Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Juan González-Castillo1
Francisco Javier Martín-
Guidelines for the management of community-
Sánchez2
Pedro Llinares3
acquired pneumonia in the elderly patient
Rosario Menéndez4
Abel Mujal5
Enrique Navas6
José Barberán7 1
Sociedad Española de Medicina de Urgencias y Emergencias
2
Sociedad Española de Geriatría y Gerontología
3
Sociedad Española de Quimioterapia
4
Sociedad Española de Neumología y Cirugía Torácica
5
Sociedad Española de Hospitalización a Domicilio
6
Sociedad Española de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica
7
Sociedad Española de Medicina Interna.
With regard to the health care of elderly subjects, it is 2. The elderly patient with clinical criteria of frail-
known that it is generally more complex, being associated ty: pneumonia in this patient may produce a functional and/
with delays in the diagnosis and treatment, greater requests or cognitive impact and condition short term results. The risk
for complementary tests, elevated risk of adverse events, more of having an adverse outcome depends on the grade of defi-
prolonged hospital stay and a higher rate of hospital admis- ciencies accumulated, on the medical (comorbidity, polyphar-
sion compared to younger adults, thereby translating into a macy, sensory, nutrition, use of hospital services...) functional
greater consumption of health care resources7,8.. (equilibrium and mobility, history of falls, daily life activities,
All of the above make CAP in the elderly a first order health continence...) neuropsychiatric (cognition, mood, delirium...)
care problem considering the high prevalence and important and social areas (social support, institutionalization...), that is,
clinical and health care consequences. Thus, despite the guide- the greater the number of deficiencies the greater the grade of
lines and consensus documents published in relation to CAP7,8, frailty and thus, of the risk of having an adverse outcome. In
the development of a consensus document with more specific this sense, we can differentiate two wide phenotypic profiles
approaches to CAP in this patient profile was considered neces- based on the grade of frailty.
sary. This document is the fruit of the work of a group of experts
representing several medical societies with the aim of establish- a) The elderly patient with clinical criteria of mild frailty:
ing a series of specific recommendations related to the etiology, this patient performs basic activities of daily life independently
the clinical presentation and management of CAP in the elderly or “almost” independently but within the setting of pneumonia
based on the scientific evidence available. The elaboration of this may present acute functional and/or cognitive impairment and
consensus was carried out after requesting the participants to increase the grade of comorbidity and dependence for instru-
make a systematic search and a selection of good quality studies mental activities of daily life and is not usually identified as a
published and to establish a series of recommendations for daily frail patient. In the basal situation this patient usually presents
clinical practice. Nonetheless, the clinical evidence available is a mild alteration in gait speed or impairment in physical and/
limited, and therefore, many of the recommendations present- or cognitive function. With respect to management, early iden-
ed are based on the experience and the opinion of the experts tification is mandatory since it requires a specific intervention
themselves. Finally, a document was developed after the discus- regarding the maintenance of function and quality of life.
sion and approval of all the members of the working group.
b) The elderly patient with clinical criteria of moder-
CATEGORIZATION OF THE ELDERLY PATIENT ate-severe frailty or the classically denominated geriatric pa-
tient: this patient requires help or is dependent for daily life
All people 65 years of age or more are considered elderly. activities and presents a greater probability of associated se-
This definition is based on purely sociological aspects, originat- vere comorbidity, polypharmacy, dementia, malnutrition and
ing a clinically very heterogeneous populational group. In this a situation of social risk. With regard to decision making it is
sense, the need to categorize the elderly has arisen and to do important to take certain aspects such as the grade of depend-
this a new concept has been introduced, that is, the frail elder- ence into account since these aspects may condition the eti-
ly. This category is understood as a elderly person with greater ology, invasive diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and the
vulnerability of having an adverse outcome with an acute pre- final placement of the patient.
cipitating factor such as in the case of pneumonia. This state is
explained by a diminishment in the physiological reserves as a This categorization of elderly patients with pneumonia
consequence of aging and thus, of the accumulation of diseas- aims to changes the classical model of care which is gen-
es over time which leads to a loss in the capacity of response to erally unidimensional and centered on the acute episode,
situations of stress. This concept is, therefore, more related to does not recognize the peculiarities of aging and ignores
biological than chronological age9. the functional, cognitive and social situation as well as the
presence of geriatric syndromes10-13. Evaluation of these as-
With respect to clinical decision making and the planning pects allows the identification of the grade of frailty of an
of health care, it is important to identify frail elderly patients elderly patient with pneumonia and thereby better stratifies
with pneumonia, that is, those with a greater probability of the risk and the planning of more specific care to the needs
developing an adverse outcome10,11. From a practical point of of each patient.
view and based on the definition of frailty as an accumulation
of deficiences12 we should distinguish: The best diagnostic tool to categorize the frailty of an el-
derly patient with pneumonia is integral geriatric assessment
(IGA). This assessment carried out by an interdisciplinary team
1. The elderly patient without clinical criteria of frail- (physicians, nurses, occupational therapists and social workers)
ty: this patient performs basic and instrumental daily life ac- is aimed at identifying all the clinical, functional, mental and
tivities independently and does not usually have significant social problems as well as the geriatric syndromes in these pa-
comorbidity or other associated mental or social problems. tients in order to establish a health care plan to improve the
From a management and prognostic point of view there are no functionality and quality of life14. This tool detects a greater
differences compared to an adult patient. number of problems in relation to the standard unidimensional
medical assessment15, and improves the results in several sce- have been published, such as the “Identification of Senior at
narios including a reduction in mortality or impairment, im- Risk” (ISAR) and the “Triage Risk Screening Tool” (TRST) (table
provement in cognition, quality of life, a reduction in the mean 2), which allow the identification of frail elderly patients in the
hospital stay and the percentage of readmissions and the use emergency department. A total score of 2 or more points is
of long stay centers and costs16. associated with high risk of a short term adverse outcome af-
It is difficult to perform the IGA in the setting of hospital ter discharge from the emergency department. Some authors
emergency departments (HED) and thus, increasingly more au- therefore consider these scales as a possible method of initial
thors have proposed the use of the IGA adapted to emergency screening for the selection of patients who would most benefit
care11-13 based on the combination of brief, simple and validat- from an IGA. From our point of view and taking into account
ed screening scales of the different spheres of the patient to the lack of evidence related to models of geriatric care within
help diagnose frail elderly patients and detect the problems in the emergency setting, the use of an IGA adapted to the emer-
the different spheres. Table 1 shows the proposal of a model of gency department is recommended in all elderly patients with
IGA adapted to the emergency department, although there is pneumonia previously identified as having high risk (ISAR or
currently no evidence to perform universalized recommenda- TRST greater than or equal to 2) and/or in patients present-
tions related to the most adequate tools in the HED. ing suspicion of acute functional and/or cognitive impairment
With regard to the selection of candidates who would secondary to the infectious process since this assessment may
most benefit from this intervention different screening scales provide important information for decision making.
TRST ISAR
Age ≥ 75 years ≥ 65 years
Has difficulty walking, transfers or has a history of recent Prior to the acute process for which the patient was visited,
falls? was help reguarly necessary in basic activities?
Functional After the acute process for which the patient was visited
was more help than necessary required for care?
Mental Does the patient have cognitive impairment? Do the patient have serious memory problems?
Does the patient live alone or have a capacitated care pro-
Social
vider?
Sensorial Does the patient see well in general?
Drugs Does the patient take 5 or more different drugs? Does the patient take 3 or more different drugs a day?
Without taking this visit into account, has the patient been Has the patient been admitted to hospital one or more days
Use of hospital services to the emergency department in the last 30 days or hospitali- (excluding a visit to the emergency department) in the last
zed in the last 3 months? 6 months?
The nurse believes that this patient requires home follow up
Professiona l recommendation
for some reported reason.
An elderly patient is considered to be at risk with a global score of greater than or equal to 2 in Identification of Senior at Risk (ISAR) or the Triage Risk
Screening Tool (TRST).
On the other hand, it has been reported that the prob- nia by uncommon microorganisms through microaspiration
ability of infection by Pseudomonas or MRSA increases in which is more frequent in the elderly than in the young pop-
severe CAP understood as the need for admission in an in- ulation17,32-35. Bacterial colonization of the pharynx depends
tensive care unit (ICU) or with risk class V according to the on multiple factors such as age, comorbidity, the basal func-
PSI of Fine20,30. If we take into account the approach pro- tional situation, bacterial load, the use of antimicrobials, the
posed in Europe by Ewig31 and by Brito and Niederman24 in presence of devices, instrumentalization and previous con-
the USA, the initial situation of clinical severity and previ- tact with health care centers or residences. The functional
ous functional capacity are key in making decisions related situation has been associated with a greater speed of colo-
to empiric treatment. Thus, in the presence of less than two nization of MRB and Gram-negative bacteria. In a study car-
factors of multiresistance (severe pneumonia, hospitalization ried out in institutionalized patients an average of 75 days
in the previous 90 days, living in a residence, severe basal was found for colonization by Gram-negative pathogens and
dependence for basic daily life activities, immunodepression 176 days for MRSA, with the risk being greater in cases with
or the taking of antibiotics in the previous 6 months) cover- functional impairment36.
age against MRB should be included if the patient presents An elevated percentage of silent pharyngeal microaspi-
severe disease. rations has been demonstrated in elderly patients with CAP,
In regard to viral etiology, the influenza virus and res- being observed in up to half of these patients hospitalized
piratory syncytial virus cause the greatest morbimortality in for pneumonia32,33.This is related to the physiological modi-
the elderly, often within the context of epidemic outbreaks in fications associated with age, with the greater risk of asso-
institutionalized patients and may cause both viral primary ciated diseases and with the taking of certain drugs which
pneumonias such as bacterial superinfection by S. pneumoni- may produce difficulties in swallowing or an alteration in
ae, S. aureus and Haemophilus influenzae. Other respiratory the cough reflex. One systematic review reported risk factors
viruses such as parainfluenza, metapneumovirus, adenovirus, of microaspiration including male sex, dementia, pulmonary
coronavirus and rhinovirus produce less severe respiratory disease (COPD) and the taking of determined drugs (antipsy-
infection in immunocompetent adults. chotics, proton pump inhibitors) and protector factors such
as antiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors34. Taylor et al35
simplified the risk factors in the presence of chronic neuro-
Risk factors of colonization and microaspiration logical diseases, esophageal disease, diminishment in the lev-
Colonization may favor the development of pneumo- el of consciousness and a history of vomiting.
in all hospitalized patients65, while North American guidelines8 of each of the most frequent pathogens involved in the etiol-
reserve these studies for more severe patients, that is, those with ogy of pneumonia is key in relation to adequate selection of
cavitated infiltrates, leukopenia, alcoholism, severe liver disease, empiric antibiotic and reduces the probability of therapeutic
asplenia, positve antigenuria test for pneumococci or pleural ef- failure.
fusion. Despite their scarce clinical impact in non selected pa- In regard to S. pneumoniae a decrease in strains non sus-
tients with CAP considering the high frequency of atypical clini- ceptible to treatment with penicillin has been observed fol-
cal presentations in elderly patients, blood cultures may contrib- lowing the introduction of the pneumonoccal 7 valent con-
ute to both confirmation of diagnostic suspicion on isolation of jugate vaccine in the infant vaccination schedule. The rates of
potential pulmonary pathogens and reorientation of the disease resistance in Spain do not reach 1% in respiratory disease69.
of the patient on obtaining isolates indicating a diagnostic alter- Although the resistance to pneumococci has declined and
native. In prospective studies on sputum yield for the diagnosis the cut offs of the minimum inhibitory concentration has
of extrahospitalary pneumonia in adults, assessable samples are risen, it is advisable to administer high doses of beta-lactams
obtained in around one third of the patients66. The importance to achieve adequate serum levels and be able to act against
of Gram staining and sputum culture lays in their influence on pneumococci with an intermediate level of resistance7. The re-
the modification of the initial antibiotic treatment. The presence sistance of pneumococi to macrolides has diminished in the
of S. aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae or P. aeruginosa in puru- last years in parallel with a reduction in the resistance to pen-
lent sputum with a concordant Gram stain makes it necessary icillin. At present, resistance continues to be present in 25 %
to consider these pathogens in choosing the antibiotic regimen of the strains, with therapeutic failure having been described
and, likewise, their absence in the culture of quality respiratory in patients treated with monotherapy. The rate of resistance
samples has a high negative predictive value, allowing the spec- to levofloxacin and moxifloxacin remains low (< 5%). None-
trum of antimicrobial treatment to be narrowed. The problem in theless, an increase has been observed to these antimicrobirals
elderly patients with functional impairment is, on one hand, the in the last years, being more frequent in patients who have
inability to obtain a evaluable sputum sample and, on the other undergone treatment with quinolones in the 6 months prior to
hand, the greater frequency of oropharyngeal colonization by the episode of pneumonia70 and with an elderly age71.
Gram-negative microorganisms, S. aureus and MRB67. Regarding S. aureus, it is of note that MRSA is present is
The detection of bacterial antigens of pneumococci and around 25 % of the patients with infection by this pathogen,
Legionella pneumophila in urine by immunochromatographic and in the last years this percentage has remained stable. Re-
techniques has led to important advances in the detection of sistance to linezolid is practically null, although some studies
these two pathogens68. The sensitivity of the pneumococcal an- have reported its incidence in clinical samples of patients with
tigen is estimated as being of more than 60 % with a specific- recurrent infection by MRSA who have received oral antibiot-
ity of greater than 90 % in adult patients even in those with ic treatment over months or years and in those hospitalized
chronic bronchitis and pneumococci colonization in contrast during a long period of time with significant comorbidity, im-
with the infant population in which nasopharyngeal coloniza- munodepression and who required admission to the ICU with
tion by pneumococci is a frequent cause of false positives of the previous, prolonged cycles of antibiotics including linezol-
test. It also is of diagnostic value in pleural fluid and its yield is id72-77. The rate of resistance to cotrimoxazol by S. aureus re-
not altered by either previous antibiotic treatment or pneumo- mains, being below 10 % in Spain. Nonetheless, although MR-
coccal vaccination. However, this test often remains positive up SA may be sensitive to cotrimoxazol in vitro the clinical result
to 3 months after the resolution of pneumonia, thereby limit- is variable. Empiric treatment with quinolones would not be
ing its utility in patients with recurrences for the evaluation of an appropriate option since resistance to these antimicrobials
response to treatment. With regard to the Legionella antigen, in our media is greater than 20 %. In the last years infection
the test is specific versus L. pneumophila serogroup I, with a by strains of community-acquired S. aureus with resistance to
sensitivity of greater than 90% and should be performed in all methicillin and sensitive to a wide range of non beta-lactams
patients with severe pneumonia and in mild forms with clinical antibiotics has been described. However, this is more often
or epidemiological suspicion of Legionellosis. presented in young, previously healthy populations, but it is
highly transmittable and presents great virulence due to the
The use of tests to detect viruses in nasopharyngeal aspi- presence of a necrotizing cytotoxin denominated Panton-Val-
rates is important not only for epidemiological but also ther- entine leukocidin, leading to multilobar, bilateral pneumonia
apeutic aspects in patients diagnosed with influenza who are with a trend to cavitation and empyema78.
candidates for antiviral treatment. These techniques are costly
and thus, should be indicated in very specific epidemiological In relation to the resistance of H. influenzae to be-
or clinical settings. ta-lactams in Spain, the SAUCE studies79 observed a reduction
in the resistance to ampicillin produced by beta-lactamases,
from 25 % to 15 %, similar to the case of resistance by be-
TREATMENT ta-lactamase negative ampicillin resistant (BLNAR), a mutation
producing resistance to amoxicillin-clavulanate, piperacillin/
Bacterial resistance tazobactam and cefuroxime, which has decreased from 14%
Knowledge of the rate of resistance to the antimicrobials to 0.7%.
P. aeruginosa presents intrinsic resistance to sever- Recommendations for the choice of antibiotic treatment
al classes of antibiotics and acquires resistance to other The therapeutic schedule is summarized in table 4 with
families, and thus, there is a limited number of therapeu- the recommended doses in table 5. In these consensus recom-
tic options for the treatment of these infections. The class- mendations it was decided not to include the concept of HCAP
es of antibiotics which remain active include some fluoro- as an independent entity but rathe to include it within the
quinolones (ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin), aminoglycosides group of CAP. According to our point of view and given the
(gentamicin, tobramycin and amikacin), some beta-lactams heterogeniety of elderly patients considering both comorbidity
(piperacillin-tazobactam, ceftazidime, cefepime, imipen- and the functional, cognitive and social situation, as well as
em, doripenem and meropenem) and polymixins (polymixin the individual risk factors for determined microorganisms and
B and colistin). Nonetheless, high levels of resistance above possible resistances to these antimicrobials, it is recommend-
10 % have been observed in the isolation of P. aeruginosa ed to consider two main questions in relation to the decision
for all these antimicrobials and resistance to carbapenems making as to the choice of the empiric antibiotic treatment.
is frequent. Combined resistance is also frequent. Indeed, Taking into account aspects such as the severity of the clini-
around 14 % of the isolates are resistant to at least 3 groups cal situation and local resistances it should first be asked: Are
of antimicrobials and 6 % present resistance to the 5 classes
there risk factors of uncommon microorganisms?, and second:
of antibiotics usually tested80. Tobramycin presents a sim-
Is the patient frail? and if so, What is the grade of frailty? If the
ilar spectrum of action to that of gentamicin, although it
answers to these questions are negative, the scenario would
has greater activity versus P. aeruginosa. In Spain there are
involve that of a non frail elderly patient without risk factors
several local variations which must be known to select to
for uncommon pathogens. With this patient profile the thera-
the best therapeutic option, but, in general, resistance is of
peutic regimens provided in the consensus guidelines for CAP
around 3 % for amikacin, 7% for pipercillin-tazobactam, 9%
in adult patients may be followed7,43 taking into account a se-
for ceftazidime, 16% for carbapenems and aminoglycosides
ries of aspects.
and 21% for fluoroquinolones80. Colistin is increasingly more
frequently used for the treatment of infections by multire- In the elderly, pneumonia by intracellular pathogens is
sistant Gram-negative bacilli. Resistance of Pseudomonas to less frequent. Nonetheless, recent studies84 have shown that
colistin is infrequent, although it has been reported in some the percentage of L. pneumophila in non severe pneumonia
microbiological studies81. is similar to that of pneumonia in patients requiring hospital-
ization. Thus, if infection by Legionella can not be ruled out
In the last years an increase has been observed in the re-
sistance to Enterobacteriaceae not only in the hospital but also the association of a macrolide is necessary in the case of using
in community infection due to the increase in strains with ES- a beta-lactam. Among the quinolones, moxifloxacin may be
BL. This confers a loss of susceptiblity to beta-lactams includ- more advisable in patients with risk factors for anaerobes be-
ing those associated with beta-lactamase inhibitors and third cause of better coverage versus these pathogens85. The combi-
and fourth generation cephalosporins. Studies have shown an nation of a beta-lactam plus a macrolide is the most adequate
increase in the presence of strains with ESBL of greater than in patients with severe pneumonia. Quinolones in monothera-
10 %, especially in patients with recent hospitalization or el- py is another alternative. In this case, if the clinical picture is
derly age82. In these circumstances carbapenems, including subacute or has an uncomon presentation, precaution should
ertapenem, continue to have good activity versus ESBL-pro- be taken in their use because of the tuberculostatic activity
ducing strains resistant to amoxicillin-clavulanate, piperacil- and the possiblity of masking pulmonary tuberculosis86.
lin-tazobactam and fluoroquinolones. In non ESBL-producing
strains the resistance to amoxicillin-clavulanate has also risen, 1. Considerations in elderly patients with risk factors
being greater than 10% and even reaching up to 20% in some for uncommon pathogens.
centers82. In the last years a steady and particularly worrisome
increase has been observed in the case of resistance to third
generation cephalosporins which has risen in the last 10 years Risk factors of Enterobacteriaceae and /or anaerobes
from 1.6 % in 2002 to 13.5 % in 201283. Resistance to carbap- In patients with risk factors of aspiration an antibiotic should
enems continues to be infrequent except for the presentation be used which should also cover S. pneumoniae and be effective
of an endemic outbreak in some centers, but, in general, re- against anaerobes and Enterobacteriaceae since these may be
mains below 1%80. the causal microorganisms involved. In most guidelines, amoxicil-
In regard to atypical pathogens it is necessary to be aware lin-clavulanate is considered to be the antibiotic of choice. Taking
that these are resistant to beta-lactams because they lack a into account the worse prognosis of this type of patient and the
cellular wall and are sensitive to macrolides, tetracyclines and increasing rise of resistances of Enterobacteriaceae to this drug as
fluoroquinolones. Acquired resistance is currently exceptional well as to third generation cephalosporins, ertapenem is a good
for these families of antibiotics except for Mycoplasma pneu- therapeutic option because of its good sensitivity versus anaer-
moniae, in which the emergence of isolates resistant to mac- obes, S. pneumoniae and all the Enterobacteriaceae, including
rolides due to ribosomal mutations has been described, espe- ESBL producers. Their rapid bactericide action as well as the dose
cially in Asia. of once daily constitute another important advantage for elder-
SCENARIO TREATMENT
Amoxicillin/clavulanate or cefditoren
+
Outpatient treatment clarithromycin
Patient without frailty
or
moxifloxacin or levofloxacin
Amoxicillin/clavulanate or ceftriaxone
+ azithromycin
Treatment at admission
or
moxifloxacin or levofloxacin
Amoxicillin/clavulanate or ceftriaxone
+ azithromycin
Mild frailty*
Patient with frailty
or
moxifloxacin or levofloxacin
Ertapenem
Moderate-severe frailty or
amoxicillin/clavulanate**
Ertapenem
Enterobacteriaceae/anaerobes or
amoxicillin/clavulanate**
Methicillin-resistant S. aureus Add linezolid
Uncommon pathogens
Piperaciliin/tazobactam
or
imipenem or meropenem
or
P. aeruginosa
cefepime
+
levofloxacin or ciprofloxacin or
amikacin or tobramycin
* Evaluate risk factors for microaspiration and multiresistant bacteria with special caution.
** Evaluate local resistance to amoxicillin/clavulanate and patient severity.
ly patients87. The indication of clindamycin, which has classically conventional culture samples and a nasopharyngeal swab to
been the treatment of choice in aspirative pneumonia and lung seek this pathogen. Based on the evolution and the results of
abscess, is reportedly limited due to the increase in the resistanc- the cultures, treatment versus MRSA could be discontinued88.
es of the pneumococci and anaerobes of the oropharyngeal flora. The treatment of choice is linezolid combined with antibiotic
Moxifloxacin is a possible alternative, but it is reserved for certain coverage chosen according to the remaining risk factors. Van-
situations such as allergies to beta-lactams because of problems comycin is not advised because of its demonstrated lesser effi-
of resistance of Enterobacteriaceae to quinolones in our setting. cacy as well as the greater number of secondary effects, espe-
cially at a renal level89. Although cotrimoxazol may be sensitive
in vitro, there is no clinical experience.
Risk factors of MRSA
In our country the presence of community MRSA is an-
ecdotic. In severe patients with risk factors the initiation of Risk factors of P. aeruginosa
empiric treatment versus MRSA would be justified collecting Empiric treatment combined with two parenteral antimi-
crobials is recommended, although the observational studies score of clinical severity, a diminishment in the use of systemic
available have not demonstrated the benefits of combined antibiotics and less frequent appearance of microbial resist-
treatment compared to monotherapy with a single active ance with the use of antibiotics in aerosol as adjuvant therapy.
antimicrobial90,91. The most adequate schedule is probably The addition of antibiotics in aerosol to systemic antibiotics
the combination of piperacillin-tazobactam or a carbapenem may be considered in the treatment of patients not responding
(meropenem, imipenem or doripenem) in continuous perfusion to the latter or in those with pneumonia by MRB.
selected based on the pattern of local resistance of P. aerugi-
nosa, together with a quinolone with antipseudomonic activity
2. Considerations in frail elderly patients
(ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin) or an aminoglycoside (amikacin).
The administration of antimicrobials in aerosol has the
advantage of increasing the concentration of the antibiotic in Frail elderly patients have a high risk and thereby require
the lung, reducing systemic toxicity to a minimum. Some data evaluation aimed at achieving the correct staging of frailty in
have demonstrated that aminoglycosides such as tobramycin view of decision making.
or gentamicin, colistin and aztreonam in aerosol are effective In the case of a mild frail elderly patient early diagnosis
to reduce bacterial load in the respiratory tract. Recent stud- and specific intervention is required with the view of main-
ies have shown positive clinical results with a reduction in the taining possible impaired functions and quality of life. In this
sense, adequate management of the clinical situation is nec- en into account at the time of prescribing an antibiotic as
essary as well as an integral geriatric assessment, functional should the possible appearance of adverse reactions which,
monitoring and an intervention to recover the previous basal in turn, favor the grade of associated comorbidity and poly-
and nutritional situation9. Early diagnosis of the intercurrent pharmacy. The main pharmacokinetic modifications which
process is therefore fundamental and is not always easy. “Ag- occur at different levels condition a diminishment in the ab-
gressive” treatment including control of the infectious foci sorption of pH dependent antibiotics, modifications in
early is necessary and allows a reduction in the functional im- the distribution of the medications due to changes in tissue
pact of the acute process in the elderly. In this scenario, the composition, increasing the half life of lipophilic antibiotics
antibiotic treatment to be implementated from an etiological and the concentration of hydrophilic antibiotics, raising the
point of view is the same as that in an independent patient. In free concentrations of acidic antibiotics (penicillin, cephalo-
contrast, the administration of more powerful antimicrobials sporins and clindamycin) and reducing the alkaline antibi-
with fewer adverse effects and pharmacological interactions otics (macrolides), and also condition a diminishment in the
should be considered and the risk factors for less common hepatic first pass metabolism of antibiotics (clindamycin and
pathogens should be carefully evaluated since therapeutic fail- chloramphenicol) and a diminishment in the renal clearance
ure may carry a prolongation of hospitalization with the con- of antibiotics eliminated by the kidney94. In this sense, since
sequent risk of a definitive situation of dependence. most antibiotics are eliminated renally an adjustment is re-
The diagnostic and therapeutic complexity of moder- quired in the dose based on renal clearance calculated by the
ate-severe frail elderly patients is great and includes cir- Cockroft-Gould or MDRD formula, with the latter being of
cumstances which may condition the etiology, the diagnostic choice in the case of low patient weight. On the other hand,
and invasive therapeutic procedures and the final placement it is important to take into account that tissue penetration
of the patient. These patients usually have severe comorbid- of antibiotics in the elderly is lower compared with young
ity and polypharmacy making them more vulnerable to the patients and may thereby not allow antibiotics to achieve
appearance of adverse reactions to medications. In addition, sufficient concentrations at the site of the infection.
they may have important risk factors which determine a dif- With respect to possible pharmacologic interactions, it is
ferent etiology by MRB or an alteration in the oropharyngeal important to take into account medications which are metab-
flora which determines a less usual etiology involving a greater olized through cytochrome P-450. Inhibition of the enzyme
probability of colonization by Enterobacteriaceae. Impairment CYP3A4 may cause an alteration in the metabolism of azoles
in the functional state has been associated with a greater and certain antibiotics such as macrolides and quinolones. To
speed of colonization by Gram-negative bacteria, especially the contrary, certain antibiotics may prolong the half life of
Enterobacteriaceae36, and thus, the same recommendations other drugs potentiating their effects and possibly producing
mentioned previously in the section on risk factors of Entero- adverse reactions such as vitamin K antagonists (aminopeni-
bacteriaceae and/or anaerobes are made. In addition, ertape- cillins, cephalosporins, metronidazol and erythromycin), anti-
nem, is an ideal antibiotic for home treatment controlled by platelet drugs (aminopenicillins, cephalosporins), furosemide
Home Hospitalization Units (HHU). (cephalosporins), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (line-
zolid), digoxin (penicillins and macrolides), calcium antagonists
(erythromycin and clarithromycin) and theophylline (mac-
The relationship of the time of administration and
rolides)94.
the duration of the antibiotic
As a general recommendation all antibiotics may be used
The time of antibiotic administration is not clearly defined
with the same indications as in younger patients. However, in
except for pneumonia associated with severe sepsis or septic
the elderly the dose and the intervals should be adapted to
shock. Nonetheless, guidelines recommend their administra-
body weight (or body mass index), renal function clearance
tion as soon as the diagnosis of pneumonia is made whether
and the contraindications which may be more frequent with
by the emergency department or at the first site of evaluation7.
the presence of associated diseases or drugs. As a general rule
With regard to the duration of antibiotic treatment the stand-
at the time of prescribing medications in the elderly and with
ard schedule of 7 to 10 days may be valid except when there
the aim of minimizing the adverse reactions to medications,
is suspicion of infection by Pseudomonas since the treatment
low doses should be initiated with a progressive increase in the
should then be prolonged to 14 days. Other clinical situations
same (“start low and go slow”). In relation to antibiotics this
may require prolonged antibiotic treatment such as the persis-
principle is not followed and the treatment should be aimed
tence of fever for more than 72 hours, the persistence of more
at achieving the full therapeutic dose early (“hit hard and ear-
than one criteria of clinical instability, inadequate initial cover-
ly”). In addition, a sufficient dose should be administered and
age or the appearance of complications. The use of biomarkers
some experts recommend, for example, a loading dose of be-
such as procalcitonin or the C-reactive protein may be useful
ta-lactams or continuous infusion to achieve a sufficiently high
to shorten the duration of antibiotic treatment92,93.
dose at the site of the infection. Use of the correct antibiotic
Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic aspects dose is also key to avoid resistances since an association has
Aging produces certain pharmacokinetic and pharmaco- been observed between a suboptimal antibiotic dose and the
dynamic modifications of medications which should be tak- appearance of resistant pathogens.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR HOSPITAL DISCHARGE Vaccination in the elderly has demonstrated a reduction
in the cases of death as well as the associated complications,
Clinical stabilization is produced when the vital signs despite a lower response as a consequence of the immunose-
normalize, the mental state is normal or returns to the basal nescence118,119. All elderly patients should be vaccinated against
condition and improvement in gas exchange diminishing ox- the flu annually and versus pneumococci120. The polysaccha-
ygen requirements is observed (table 6)117. Most patients with ride vaccine (VNP23) versus pneumococci has been used for
pneumonia are usually clinically stabilized between the third decades, however, although it includes the greatest number of
and fourth day. However, in frail elderly patients this time may serotypes, it does not generate immune memory and produces
increase and delay the time to clinical stability 2-7 days. It is over immune response in the elderly and is, therefore, clini-
important to consider than the physiological modifications as- cally ineffective. A recent consensus document121 recommends
the conjugate vaccine (VNC13) in immunocompetent subjects sa is mainly observed in patients with chronic respiratory, dis-
with underlying diseases or risk factors such as COPD, chronic ease and enterobacteriacea are related to functional impair-
liver disease, cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, smoking ment. It is important to know the situation of local resistance
and alcohol abuse. The conjugate vaccine generates immune to adapt the antibiotic treatment of the patient to the etiolog-
memory and a more potent immune response than the poly- ical suspicion. And lastly, prevention measures which diminish
saccharide vaccine, with clear foreseen benefits. the incidence and severity of pneumonia in the elderly should
An association has been described between respiratory be taken into account.
pathogens and the dental state (the presence of periodontal
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