfred L.
1930 Archaeological Explorations
in Peru II: The Northern Coast.
Anthropological Memoirs, Vol. 2,
No. 2. Chicago: Field Museum of
Natural History, pp. 53-116.
1925 The Uhle Pottery Collection
from Moche. University of California
Publications in American Archaeo-
logy and Ethnology 21 (5). Berkeley:
University of California Press,
pp. 191-234.
Laneri, Nicola (Ed.)
2008 Performing Death. Social
analyses of funerary traditions in
the Ancient Near East and Medite-
rranean. Chicago: The Oriental
Institute.
Lapiner, Alan
1976 Pre-Columbian Art of South
America. Nueva York: Harry
N. Abrams.
Larsen, Clark Spencer, Rebecca
Shavit y Mark C. Griffin
1991 “Dental Caries Evidence for
Dietary Change: An Archaeological
Context”, en Kelley, Mark A., y Clark
Spencer Larsen (Eds.), Advances
in dental anthropology. Nueva York:
Wiley-Liss, pp.179-202.
Lau, George
2013 Ancient Alterity in the Andes.
Londres-Nueva York: Routledge.
2011 “Culturas y lenguas antiguas
de la sierra nor-central del Perú:
una investigación arqueolingüística”,
Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 14:
141-164.
2001 The ancient community of
Chinchawas: economy and ceremony
in the north highlands of Peru. Tesis
doctoral. New Haven: Universidad
de Yale.
Lechtman, Heather
2005 “Arsenic Bronze at Pikillacta”,
en McEwan, Gordon (Ed.), Pikillacta:
The Wari Empire in Cuzco. Iowa
City: University of Iowa Press,
pp. 131-146.
2003 “Middle Horizon Bronze:
Centers and Outliers”, en Lambertus
van Zelst (Ed.), Patterns and Process:
a Festschrift in honor of Dr. Edward
V. Sayre. Suitland: Smithsonian
Center for Materials Research and
Education, pp. 248-268.
Lockard, Gregory D.
2008 “A view of Galindo: results of
the Galindo Archeological Project”,
en Castillo Butters, Luis Jaime,
Hélène Bernier, Gregory Lockard
y Julio Rucabado Yong (Eds.),
Arqueología mochica. Nuevos
enfoques. Actas del Primer Congreso
Internacional de Jóvenes Investiga-
dores de la Cultura Mochica. Lima,
4 y 5 de agosto de 2004. Actes &
Mémoires de l’Institut Français
d’Études Andines, tomo 21. Lima:
Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia
Universidad de Católica del Perú/
Instituto Francés de Estudios
Andinos, pp. 275-294.
Lumbreras, Luis Guillermo
2007 El imperio Wari. Lima:
Ediciones Altazor.
1994 “Las excavaciones en Sipán”,
en Alva, Walter, Sipán. Colección
Cultura y Artes del Perú, edición
dirigida por José Antonio de Lavalle.
Lima: Cervería Backus & Johnston
S.A.
1987 “Childe and the Urban Revo­
lution: The Central Andean Expe-
rience”, en: Manzanilla, Linda (Ed.),
Studies in the Neolithic and Urban
Revolution: The Gordon V. Childe
Colloquium, (Mexico 1986). Londres:
BAR International Series 349.
1985 “El imperio Wari”, en Historia
del Perú, Tomo II. Lima: Editorial
Juan Mejía Baca, pp. 11-91.
1960 “La cultura Wari”, Etnología
y Arqueología 1, no. 1: 130-227.
Lyon, Patricia
1978 “Female Supernaturals in
Ancient Peru”, Ñawpa Pacha 16:
95-140.
341
Mackey, Carol
2006 “Elite Residence at Farfán.
A Comparison of the Chimú and
Inka Occupations”, en Christie,
Jessica Joyce, y Patricia Joan Sarro
(Eds.), Palaces and Power in the
Americas. From Peru to the
Northwest Coast. Austin: University
of Texas, pp. 313-352.
Mackey, Carol, y Melissa Vogel
2003 “La luna sobre los Andes: una
revisión del animal lunar”, en Uceda,
Santiago, y Elías Mujica (Eds.),
Moche: hacia el final del milenio.
Lima-Trujillo: Fondo Editorial de
la Pontificia Universidad Católica
del Perú-Universidad Nacional de
Trujillo, pp. 325-342.
MacNeish, Richard, et al. (Eds.)
1981 Prehistory of the Ayacucho
Basin, Vol. 2. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press.
Makowski, Krzysztof
2013 “La imagen del mundo natural,
la iconografía textil y el ejercicio del
poder en Tiahuanaco”, en Sánchez
Paredes, José, y Marco Curatola
Petrocchi (Eds.), Los rostros de la
tierra encantada. Religión, evange­
lización y sincretismo en el Nuevo
Mundo, Homenaje a Manuel Marzal,
S. J. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la
Pontificia Universidad Católica del
Perú-Instituto Francés de Estudios,
pp. 670-724.
2012 “Ciudad y Centro ceremonial: el
reto conceptual del urbanismo
andino”, Annual Papers of the
Anthropological Institute 2: 1-66
(en japonés: traducción Shinya
Watanabe; en español:
http://www.ic.nanzanu.ac.jp/
JINRUIKEN/publication/index.html).
2012 “Animales en la ‘heráldica’
del Imperio: símbolos de identidad
y poder huari-tiahuanaco”, Journal
of Cultural Symbiosis Research 7:
87-127.
2011 “Horizontes y cambios lingüís-
ticos en la prehistoria de los Andes
centrales”, Boletín de Arqueología
PUCP 14: 95-122.
2010 “Vestido, arquitectura y
mecanismos del poder en el Hori-
zonte Medio”, en Makowski,
Krzysztof (Comp.), Señores de los
Imperios del Sol. Lima: Banco de
Crédito del Perú, pp. 57-71.
2010 “Los hombres guerreros, las
mujeres alfareras: cambios sociales
tras el ocaso de Chavín”, en
Makowski, Krzysztof (Ed.), Señores
de los Imperios del Sol. Lima:
Banco de Crédito, pp. 1-18.
2009 “Virú-Moche Relations: Techno-
logical Identity, Stylistic Preferences,
and the Ethnic Identity of Ceramic
Manufacturers and Users”, en: Jean-
Francois Millaire y Magali Morlion
(eds.) Gallinazo: an early cultural
tradition on the Peruvian North
Coast. Los Ángeles: Cotsen Institute
of Archaeology, University of Cali-
fornia Press, pp.17-32.
2009 “Royal Statues, Staff Gods, and
the Religious Ideology of the Prehis-
toric State of Tiwanaku”,
en: Young-Sánchez, Margaret (Ed.),
Tiwanaku: Papers from the 2005
Mayer Center Symposium at the
Denver Art Museum. Denver:
Denver Art Museum, pp. 133-164.
2008 “Andean Urbanism”, en
Silverman, Helaine, y William H.
Isbell, Handbook of South American
Archaeology. Nueva York: Springer,
pp. 633-657.
2005 “Deificación frente a ancestra­
lización del gobernante en el Perú
prehispánico: Sipán y Paracas”, en
Arqueología, geografía e historia.
Aportes peruanos en el 50° Congreso
de Americanistas, Varsovia - Polonia
2000. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la
Pontificia Universidad Católica del
Perú - Promperú, pp. 39-80.
2004 Primeras Civilizaciones.
Enciclopedia Temática del Perú,
vol. IX. Lima: Empresa Editora
El Comercio, pp. 132-182.
2001 “Los personajes frontales de
báculos en la iconografía Tiahuanaco
y Huari: ¿tema o convención?”,
Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 5:
337-373.
2001 “El panteón tiahuanaco y las
deidades con báculos”, en Makowski,
Krzysztof (Comp.), Los dioses del
antiguo Perú. Lima: Banco de
Crédito del Perú, pp. 67-110.
s. f. “Huari, Tiahuanaco, y SAIS:
lo local y lo foráneo en la iconografía
del Imperio”. Ponencia presentada
en el coloquio de Dumbarton Oaks,
el Instituto Cotsen de Arqueología-
UCLA, el Departamento de Antro­
pología de la Universidad de Chile
y la Universidad del Estado de
Nueva York-Binghamton, en
Santiago de Chile, 15-17 de marzo
de 2007 (en prensa).
s. f. “Pachacamac y la política McEwan, Gordon (Ed.)
imperial inca”. Ponencia presentada
2005 Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in
en el Simposio Internacional “Los
Cuzco. Iowa City: University of Iowa
Secretos del Inca”, Jerusalén, 7 de
Press.
mayo de 2012.
s. f. “Staff Winged Gods and Noble
McGuire, Randall H.
Ancestors of the Wari Empire’s
Lords”. Ponencia presentada en la 2002 A Marxist Archaeology.
reunión anual de la Society for Nueva York: Percheron Press.
American Archaeology, Simposio
“Wari and the Middle Horizon in Mendizábal, Emilio
the Andes: Papers in Honor of Bill
Isbell”, Honolulu, 4-5 de abril de 1990 Continuidad cultural y
2013. Manuscrito en posesión del textilería en Pachitea andina.
autor. Lima: CONCYTEC.
Menzel, Dorothy
Makowski, Krzysztof, y Pamela
Castro de la Mata 1968 “New Data on the Huari
Empire in Middle Horizon Epoch
2000 “Buscando los orígenes de
2A”, Ñawpa Pacha 6: 47-114.
la metalurgia compleja en las
Américas: los cementerios prehis­ 1964 “Style and Time in the Middle
pánicos de Tablada de Lurín”. Horizon”, Ñawpa Pacha 2: 1-106.
Íconos Revista Peruana de Conserva-
ción, Arte y Arqueología 3: 38-48.
Meyers, Albert
2007 “Toward a Reconceptualization
Makowski, Krzysztof, Iván Ghezzi,
of the Late Horizon and the Inka
Héctor Neff, Daniel Guerrero,
Period. Perspectives from Cochasqui,
Milagritos Jiménez, Gabriela Oré
Ecuador and Samaipata, Bolivia”,
y Rosabella Álvarez Calderón
en Burger, Richard L., Craig Morris
2011 “Redes de producción e y Ramiro Matos Mendieta (Eds.),
intercambio en el Horizonte Tardío: Variations in the Expression of Inka
caracterización con LA-TOF-ICP-MS Power. Washington D.C.: Dumbarton
e INAA de arcilla y estilos cerámicos Oaks, pp. 223-254.
en la costa central del Perú”, en
Vetter, Luis, Rafael Vega Centeno,
Millaire, Jean François
Paula Olivera y Susana Patrick,
II Congreso Latinoamericano de 2002 Moche Burial Patterns: An
Arqueometría. Lima: Instituto Investigation into Prehispanic Social
Peruano de Energía Nuclear (IPEN)- Structure. Oxford: BAR International
Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería Series 1066, Archeopress.
(UNI), pp. 263-276.
Ministerio de Cultura
Makowski, Krzysztof, y Carla
2013 Paracas. Lima, Museo Nacional
Hernández
de Arqueología, Antropología e
2010 “Las casas del Sapa Inka”, Historia del Perú. Ministerio de
en Makowski, Krzysztof (Comp.), Cultura.
Señores de los Imperios del Sol.
Lima: Banco de Crédito, pp. 173-184.
Mogrovejo, Juan, y Rafael Segura
2000 “El Horizonte Medio en el
McEwan, Gordon F.
Conjunto Arquitectónico Julio C.
2005 “Conclusion. The Function Tello de Cajamarquilla”, Boletín
of Pikillacta”, en McEwan, Gordon de Arqueología PUCP 4: 565-582.
F. (Ed.), Pikillacta: The Wari Empire
in Cuzco. Iowa City: University of
Moore, Henrietta
Iowa Press, pp. 147-164.
1995 A Passion for Difference. Essays
1998 “The Function of Niched Halls
in Anthropology and Gender. Bloom-
in Wari Architecture”. Latin
ington: Indiana University Press.
American Antiquity 9 (1): 68-86.
342
Morris, Ellen F.
2008 “Sacrifice for the State. First
Dynasty Royal Funerals and the
Rites at Macramallah’s Rectangle”,
en Laneri, Nicola (Ed.), Performing
Death. Social analyses of funerary
traditions in the Ancient Near
East and Mediterranean. Chicago:
The Oriental Institute, 2008,
pp. 15-37.
Moseley, Michael E., y James
B. Richardson III
1992 “Doomed by natural disaster”,
Archaeology 45 (6): 44-45.
Mujica Barreda, Elías, (Ed.)
2007 El Brujo: Huaca Cao, centro
ceremonial Moche en el valle de
Chicama/El Brujo: Huaca Cao,
A Moche Ceremonial Center in the
Chicama Valley. Lima: Fundación
Wiese, pp. 209-245.
Murra, John V.
1962 “Cloth and its Functions in the
Inca State”, American Anthro­pologist
64: 710-728.
1962 “La función del tejido en varios
contextos sociales en el estado inca”,
en Actas y Trabajos del II Congreso
Nacional de Historia
del Perú (época prehispánica),
4-9 de agosto de 1958, Vol. II. Lima,
pp. 215-240.
Murúa, Martín de
2008 Historia general del Piru
and The Getty Murua. Facsimile
of J. Paul Getty Museum Ms. Ludwig
XIII 16. Edición de Thomas B. F.
Cummins y Barbara Anderson.
Santa Mónica: Getty Publishing.
Nelson, Andrew, y Luis Jaime
Castillo
1997 “Huesos a la deriva. Tafonomía
y tratamiento funerario en entierros
Mochica Tardío de San José de
Moro”, Boletín de Arqueología PUCP,
vol. 1: 137-163.
Ochatoma Paravicino, José
2007 Alfareros del Imperio Huari:
vida cotidiana y áreas de actividad
en Conchopata. Ayacucho: Univer-
sidad Nacional de San Cristóbal
de Huamanga, Facultad de Ciencias
Sociales.
Ochatoma Paravicino, José, y
Martha Cabrera Romero
2002 “Religious Ideology and
Military Organization in the Icono-
graphy of a D-Shaped Ceremonial
Precinct at Conchopata”, en
Silverman, Helaine, y William H.
Isbell (Eds.), Andean Archaeology II:
Art, Landscape, and Society.
Nueva York: Kluwer Academic/
Plenum Publishers, pp. 225-247.
2001 “Ideología religiosa y organi­
zación militar en la iconografía del
área ceremonial de Conchopata”,
en Wari: arte precolombino peruano.
Sevilla: Centro Cultural el Monte,
pp. 173-211.
Onuki, Yoshio (Ed.)
1995 Kuntur Wasi y Cerro Blanco.
Dos sitios del Formativo en el Norte
del Perú. Tokio: Hokusen-Sha.
Onuki, Yoshio, y Kinya Inokuchi
2011 Gemelos prístinos. El tesoro
del templo de Kuntur Wasi.
Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso
del Perú-Minera Yanacocha.
Pardo, Cecilia
2009 “De lo privado a lo público.
La formación de colecciones
pre­colombinas en el MALI”, en
Castillo, Luis Jaime y Cecilia Pardo
(eds.) De Cupisnique a los incas.
El arte del valle de Jequetepeque.
Lima: Museo de Arte de Lima,
pp. 27-33.
Paredes, Juan, Berenice Quintana
y Moisés Linares
2000 “Tumbas de la época Wari
en el Callejón de Huaylas, Ancash”,
Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 4:
449-488.
Pärssinen, Martti
2003 Tawantinsuyu: el estado inca
y su organización política. Lima:
Instituto Francés de Estudios
Andinos-Fondo Editorial de la
Pontificia Universidad Católica del
Perú.
Patterson, Thomas
2003 Marx’s Ghost. Conversations
with archaeologists. Oxford: Berg.
Pérez, Ismael
2000 “Estructuras megalíticas fune-
rarias en el complejo Huari”, Boletín
de Arqueología PUCP 4: 505-548.
Peters, Ann
2010 “Paracas: Liderazgo social,
memoria histórica y lo sagrado en
la necrópolis de Wari Kayan”, en
Makowski, Krzysztof (Ed.), Señores
de los Imperios del Sol. Lima:
Ediciones Banco de Crédito,
pp. 211-221.
Pillsbury, Joan
2008 “Los palacios de Chimor”,
en Makowski, Krzysztof (Comp.),
Los señores de los reinos de la Luna.
Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú,
pp. 201-222.
2004 “The Concept of the Palace in
the Andes”, en Evans, Susan Toby,
y Joan Pillsbury (Eds.), Palaces of
the Ancient New World. Washington,
D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 181 -190.
Plenderleith, H. J.
1962 The Conservation of Antiquities
and Works of Art, Treatment, Repair
and Restoration. Londres: Oxford
University Press.
Pollock, Susan
2008 “Death of a Household”, en
Laneri, Nicola (Ed.), Performing
Death. Social analyses of funerary
traditions in the Ancient Near East
and Mediterranean. Chicago: The
Oriental Institute, pp. 209-222.
Ponce Sanginés, Carlos
1972 Tiwanaku: espacio, tiempo y
cultura. La Paz: Academia Nacional
de Ciencias de Bolivia.
Ponte, Víctor M.
2000 “Transformación social y
política en el Callejón de Huaylas,
siglos III-X d.C.”, Boletín de
Arqueología PUCP 4: 219-251.
Pozzi-Escot, Denise, y Rommel
Ángeles
2011 Entrelazando el pasado,
textiles de Huaca Malena. Lima:
Universidad Nacional Mayor de
San Marcos.
Protzen, Jean-Pierre, y Stella Nair
2013 The Stones of Tiahuanaco.
A Study of Architecture and
Construction. Los Ángeles: Cotsen
Institute of Archaeology at UCLA.
2001 “Pumapunku: plataformas y
portales”, Boletín de Arqueología
PUCP 5: 337-373.
Proulx, Donald A.
1973 “Archaeological investigations
in the Nepeña Valley, Peru”.
Research Report Number 13.
Amherst: Department of Anthro­
pology, University of Massachusetts.
1968 “An archaeological survey of
the Nepeña Valley, Peru”. Research
Report Number 2. Amherst: Univer-
sity of Massachusetts, Department
of Anthropology.
Prümers, Heiko
2000 “‘El Castillo’ de Huarmey:
una plataforma funeraria del
Horizonte Medio”, Boletín de Arqueo-
logía PUCP 4: 289-312.
1995 Un tejido Moche excepcional de
la Tumba del “Señor de Sipán” (Valle
de Lambayeque Perú). Beiträge zur
Allgemeinen und Vergleichenden
Archäeologie 15. Mainz: Kommission
fur Allgemeine und Vergleichende
Archäeologie.
1990 Der Fundort ‘El Castillo’ in
Huarmeytal, Peru. Ein Beitrag zum
Problem des Moche- Huari Textilstils.
Mundus Reihe Alt-Amerikanistik.
Band 4. Bonn: Holos Verlag.
Przadka Giersz, Patrycja
2011 “La presencia Casma, Chimú
e Inca en el valle de Culebras”, en
Giersz, Milosz, e Iván Ghezzi (Eds.),
Arqueología de la costa de Ancash.
Boletín del Centro de Estudios
Precolombinos de la Universidad de
Varsovia, 8. Varsovia-Lima: Centro
de Estudios Precolombinos de la
Universidad de Varsovia-Instituto
Francés de Estudios Andinos, pp.
321-349.
Przadka, Patrycja, y Milosz Giersz
2003 Sitios arqueológicos de la zona
del valle de Culebras, Vol. I: Valle
bajo. Varsovia: Sociedad Polaca de
Estudios Latinoamericanos/Misión
Arqueológica Andina.
343
Reiss, Wilhelm, y Alphons Stübel
1880-87 The Necropolis of Ancon in
Peru: a contribution to our knowledge
of the culture and industries of the
empire of the Incas. Berlín: A. Asher
& Co.
Renfrew, Colin, y Paul Bahn
1991 Archaeology: Theory, Methods
and Practice. Londres: Thames and
Hudson.
Rodman, Amy Oakland, y Arabel
Fernández
2000 “Los tejidos huari y tiwanaku:
comparaciones y contextos”, Boletín
de Arqueología PUCP 4: 119-130.
Rodríguez Carpio, Gonzalo Javier
2004 Urnas de Conchopata:
contextos, imágenes e interpreta-
ciones. Tesis para optar el título de
Licenciado en Arqueología. Lima:
Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia
Universidad Católica del Perú.
Roel, Pedro, y Paola Borja
2011 Anaco de Camilaca. Uso
contemporáneo de un traje prehispá-
nico. Lima: Ministerio de Cultura.
Rosas Rintel, Marco
2007 “Nuevas perspectivas acerca
del colapso Moche en el Bajo Jeque-
tepeque. Resultados preliminares de
la segunda campaña de investigación
del proyecto arqueológico Cerro
Chepén”, Bulletin de l’Institut
Français d’Études Andines36 (2):
221-240.
Rosenzweig Alfredo, y Janusz Z.
Woloszyn
2008 Offerings for the Afterlife.
Peruvian Pottery and Artifacts from
the Maiman Collection. Herzliya:
Ampal/Merhav.
Rostworowski de Diez Canseco,
María
1986 La mujer en la época prehispá-
nica. Lima: Instituto de Estudios
Peruanos.
Rowe, Anne Pollard
1995-1996 “Inca Weaving and
Costume”, Textile Museum Journal
34-35: 5-53.
1978 “Prácticas textiles en el área
del Cusco”, en Ravines, Roger (Ed.),
Tecnología andina. Lima: Instituto
de Estudios Peruanos, pp. 369-396.
2012 “Tie-dyed Tunics”, en Bergh,
Susan E. (ed.), Wari. Lords of the
Ancient Andes. Nueva York: Thames
& Hudson, pp. 193-205.
Rowe, John H., Donald Collier y
Gordon R. Willey
1950 “Reconnaissance Notes on the
Site of Huari, near Ayacucho, Peru”,
American Antiquity 16, no. 2:
120-137.
Rubiños y Andrade, Justo
Modesto de
1936[1782] “Sucesión cronológica
o serie historial de los curas de
Mórrope y Pacora en la provincia de
Lambayeque del Obispado de Trujillo
del Perú... año de 1782”, Revista
Histórica 10 (3): 289-363.
Rucabado, Julio
2008 “En los dominios de Naylamp”,
en Makowski, Krzysztof (Comp.),
Señores de los Reinos de la Luna.
Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú,
pp. 183-199.
Rucabado, Julio, y Luis Jaime
Castillo
2003 “El periodo transicional en San
José de Moro”, en Uceda, Santiago,
y Elías Mujica (Eds.), Moche: hacia
el final del milenio, tomo I. Lima:
Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia
Universidad Católica del Perú/
Universidad Nacional de Trujillo,
pp. 15-42.
Salomon, Frank
1995 “‘The Beautiful Grandparents’:
Andean Ancestor Shrines and
Mortuary Ritual as Seen through
Colonial Records”, en Dillehay, Tom
(Ed.), Tombs for the Living: Andean
Mortuary Practices. Washington,
D. C.: Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 315-353.
1988 “Indian women of early colonial
Quito as seen through their testa-
ments”, The Americas 44: 325-342.
Schaedel, Richard P.
1978 “The city and the origin of the
state in America”, en Hardoy, Jorge
E., y Nora Scott Kinzer (Eds.),
Urbanization in the Americas from
its beginning to the present.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, pp. 31-50.
1951 “Mochica murals at Pañamarca
(Peru)”, Archaeology 4 (3): 145-154
[reimpreso en Rowe, John H., y
Dorothy Menzel (Eds.), Peruvian
Archaeology. Selected Readings.
Los Ángeles: Universidad de Cali-
fornia, Berkeley, 1967, pp. 105-114.
Schindelholz, Eric
2001 A Simple Guide for Archaeolo-
gical Materials Characterization.
Senior Research Paper, University
of Minnesota.
Schindler, Helmut
2000 Die Kunstsammlung Norbert
Mayrock. Munich: Staatliches
Museum für Völkerkunde.
Schreiber, Katharina J.
2005 “The Wari Empire of Middle
Horizon Peru: the Epistemological
Challenge of Documenting an
Empire Without Documentary
Evidence”, en Alcock, Susan E.,
Terence N. D’Altroy, Kathleen D.
Morrison y Carla M. Sinopoli (Eds.),
Empires: Perspectives from Archaeo-
logy and History. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press,
pp. 71-92.
1992 Wari Imperialism in Middle
Horizon Peru. Anthropological
Papers No. 87. Ann Arbor: Museum
of Anthropology, University of
Michigan.
Schreiber, Katharina J., y Matthew
J. Edwards
2010 “Los centros administrativos
huari y las manifestaciones físicas
del poder imperial”, en Makowski,
Krzysztof (Comp.), Señores de los
Imperios del Sol. Lima: Banco de
Crédito del Perú, pp. 152-161.
Scott, David A.
1991 Metallography and Microstruc-
ture of Ancient and Historic Metals.
Los Ángeles: The Getty Conservation
Institute.
Sease, Catherine
1992 A Conservation Manual for
the Field Archaeologist. Los Ángeles:
UCLA, Institute of Archaeology.
Seki, Yuji, Juan Pablo Villanueva,
Masato Sakai, Diana Alemán, Mauro
Ordóñez, Walter Tosso, Araceli
Espinoza, Kinya Inokuchi y Daniel
Morales
2008 “Nuevas evidencias del sitio
arqueológico de Pacopampa, en
la sierra norte del Perú”, Boletín de
Arqueología PUCP 12: 69-96.
Selwyn, Lyndsie S.
1990 “Historical Silver: Storage,
Display, and Tarnish Removal”,
Journal of the International Institute
for Conservation-Canadian Group,
15: 12-22.
Selwyn, Lyndsie S., y Charles
G. Costain
1990 “Evaluation of Silver-Cleaning
Products”, Journal of the Inter­
national Institute for Conservation-
Canadian Group, 16: 3-15.
Shady Solís, Ruth
1988 “La época Huari como interac-
ción de las sociedades regionales”,
Revista Andina 6, número, 1: 67-99.
Shady Solís, Ruth, Joaquín Narváez
y Sonia López
2000 “La antigüedad del uso del
quipu como escritura: las evidencias
de la Huaca San Marcos”, Boletín
del Museo de Arqueología y Antro­
pología, 3 (10): 2-23.
Shimada, Izumi
1999 “Sican Metallurgy and Its
Cross-Craft Relationships”, Boletín
del Museo del Oro 41: 26-61.
1995 Cultura Sicán: dios, riqueza
y poder en la costa norte del Perú.
Lima: Fundación del Banco Conti-
nental para el Fomento de la
Educación y la Cultura.
1994 Pampa Grande and the
Mochica Culture. Austin: University
of Texas Press.
1994 “Los modelos de organización
sociopolítica de la cultura Moche:
nuevos datos y perspectivas”, en
Uceda, Santiago. y Elías Mujica
(Eds.), Moche: propuestas y perspec-
tivas. Trujillo-Lima: Universidad
344
Nacional de la Libertad-Instituto
Francés de Estudios Andinos-
Asociación Peruana para el Fomento
de las Ciencias Sociales, pp. 359-387.
1985 “La cultura Sicán. Caracteriza-
ción arqueológica”, en Mendoza
Samillán, Eric (Ed.), Presencia histó-
rica de Lambayeque. Lima: Ediciones
y Representaciones Falcón.
Shimada, Izumi, Ken-ichi Shinoda,
Julie Farnum, Robert S. Corruccini
y Hirokatsu Watanabe
2004 “An Integrated Analysis of
Prehispanic Mortuary Practice:
A Middle Sican Case Study”, Current
Anthropology 45 (3): 369-402.
Stanish, Charles
2003 Ancient Titicaca: the evolution
of complex society in southern Peru
and northern Bolivia. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Strong, William Duncan, y
Clifford Evans Jr.
1952 Cultural Stratigraphy in
the Viru Valley, Northern Peru.
Nueva York: Columbia Studies in
Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 4.
Swenson, Edward R.
2004 Ritual and power in the urban
hinterland: religious pluralism and
political decentralization in Late
Moche Jequetepeque, Peru. Tesis
doctoral. Chicago: Universidad de
Chicago.
Tabío, Ernesto
1977 Prehistoria de la costa del Perú.
La Habana: Academia de Ciencias
de Cuba.
Tello, Julio C.
1970 “Las ruinas de Huari”, en
Ravines, Roger (Ed.), 100 años de
arqueología en el Perú. Fuentes e
Investigaciones para la Historia del
Perú, 3. Lima: Instituto de Estudios
Peruanos, pp. 519-526.
Thompson, Donald
1966 “Archeological Investigations
in the Huarmey Valley, Peru”, en
Actas y memorias del XXXVI
Congreso International de America-
nistas, España 1964, Vol. I. Sevilla,
pp. 541-548.
1964 “Postclassic innovations in
architecture and settlement patterns
in the Casma Valley, Peru”,
Southwestern Journal of Anthro­
pology 20 (1): 91-105.
Topic, John
1991 “Huari and Huamachucho”,
en Isbell, William H., y Gordon
McEwan (Eds.), Huari Administra-
tive Structure: Prehistoric Monu-
mental Architecture and State
Government. Washington, D.C.:
Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 141-164.
Topic, John R., y Theresa Lange
Topic
2000 “Hacia la comprensión del
fenómeno huari, una perspectiva
norteña”, Boletín de Arqueología
PUCP 4: 181-218.
Torero, Alfredo
2002 Idiomas de los Andes:
Lingüística e Historia. Lima:
Instituto Francés de Estudios
Andinos.
Torres, M. Constantino
2001 “Iconografía tiwanaku en la
parafernalia inhalatoria”, Boletín
de Arqueología PUCP 5: 427-454.
Toynbee, Jocelyn
1971 Death and Burial in the Roman
World. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press.
Trigger, Bruce
2003 Understanding Early
Civilizations. A Comparative Study.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Trigo Rodríguez, David, y Roberto
Hidalgo Rocabado
2012 Tiwanaku - Huari: los miem-
bros inferiores y sus representaciones
en las ofrendas del Horizonte Medio.
(El simbolismo del rito de corte
de piernas en la iconografía de los
Andes). La Paz: Producciones Cima.
Trimborn, Hermann
1979 El reino de Lambayeque en el
antiguo Perú. Collectanea Instituti
Anthropos No. 19. St. Augustin:
Hans Völker und Kulturen-Anthopos
Institut.
Tschauner, Hartmut
2003 “Honco Pampa: arquitectura
de élite del Horizonte Medio en el
Callejón de Huaylas”, en Ibarra
Ascencios, Bebel (Ed.), Arqueología
de la Sierra de Ancash. Propuestas
y Perspectivas. Lima: Instituto
Cultural Runa, pp. 194-220.
Tung, Tiffiny A.
2012 Violence, Ritual and the Wari
Empire: A social bioarchaeology
of imperialism in the ancient Andes.
Gainesville: University Press of
Florida.
Tung, Tiffiny A., y Anita Cook
2006 Intermediate-Elite Agency in
the Wari Empire: The Bioarchaeo­
logical and Mortuary Evidence”,
en Elson, Christina M., y R. Alan
Covey (Eds.), Intermediate Elites in
Pre-Columbian States and Empires.
Tucson: The University of Arizona
Press, pp. 68-93.
Uceda, Santiago
2004 “Los de arriba y los de abajo:
relaciones sociales, políticas y econó-
micas entre el templo y los habi-
tantes en el núcleo urbano moche
de las Huacas de Moche”, en Uceda,
Santiago, y Ricardo Morales (Eds.),
Proyecto Arqueológico Huaca de la
Luna. Informe Técnico 2004. Trujillo:
Universidad Nacional de Trujillo,
Facultad de Ciencias Sociales,
pp. 283-318.
Uceda, Santiago, y Ricardo Morales
2010 Moche: Pasado y Presente.
Trujillo: Patronato Huacas del Valle
de Moche.
Uhle, Max
1903 Pachacamac. Report of
the William Pepper, M.D., LL.D.,
Peruvian Expedition of 1896.
Filadelfia: University of Pennsyl-
vania.
Urton, Gary
s. f. “From Middle Horizon cord-
keeping to the rise of Inka khipus
in the central Andes”, Antiquity
(en prensa).
Valdez, Lidio M., Kattrina
J. Bettcher, José A. Ochatoma
y J. Ernesto Valdez
2006 “Mortuary preferences and
selected references: a comment
on Middle Horizon Burials”, World
Archaeology, 38 (4): 672-689.
Valdez, Lidio M., Jocelyn S. Williams
y Katrina J. Bettcher
2006 “Prácticas mortuorias wari
en Marayniyoq, Valle de Ayacucho,
Perú”, Chungará, Revista de
Antropologia Chilena, 38 (1):113-127.
Vanstan, Ina
1967 “Group VII: Small and Minia-
ture Rectangular Fabrics”, en
Textiles from Beneath the Temple
of Pachacamac, Peru. Filadelfia:
The University Museum, University
of Pennsylvania.
Velarde, María Inés, y Pamela
Castro de la Mata
2011 “Ideology and Technology of
Peruvian Metals before the Incas”,
en Göransson, Kristian y Paloma
Carcedo (Eds.), Inca, Gold treasures
in the Skeppsholmen Caverns.
Estocolmo: Elanders Falth and
Hassler, Falkoping, pp. 41-69.
Velarde, María Inés, Franco Mora
y Justin Jennings
2012 “Tupus y placas de metal:
Expresión creativa e imagen de
prestigio”, en Yépez Álvarez, Willy J.,
y Justin Jennings, (Eds.) ¿Wari en
Arequipa? Análisis de los contextos
funerarios de la Real. Arequipa:
Museo Arqueológico José María
Morante, Universidad Nacional
de San Agustín de Arequipa,
pp. 214-218.
Vilijus, Aive, y Mart Vilijus
2013 “The Conservation of Early
Post-Medieval Period Coins Found
in Estonia”, Journal of Conservation
and Museum Studies, 10(2): 30-44,
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/
jcms.1021204.
Vogel, Melissa A., y Robyn E.
Cutright
2013 “Gender in South American
Prehistory”, en Bolger, Diane (ed.),
A companion to Gender Prehistory.
Chichester: John Wiley & Sons,
pp. 585-607.
345

Wegner, Steven A. Williams, Patrick Ryan, Donna Ziólkowski, Mariusz S.

2011 Iconografías prehispánicas de
Ancash. Lima: Jorge Luis Puerta
(Consorcio Recursos-Technoserve).
Wester La Torre, Carlos
2012 Sacerdotisa de Chornancap.
Misterio e Historia. Lima: Ministerio
de Cultura.
Wharton, G., S. Lansing Maish y
W. S. Ginell
1990 “A Comparative Study of Silver
Cleaning Abrasives”, Journal of the
American Institute for Conservation,
29(1): 13-31.
Wheeler, Jane C., A. J. F. Russel
y Hilary Redden
1995 “Llamas and Alpacas: Pre-
conquest Breeds and Post-conquest
Hybrids”, Journal of Archeological
Science 22 (6): 833-840.
Wiersema, Juliet
2012 “La relación simbólica entre
las representaciones arquitectónicas
en las vasijas Mochica y su función
ritual”, en Pardo, Cecilia (Ed.)
Modelando el mundo. Imágenes de
la arquitectura precolombina. Lima:
Museo de Arte de Lima, pp. 164-191.
Willey, Gordon R.
1953 Prehistoric settlement patterns
in the Virú Valley, Peru. Bureau of
American Ethnology, Bulletin 155.
Washington, D.C. Smithsonian
Institution.
J. Nash, Michael E. Moseley, Susan
DeFrance, Mario Ruales, Ana
Miranda y David Goldstein
2005 “Los encuentros y las bases
para la administración política wari”,
Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 9:
207-232.
Wilson, David J.
1995 Wilson, David J. “Prehispanic
settlement patterns in the Casma
Valley of Peru: preliminary results
to date”. Journal of the Steward
Anthropological Society 23 (1-2):
189-227.
1988 Prehispanic Settlement
Patterns in the Lower Santa Valley,
Peru. A Regional Perspective on the
Origins and Development of Complex
North Coast society. Washington,
D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Woolf, Greg
2001 “Inventing Empire in Ancient
Rome”, en Alcock, Susan E., Terence
N. D’Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison
y Carla M. Sinopoli (Eds.), Empires:
Perspectives from Archaeology and
History. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 311-322.
Yépez Álvarez, Willy J., y Justin
J. Jennings (Eds.)
2012 ¿Wari en Arequipa? Análisis
de los contextos funerarios de La
Real. Arequipa: Museo Arqueológico
José María Morante, Universidad
Nacional de San Agustín de
Arequipa.
2010 “Señores y reyes en los Andes o
del concepto y atributos del soberano
andino”, en Makowski, Krzysztof
(Comp.), Señores de los imperios del
sol: Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú,
pp. 80-86.
1997 La guerra de los wawqui.
Los mecanismos y los objetivos de
la rivalidad dentro de la élite inca,
ss. XV-XVI. Quito: Abya Yala.
1996 “Ataw o la ‘guerra justa’ en
el Tawantinsuyu”, Tawantinsuyu 2:
5-22.
Ziólkowski, Mariusz S., Arabas
Jaroslaw y Jan Szeminski
2008 “La Historia en los queros:
apuntes acerca de la relación entre
las representaciones figurativas
y los signos ‘tocapus’”, en González
Carvajal, Paola, y Tamara L. Bray,
Lenguajes visuales de los Incas.
Oxford: BAR, Series.
Zuidema, R. Tom
1994 “Guaman Poma between
the Arts of Europe and the Andes”,
Colonial Latin American Review
3 (1): 37-85.
1991 “Guaman Poma and the Art
of Empire: Toward an Iconography
of Inca Royal Dress”, en Andrien,
Kenneth J., y Rolena Adorno (Eds.),
Transatlantic Encounters: Europeans
and Andeans in the Sixteenth
Century. Berkeley: University of
California Press, pp. 151-202.

Williams, Patrick Ryan Yoffee, Norman

2001 “Cerro Baúl: A Wari Center 2005 Myths of the Archaic State:
on the Tiwanaku Frontier”. Latin Evolution of the Earliest Cities,
American Antiquity 12 (1): 67-83. States and Civilizations. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Williams, Patrick Ryan, y Donna

J. Nash Young-Sánchez, Margaret

2002 “Imperial interaction in the 2010 “Los unkus de los señores

Andes: Huari and Tiwanaku at
Cerro Baúl”, en Isbell, William H.,
y Helaine Silverman (Eds.), Andean
Archaeology I: Variations in Socio­
political Organization. Nueva York:
Kluwer Academic, pp. 243-265.
del sur: Huari y Tiahuanaco”,
en Makowski, Krzysztof (Comp.),
Señores de los Imperios del Sol.
Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú,
225-237.
2004 “The Art of Tiwanaku”,
en Young-Sánchez, Margaret (Ed.),
Tiwanaku, Ancestors of the Inca.
Lincoln y Londres: Denver Art
Museum, University of Nebraska
Press, pp. 24-69.